EDITED BY ZAHI HAWASS Secretary General of the Supreme Council of Antiquities and Director of the Excavations

PROJECT EDITORS Laura Accomazzo Valeria Manferto De Fabianis

GRAPHIC DESICN Paola Piacco

WHITE STAR PUBLISHERS THE TREASURES OF THE PYRAMIDS Contents

INTRODUCTION Page 5 CHAPTER 8 by H.E. Mrs. Suzanne Mubarak THE ROYAL MORTUARY ENCLOSURES OF ABYDOS AND HIERAKONPOLIS by Matthew Adams and O'Connor Page 78 THE PYRAMIDS Page 12 by Zahi Hawass CHAPTER 9 THE STEP PYRAMIDS CHRONOLOGY Page is by Ali Radwan Page 86 CHAPTER I CHAPTER 10 WHY A ? PYRAMID RELIGION THE PYRAMIDS OF THE FOURTH DYNASTY by James P. Allen Page 22 by Rainer Stadelmann Page 112

CHAPTER 2 CHAPTER \ \ THE QUEENS' PYRAMIDS OF THE FOURTH DYNASTY AT GIZA THE ADMINISTRATION OF THE PYRAMID by Zahi Hawass Page 138 by Vassil Dobrev Page 28 CHAPTER 12 CHAPTER 3 THE SATELLITE PYRAMID OF BUILDING AN OLD KINGDOM PYRAMID by Zahi Hawass Page 150 by Page 32 CHAPTER 13

CHAPTER A THE MYSTERY OF

THE ARCHITECTURAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE EGYPTIAN ROYAL TOMB by Zahi Hawass Page 152 by Zahi Hawass Page 46 CHAPTER 14 CHAPTER 5 THE SECRET DOORS INSIDE THE GREAT PYRAMID by Zahi Hawass Page 156 THE ARCHITECTURAL COMPONENTS OF THE PYRAMID COMPLEX by Zahi Hawass Page 50 CHAPTER 15 THE CHAPTER e by Zahi Hawass Page 160 THE PREDYNASTIC PERIOD CHAPTER \6 by Renee Friedman Page 54 THE ROYAL BOATS AT GIZA by Zahi Hawass Page 164 CHAPTER I

THE TOMBS OF THE FIRST AND SECOND DYNASTIES CHAPTER a AT ABYDOS AND SAQOARA THE by Giinter Dreyer Page 62 by Mark Lehner Page 172

10 CHAPTER IS The Publisher would like to thank: H.E. Farouk Hosny - The Egyptian Minister of Culture, THE TOMBS OF THE HIGH OFFICIALS AT GIZA Nabil Osman - President of the Egyptian Information Center by Peter Der Manuelian Page 190 Attiya Shakran - General Director of the Press Center, CHAPTER 19 M. El-Damaty - Director of the , Cairo, Mena House Oberoi Hotel, Cairo, THE 'UNFINISHED' PYRAMIDS OF THE FOURTH DYNASTY Gamal Sbafik of the Cairo Press Center, by Michel Valloggia Pag. 224 The curators and assistants of the Egyptian Museum, Cairo, CHAPTER 20 Rajiv Kaul, Guido Paradisi and Fabio Calamante - photographers' iiss/staiifs. THE PYRAMIDS OF THE FIFTH DYNASTY by Pag. 236 CHAPTER 21 The Editor would like to thank Mark Linz and Neil Hewison of the American University in Cairo Press. He also wants to thank Essam Shehab of the Giza Inspectorate, and THE SURPRISING BLOCKS. Mohamed Ismail, Mobamed Megahed, Brook Myers, and Sahar Mabroukfrom the by Zahi Hawass and Miroslav Verner Pag. 260 Technical Office of the Supreme Council of Antiquities. CHAPTER 22

THE PYRAMIDS OF THE SIXTH DYNASTY by Audran Labrousse Pag. 264 CHAPTER 23 10-11 THE DECORATIVE PROGRAM OF THE OLD KINCDOM PYRAMID COMPLEXES Scene showing the ' geese,' by Zahi Hawass Page 282 Egyptian Museum Cairo, Old CHAPTER 24 Kingdom.

THE TOMBS OF THE FIFTH AND SIXTH DYNASTIES AT by Karol Mys'liwiec Page 286 CHAPTER 25

THE PYRAMIDS OF THE MIDDLE KINGDOM © 2003 White Star S.r.l. by Dieter Arnold Page 326 Via C Sassone, 22/24 13100 Vercelli, Italy CHAPTER 26 www.whitestar.it All rights reserved. No pan ol this publication may be THE TOMBS OF THE NOBLES IN THE MIDDLE KINGDOM reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, by David P. Silverman Page 348 photocopying, recording or otherwise, without written permission from the publisher.

