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D.G. Maxwell (1961–1962) (1973–1974) J.P. Hugo (1972–1973) G.Y. Nisbet (1981–1982) A.N. Brown (1982–1983) J.D. Austin (1984–1985) H.E. James (1985–1986) H. Wagner (1986–1987) C.E. Fivaz (1988–1989) O.K.H. Steffen (1989–1990) S.J. Ramokgopa (2002-2003) T.R. Stacey (2003–2004) F.M.G. Egerton (2004–2005) J.R. Dixon (1998–1999) M.H. Rogers (1999–2000) L.A. Cramer (2000–2001) J.A. Cruise (1994–1995) D.A.J. Ross-Watt (1995–1996) N.A. Barcza (1996–1997) R.D. Beck (1991–1992) W.H. van Niekerk (2005–2006) R.P.H. Willis (2006–2007) R.G.B. Pickering (2007–2008) A.M. Garbers-Craig (2008–2009) J.C. Ngoma (2009–2010) G.V.R. Landman (2010–2011) J.N. van der Merwe (2011–2012) G.L. Smith (2012–2013) M. Dworzanowski (2013–2014) J.L. Porter (2014–2015) R.T. Jones (2015–2016) * J. de V. Lambrechts (1962–1963) * J.F. Reid (1963–1964) * D.M. Jamieson (1964–1965) * H.E. Cross (1965–1966) * D. Gordon Jones (1966–1967) * (1957–1958) Simon H. * M. Barcza (1958–1959) * R.J. Adamson (1959–1960) * W.S. Findlay (1960–1961) * Plewman (1974–1975) R.P. * Robinson (1975–1976) R.E. * P.W.J. van Rensburg * Lambooy (1967–1968) P. * R.C.J. Goode (1968–1969) * J.K.E. Douglas (1969–1970) * V.C. Robinson (1970–1971) * D.D. Howat (1971–1972) * (1976–1977) M.D.G. Salamon * P.A. Von Wielligh (1977–1978) * Atmore (1978–1979) M.G. * D.A. Viljoen (1979–1980) * P.R. Jochens (1980–1981) * Douglas (2001–2002) A.A.B. * R.P. Mohring (1997–1998) * J.P. Hoffman (1992–1993) * H. (1993–1994) Scott-Russell * King (1983–1984) R.P. * (1987–1988) Alberts B.C. * H.G. (1990–1991) Mosenthal          ! !($() '$)#%"'(" Van Hulsteyns Attorneys #%&!(" Messrs R.H. Kitching '('&$(%'" The Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy Fifth Floor, Chamber of Mines Building 5 Hollard Street, Johannesburg 2001 • P.O. Box 61127, Marshalltown 2107 Telephone (011) 834-1273/7 • Fax (011) 838-5923 or (011) 833-8156 E-mail: [email protected] (1935–1936) )   *Deceased * Crosse (1895–1896) A.F. * W.R. Feldtmann (1896–1897) * Butters (1897–1898) C. * J. Loevy (1898–1899) * J.R. Williams (1899–1903) * S.H. Pearce (1903–1904) * W.A. Caldecott (1904–1905) * T.K. Prentice (1936–1937) * R.S.G. Stokes (1937–1938) * P.E. Hall (1938–1939) * E.H.A. Joseph (1939–1940) * J.H. Dobson (1940–1941) *Meyer (1941–1942) Theo * John V. Muller (1942–1943) * W. Bettel (1894–1895) * Cullen (1905–1906) W. * E.H. Johnson (1906–1907) * J. Yates (1907–1908) * Bevington (1908–1909) R.G. * A. McA. Johnston (1909–1910) * Moir (1910–1911) J. * C.B. Saner (1911–1912) * W.R. Dowling (1912–1913) * A. Richardson (1913–1914) * G.H. Stanley (1914–1915) * Thomas (1915–1916) J.E. * Wilkinson (1916–1917) J.A. * (1917–1918) G. Hildick-Smith * H.S. Meyer (1918–1919) * (1919–1920) J. Gray * J. Chilton (1920–1921) * (1921–1922) F. Wartenweiler * (1922–1923) G.A. Watermeyer * F.W. Watson (1923–1924) * C.J. Gray (1924–1925) * H.A. White (1925–1926) * H.R. Adam (1926–1927) * Sir Robert Kotze (1927–1928) * (1928–1929) J.A. Woodburn * H. Pirow (1929–1930) * (1930–1931) J. Henderson * A. King (1931–1932) * V. (1932–1933) Nimmo-Dewar * P.N. Lategan (1933–1934) * E.C. Ranson (1934–1935) * R.A. Flugge-De-Smidt * C. Biccard Jeppe (1943–1944) * Louis Bok (1944–1945) P.J. * McIntyre (1945–1946) J.T. * M. Falcon (1946–1947) * A. Clemens (1947–1948) * F.G. Hill (1948–1949) * O.A.E. Jackson (1949–1950) * W.E. Gooday (1950–1951) * C.J. Irving (1951–1952) * D.D. Stitt (1952–1953) * M.C.G. Meyer (1953–1954) * L.A. Bushell (1954–1955) * H. Britten (1955–1956) * Bleloch (1956–1957) Wm.    
 C.G. Sweet D. Muma S. Matutu C.W. Mienie J.P. Leader P. Bredell H. Wagner S.D. Williams L.E. Dimbungu S. Maleba J.A. Luckmann N.M. Namate J.J.L. Cilliers, N.A. Barcza J-M.M. Rendu, P.C. Pistorius I.J. Corrans, R.J. Dippenaar, A. Croll, C. Workman-Davies ii !!"   " "!   !    !" ! !" "!    V.G. Duke I.J. GeldenhuysM.F. HandleyW.C. JoughinM. Motuku D.D. MunroG. Njowa M.H. Solomon A.G. Smith M.R. Tlala D. Tudor D.J. van Niekerk A.T. van Zyl  "" "!  !!!"!"!  ! "!" "  " "!" "  " ! "!" "  !" "  !" " "  !! "!" "  Mosebenzi Zwane South Africa Minister of Mineral Resources, Rob Davies South Africa Minister of Trade and Industry, Naledi Pandor South Africa Minister of Science and Technology,  !!!" "  Mike Teke of South Africa President, Chamber of Mines  )  ) ) ))  
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    N.A. BarczaR.D. BeckJ.R. DixonM. DworzanowskiH.E. James G.V.R. Landman J.C. Ngoma S.J. Ramokgopa G.L. Smith M.H. Rogers D.A.J. Ross-Watt R.P.H. Willis W.H. van Niekerk Z. Botha R.T. Jones J.L. Porter I.M. Mthenjane S. Ndlovu A.S. Macfarlane C. Musingwini DRC

The Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy of Mining and Institute African The Southern L #%&!(%$)!$(# R.D. Beck J. Beukes P. den Hoed M. Dworzanowski B. Genc M.F. Handley R.T. Jones VOLUME 117 NO. 1 JANUARY 2017 W.C. Joughin J.A. Luckmann C. Musingwini Contents S. Ndlovu J.H. Potgieter Journal Comment T.R. Stacey by I. Watson ...... iv D.R. Vogt President’s Corner—The NDP Vision 2030 — Does the SAIMM have a role to play? #%&!(%$)! "&$ & by C. Musingwini ...... v D. Tudor SA mining at risk of missing out on benefits of global commodities uptick '"'&)$ #)%"'#) by P. Miller ...... vi The Southern African Institute of 2nd School on Manganese Ferroalloy Production Mining and Metallurgy by J.D. Steenkamp ...... vii P.O. Box 61127 Obituary — Professor Manat Tolymbekov Marshalltown 2107 by N. Barcza ...... viii Telephone (011) 834-1273/7 Fax (011) 838-5923 MINING, ENVIRONMENT AND SOCIETY CONFERENCE E-mail: [email protected] Finding the interface between mining, people, and biodiversity: a case study at Richards (% &'#)) Bay Minerals Camera Press, Johannesburg by T. Ott ...... 1 #'(&%"% )'('"' &$&%' Building resilient company-community relationships: a preliminary observation of the thoughts Barbara Spence and experiences of community relations practitioners across Africa Avenue Advertising by N. Coulson, P. Ledwaba, and A. McCallum ...... 7 Telephone (011) 463-7940 Calculating ecological footprints for mining companies—an introduction to the methodology E-mail: [email protected] and an assessment of the benefits The Secretariat by D. Limpitlaw, A. Alsum, and D. Neale ...... 13 The Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy Environmental management frameworks: balancing environmental and developmental imperatives in sensitive areas ISSN 2225-6253 (print) by L.G. Snyman ...... 19 ISSN 2411-9717 (online) Bench mining utilizing manual labour and mechanized equipment — a proposed mining method for artisanal small-scale mining in Central Africa by S.M. Rupprecht ...... 25