CHAPTER 21 ISBN 88-8095-233-1 ROYAL AND PRIVATE OF THE OLD AND MIDDLE KINGDOMS Reprints: by Hourig Sourouzian Page 366 12 3 4 5 6 07 06 05 04 03

Printed in Italy by Officine Grafiche De Agostini INDEX AND BIBLIOGRAPHY Page 392 Color separation by Fotomcc, Turin

I I

Chapter

_The Royal _ Boats at Giza

by Zahi Hawass

•4 Five boat pits have been discovered in the pyramid with the hieroglyph for life on it, and a fragment of a compleA ive x of Khufu. The three to the east of the pyramid . The inscriptions and the statue are boat-shaped, with narrowed prow and stem, the fragments may originally have come from Khufu's remaining two, to the south, are rectangular in shape, temple,- they would, of course, have been deposited in and were cut to house full-size wooden boats that had the boat pit at a time after the reign of Khufu, been dismantled. There is a great deal of scholarly possibly later than the Old Kingdom. argument about the purpose and symbolism of these The Egyptian scholar Selim Hassan, who did a pits, which are the descendants of boat pits found great deal of work at Giza, noted the presence of a associated with a number of Early Dynastic royal tombs. shallow cutting in the bottom of the southern pit, and Two of the eastern boat pits lie parallel to the east suggested that it might indicate the original presence face of the pyramid, and were dug into the rock of of a rectangular cabin, or that it may have formed a the plateau to the north and south of the upper bed to support casing stones. There is argument about temple. These are very large: for example, the the orientation of both of these pits: some scholars southern pit is 51.5 m long, seven meters wide at its think the prow of the southern pit was to the south midpoint, and eight meters deep. They were and the prow of the northern pit was to the north, but originally paved with limestone blocks, traces of others feel that the opposite was the case. which were found in situ in the southern pit by Petrie. The third boat pit lies parallel to the causeway at Petrie also found some roofing blocks covering the a point several meters from the eastern wall of the west end of the southern trench, although other upper temple. It measures 45.4 m in length and 3.75 scholars believe that the pit was never covered, since m at its widest point. The vertical prow, representing pillars would have been needed to help span its width. a curtained bow post, is to the east, and is shaped like The southern pit was cleared of debris long ago,- a cradle. The shape of this pit has been compared to we recently cleared the debris from the northern pit boats from the Archaic Period. A stairway containing as part of our site management plan. Various artifacts eighteen steps was found inside the pit, filled with were found in the fill of these pits. One was a masonry rubble,- it is difficult to tell whether or not fragment of limestone with the word ahbet written on the pit was roofed originally. Holes cut in the sides of it in hieroglyphs. This was probably part of the name the pit have been interpreted as sockets for small akbet-khufu, the 'Horizon of Khufu,' which was the transverse beams. George Reisner found cordage and name of the Great Pyramid. A sherd from a red pot pieces of gilded wood inside the pit, indicating that a was also found, as well as a fragment of limestone boat had once been inside.

{64 465 Khufu's extraordinary wooden solar boat This wooden model oj a solar boat, was found by Kamal El Mallakh and now conserved in the Egyptian Museum now is conserved in a museum close to the in Cairo, probably dates to the pyramid of Khufu. Old Kingdom.

Chapter ¡6 I 165 166 top left Aerial view of the three boat pits that were discovered on the east side oj the Great Pyramid of Khufu. Giza, Fourth Dynasty.

i66 center left The eastern boat pit can be easily discerned in this photograph. Giza, Fourth Dynasty.

(66-167 The shrine of the solar boat of Khufu, discovered in (954, has been completely reassembled in an accurate restoration.

167 top The first boat pit of Khufu-. in particular, one can observe the

limestone covering slotifs

Chapter i6 i (,(, In 1954, while excavating the southern side of The pit itself is rectangular in shape and measures the Great Pyramid between the base of the pyramid 32.5 m in length; its sides are vertical and tool marks and the southern , Egyptian archaeologist on the sides and bottom show that they were dressed Kamal El Mallakh discovered two new boat pits. using copper chisels. Among the quarry inscriptions These two pits lie outside the great temenos wall of the found on many of the roofing blocks were eighteen pyramid, and they were covered by the debris of the of , Khufu's son and successor, enclosure wall. The two pits are separated by a showing that he was responsible for the funeral of his north-south wall of rocks which lies on the north- father. On the southern wall of the pit are signs in south axis of the pyramid. The eastern pit was red ink that list measurements which, as yet, have not opened and found to contain a large wooden been studied. boat,- the western is yet Inside the pit were found the dismantled pieces of a to be excavated, and very large wooden boat. On top of the wood was a is still covered by layer of mats and ropes, an instrument made of flint, twenty limestone slabs. and some small pieces of white plaster. The prow of the When the eastern pit boat, a wooden column topped by a round wooden ^fc^, was discovered, it was disk, was found at the western end of the pit. This ^^^k covered by forty-one column was connected to two long wooden pieces that ^^^^ slabs of limestone (nine extended along the bottom of the pit. Most of the of which bore quarry wooden parts had been tied together with ropes. Also marks in red and black ink) that were resting found inside the pit were many other items, such as on a ledge around the upper edge of the pit. twelve oars, each of which was made of a single piece These blocks weigh about 15 tons each,- the largest is of wood; fifty-eight poles,- three cylindrical columns,- about 4.8 m long. The three westernmost of these and five doors. In total, there were thirteen layers of stones were much smaller than the others and have materials consisting of 651 artifacts ranging in size been interpreted as keystones. from 10 centimeters to 23 meters.

167 bottom In this plan of Khufu's pyramid complex, one can see the location of the five boat pits. The three to the east are boat-shaped, the two to the south are rectangular. The two boat pits between the queens' pyramids are also present.

Chapter i6 I 167 (68 top left This archival photograph shows the location of the first boat pit before discovery.

168 top right The photographer has captured the moment that the blocks of the boat pit were excavated.

168 center In these images one can see the different steps taken to collect the pieces of the boat and put them together with ropes. In a more advanced phase of the reconstruction (below) the boat seems to return to its original shape.

168 bottom The drawing on the left depicts the cross section of the planking of the boat. The drawing on the right shows the final stage of the restoration of the boat.

Chapter 16 168 The expert conservationist Hag Ahmed Youssef indicated by the cartouches bearing his name found in 16&-169 and i69 top right Hag Ahmed Youssef is shown here spent many years preserving each individual piece the eastern pit. It is likely that the main building ramp with Khufu's boat during restoration. found in the pit and reconstructing the ancient boat. leading from the southern quarry covered the area The image on the left shows the directly south of Khufu's pyramid, so these boat pits The rebuilt boat measures about 43.4 m long and 5.9 workers during the rebuilding m wide in the beam. The woods used in its would certainly have been some of the last elements of the boat. construction were cedar and acacia. of the complex constructed. That the pits were built Many scholars believe that the three boat pits no later than the end of the Fourth Dynasty is found to the east of the Great Pyramid were cut demonstrated by the fact that they lie partially under during the reign of Khufu and that the two southern the pyramid's southern enclosure wall, which is dated pits were built during the reign of Djedefre, as to the end of Fourth Dynasty.

Chapter 16 169 I^oyczl^ V 13octts

Boat pits are found associated with royal and high or was meant to be used symbolically by . Abubakr originally argued that the two southern elite mortuary complexes from the First through the Cerny notes that four of the boat pits (excluding boats represented solar boats used by the king and the Fifth Dynasties. There is no standard number for the one parallel to the causeway) are oriented so that sun god, and also quoted from the , these,- Khufu's five pits are matched only by , each faces a different cardinal point. Thus, he suggests referring to a passage where Re uses boats to make his who also had five pits, all east of his pyramid. The that the king could depart at any time for any daily journey across the sky. The float, or boat, that earliest boats of this sort were found recently at destination. As support for his theory, he refers to a he used during the day, was called mcndt, and the one Abydos by David O'Connor: a fleet of twelve full-size passage in the Pyramid Texts that states that the for the night was called msktt. Since the king wooden ships encased in mud plaster lie in the desert western, eastern, southern, and northern gods give the represents the sun god on earth and after his death, near the funerary enclosures of the Early Dynastic king four reed mats to use when he goes into the sky. he also would need similar boats. According to the kings. Thus, the boats would be later developments of these Pyramid Texts, the king needs such boats to travel There are three main schools of thought reed mats. He goes on to suggest that the fifth pit held across the sky and reach his father Re. concerning the function of Khufu's pits and the boats the boat that transported the body of the king to Giza. In the second to fifth registers of the Palermo that they contained. The first, propounded by Jaroslav In his study of boats in Old Kingdom period Stone, there are representations of several different Cerny, is that four of the boats were ritual boats for complexes, Hassan identifies boat pits as receptacles kinds of boats, which have been studied by Hassan. carrying the king to the four cardinal points, and that for conventional solar boats regardless of their One line contains the information that King the fifth was the boat in which the body of the king number in a particular complex. According to his erected a large 'day' boat at the southern was transported to Giza. The second school, theory, the king was identified with the polar stars in corner of his sun temple. Another inscription of the originally expressed by Walter Emery in reference to the northern sky, and under their influence, flew same king refers to a day and night boat belonging to the First Dynasty mastabas at Saqqara, and then southward in the day boat to reach the west, and Re. In 1900-1901, Borchardt discovered a mud-brick adopted by Hassan, holds that the boats were solar northward in the night boat to reach the east. The boat built for King Niuserre beside his sun temple in boats, and thus carried the king to visit the sun god, crew of the night boat was the 'Indefatigable Stars,' Abusir. Because of their association with this temple, Re, or accompanied him in his voyage across the sky. and the king acted as the boat's commander. these boats are clearly 'solar' boats. The third concept, expounded principally by Hassan uses evidence from the Pyramid Texts and However, there are few pyramid complexes from Abubakr, suggests that all the boats were originally the Palermo Stone to support his theory. The Pyramid the Fifth Dynasty, those of and Neferirkare, that used in the king's lifetime for pilgrimages and other Texts contain several passages mentioning the use of were found to contain boat pits. There are two pits in ceremonies. Kamal El Mallakh, the discoverer of the solar boats. In one spell: "The king comes to Re and is this complex, both lying parallel to the southern side two southern boat pits, thought, like Hassan, that the proclaimed king of earth. He ascends with , rises of the causeway. The two boats of Unas probably boats were solar boats for the soul of the dead king,- and sets with Re and the solar barges." Another spell represent the night and the day boats of Re referred the boat found in the easternmost southern pit would proclaims: "Ye Gods of the west, ye gods of the east, ye to in the Palermo Stone. No boat pits have been have traveled to the west, parallel to the daily course gods of the south, ye gods of the north, these four boats found yet around the pyramids of the Sixth Dynasty, of the sun. A fourth theory that could be suggested is which you placed for when he ascended towards which may be due to lack of sufficient excavations,- that the southern pits contained solar boats, the pits heaven." Another spell tells us that the king's will another possibility is that for economic or cultic flanking the upper temple contained the boats of become a star and join the northern stars, and yet reasons, the Sixth Dynasty rulers made do with , and the pit by the causeway contained either another one associates the king with four cardinal points, representations of boats in scenes on the walls of their the funerary boat used to carry the body of the king, stating that he will sail to the sky like Horns and Re. funerary complexes, or model boats such as were