THE INSTITUTE, AS A BODY, IS The status of artisanal and small-scale mining sector in South Africa: tracking progress NOT RESPONSIBLE FOR THE by P.F. Ledwaba ...... 33 STATEMENTS AND OPINIONS ADVANCED IN ANY OF ITS GENERAL PAPERS PUBLICATIONS. Copyright© 1978 by The Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy. All rights Employee attitudes to work safety in Poland’s coal mining companies reserved. Multiple copying of the contents of this publication or parts thereof without by K. Tobo
r-Osadnik, M. Wyganowska, and A. Manowska ...... 41 permission is in breach of copyright, but permission is hereby given for the copying of The influence of mining sequence and ground support practice on the frequency and severity titles and abstracts of papers and names of authors. Permission to copy illustrations and of rockbursts in seismically active mines of the Sudbury Basin short extracts from the text of individual by P. Morissette, J. Hadjigeorgiou, A.R. Punkkinen, D.R. Chinnasane, and A. Sampson-Forsythe . . . 47 contributions is usually given upon written application to the Institute, provided that the A systemic study of mining accident causality: an analysis of 91 mining accidents from a source (and where appropriate, the copyright) is acknowledged. Apart from any fair dealing platinum mine in South Africa for the purposes of review or criticism under The Copyright Act no. 98, 1978, Section 12, by J. Bonsu, W. van Dyk, J-P. Franzidis, F. Petersen, and A. Isafiade...... 59 of the Republic of South Africa, a single copy of an article may be supplied by a library for the Modes of arsenic occurance in coal slime and its removal: a case study at the Tanggongta purposes of research or private study. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in Plant in Inner Mongolia, China a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by C. Zhou, L. Cong, C. Liu, N. Zhang, W. Cao, J. Pan, X. Fan, and H. Liu ...... 67 by any means without the prior permission of the publishers. Multiple copying of the Performance optimization of an industrial ball mill for chromite processing contents of the publication without permission is always illegal. by S.K. Tripathy, Y.R. Murthy, V. Singh, A. Srinivasulu, A. Ranjan, and P.K. Satija ...... 75 U.S. Copyright Law applicable to users In the U.S.A. Flotation of mercury from the tailings of the Agh-Darreh gold processing plant, Iran The appearance of the statement of copyright at the bottom of the first page of an article by Y. Kianinia, M.R. Khalesi, A. Seyedhakimi, and F. Soltani...... 83 appearing in this journal indicates that the copyright holder consents to the making of Cost modelling for flotation machines copies of the article for personal or internal by S. Arfania, A.R. Sayadi, and M.R. Khalesi ...... 89 use. This consent is given on condition that the copier pays the stated fee for each copy of a paper beyond that permitted by Section 107 or  &'( $&%! $)#%"!()!$(# 108 of the U.S. Copyright Law. The fee is to be VOLUME 117 N O. 1 JAN UARY 201 7 paid through the Copyright Clearance Center, R. Dimitrakopoulos, McGill University, Canada Inc., Operations Center, P.O. Box 765, Schenectady, New York 12301, U.S.A. This D. Dreisinger, University of British Columbia, Canada consent does not extend to other kinds of E. Esterhuizen, NIOSH Research Organization, USA copying, such as copying for general H. Mitri, McGill University, Canada distribution, for advertising or promotional purposes, for creating new collective works, or M.J. Nicol, Murdoch University, Australia for resale. E. Topal, Curtin University, Australia

         
   
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I. Watson and Tobór-Osadnik look at et al. , Bonsu Industry, University of the Witwatersrand et al. A critical aspect of sustainability is health and safety. A critical aspect of sustainability is health with the 2015 was an important year for sustainability, The conference was small, with 53 practitioners from a A big thank you to the sponsors, De Beers and Advanced          Although not presented at the conference the papers by Although not presented at the conference Morissette various aspect of this. Goals (SDGs). adoption of the Sustainable Development for Sustainable ‘Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda states in Development’ was adopted by 193 UN member framework for the September 2015. The SDGs is a successor the world’s Millennium Development Goals and represent and plan of action for equitable, socially inclusive As environmentally sustainable economic development. documented in illustrated by the papers in this issue, and Investment, work led by the Colombia Center on Sustainable potential to the mining industry has the opportunity and positively contribute to all 17 goals, and should consider how their activities can impact and contribute to achieving the SDGs. range of disciplines attending. This allowed for deep engagement on some of the critical topics presented. Delegate feedback indicated this as one of the positive aspects of the conference. It was also great to see colleagues from the region attending. Economic Development, and to Mintek for hosting the conference. The conference would not have been possible without the work of the SAIMM secretariat and the organizing committee – thank you. Major issue areas for mining and the SDGs (http://unsdsn.org/resources/publications/mapping-mining-to-the- sustainable-development-goals-an-atlas/) Programme Manager, Centre for Sustainability in Mining and . et al are selected from the . shares the Journal Comment Journal et al Business Risks facing Journal    
 report). Maintaining the social license to

A second keynote at the conference was given by A second keynote at the conference was given The focus is often on large-scale mining, yet artisanal In his opening keynote address Rohitesh Dhawan, then In his opening keynote he papers in this issue of the he papers in this issue and Society Conference, held at Mining, Environment May 2015. The two keynote Mintek on 12 and 13

iv T experiences of these practitioners in building resilient experiences of these practitioners in building the drivers for, company-community relations, focusing on the South African and factors hindering, healthy relations. In legislative context, Social and Labour Plans are the main from mining, mechanism designed to ensure local benefits contributing to improved relations. for Development Professor Lochner Marais from the Centre He presented his Support at the University of the Free State. consequences of research in the Free State goldfields and the of these social poor closure management. Underpinning some and economic impacts are issues around environmental of sustainability and land stewardship. The experiences Ott’s paper, Richards Bay Minerals, as presented in Theresia to land use highlight the need for a systemic approach land planning to cater for livelihoods through responsible during mining and stewardship and biodiversity conservation the importance at closure. Louis Snyman also comments on between rapid of spatial planning to address the tensions He economic growth and environmental sustainability. reviews South Africa’s planning tool, the Environmental it needs Management Framework, and suggests that considerable refinement. Another management tool addressing environmental issues is that of Ecological Footprint Analysis (EFA). EFA is increasingly being used by organizations as an indicator of environmental performance and sustainability of products. In their paper, Limpitlaw present the benefits and challenges of undertaking an EFA for mining companies. and small-scale mining (ASM) is widespread in Africa and impacts both positively and negatively on society and the environment. Two papers in this issue look at this in more detail. Steven Rupprecht proposes the introduction of small- scale mechanization, along with labour-intensive hand mining, in Central Africa to address the issues of low productivity and poor recoveries often associated with ASM. Pontsho Ledwaba’s paper focuses on ASM in South Africa, which has been recognized since 1994 as a vehicle for social and economic development. She tracks the progress of various initiatives implemented since then, making recommendations to ensure that these benefits are realized. addresses, 14 presentations, and two panel discussions addresses, 14 presentations, relevance of environmental and highlighted the increasing sector and its sustainability. social issues to the mining for Climate Change and Sustainability Global Mining Leader businesses could not succeed in at KPMG, stated that hence earning and maintaining the societies that failed and is crucial. This is still ranked as one social license to operate the mining and metals industry of the top risks facing (according to the EY 2016-2017 Mining and Metals operate is, in part, facilitated by community relations operate is, in part, facilitated by community practitioners. The paper by Coulson L Presidentʼs The NDP Vision 2030 — Does the Corner SAIMM have a role to play?

s you join me for the first cup of coffee in 2017, I would like to welcome you all back from what I trust was a restful and enjoyable festive season. I am optimistic that good times lie ahead of us and that 2017 Awill be a very productive year. In previous editions of the Journal I have provided some insights into key functions of the SAIMM and our leadership’s vision on strategically positioning the Institute as we go into the future. In this edition of the Journal I would like to provide a relevant national context and sketch out the role that the SAIMM is playing, and can play, to ensure that it can contribute to securing the country’s future. I will do this by referring to the National Development Plan (NDP): Vision for 2030 which was drafted by the National Planning Commission (NPC) in order to actualize the diverse aspirations of all South Africans, given the country’s political history. After nearly 300 years of colonialism, including over four decades of marginalization of the country’s majority through the apartheid system of oppression, South Africa became a democratic state in 1994. This political transition had to confront glaring socio-economic challenges because the new democratic state inherited from the apartheid system the so-called ‘evil triplets’ of poverty, unemployment, and inequality. The recognition of these challenges required the country to mandate the NPC to draw up the NDP in order to identify ways to confront these challenges. The NDP was published in 2011. To reduce poverty the NDP proposes an increase in the per capita income from R50 000 to R120 000 by 2030. The NDP takes the view that the high rate of unemployment, estimated at around 26% in 2016, can be reduced through an increase in the number of employed people from about 13 million in 2010 to over 24 million by 2030. Decent jobs must be created. The NDP envisages that inequality can be reduced through a proxy reduction in the income Gini coefficient from about 0.7 in 2010 to 0.6 by 2030 against a background of South Africa having one of the highest levels of inequality in the world. Education and skills training are important in this regard. Economists predict that if the NDP targets are to be achieved it is critical that the country’s gross domestic product (GDP) grows in excess of 5% annually by 2030. Tactically, if this planned socio-economic transformation is to be realized, it is imperative that government attends to several critical success factors, while a common understanding is established on the roles of business, labour, and civil society. So, do we have an understanding of the role that the SAIMM is playing, or can play, to align with the national vision that is crafted in the NDP? We are making our contribution to socio-economic transformation in a number of ways. Our Scholarship Trust Fund ensures that we continue to assist undergraduate students from poor backgrounds to obtain a university education in mining and metallurgy-related fields, thus contributing towards poverty reduction. By organizing quality technical conferences we are contributing towards the upskilling of minerals industry professionals and hence assisting in reducing inequality gaps and concomitantly attracting foreign delegates that bring foreign currency to the country. This activity resonates with our initiative of strong lobbying to host international mining conferences in South Africa as this adds to economic growth through foreign currency earnings. Looking ahead, our efforts to revive the publication of books will also play a role in reducing foreign currency expenditure and create opportunities to earn foreign income through sales of books across the country’s borders. We also need to explore how we can more actively participate in the R&D initiatives arising from the Mining Phakisa process so that we are involved in creating a knowledge economy for the country. To conclude, I would like to thank the authors of the papers in this volume of the Journal for their efforts in producing such quality contributions. Some of the papers speak to issues that I have highlighted above. For example, one paper argues that mining is but one of the key contributors to socio-economic development and is not a panacea for poverty and unemployment. Another explains how consultative corporate social responsibility (CSR) assists in socio-economic development associated with mining. Another paper addresses how social and labour plans (SLPs) can be designed to reduce the persistence of inequalities in South African societies affected by mining. After you have read all the insightful contributions in this edition you will agree with me that the SAIMM indeed provides a think-tank forum in which socio-economic transformation as espoused in the NDP can move forward in the mining sector