170-171 This model oj the solar boat of Khufu is now conserved in the museum, close to the pyramid of Khufu, together with the original.

Chapter 16 170 found near the pyramid of Pepy lis queen, , the cult was active. Stadelmannn has even suggested symbolic oars. In the mind of the ancient Egyptians, rather than cutting pits and burying actual boats. In that both and Khufu were considered to be the stars would row and the king would steer the support of this conclusion are fragments bearing embodiments of Re himself during their lifetimes. boat. This identification is supported by Paul Lipke, representations of two boats found within the Abubakr and Mustafa state that the Pyramid Texts who writes that the oars are too heavy to be used, pyramid of Pepy II. do not claim that the kings had solar boats for therefore, they must have been symbolic.

In a later article, Abubakr and Mustafa state that themselves. This is not true,- there are a number of Abubakr and Mustafa believe that there is some the reconstructed boat from the first of the southern Utterances in these texts, which were recorded first at proof that the boat was once used, and therefore boat pits is not a solar boat. Their analysis is based on the end of the Fifth Dynasty but thought to be based must have been funerary rather than solar,- they cite, a scene from the wall of the tomb of Kaninisut that on material dating back in to the Early Dynastic for example, the impressions of the tightly fitting shows a sailing boat, above which a text reads: "The Period, stating that the kings traveled in solar boats. ropes are still visible on some of the logs, which coming from Buto and the sailing to the fields of the Abubakr and Mustafa are joined by Cerny and would have assured the water tightness of the boat. great beautiful offerings." A second text reads: "Sailing Jenkins in some of their arguments against a solar-boat However, there is much evidence that the boat was to Heliopolis." On this piece of textual evidence, designation for the reconstructed boat. They argue never used. Traces of white color on the surface of which is not even royal in character, they label the that the form of the boat is considerably different some pieces of the boat, and a complete absence of five boats of Khufu as follows: one for the pilgrimage from a solar boat. For example, it does not have a ram water marks on the hull, indicate that it was never

to Heliopolis,- the second for the pilgrimage to Sais; or hawk-headed prow. However, the hull is similar to used on the . Zaki Iskandar, who was in charge

the third for the pilgrimage to Buto; the fourth for the hulls described in the Pyramid Texts. Khufu's boat of the scientific study and conservation of the objects various rites of coronation,- and the last one for the may differ in other features from those mentioned for and materials found in the pit, found remains of cedar sons of Horus who participated in the rites of the solar boats of the Pyramid Texts, such as the large and acacia wood on the site, along with traces of coronation. The king would certainly have used boats deckhouse and the hut for the captain, but this does mud and plaster covering the blocks of the pits. He during his lifetime to visit these cult centers, but there not prove that it is not a solar boat. concluded that the boat had been built near where it is no proof that he needed them beside his pyramid. Abubakr and Mustafa argue that not a single one had been buried. Another boat expert, Bjorn

The reasons that Abubakr and Mustafa cite in of the characteristic emblems of the solar boat was Landstrom, states that the boat was never painted or their claim that the reconstructed boat could not be a found in the pit which contained all the parts of decorated, indicating that the boat was built in a solar boat are each easily refuted. They begin by Khufu's boat. However, Hassan lists all the hurry. arguing that the kings of the Fourth Dynasty did not determinatives that occur with boats in the Pyramid I believe that the boats to the south of the officially adopt the dogma of the cult of Re. Most Texts. Two of these symbols are flint tools and reed pyramid are solar boats in which the soul of the king scholars believe just the opposite, that the cult of Re mats, and both of these symbols were found in symbolically traveled through the heavens with the was very strong in the Fourth Dynasty, especially Khufu's boat. These could well be considered solar sun god. The boats in the pits by the upper temple during the reign of Khufu. His son and successor, symbols, thus disproving Abubakr and Mustafa's were used by the king as Horus to travel throughout

Djedefre, who buried this boat and its companion, statement. and maintain order in his realm. The pit that was the first to hold the title 'son of Re.' The cult of The fact that Khufu's boat was provided with ten lies parallel to the causeway might have contained

Re is attested as early as the First Dynasty, and there rowing oars and two steering oars suggests to Abubakr the funerary boat which was used to bring the king's was a man who held the title 'high priest of Re' from and Mustafa that it was a real, rather than a symbolic, body to its final resting place, or might have been the reign of Khufu's father, Sneferu, indicating that boat. However, these oars could be considered used symbolically by the goddess Hathor.

Chapter i6 I 171 "Pyramid Construction: New Evidence THE SPHINX Bibliography: Mâlek, J., "The Old Kingdom," in I. Shaw (ed.), Discovered in Giza," in H. Guksch and D. Polz Text by Mark Lehner Abu-Bakr, A-M., Excavations at Giza i949-4950, Cairo, The Oxford History of , Oxford: (eds.), Stationen Beiträge zur Kultur-gescbicbte Ägyptens 1953. Oxford University Press, 2000, pp. 89-117. Gewidmet R. Stadelmann, Mainz, 1998. Bibliography: Allen, J. P., "Rce-wer's Accident," in Studies in Mâlek, J., In the Shadow of the Pyramids: Egypt during "The Discovery of the Pyramidion of the Anthes, R., "Was veranlasste Chefren zum bau des Pharaonic Religion and Society in Honour of J. G. the Old Kingdom, Norman, OK: University Satellite Pyramid of Khufu (GID)," Iubilate Tempels vor der Sphinx?" Festschrift Ricke, BÄBA 12 Griffiths (EES Occassional Publication 8), London: of Oklahoma Press, 1986. Conlegae-. Studies Memory of Abd Aziz Saiek, Part I, (1971) Egypt Exploration Society, 1992, pp. 14-20. Der Manuelian, P., "Excavating the Memphite Varia Aegyptiaca, Vol. 10, 1997. Baikie, J., 'The Sphinx," in J. Hastings (ed.), Altenmüller, H., "Daily Jjfe in Eternity—The Cemeteries: The Giza ," in LArt égyptien 'The Old Kingdom Pyramidion: Is It Cased Encyclopeida of Religion and Ethics, Vol a, Edinburgh, Mastabas and Rock-cut Tombs of Officials," in R. au temps des pyramides and Egyptian Art in the Time of the with Gold?" Fayza Heikel Festschrift, BIFAO, 2000. 1920, pp. 767-68 Schulz and M. Seidel (eds.), Egypt-. The World of the Pyramids (exhibition catalogues chapter), Paris: Hölscher, U., Das Grabdenkmal das Königs Cbephren, Bergmann, E. V, 'Die Sphinx," ZÄS 18 ( 1880), pp. 50-1 , Cologne, 1998, pp. 78-93. Musée du , pp. 124-33,- New York: Leipzig, 1912. Birch, S., "On excavations by Capt. Caviglia, in 1816, Arnold, D., When the Pyramids Were Built-. Egyptian Art Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1999, pp. 139-53. Maragioglio, V. and C. Rinaldi, LArchitettura della behind, and in the neighborhood of the Great Sphinx," of the Old Kingdom, New York, 1999. —, 'The Problem of the Giza Slab Stelae," in H.