C. Musingwini President, SAIMM

         
   
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         commodities uptick commodities

   
 By Paul Miller, Mining Investment Banker at Nedbank Corporate and Investment Banking Investment Banker at Nedbank Corporate and By Paul Miller, Mining

espite the steady, albeit gradual, improvement currently occurring in many sectors of the global commodities gradual, improvement currently occurring espite the steady, albeit benefits this could, and should, present. economy risks missing out on the growth markets, the South African ever some of the most volatile and uncertain times 12 to 18 months are stacking up to be That’s because the next

Quite apart from the reticence already prevalent amongst international miners and investors to put their faith in miners and investors to put their reticence already prevalent amongst international Quite apart from the and related regulation that will have the most significant negative Arguably the two pieces of imminent legislation the established mining sector has been immensely negative, not The response to these regulatory pieces by of Mineral Resources (DMR) as regulator of one of the world’s Adding to the challenges facing the Department will undoubtedly be slow to wind their way through the courts, but this These cases, and their inevitable appeals, implications of these legal battles for the sector is about as futile as Of course, attempting to predict the actual the full impact. But doing so While it is already too late to prevent all of the fallout, it is still possible to mitigate that has become so used to The days of quiet diplomacy are well and truly over for the established mining industry D experienced by our country’s mining sector. experienced by our country’s of regulatory, and labour challenges, the raft industry, due to its persistent political, the South African mining certainly set to further damage investor sentiment in the already upcoming regulatory and legal battles is almost struggling sector. Mineral and Petroleum Resources Development Act (MPRDA) and impact on South African mining are the amended which could be enacted at any moment despite opposition from the the reviewed Mining Sector Charter, both of Charter and the amended MPRDA are so egregious it appears that the industry. The potential effects of the reviewed its voice and assert itself. mining sector is finally being forced to find with the spirit of transformation they both embody, but because both take because participants in the sector disagree prove highly restrictive, or even counterproductive, for the industry as a an approach to such transformation that could in its opposition to the reviewed Mining Charter and, in particular, the whole. The Chamber of Mines has been vocal them discretionary powers to amend and interpret the Charter as they see position politicians have adopted that gives country’s legislative process. fit, which is at the very least contrary to the defeats it recently suffered in the courts. The DMR’s approach to great mining industries, are the two embarrassing be irrational in one case brought by AngloGold Ashanti. Then it was found Section 54 safety stoppages was found to in another case brought by Aquila Steel. And the greatest tests to have ‘a high degree of institutional incompetence’ will be the application by law firm Malan Scholes to set aside the entire for the DMR are yet to come. The first of these in February. Then there is the rumoured application to hold DMR Mining Charter, which comes before the courts by Sibanye Gold’s Kroondal platinum mine. inspectors personally liable for losses suffered that they occur against the backdrop of the previous Public Protector’s will not lessen their impact, particularly given the events around the takeover of Optimum Coal. State of Capture Report, which has at its heart that the South African mining trying to call the bottom of the commodities supercycle. However, there can be no doubt of being unable to take full industry will feel the impact at many levels – not least the immense lost opportunity during 2017. advantage of the commodity price improvements that many are predicting will continue industry, especially its requires honest, collective, and collaborative action from the entire South African mining country’s financial services regulators. The industry and its participants need to take a leaf from the book of the front and being willing to industry, which has achieved significant progress recently, simply by presenting a united economic wellbeing of the sector throw its collective weight behind issues and actions to address political risks to the and country. government-led multi-stakeholder negotiating behind closed doors and having its influence diluted and diminished in and Operation Phakisa. Where forums like the Mining Growth, Development and Employment Task Team (MIGDETT) the future of the industry and, the decisions made by our nation’s political leaders are certain to adversely influence the trust deficit that exists crucially, the jobs of those employed in it, it is vital that we work together to address a contributor to the fiscus, earner between government and the industry. The mining sector is simply too important as its voice clearly heard in the of foreign exchange, and employer of hundreds of thousands of workers, not to make coming months and years. SA mining at risk of missing out on benefits of global on benefits out risk of missing at SA mining vi L 2nd School on Manganese Ferroalloy Production — Chairman’s report

The 2nd School on the Production of Manganese Ferroalloys was hosted on 27 and 28 June 2016 by the SAIMM at Mintek. Being a school, the event focused on the transfer of existing knowledge, as opposed to the dissemination of new knowledge expected from a conference such as the International Ferro-Alloys Congress (INFACON) series. As with the 1st School on the Production of Manganese Ferroalloys, which was hosted by the SAIMM in 2012, the main presenter at the 2nd School was Professor Merete Tangstad from the Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), who addressed the fundamental aspects of manganese ferroalloy production. To bring in other perspectives, the programme included presentations by Dr Eli Ringdalen (SINTEF, Norway) as well as a number of South Africans: Ferdus le Roux (Metalloys), Nico Denner (GEMECS), and Dr Quinn Reynolds, Dr Desh Chetty, Chris Hockaday, Aphelele Sithole, Neani Rambuda, Itumeleng Thabodi, and Wesley Banda from Mintek. The event was attended by 70 delegates The Elephant, a poem by the Persian Poet, compared to the 83 that attended the 1st School, which was quitean Jelaluddin Rumi (1207 –1273), together with achievement in the economic climate prevailing at the time. photographs of details of African elephants, set the The School was opened with a poem by the Persian poet, Jelaluddin scene for the 2nd School on Production of Manganese Rumi (translated by Coleman Barks). In The Elephant, Rumi illustrates how Ferroalloys (photographs by Joalet Steenkamp) differences in perspectives lead to differences in descriptions when individuals experience an elephant in the dark. RumiCONCLUDESTHATBY bringing the elephant to the light collaboratively, the perspectives of all participants on the animal will bebroadened. The poem provided a metaphor for the school. Apart from including a larger number of presenters in the programme toshare their different perspectives on manganese ferroalloy production, the two-day event concluded with a workshop. The title ofthe workshop was Develop a research agenda to increase the local beneficiation of manganeseOREand the aim was to shed light onthe ‘elephant in the room’: a significant increase in exports of South African manganese. South Africa has the world’s largest land-based deposit of manganese ore, which has been beneficiated locally since the 1940s. &ROM 2005, the production of saleable manganese ores has increased significantly – from 5 million tons in 2005 to 17 million tons in 2014 – but the bulk of ore was exported (data provided by the Mineral Economics and Strategy Division at Mintek). The ratio of ore sales into the local market to ore sales to the export market, was 1:1 before 2005, and increased to a ratio of 1:7 in 2014. Having the technology, the resources, and the knowledge available, the export of manganese ore for beneficiation overseas was challenged and workshop participants were encouraged to propose potential solutions to the problem. Workshopparticipants generated 95 research ideas, covering aspects to support existing technology and to be addressed by step-changetechnologies. The workshop was facilitated by Wouter Bam from Stellenbosch University. To disseminate the information, a paper,summarizing the results of the workshop and including a review of literature available on the research ideas raised will besubmitted to the SAIMM Journalfor consideration in the near future. The Organizing Committee would like to thank the following sponsors of the 2nd School on Manganese Ferroalloy Production: ­ The administrators of the INFACON 2004 fund ­ The National Research Foundation (NRF) for the Knowledge, Interchange and Collaboration (KIC) grant #104423 ­ ELKEM Ferroveld.

Delegates at the 2nd School on Production ofManganese Ferroalloys, hosted at MINTEK (photograph byThabiso Ntloko)

The SAIMM looks forward to hosting the 3rd School on Manganese Ferroalloy Production in 2020.

JD. Steenkamp Workshop participants at the 2nd School on Production of Manganese Ferroalloys (photographs by Thabiso Ntloko and Joalet Steenkamp)

         
   
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The International Committee on Ferro-Alloys (ICFA) of which the SAIMM is a founding member, wishes to The International Committee on Ferro-Alloys (ICFA) of which the SAIMM inform members of the sudden recent passing of Professor Manat Tolymbekov, a member of the inform members of the sudden recent passing of Professor Manat Tolymbekov, Committee of ICFA. Kazakhstan and was instrumental in the hosting of and was the Chairman of INFACON XIII that was held Kazakhstan and was instrumental in the hosting of and was the Chairman in Almaty, Central Asia, in 2013. This was the first time INFACON was held in a Russian speaking region in Almaty, Central Asia, in 2013. This was the first time INFACON was interest in a country that few and South Africa was very well represented at INFACON XIII due to the would have had the opportunity to visit and the programme at this Congress. condolences from ICFA and the SAIMM to family and colleagues of Prof. Tolymbekov. condolences from ICFA and the SAIMM to family and colleagues of Prof. WHFKQRORJ\KDVEHHQGHYHORSHGRYHU\HDUVLQLQGXVWULDODSSOL The IMHOFLOT 7KHGLVWLQFWLYHDQGXQLTXHSULQFLSOHVRIRXUSDWHQWHG,PKRñRWġ PLQHUDOFROOHFWLRQZKLFKDOORZVDUHGXFWLRQLQWKHVL]HRIWKH WKURXJKSXWFDSDFLWLHVDQGDFRVWHσHFWLYHFRPSDFWPRGXODUGHVLJ ,PKRñRWġSURSULHWDU\WHFK ñH[LELOLW\RIDZLGHYDULHW\RIIHHGJUDGHVLQWKHVHSDUDWLRQS viii

FROTH FROTH L Tel +27 Tel Maelgwyn Mineral Services Africa ServicesMaelgwyn Mineral EFFECTIVE PAPERS IN THIS EDITION These papers have been refereed and edited according to internationally accepted standards and are accredited for rating purposes by the South African Department of Higher Education and Training

Papers — Mining, Environment and Society Conference

Finding the interface between mining, people, and biodiversity: a case study at Richards Bay Minerals by T. Ott ...... 1 In this paper the authors share some of the challenges of mining in sensitive natural areas, such as responsible land stewardship and biodiversity conservation both during mining and after closure, to cater for the livelihoods and expectations of the local community. Building resilient company-community relationships: a preliminary observation of the thoughts and experiences of community relations practitioners across Africa by N. Coulson, P. Ledwaba, and A. McCallum ...... 7 This paper explores the collective thoughts and experiences of community relations practitioners working across sub- Saharan Africa about what facilitates, and what hinders, the development of resilient company-community relations. The findings point to the value of building a globally recognized set of core competencies for community relations practitioners, as well as building practitioners oriented and sensitive to specific environments. Calculating ecological footprints for mining companies—an introduction to the methodology and an assessment of the benefits by D. Limpitlaw, A. Alsum, and D. Neale ...... 13 Ecological footprint analysis (EFA) is increasingly being used as an indicator of organizational and corporate environmental performance and of sustainability of products. EFAs provide a baseline of consumption and emissions for mining companies, enabling possible measures to reduce companies’ footprints, and the steps required to implement such measures, to be determined. Environmental management frameworks: balancing environmental and developmental imperatives in sensitive areas by L.G. Snyman ...... 19 Environmental Management Frameworks (EMFs) utilize early identification and mapping of sensitive ecosystems and resources to avoid future land use conflicts. These tools are especially useful for areas where a multitude of interests, rights, and vulnerable ecosystems could be affected. However, experience shows that EMFs are subject to their own challenges, and fundamental difficulties in both design and implementation suggest there is considerable scope for refinement. Bench mining utilizing manual labour and mechanized equipment — a proposed mining method for artisanal small-scale mining in Central Africa by S.M. Rupprecht ...... 25 The introduction of small-scale mechanization along with labour-intensive hand mining, utilizing a bench mining approach, is proposed to address the issues of low productivity and poor recoveries that are often associated with artisanal and small-scale mining in Central Africa. The status of artisanal and small-scale mining sector in South Africa: tracking progress by P.F. Ledwaba ...... 33 This paper reviews the support interventions introduced to foster the development of artisanal and small scale mining (ASM), their intended roles and impact on the sector, and identifies existing gaps and possible ways of dealing with the challenges. Recommendations for future interventions are provided to ensure that the socio-economic benefits of ASM are fully realized.

These papers will be available on the SAIMM website http://www.saimm.co.za PAPERS IN THIS EDITION These papers have been refereed and edited according to internationally accepted standards and are accredited for rating purposes by the South African Department of Higher Education and Training

General Papers

Employee attitudes to work safety in Poland’s coal mining companies by K. Tobo
r-Osadnik, M. Wyganowska, and A. Manowska ...... 41 Coal mining company employees’ attitudes to health and safety regulations are analysed, taking into consideration earlier research on the behaviours of selected employees. A significant relationship is established between ‘Z-type’ (passive) behaviour and attitudes towards OHS regulations. The influence of mining sequence and ground support practice on the frequency and severity of rockbursts in seismically active mines of the Sudbury Basin by P. Morissette, J. Hadjigeorgiou, A.R. Punkkinen, D.R. Chinnasane, and A. Sampson-Forsythe ...... 47 An analysis of the frequency and severity of rockbursts at three mines is used to justify the introduction of new support technologies, identify limitations in the employed support designs, and demonstrate management of the mining process over time. Based on the collected data from rockbursts, ground-support elements that enhanced the capacity of support systems to withstand dynamic loads are identified.. A systemic study of mining accident causality: an analysis of 91 mining accidents from a platinum mine in South Africa by J. Bonsu, W. van Dyk, J-P. Franzidis, F. Petersen, and A. Isafiade...... 59 A systemic approach is applied to the analysis of the causes of accidents in South African mines. The outcome of this study demonstrates that systemic factors, rather than human errors and violations, are the main causes of accidents in the mining sector. Modes of arsenic occurance in coal slime and its removal: a case study at the Tanggongta Plant in Inner Mongolia, China by C. Zhou, L. Cong, C. Liu, N. Zhang, W. Cao, J. Pan, X. Fan, and H. Liu ...... 67 The modes of occurrence of arsenic and its removal from coal Slimes by low- intensity leaching-flotation under various conditions were investigated. The results show that the low- intensity leaching–-alkaline flotation process is more efficient for arsenic removal than either direct flotation or low-intensity leaching-flotation. Performance optimization of an industrial ball mill for chromite processing by S.K. Tripathy, Y.R. Murthy, V. Singh, A. Srinivasulu, A. Ranjan, and P.K. Satija ...... 75 An optimization study of the grinding circuit of a typical chromite beneficiation plant was undertaken by conducting a detailed characterization of different chromite ores along with an in-plant circuit audit. During plant trials the generation of ultrafines (<45 μm) was reduced from 29% to 22%, the energy consumption of the ball mill was reduced from 6.5 to 3.6 KWh/t , while plant throughput improved from 108 t/h to an average of 132 t/h. Flotation of mercury from the tailings of the Agh-Darreh gold processing plant, Iran by Y. Kianinia, M.R. Khalesi, A. Seyedhakimi, and F. Soltani...... 83 Separation of mercury from gold plant tailings by flotation was investigated, and the effects of collector type and dosage, pH, and the number of cleaner stages studied. The results showed that after two stages of cleaning a 40– 62% recovery of Hg at a grade of 14.3% Hg is attainable. Recycle water from a flotation test showed no adverse effect on the leaching and adsorption of gold onto activated carbon. Cost modelling for flotation machines by S. Arfania, A.R. Sayadi, and M.R. Khalesi ...... 89 This paper introduces a new set of capital and operating cost models for major flotation machines based on the application of single and multiple regression analysis. The performance of each model was evaluated using R2, mean absolute error rate, and residual analysis, and the results indicate that these models can be used as a reliable tool in cost estimation of flotation machines at the pre-feasibility and even feasibility study level of projects.

These papers will be available on the SAIMM website http://www.saimm.co.za http://dx.doi.org/10.17159/2411-9717/2017/v117n1a1 Finding the interface between mining, people, and biodiversity: a case study at Richards Bay Minerals by T. Ott*

times, with the greatest losses occurring in !1-&0.0 areas where ecosystem services (wood supply, arable land, water run-off, grazing) are Mining is often touted as a panacea for poverty and unemployment, particularly in South Africa. The location of valuable mineral resources highest (Hamman, 2016). Mining is partially often coincides with sensitive natural areas, putting development goals in responsible for these losses, alongside direct opposition to the conservation of biodiversity. Furthermore, people agriculture, forestry, and infrastructure (Jewitt are sometimes relocated, or their access to natural resources limited, to et al., 2015). The most direct impacts of make way for the mine. Once mining begins, the promise of employment mining can include the loss of habitat, water and infrastructure brings additional people to the areas surrounding the use, potential water pollution, and hazardous mine. People in these rural settlements seize the opportunity to enter a waste production (e.g. Jewitt et al., 2015), cash economy and convert their lands, previously used for subsistence which can have adverse consequences for host crops, into dormitories for immigrants from other regions or countries. communities’ access to resources or to their Low-density rural areas therefore gradually become peri-urban health. settlements, leading to increasing pressure on natural resources. A systemic approach to land use planning is critical to cater for livelihoods Secondary impacts are often unintended. through responsible land stewardship and biodiversity conservation For example, a large employer like a mine can during mining and after closure, in collaboration with mining companies. influence the way people in the region use the Richards Bay Minerals has been operating in the kwaMbonambi and land: aside from potential employment, the kwaSokhulu communities for almost 40 years and has experienced these company’s social and labour plan (SLP) often issues first-hand. Adaptive land planning and management is critical for attracts additional people into the area through satisfying stakeholders and maintaining compliance with environmental better services and infrastructure (e.g. schools management programmes and social labour planning requirements. In this and clinics). As part of their SLPs, mines are paper, we share some of these challenges and how we are attempting to frequently expected to take the place of local address them on mined land with the development of new projects. government through the provision of water, 4!-/*0 health care and education infrastructure, and rehabilitation, socio-economic development, mining closure, land-use other key social services. This increases the planning, rural communities. dependency of host communities on the mine and therefore the chances of a social collapse at the end of the life of the mine (see Cloete and Marais, 2013). The need for integrated 712/-*+%2.-15 approaches as the link between ecosystem Is sustainable development possible? For health and the wellbeing of people is years, industrial development, particularly in increasingly being recognized (e.g. Hamman, the extractive sector, has been touted as a 2016). This paper presents a case study as an panacea for unemployment and poverty in illustration of how such conditions develop, as South Africa. This has driven up expectations well as how they may be solved through a by host communities and employees alike, and more integrated approach to land use led to significant disputes and social unrest. planning. Authorizations for major developments such as mines are awarded with employment opportunities, local business development, and foreign investment in mind – often difficult to weigh against potential environmental impacts (e.g. Leonard, 2016; Warner et al., 2016). This often brings development goals into direct competition with goals focused on the conser- * Richard Bay Minerals, Rio Tinto. vation of biodiversity (Chamber of Mines, © The Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, 2017. ISSN 2225-6253. This paper South African Biodiversity Forum, and the was first presented at the Mining, Environment South African National Biodiveristy Institute, and Society Conference ‘Beyond sustainability— 2013). South Africa has experienced an 18.3% Building resilience’, 12–13 May 2015, Mintek, decline in biodiversity since pre-industrial Randburg, South Africa.