piramidi menfite, vols. Vand VI, Rapallo, 1966. The Museum of Classical Antiquities 2 (1852), pp. 26-34 Baud, M., Famille royale et pouvoir sous l'Ancien Empire Guksch and D. Polz (eds.)StatioHen: Beiträge zur Pétrie, W. M. F., The Pyramids and Temples oj Gizeb, Borchardt, L., "Uber das Alter des Sphinx bei égyptien. 2 vols. Cairo: Institut français d'archéolo­ Kulturgeschichte Ägyptens: Festschrift für Rainer with an update by Z. Hawass, London: Histories Giseh," Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akademie der gie orientale, 1999. Stadelmann, Mainz, 1998, pp. 115-34. & Mysteries of Man, 1990. Wissenschaften, Berlin 35 (1897), pp. 752-60 Bolshakov, A. O., Man and His Double in Egyptian — "March 1912: A Month in the Life of American Reisner, G. A., A History of the Giza Necropolis, vol. I. The Tomb Brock, L. R, "Problems of the Great Sphinx," KMT Ideology of the Old Kingdom (Ägypten und Altes Egyptologist George A. Reisner." KMT 7, no. 2 of Hetepheres, Mother of Cheops, Cambridge, MA, 1942. 1, no. 3 (1990), pp. 24-8 Testament 37), Wiesbaden, 1997. (Summer 1996), pp. 60-75. Stadefmann, R., "Die Pyramiden des Snofru in Esmael, F. A. (ed.), Book of Proceedings-. The First Brovarski, E., The Senedjemib Complex Part l. The —, "George Andrew Reisner on Archaeological Dahschur: Erster Bericht über die Grabungen an International Symposium on the Great Sphinx, Cairo, 1992. Mastabas of Senedjemib Inti (G 2370J Khnumenti (G Photography." Journal of the American Research Center nördlichen Steinpyramide," MDAIK 38 (1982). *Gauri, K. L., "Deterioation of stone on the Great 2374), and Senedjemib Mehi (G 237sJ. Giza Mastabas 1, in Egypt 29 (\992), pp. 1-34. Sphinx," NARCE 114, (Spring 1981), pp. 35-47. Boston: Museum of Fine Arts, 2001. — "Digital Epigraphy. An Approach to Photo credits: —"Geologic Study of the Sphinx," NARCE 127 (Fall Brunner-Traut, E., Die altägyptische Grabkammer Streamlining Egyptological Epigraphic Method." 160 Araldo De Luca/Archivio White Star 1984), pp. 24-43. Sescbemnofers III. aus Gtsa, 2nd edition, Mainz am Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt 35 162 Giulio Veggi/Archivio White Star *Hassan, S., The Sphinx: Its History in Light of Recent Rhein, 1982 (1998), pp. 97-113. 163 Giulio Veggi/Archivio White Star Excavations, Cairo, 1949. Brunner, H. and E. Brun ner-Traut, Die Ägyptische "A Race against Time in the Shadow of the Hawass, Z., The Secrets of the Sphinx: Restoration Past and Sammlung der Universität Tübingen, Mainz am Rhein, Pyramids. The Museum of Fine Arts, Boston and Present, Cairo, 1998. 1981, pp. 13-26. the Giza Necropolis, 1902-1990." KMT 1, no. 4 THE ROYAL BOATS AT GIZA *Hawass, Z. and M. Lehner, "The Passage Under Callender, V. G., and P. Jänosi, 'The Tomb of (1990-91), pp. 10-21. Text by Zahi Hawass the Sphinx," Hommages à Jean Leclant, BdÉ 106/1 Queen Khamerernebty II at Giza. A Mariette, A.,Les mastabas de l'ancien empire. Fragment du (1994,) pp. 201-16. Reassessment." MDAIK 53, (1997), pp. 1-22. dernier ouvrage de A. Mariette, publié d'après le manuscrit de Bibliography.- —, "The Sphinx: Who built it, and why?" Archaeology Cherpion, N., Mastabas et hypogées d'Ancien Empire. Le l'auteur par G. Maspero,Paris, 1889. Reprint New Abubakr, A. M., "Divine Boats of Ancient Egypt," 47, no. 5 (Sept./Oct. 1994), pp. 30-47. Probleme de la Datation, Brussels: Conaissance de York, 1976. Archaeology 8 (1955). Jordan, P., Riddles of the Sphinx, Phoenix Mill, 1998. l'Egypte ancienne, 1989. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Egyptian Art in the Abubakr, A. M. and A. Y. Mustafa, 'The Funerary *Lehner, M., J. P. Allen, K. L. Gauri, 'The ARCE Covington, L. " Mount Excavations." Age of the Pyramids, New York: The Metropolitan Boat of Khufu," Festschrift Ricke, BÄBA 12(1971). Sphinx Project: A Preliminary Report," NARCE Annales du Service des Antiquités de lEgypte 6 ( 1905), Museum of Art, 1999. Borchardt, L., Das Grabdenkmal des Königs Ne-user-Re, 112 (Fall 1980), pp. 3-33. pp. 193-218. Pétrie, W. M. F., The Pyramids and Temples of Gizeh, Leipzig, 1907. *Lehner, M., Archaeology of an Image: The Great Sphinx Curto, S., GU Scavi Italiani a el-Gbiza (i9Q3), Rome, London, 1883, 1885,- new edition, with update by Cerny, ]., "A Note on the Recently Discovered Boat of Giza, Ph.D. dissertation, Yale University, 1991. 