         
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6.02-/.%3,531*5,31*0%3&45%-124
2 (personal observation). These are often damaged after rain when the water table recovers, but the impacts on sensitive Richards Bay Minerals (RBM) has been extracting heavy biologically diverse habitats such as wetlands and swamp mineral sands from the dunes of northern KwaZulu-Natal forests are irreversible. since 1976. The company’s mineral leases extend over four Small-grower plantations adjacent to the mining lease tribal authorities and boast a rich and complex history. At the area have increased – a pattern mirrored in communal lands time mining began in kwaMbonambi around 1976, coastal across KwaZulu-Natal, where plantations have increased dune forests occurred in disconnected patches of varying relative to privately owned lands since 2005 (Jewitt et al., sizes (Weisser and Marques, 1979; Ott, 2013), some likely 2015). These plantations are not properly managed according too small to maintain ecological processes (Olivier, Aarde, to commercial forestry best-practice, and are often planted too and Lombard, 2013). Although the distribution of these densely, full of brush, overrun by noxious weeds, and not forests was naturally limited by the coastal dune cordon, they separated by firebreaks. Apart from the direct habitat and had been severely fragmented through centuries of timber biodiversity losses associated with the expansion of harvesting for iron smelting and land transformation by plantations into natural lands, the poor management of these indigenous peoples 1700 to 900 years ago (Anderson, 2003), plantations constitutes a major fire hazard in the area, as well as in colonial times and finally by the state endangering people’s lives as well as surrounding natural afforestation programmes (Marwick, 1973; White and Moll, vegetation. This poorly-organized afforestation has 1978). Slash-and-burn agriculture and livestock also played drastically reduced traditional grazing lands and forced a significant role in land transformation (Weisser and herders to move cattle into coastal forests. The subsequent Marques, 1979; White and Moll, 1978). Archaeological sites unselective browsing and trampling by cattle is hampering provide evidence of several cultural groups occupying the forest regeneration as it prevents climax forest species from area from the Stone Age through to recent history (Anderson, replacing pioneer Acacia kosiensis woodland (personal 1997; 2003; 2014). Settlements were sparsely distributed as observation, but see Wassenaar and van Aarde, 2001). traditional homesteads with large high dunes between them (Anderson 1997). With the development of commercial +.,*.1'50+023.13$.,.2! forestry by the State, however, many of these people were relocated out of the area by 1942 (Anderson, 2014). RBM has opted to restore coastal dune forest on the dunes remediated after mining, rather than simply replacing what natural vegetation still existed prior to mining. RBM has been +//4125%)3,,41'405 initiating ecological succession on a continuous basis since The advent of a mining development in the heart of rural the onset of mining four decades ago. More than 20 years of Zululand attracted people from across the country in search of jobs, quickly swelling the rural population. Furthermore, the development of social responsibility programmes set up by the company improved infrastructure and services and lured more people to the area. This influx of people from other areas has resulted in gradual densification (Figure 1) and a dilution of local tradition and culture. Superimposed on other socio-economic challenges as experienced elsewhere in the province and the country, such as HIV/AIDS and unexpected price increments (see Knight et al., 2014), challenges in education, and youth unemployment have rendered the area increasingly difficult for tribal authorities to govern. The youth of the area have increasingly become involved in hunting with dogs as a sport, rather than a livelihood, and when combined with snaring, this has major impacts on the relatively low densities of mammals and ground-dwelling birds typical of coastal dune forests. Food security (see Walsh and van Rooyen, 2015) and natural resources have become increasingly threatened, as in many cases areas previously used to raise crops for homesteads have either been sold as plots or converted into flats for immigrants (personal observation). In this way, low- density rural areas have gradually been transformed into peri-urban settlements. As the area comprises traditional tribal lands with limited government services, the remaining biodiversity of the area has further deteriorated and .'+/45 4/.3,5&)-2-'/3&)0523415.15 53 531*5 "5$ 531*5 --',4 competition for jobs and land has intensified. In some 3/2)50324,,.245.#3'405 --',453/2)55"  5(/-#5""5% 531*5" 5* 5-( 3/435143/53,3$312+53/'45'/300,31*53/4305.2)50#3,,5&32%)405-( locations, this has resulted in irresponsible land stewardship. (-/40253/454.*4125.15 52)4045)345$4'+152-5/4%-4/5$!5 "5$+252)4 For example, houses are erected in low-lying and temporarily 0.45-(52)450422,4#4125'/3*+3,,!5$4'.1052-5'/-531*52/310(-/#5(/-# dry wetland areas, while swamp forests are transformed into 0&3/045)-#40243*05.15""5.2)5(.4,*052-5*4,,.1'05.2)5,.#.24*50&3%4 sugarcane fields, and lake edges are planted with timber lots (-/50+$0.0241%453'/.%+,2+/45.15"  L 2    
 VOLUME 117          
Finding the interface between mining, people, and biodiversity ecological research and monitoring has tracked the progress and a transfer of ecological and environmental skills. These of forest regeneration (see http://www.ceru.up.ac.za/ people have become ambassadors of land stewardship – restoration/index.php). Independent, peer-reviewed scientific sharing the importance of the regenerating forests within assessment has indicated that the natural vegetation their own communities and therefore assisting to reduce the restoration programme is successful as coastal dune forest incidence of other threats (e.g. cattle in forests, weed species typical of the region gradually re-establish within infestation, hunting with dogs, snaring, and bush fires). these forests (Grainger and van Aarde, 2012; Wassenaar et Another LED programme aims specifically at developing al., 2005). However, direct disturbances (through increased small-scale farming initiatives. This programme was demand for natural resources such as wood, medicinal plants, designed to encourage and reward participation and has been and animal products, transformation of forest and swamp very successful, with some farmers already producing a forest to timber and sugar plantations) or indirect distur- surplus of food (Rylance, 2014). The company is investi- bances (through hunting, lack of influence over land gating the possible expansion of the agricultural programme allocation, increased livestock impacts) are increasing as a into the areas on-lease currently used for Casuarina sp. result of the challenges listed above, and the current drought plantations with the goal of providing agricultural conditions further compound the impacts. Developing development opportunities while teaching communities how solutions to the root cause of these concerns is the only way to be better land stewards. Such a programme could be to ensure a sustainable landscape can be maintained for homestead-based (each homestead managing a portion of the future generations. land), but operate as a cooperative for activities like land preparation, planting, and harvesting to improve economies
         of scale and provide access to markets. This programme will RBM is committed to ensuring that it ultimately has a also attempt to develop sustainable cattle-grazing areas that positive impact on the socio-economics and biodiversity of are carefully maintained by communities, thus reducing the area and a range of projects have been identified to impacts on regenerating areas. Furthermore, RBM is looking achieve this goal by improving sustainability. Disturbances to into partnerships with the forestry sector regarding training the regenerating forests are a result of the relatively sudden programmes to improve the management of forestry areas influx of people, coupled with a decrease in control by tribal both outside and within the mining leases. councils, which has led to land access and tenure concerns. An unstable social fabric, with an increasing number of          unemployed youth dependent on the mine’s interventions In partnership with other organizations, RBM embarked on and assistance, results in the environment no longer an environmental education programme in 2013 aimed featuring as a key concern for local communities. This could specifically at primary school children in host communities. be partially attributed to lack of education, particularly Environmental awareness is gradually developed through a environmental education, to demonstrate the importance of variety of events and lessons, including coastal clean-ups, land stewardship for sustainability. This is a concern, given Arbour Day, water awareness, youth leadership development, that rural communities are often most reliant on the services and environmental clubs. The partnership with the Wildlife provided by relatively intact ecosystems (see Jewitt et al., and Environment Society of South Africa (WESSA) allowed 2015). Responsible land use that is sustainable can only be a the company to introduce and facilitate the participation of product of socio-economic needs and an understanding of ten primary schools within their host communities in the land capability to foster sustainable practices. That is, conser- WESSA Eco-Schools programme in 2014. All of these schools vation of biodiversity is possible only once these are catered achieved their bronze certificates, enabling them to proceed for, or rather as an additional outcome of socio-economic to year two of the programme, and nine entered year three. improvement programmes if an integrated, collaborative In addition to its own weed control programmes, the mine approach is followed. facilitates the Wildlands Conservation Trust’s ’Greenpreneurs’ Recognizing that many social and labour plan initiatives programme to remove invasive vegetation from large tracts of throughout South Africa have made people dependent on communal lands and then plant indigenous tree saplings companies, RBM introduced a local economic development grown by local community members in return for bartered (LED) programme in 2013 that develops local businesses to goods. This programme specifically targets women- and provide services to the company, as well as the greater child-run homes, and the tree-planting team is dominated by Richards Bay area. A key success story here was the women from the local community. development and appointment of a community joint venture RBM is also exploring opportunities to develop the to carry out the rehabilitation work for RBM. Here, not only regenerating forests as a community conservation area. Here the 60-strong workforce, but also the joint venture owners, the aim is to encourage these communities to participate in are from the host communities. In addition, a team of 14 the EKZNW Biodiversity Stewardship or similar programme ‘cattle guards’ are employed from the local community to where they will reap the rewards of running the area as a minimize the impact of cattle on the regenerating areas by community conservation and ecotourism initiative. Seeking physically herding cattle from sensitive areas, and engaging independent financing for such a programme will also ensure with cattle owners to share reasoning behind this herding. In that it will persist beyond the life of the RBM mine. The addition, this team was professionally trained to fight bush forests and the biodiversity harboured therein must benefit fires – a skill that showed its value during the recent drought. the local communities in some way to ensure that they are Aside from using local business enterprises, these projects paid to protect it, elsewise it will be transformed into another have led to a sense of ownership of the regenerating forest land cover perceived to provide better returns.

         
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,311.1'53)43*5(-/5145&/-84%20 area; improving the ecological integrity of natural habitats by increasing the connectivity between forest fragments; rehabil- Many of the unintended socio-economic impacts of mining in itating degraded lands; and introducing sustainable land use rural area such as those summarized above could be avoided by government agencies providing a systemic approach to practices that provide livelihoods for local communities after land use planning and management that the mining company mining (see Table I). can collaborate on. Expectations from different stakeholders This land use plan has been developed in conjunction are sometimes difficult to balance to generate a feasible, with researchers involved in the baseline studies for the area, practical, and sustainable land use plan. Nevertheless, RBM stakeholders such as the wildlife authority (EKZNW), and is attempting to do this for its proposed project south of the local communities by drawing on their knowledge of social Richards Bay harbour, through a plan that aims for good land and environmental concerns. Overlaying current land use stewardship throughout the life of the operation and long with future mine plans, estimated topsoil distribution, and after closure. The company has developed an ’end land-use’ the planned conservation zones in a geographic information plan to address the lessons learnt from its long-established system has allowed RBM to design an end-land use mosaic northern mining lease. The company aims not only to restore that caters for agricultural zones in areas close to human ecologically sustainable coastal dune vegetation, but also to settlements and builds ecological integrity by restoring forest develop a land use mosaic that provides a range of ecological adjacent to forest remnants that will not be mined. Transition goods and services for the surrounding local communities zones cater for indigenous grasslands and mixed use (Figure 2). The plan makes provision for broad land use woodlands, while also attempting to restore historical types with the objectives of facilitating the development of grasslands and provide grazing, which can act as buffer sustainable land uses within and outside the mining lease zones for regenerating forests. The conceptual land use plan

.'+/45 -1%4&2541*5,31*+045&,315&/-&-04*5(-/5 +,2.5-+2)5#.14/3,5,430453/435 5 -10+,2.1'5"  531*5+0452!&4053/45&-/2/3!4*5.1535'/3*.4125-( %-,-+/5(/-#5#-025132+/3,5$+((4/05-1405+1*.02+/$4*5$!5#.1.1' 52-5,43025132+/3,53'/.%+,2+/3, 53/4305-+1*3/.405$4244152)45(.45*.((4/4125,31*5+0405,.024* 3/45+1,.4,!52-5$45305*.02.1%25-/5305'4-#42/.%53050)-15.152)45#3&5$+25/32)4/535%-12.1++#5-(5*.((4/4125,31*5+04052)325#.#.%05132+/3,5$-+1*3/.40531* (-%+0405-15$+.,*.1'5%-114%2..2!5$424415)3$.23205

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Avoidance Buffer zones Conservation Areas that will not be disturbed by mining or associated activities. As in other lease areas these areas act as source areas for the recolonization of regenerating forests during ecological succession. Minimization Forest Conservation, Restore ecological linkages between remnant forest patches. Enhance Rehabilitation restoration ecotourism the potential of the area as an ecotourism destination (LED opportunity), enhance sustainability of forests. Minimization Grassland- Conservation, Allow an opportunity for indigenous grasslands typical of the area to Rehabilitation savannah grazing return, with areas designated for cattle grazing to reduce livestock mosaic damage to indigenous rehabilitation areas. Rehabilitation Agriculture Food crops, fruit Provide foodstuffs to rural communities, LED opportunities. and nut orchards Rehabilitation Mixed use Structural timber, Woodland comprising indigenous and fast-growing potentially woodland fuel, fruit, exotic species that provide a buffer zone between natural restoration medicinal plants areas and agricultural areas while providing a range of goods that would otherwise be harvested from conservation areas. L 4    
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Finding the interface between mining, people, and biodiversity has been subjected to the scrutiny of, and modified by, all GRAINGER, M. and VAN AARDE, R.J. 2012. Is succession-based management of stakeholders and has thus far been met with support. A coastal dune forest restoration valid? Ecological Restoration, vol. 30. recent assessment of current ecosystem goods and services pp. 200–208. compared to those provided by following this plan confirmed GOOGLE EARTH. 2013. Nzalabantu, KwaZulu-Natal. 28°41’54” S 32°58’10” E, that the landscape mosaic described above would have a Eye alt. 4.06 km. Digital Globe 2015. http://www.earth.google.com positive impact on the area’s people and environment [Accessed16 January, 2015]. (Mander et al., 2014). HAMMAN, M. 2016. Exploring connections in socio-ecological systems: The links between biodiversity, ecosystem services and human well-being in -%.423,5%)31'40531*52)45.#&3%25-15(+2+/45,31*5+04 South Africa. PhD thesis, Stockholm University. JEWITT, D., GOODMAN, P.S., ERASMUS, B.F.N., O’CONNOR, T.G., and WITKOWSKI, This plan may cater for the proximate needs of host E.T.F. 2015. Systematic land-cover change in KwaZulu-Natal, South communities; however, it should be acknowledged that these Africa: Implications for biodiversity. South African Journal of Science, needs may change over time and that in the future, the focus vol. 111. http://dx.doi.org/10.17159/ sajs.2015/20150019 may not be on subsistence livelihoods, but on more modern KNIGHT, L., ROBERTS, B.J., ABER, J.L., RICHTER, L., and THE SIZE RESEARCH GROUP. ways of life. It is by no means assumed that people will 2014. Household shocks and coping strategies in rural and peri-urban continue to use the land in the same way that they currently South Africa: Baseline data from the size study in KwaZulu-Natal, South do. The increasingly peri-urban landscape inland of the Africa. Journal of International Development. DOI: 10.1002/jid.2993 coastal dune systems could therefore provide services for the LEONARD, L. 2016. Mining and/or tourism development for job creation and greater Uthungulu District. For example, areas close to roads sustainability in Dullstroom, Mpumalanga. Local Economy, vol. 31. and villages may also present opportunities for energy pp. 249–263. generation and intensive food production (van Aarde and MANDER, M., VAN NIEKERK, M., DE WINNAAR, G., and BROWNE, M. 2014. Guldemond, 2014) such as fish farming and hydroponics. Ecofutures Zulti South Project, Richards Bay Mining (RBM). Report no. Such alternative land uses are a viable option to create jobs 28, Future Works Sustainability Consulting, Knysna, South Africa. and sustain livelihoods while adjacent coastal margin habitats are conserved. MANUEL, J., MAZE, K., DRIVER, M., STEPHENS, A., BOTTS, E., PARKER, A., TAU, M., DINI, J., HOLNESS, S., and NEL, J. 2016. Key ingredients, challenges and lessons from biodiversity mainstreaming in South Africa: people, -1%,+0.-1 products, process. OECD Environment Working Papers no. 107. OECD The socio-economic challenges highlighted in this paper are Publishing, Paris. common to many mines, but they become problems only if MARWICK, C.W. 1973. Kwamahlati -the story of forestry in Zululand. companies, communities, and government do not use the Department of Forestry Bulletin, vol. 49. Government Printer, Pretoria, opportunity to learn from, and collaborate in solving, them. South Africa.

The inextricable links between the needs of people and the OLIVIER, P.I., VAN AARDE, R.J., and LOMBARD, A.T. 2013. The use of habitat environment mean that a systemic approach to end land-use suitability models and species-area relationships to predict extinction planning is crucial to facilitate the development of an debts in coastal dunes forests, South Africa. Diversity & Distributions, environmentally and socially sustainable rehabilitated vol. 19. pp. 1353–1365. landscape. Critically, host communities and government OTT, T. 2013. The response of biological communities to spatial and temporal agencies must gain an understanding of their role as changes in a regenerating coastal dune forest along the north-east coast stewards of the land and as conservators of biodiversity to of South Africa. PhD thesis, University of Pretoria, South Africa. avoid creating landscapes that constantly need to be rescued RYLANCE, A. 2014. Richards Bay Minerals support to community development by outside intervention. An integrated land use plan that through agriculture. Final Report, German Development Cooperation aims to rebuild ecosystem goods and services while also (GIZ). satisfying biodiversity goals sets the scene for achieving a SRK CONSULTING. 2014. Richards Bay Mining Zulti South Mining Lease Area positive impact on a region. Such a plan requires support FEIAR. SRK Consulting, Durban, South Africa. from not only the private sector and the host community, but VAN AARDE, R.J. and GULDEMOND, R. 2014. Internal memo: End Land Use Plan collaboration by government, wildlife authorities, the private for Zulti South: some conceptual ideas. Conservation Ecology Research sector, and NGOs. Unit, University of Pretoria.

WASSENAAR, T.D., vAN AARDE, R.J., PIMM, S.L., and FERREIRA, S.M. 2005. 4(4/41%40 Community convergence in disturbed subtropical dune forests. Ecology, vol. 86. pp. 655–666. ANDERSON, G. 1997. Archaeological surveys and excavations of the RBM mining lease. Report, Richards Bay Minerals, Umlando Archaeological Surveys. WASSENAAR, T.D. and vAN AARDE, R.J. 2001. Short-term responses of rehabili- tating coastal dune forest ground vegetation to livestock grazing. African ANDERSON, G. 2003. Archaeological survey of the Richards Bay Minerals Zulti North & Tisand Mining Leases. Report, Richards Bay Minerals, Institute Journal of Ecology, vol. 39. pp. 329–339. for Cultural Resource Management, Natal Museum, Pietermaritzburg, WALSH, C.M. and vAN ROOYEN, F.C. 2015. Household food security and hunger South Africa. in rural and urban communities in the Free State Province, South Africa.

ANDERSON, G. 2014 Umlando Archaeological Surveys. Personal Communication. Ecology of Food and Nutrition, vol. 54. pp. 118–137.