1963. Zahi Hawass, London: Histories & Mysteries of of Cheops," JEA 41 (1955). Lehner, M., "Computer rebuilds the ancient Dunham, D., The Egyptian Department and its Man, 1990. Edwards, I. E. S., The Pyramids of Egypt, rev. ed., New Sphinx," National Geographic 179, no. 4 (April Excavations, Boston: Museum of Fine Arts, 1958. Priese, K-H, Die Opferkammer des Merib, Berlin: York, 1985. 1991), pp. 32-9. Dunham, D. and W. K. Simpson, The Mastaba of Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, 1984. Fakhry, A., The Pyramids, Chicago and London, 1969. Lehner, M., "Reconstructing the Sphinx," Cambridge Queen Mersyankh III (G 7530-7540). Giza Mastabas i. Reisner, G. A., Mycerinus-. The Temples of the Third Faulkner, R. O., The Ancient Egyptian Pyramid Texts, Archaeological Journal 2, no. 1 (1992), pp. 3-26. Boston: Museum of Fine Arts, 1974. Pyramid at Giza, Cambridge, MA, 1931. Oxford, 1969. *Mariette, A. and M. D. Rougé, "Note sur le fouille Eyre, C. J., "Work and Organisation of Work in the --, A History of the Giza Necropolis, vol. i, Cambridge, Grinsell, L., , Gloucester, 1947. exécutées par Mariette autour du grand Sphinx de Old Kingdom," in M. A. Powell (ed.), Labor in the MA: Harvard University Press, 1942. Hassan, S., Excavation at Giza, vol. I, Oxford, 1932,- Gizeh. Lettre de Mariette citées par M. de (American Oriental Series, vol. Reisner, G. A. and W. Stevenson Smith. vols. II-X, Cairo, 1936-60. Rouge," I"Athenaeum française 3, no. 28 (1854). 68), New Haven, CT American Oriental Society, A History of the Giza Necropolis. Vol. 2, The Tomb Hawass, Z., 'The Pyramids," in D. P. Silverman, *Ricke, H., "Der Harmachistempel des Chefren in 1987, pp. 5-47. of Hetep-Heres the Mother of Cheops-. A Study of Egyptian Duncan Baird (eds.), Ancient Egypt, London, New Giseh," BÄBA 10 (1970), pp. 1-43. Fisher, C. S., The Minor Cemetery at Giza (TheJ£ckley Civilization in the Old Kingdom, Cambridge, MA, York: Oxford University Press, 1998. Schott, S., "Le temple du Sphinx â Giza et les deux B. Coxe Jr. Foundation, New Series Vol. I.) 1955, The Funerary Establishments of Khufu, Khafra, and axes du monde," BSFE 53-54 ( 1969), pp. 31 -41. Philadelphia: University Museum, 1924, Roehrig, C. H., "Reserve Heads: An Enigma of Old Menkaura During the Old Kingdom, Ph.D. Schott, S., "Ägyptishce quellen zum plan des Fischer, H. G, Egyptian Women of the Old Kingdom and Kingdom Sculpture," in Egyptian Art in the Age of the Dissertation, University of Pennsylvania micro­ Sphinxtempels," BÄBA 10 (1970), pp. 49-79. of the Heracleopolitan Period, second edition, New York: Pyramids, Exb. cat. New York: The Metropolitan film, Ann Arbor, MI, 1987. Stadelmann, R., "Le grand Sphinx de Giza, chef-d'oeu­ The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000. Museum of Art, 1999, pp. 72-81. Jenkins, N-, The Boat Beneath the Pyramid, New York, 1980. vre de régne de Chéops," Académie des Inscriptions & Gamer-Wallert, I., Von Giza bis Tubingen. Die bewegte Roth, A. M., "The Practical Economics of Tomb- Jéquier, G, Le Monument funéraire dePepi II, vol. I, Belles-Lettres (July-October 1999), pp. 863-879. Geschichte der Mastaba G 5*70, Tübingen, 1998. Building in the Old Kingdom: A Visit to the Cairo, 1938. Zivie-Coche, C, Sphinx, History of a Monument (D. Harpur, Y, Decoration in Egyptian Tombs of the Old Necropolis in a Carrying Chair," in D. P. Landstrom, B., Ship of the pbaraobs-. 4000 Years of Lorton, trans.), Ithaca and London, 2002. Kingdom-. Studies in Orientation and Scene Content, Silverman (ed.), For His Ka. Essays Offered in Memory Egyptian Shipbuilding, London, 1970. London and New York, 1987. of Klaus Baer (SAOC 55). Chicago: Oriental Lauer, J. P., "Les barques de Chéops," RC 33 (1955). Hassan, S. Excavations at Giza. w vols., Oxford: Insitute, 1994, pp. 227-40. Lehner, M., The Pyramid Tomb of Hetep-heres and the Photo credits: Oxford University Press, and Cairo, 1932-1960. —, A Cemetery of Palace Attendants. Giza Mastabas 6, Satellite Pyramid of Khufu, Mainz, 1985. 