CLOETE, J. and MARAIS, L. 2013. Labour, migration, settlement and mine closure WEISSER, P.J. and MARQUES, F. 1979. Gross vegetation changes in the dune area in South Africa. Geography, vol. 98. pp. 77–84. between Richards Bay and the Mfolozi River, 1937-1974. Bothalia, vol. 12. pp. 711–721. DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL AFFAIRS, DEPARTMENT OF MINERAL RESOURCES, CHAMBER OF MINES, SOUTH AFRICAN BIODIVERSITY FORUM, and SOUTH AFRICAN WHITE, F. and MOLL, E.J. 1978. The Indian Ocean coastal belt. Biogeography NATIONAL BIODIVERISTY INSTITUTE. 2013. Mining and Biodiversity Guideline: and Ecology of Southern Africa. Werger, M.J.A. and van Bruggen, A.C. Mainstreaming biodiversity into the mining sector. (eds). Springer, The Netherlands. pp. 563–598. N

         
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 5 L th C 6 Sulphur and Sulphuric o n Acid 2017 Conference For further information contact: f 9 May 2017—WORKSHOP Conference Co-ordinator e Camielah Jardine, SAIMM 10–11 May 2017—CONFERENCE Tel: (011) 834-1273/7 r 12 May 2017—TECHNICAL VISIT E-mail: [email protected] e Southern Sun Cape Sun, Cape Town Website: http://www.saimm.co.za n c BACKGROUND e The production of SO2 and Sulphuric acid remains a pertinent topic in the Southern African mining, minerals and metallurgical industry. Due to significant growth in acid and SO2 production as a fatal product, as well as increased requirement for acid and A SO2 to process Copper, Cobalt and Uranium, the Sub Saharan region has seen a dramatic increase in the n number of new plants. The design capacity of each of the new plants is in excess of 1000 tons per day. n In light of the current state of the industry and the global metal commodity prices the optimisation of sulphuric acid plants, o new technologies and recapture and recycle of streams is even more of a priority and focus. The 2017 Sulphuric Acid Conference will create an opportunity to be exposed to industry thought leaders and peers, international suppliers, other producers and ex- u perts. n To ensure that you stay abreast of developments in the industry, The Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, in- c vites you to participate in a conference on the production, utilization and conversion of sulphur, sulphuric acid and SO2 abatement e in metallurgical and other processes to be held in May 2017 in Cape Town. m e n Sponsors: t http://dx.doi.org/10.17159/2411-9717/2017/v117n1a2 Building resilient company-community relationships: a preliminary observation of the thoughts and experiences of community relations practitioners across Africa by N. Coulson*, P. Ledwaba*, and A. McCallum†

operations (Franks et al., 2014). Davis #)+$(-( and Franks (2014), estimated that US$10 000–50 000 is lost each day when a The University of the Witwatersrand presents an accredited four-course project is delayed during the exploration training programme for community relations practitioners (CRPs). Between May 2013 and October 2014 six courses were facilitated for 145 phase, and about US$20 million per week participants, of whom 82% were from sub-Saharan Africa, 62% worked in when in operation. Today these costs could be mining, and 58% worked directly with communities. Thematic analysis of expected to be higher due to increasing input the comments of course participants collected during course exercises costs. found that there were a set of coherent drivers for resilient company- Resilient company-community community relationships, but that the restrainers to resilient relationships relationships are no longer optional, or were often context-specific and dominated by politics. CRPs reported something to be disregarded by mining facing as many difficulties in the internal company environment as in the companies. In Africa today, conflict in the external environment. These findings for CRPs in Africa resonate with mining sector is commonplace, whether those worldwide. between companies and communities, between 2/#+. ( large-scale mining companies and small-scale community-company relationships, community relations practitioners, miners, or between migrant employees social licence. inadequately housed, and local communities. The tragic events in 2012 at the Lonmin Marikana platinum operation in South Africa illustrate that there is still a lot of work to be 1)*.+ %'*-+) done to build effective company-community Much has changed in how the extractive relations in many contexts (Breckenridge, industry responds to social and community 2014). issues. There has been a growing prioritization In the past decade or so, a plethora of of community-related issues within the global standards, guidelines, legislation, and extractive industry globally (Kemp, 2010; initiatives have emerged, resulting in Tatar, n.d.). According to Kemp (2010) this increased rigour in community relations can be attributed partly to escalating pressure assessment and management. Although an from local-level stakeholders to push mining increasing amount is being written about companies to take greater responsibility for the company-community relations, there is very social, economic, and environmental impacts little recorded on the role and experiences of of mining. Securing and maintaining the social community relation practitioners (CRPs) hired licence to operate is ranked fourth in terms of to be the ‘face’ of a company in the community the top risks facing the mining and metals (Kemp and Owen, 2013a). This paper explores industry in 2016, up one place from 2015 what we can learn about building resilient (Ernst & Young, 2016). Conflicts between local communities and large-scale mining companies arise because of the social, environmental, and economic impacts of mining. Worldwide, large-scale mining companies have a poor reputation amongst communities, including those in * Centre for Sustainability in Mining and Industry Africa (Gilberthorpe and Banks, 2012; Kemp (CSMI), University of the Witwatersrand, South and Owen, 2013a; van Wyk, n.d.). For mining Africa. companies, conflicts for whatever reason, † Synergy-Global. result in loss of productivity, lost opportu- © The Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, 2017. ISSN 2225-6253. This paper nities, lost time, and adverse impacts on was first presented at the Mining, Environment reputation (International Council on Mining and Society Conference ‘Beyond sustainability— and Metals, 2015). Conflicts also have a Building resilience’, 12–13 May 2015, Mintek, significant financial impact on mining Randburg, South Africa.

         
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 7 L Building resilient company-community relationships company-community relationships in Africa, through and/or sustainable development functions. However, many analysing information captured from course participants large-scale mining companies have established dedicated during the first two years of the implementation of a training community relations departments (Kemp, 2010), and programme designed to strengthen the work practice of CRPs increasingly senior persons are being appointed to lead this in Africa. work.

"# "# #  # "! # !  "  /.-/0+"0*!/00*.,-)-) 0$.+ .,&&/ CRPs play a significant role in unlocking the potential of the The Centre for Sustainability in Mining and Industry (CSMI) industry in terms of enhancing corporate social performance at the University of the Witwatersrand and Synergy-Global on the ground (Kemp, 2004). While this is somewhat came together in 2012 to develop the first African accredited acknowledged, not much is written about the CRPs and how training course for community relations practice in the and what they should be doing (Kemp and Owen, 2013a). In extractive industry. The Community Relation Practitioner fact, very little literature exists on the role and experiences of (CRP) Programme was developed to contribute to the profes- CRPs as leading agents in building company-community sionalization of the discipline of community relations practice relationships. As stated by Kemp (2004) ‘the voice of CRPs by providing an African accredited training opportunity for seems hidden amongst broader debates about the minerals individuals working as CRPs in the extractive sector. The industry, its social and environmental impacts and progress certificate programme consists of four five-day courses with towards sustainable development’. An exception to this is the an assessment for competence required for each course. The research led by Professor Kemp from the Centre for Social courses presented in 2013-2014 are listed in Table I. Responsibility in Mining (CSRM), at the University of The teaching methodology for the CRP Programme is Queensland, Australia, which provides the best documented highly participatory and course participants are encouraged to insights into the experiences, concerns, and work of CRPs. develop as professionals by sharing experiences and In 2004, CSRM conducted a survey of CRPs working in reflections on what facilitates and what impedes their work. the mining sector in Australia and New Zealand. The They are given opportunity to reflect on their experience of objective of the survey was to develop a profile of CRPs and the learning process as well. Specifically, participants are to gain an understanding of the challenges they face on a asked to capture powerful ‘ah-ha’ moments that make all the daily basis. The survey found that while there was no formal difference for many adult learners. Since 2013, CSMI and qualification for community relations work, the majority of Synergy-Global have partnered in facilitating this programme, practitioners were well-educated with considerable industry running up to four courses a year. In the first two years of experience. However, most practitioners did not have prior the programme, participants came from 13 African countries experience in community relations work, and this skills gap including countries in West, East, and Southern Africa. had a direct impact on delivery of work and the challenges faced by practitioners on the ground (Kemp, 2004). This +&&%)-*#0./,*-+)(0$.,'*-'/0-)0*!/0/ *.,'*-/0(/'*+. prompted industry stakeholders to develop learning Community relations can be defined as ‘the strategic programmes to address this skills gap. In recent years, more development of mutually beneficial relationships with formal training opportunities have emerged globally to targeted communities towards the long-term objective of support CRP practice/profession (Kemp, 2010), the CRP building reputation and trust’ (Doorley and Garcia, 2011). Programme at the University of Witwatersrand being one Kemp (2010) broadly describes community relations in the example. Other institutions that are currently training CRPs extractive sector as a three-stage process that involves across the globe include Catolica University in Chile, the working for the company to understand views of local Chamber of Commerce in Papua New Guinea, and CSRM in communities; bridging community and company viewpoints Australia (Kemp and Owen, 2013a). As previously to establish a mutual relationship; and facilitating necessary mentioned, the scope of work of CRPs is rarely defined and change to enhance social performance. According to Kemp hence it is an emerging practice. CRPs find themselves (2010), the scope of work and how community relations performing a variety of activities, as long as these activities work is structured vary according to companies. Some have something to do with communities. According to Kemp companies regard community relations as part of the (2010), the job performed by CRPs is a mix of consultation communications, public relations, and/or external functions. and engagement, sponsorships, community programmes, There are also companies that have embedded community addressing grievances, and public relations. The latter relations work within the corporate social responsibility constitutes a large share of the work performed by CRPs.