172 Giulio Veggi/Archivio White Star Hawass, Z., 'The Workmen's Community at Giza," Boston: Museum of Fine Arts, 1995. Lipke, P., The Royal Ship of Cheops (Greenwich 173 Archivio White Star in Haus und Palast im alten Ägypten. Internationales Saleh, A-A., "Excavations Around Mycerinus Archaeological Series, no. 9), Greenwich, 1984. 175, 176-177, 178 Marcello Berti netti/Archivio Symposium 8. his i i. April i992 in Kairo, Vienna, Pyramid Complex," Mitteilungen des Deutschen Lucas, A., J. R. Harris (eds.), Ancient Egyptian Materials White Star 1996, pp. 54-67. Archäologischen Instituts, Abteilung Kairo MIDAIK 30 and Industries, London, 1962. 179 Marcello Berti netti/Archivio- White Star —, 'The Pyramids," in D. P. Silverman, Ancient Egypt, (1974), pp. 137-154. Maragioglio, V. and C. Rinaldi, LArcbitettura della 181 bottom left and right Giulio Veggi/Archivio London, 1997, pp. 168-191. Schmitz, B, et al., Untersuchungen zu Idu II, Giza. Ein piramidi menfite, vols. 2-8, Turin and Rapello, 1963¬ White Star Jânosi, P., "Die Grabanlagen der Königin interdisctplinäres Projekt (Hildesheimer Ägyptologis- 77. 180-181 Marcello Berti netti/Archivio White Star Hetepheres II," Zeitschrift für Ägyptische Sprache und che Beiträge 38), Hildesheim, Nour, M. Z. et al., The Cheops Boat, vol. I, Cairo, 1960. 182 Giulio Veggi/Archivio White Star Altertumskun 123 (1996), pp. 46-62. 1996. Pétrie, W. M. F, The Pyramids and Temples of Gizeb, 183 The British Museum Junker, H., Gîza i-n. Akademie der Wissenschaften in Simpson, W K., The Mastabas of Qaranâldu (G 7*0i London, 1883. 184, 185, 188-189 Giulio Veggi/Archivio White Star Wien, Phil.-Hist. Klasse. Denkschriften, i2 vols., Vienna, and 7*02]. Giza Mastabas 2. Boston: Museum of Fine Saleh, A., "Excavation around Mycerinus Pyramid 1929-1955. Arts, 1976. Complex," MDAIK 30 (1974). —, The Offering Room of Prince Kaninisut, Vienna: The Mastabas ofKawab, Kbafkbufu land II (G Stadelmann, R., "Pyramiden," LX 32, IV8 (1982). THE TOMBS OF THE HIGH Kunsthistorisches Museum, 1931. 7110-20, 7130-40, and 7*50 and subsidiary mastabas of Thomas, E., "A Further Notes on Rock-cut Boats," OFFICIALS AT GIZA Lehner, M., The Pyramid Tomb of Hetep-beres and the Street G 7iooJ. Giza Mastabas 3, Boston: Museum of JEAA2 (1956). Text by Peter Der Manuelian Satellite Pyramid of Khufu (Sonderschriften Fine Arts, 1978. Thomas, E., "Solar Barks prow to prow," JEA 42 Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Mastabas of tbe Western Cemetery-. Part ISekhemka (G (1956). Peter Der Manuelian (B.A., Harvard University; Instituts Abteilung Kairo 19), Mainz am Rhein, W29), Tjetu I (G 2001), lasen (G 2i9ô), Penmeru (G Ph.D. in , University of Chicago) is 1985. 2197); Hagy, Nefertjentet, and Herunefer (G 2352/33], Photo credits: Mellon Research Fellow in Egyptian Art at the --, The Complete Pyramids-. Solving the Ancient Mysteries, Djaty, Tjetu II, and Nimesti (G 2337X, 2343, 2366]. 164, 165, 166-167, 167 Araldo De Luca/Archivio Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, and Lecturer in London and New York, 1997. Giza Mastabas 4, Boston: Museum of Fine Arts, White Star Egyptology at Harvard University and Tufts —, 'The 1988/1989 Excavation of Petrie's 1980. 166 top and center Marcello Bertinetti/Archivio University. He is co-editor of the Giza Mastabas Series "Workmen's Barrack at Giza." Journal of American —-, 'Topographical Notes on Giza Mastabas," in M. White Star along with William Kelly Simpson, and is currently Research Centerin Egypt 38 (2001), pp. 21-60. Görg and E. Pusch (eds.), Festschrift Elmar Edel a 168, 169 Araldo De Luca/Archivio White working on the "Giza Archives Project," intended to Lichtheim, M., Ancient Egyptian Literature: A Book of März 1979 (Ägypten und Altes Testament 1), Star/Service of Antiquities create a scholarly Web site of excavation images and Readings. Vol. 1, The Old and Middle Kingdoms, Bamberg, 1979, pp. 489-499. 170-171 Araldo De Luca/Archivio White Star archival materials from the Giza Necropolis. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1973.

398