Table I 0$.+ .,&&/0'+%.(/(0",'--*,*/ 0-)0

+%.(/0)%&/. +%.(/0),&/ +)*!0+"0'+%.(/0$./(/)*,*-+)

1 Context, situation and community profiling May 2013, September 2013 and October 2014 2 Developing and maintaining stakeholder relations November 2013 and March 2014 3 Managing community impacts June 2014 4 Managing community benefits and partnerships August 2014 L 8    
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!""#"" ""# # 4. What are your key learning points from the CRP Programme? Existing evidence suggests that CRPs are faced with a myriad The transcribed flipchart pages were used as qualitative of challenges in their current role. These challenges are both data and analysed for inductive codes. These codes are in the external environment as they engage with themes that emerged through the grouping of comments and communities and other stakeholders, as well as internally in feedback which when combined provided insight into the their own organization or mining company. The CRPs that collective thinking of the participants. A diagram illustrating took part in the survey conducted by Kemp (2004) listed the the relative weighting and relationship of the inductive codes following as some of the key challenges: balancing different was then prepared to present the findings for each of the four priorities, understanding the community, limited human and questions above. financial resources, poor image of the industry, internal The exception to this process was data compiled as part politics, lack of support from management, poor of ‘Course 3: Managing community impacts’ held in June understanding of community relation work by colleagues, 2014. A requirement for this course is the completion of a and not being perceived as a ‘professional’. pre-course survey conducted on Survey Monkey, in which There is increasing concern around the impact of internal matters on the performance of CRPs. Kemp (2010) argues course participants are asked to comment on the progress of that while understanding external factors is important, their company with respect to community relations practice. internal matters also have a direct impact on the performance Twenty-five course participants completed the survey. The of CRPs. It is suggested that CRPs face more barriers findings of this survey are also referenced periodically in the internally within their organizations than within the results to strengthen other findings and observations made communities (Kemp and Bond, 2009; Bourke and Kemp, through the qualitative data analysis. 2011; Chatham House, 2013; Kemp and Owen, 2013a, A Certificate of Retrospective Acknowledgement Protocol 2013b). Some of the concerns raised by CRPs in these studies Number N16/07/06 was issued by the University of are that: Witwatersrand Human Research Ethics Committee (Non- Medical). It should be emphasized that the findings presented ® They are excluded from key decision-making processes below are the thoughts of course participants as recorded in their organizations during course sessions. The findings are therefore a ® They have limited authority in their organizations preliminary look at the thinking of those working in, or ® They are a minority profession concerned about, community relations practice and should be ® They feel their concerns are given less attention interrogated further in other empirical studies. compared to those raised by technical staff ® Community relations is viewed as a burden to the organization /(%*( ® They struggle to involve other departments in their #  !"# "#! ! #   work In total, there were 145 participants/filled teaching places ® They do not have a voice in the organization across six courses (refer to Table II). Course participants have ® Colleagues do not appreciate community relations work not progressed in a linear fashion through the courses and ® Internal communication is a challenge therefore each short course largely reflects a new group of ® There is a lack of respect from other parts of the individuals coming together for teaching and learning. business. However, these figures do reflect some double or triple Using data collected through the training of CRPs in counting of a few individuals who have attended more than Africa, the paper aims to take a preliminary look at the one course. In 2015, only four participants had completed all concerns of practitioners in Africa engaged in building of the short courses. resilient company-community relations and the extent to Information collected from participants showed that 62% which their concerns and difficulties are shared with practi- came from the mining sector and 12% from oil and gas. The tioners elsewhere. majority of participants (82%) came from sub-Saharan Africa. Across six courses, 58% of the participants had a job /*!+ ( requiring face–to-face interactions with the local community. Between May 2013 and October 2014 seven courses were Other participants had jobs in government, NPOs, were facilitated during the first two years of implementation of the independent consultants, or were in senior management CRP Programme (refer to Table I). The data for this paper has positions. As the records were not always complete, the been taken from plenary feedback sessions held during the authors of this paper, who are also the facilitators of these teaching of six courses (Courses 1, 2 and 4) run as part of courses, believe that 58% is an underestimate of the number the CRP Programme. Feedback from group work was of participants who were working directly with communities. captured on flipcharts during training sessions and then Those working directly with communities came from a range transcribed for analysis. During the course sessions, partic- of different company departments, including corporate social ipants were asked at different points to comment on four responsibility, community development, resettlement, questions. These were: communication, sustainability, public affairs, and community 1. What are the drivers that enable resilient company- relations. This points to the varied channels through which community relations within the extractive industry? community relations work is practiced in different settings, 2. What are the challenges that hinder healthy relations? and possibly to a lack of standardization and/or the relative 3. What are the personal challenges faced by CRPs? infancy of this type of work in the African extractive sector.

         
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Table II ),#(-(0+"0$,.*-'-$,)*(0#0+.- -) 0(/'*+. 0,) 0",'/*+",'/0-)*/.,'*-+)0-*!0'+&&%)-*-/(

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+0+"0 .- -)0-)0(%,!,.,)0".-', /'*+.0 ,'/*+",'/0-)*/.,'*-+)0 ,) 0 ,*/ $,.*-'-$,)*(  -)-) -0,) 0 ,( -*!0'+&&%)-*#0 

Course 1: May 2013 29 58 59 14 59 Course 1: Sept 2013 21 43 57 14 71 Course 1: Oct 2014 31 58 84 6 97 Course 2: Nov 2013 26 42 46 15 77 Course 2: March 2014 11 64 72 9 91 Course 4: Aug 2014 27 81 52 15 96 Totals/Average 145 58 62 12 82

! #! "# "# 
" # # "" #!    ! #! "# "#!""# ! #" #"!  "! # !   # "!  Ten themes emerged from inductive analysis of the drivers of Nine themes emerged in response to the question ’what are resilient company-community relations. These themes are the challenges to resilient relations?’ These themes are shown in Figure 1. Although overall the ten themes emerged represented in Figure 2 and were collectively coined to be of similar weighting, three had a slightly stronger ‘restrainers’. All the themes are plotted against a shaded emphasis measured by the number of responses that could be backdrop to emphasize the importance of context, and those attributed to these. These themes are shown in boxes rather that featured more strongly in the analysis are shown as than circles in Figure 1 to differentiate them. boxes. Other themes that emerged less strongly are shown as Most of the ten themes are self-explanatory. However the circles. theme of ‘values’ included, for example, important attitudes Overall, there was less cohesion in the themes that such as having ‘respect’, ‘integrity’, and ‘transparency’, as emerged from the analysis of the restrainers than that of the well as, ‘honesty’ and ‘trust’. The theme ‘mindset’ was used drivers. This suggests that the restrainers, unlike the drivers, to describe a set of responses that described a mutual do not always have a shared origin but will be more context- commitment of the company and the community to be specific. Many of the themes are again self-explanatory. ‘responsive’, ‘flexible’, and ‘find compromise.’ The theme However, the theme captured by the term ‘fear’ included ‘company readiness’ described the general priority placed by the company on community relations and overall Resources and management support for this. Although ‘effective communi- budget Partnerships Effective win-win cation’ might have been expected to be a key contributor to communication public-private good community relations practice, the findings show that it Company Good citizenship is not a dominant one. readiness Mindset: The boxed themes, which carried more weight, were Information and Committed, flexible, capacity building ‘values’; ‘community and international activism’; and ‘policy, Drivers responsive legislation, and standards’. Positive value statements are often a feature of company statements and the finding here Values: Respect, Community and Policy, legislation and reinforces the importance of emphasizing these. Local and honesty transparency international activism standards international activism, such as the existence of pressure groups, human rights watchdogs, and local crisis and other - %./0%&&,.#0+"0*!/0&, +.0 .-/.(0+"0./(--/)*0'+&$,)# '+&&%)-*#0./,*-+)(0,(0/ $/.-/)'/ 0#0'+%.(/0$,.*-'-$,)*(0-)0*!/0 committees, is often not welcomed by the extractive industry .+ .,&&/0 sector (Farrell, Hamann, and Mackres, 2012). By embracing local and international activism, CRPs potentially hold a view Context specific that is contrary to that of mining management, which often Culture of resists organized opposition and local activism. This finding deliverables Government Education and is worthy of further research to examine how organized bureaucracy cultural barriers opposition and activism contribute positively to resilient community relations from the perspective of CRPs. Policy, Fear of open dialogue Restrainers legislation, and standards create an enabling environment for and poor communication Corruption and double standards engagement. Practitioners report that they operate in areas where there is uncertainty about policy, or that policy is Limited Resources inconsistently applied. For example, the pre-course survey Assumptions about profits & community POLITICS found that understanding was fragmented about the expectations company supply chain and its potential for communities. Only 24% of participants reported that company decisions and plans are consistently made based on a detailed - %./0%&&,.#0+"0*!/0&, +.0./(*.,-)/.(0+"0./(--/)*0'+&$,)# understanding of the links between the full supply chain and '+&&%)-*#0./,*-+)(0,(0/ $/.-/)'/ 0#0'+%.(/0$,.*-'-$,)*(0+"0*!/0 communities. .+ .,&&/0 L 10    
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Building resilient company-community relationships responses from participants such as ‘aloofness,’ ‘fear of community, which hampered planning and decision- relinquishing control,’ ‘defensive,’ ‘fear of open dialogue,’, making ‘resistant to change,’ ‘anger and resentment,’ as well as, ‘bad ® Conflict between different stakeholders communication and miscommunication.’ All of these ® The absence of adequate legislation to create an sentiments could be attributed to either coming from the enabling environment for the work of CRPs. community or the company, depending on the context. CRPs also faced personal challenges that are reflective of Politics impedes resilient company-community relations. them ‘being in the middle’. As one course participant Politics is emphasized in Figure 2 to illustrate how much it commented, dominated the other themes. Participant comments about ‘Companies want real issues but think that the politics included issues related to political interference in community relations staff is on the side of the community relations work, the politics of mining legacy community when they do this.’ issues such as poor housing or environmental degradation, Being in the middle is riddled with complexity, and three the hidden agendas of stakeholders, civil unrest, conflict, and themes that best described the personal challenges corruption. Politics eclipsed the theme ‘education and cultural experienced by CRPs were ‘managing contradictions’, barriers’, which did not feature strongly in the feedback from ‘achieving clarity’, and ‘establishing partnerships.’ An course participants. In contrast to politics and corruption, example provided by participants of ‘managing contra- CRPs may find that education and cultural barriers to dictions’ is the contradiction of holding the vision required company-community relations easier to manage. Politics and for long-term development goals while satisfying short-term associated corruption clearly hamper the work of CRPs. or immediate community or company expectations. The pre- The other thematic area that featured strongly in the course survey found that dealing with community analysis of the restrainers is that concerned with the expectations was one of the highest scoring personal allocation of resources to communities. The expectations of stressors experienced by course participants. Participants companies and communities appears to intensify around the reported spending a lot of time and energy ‘providing clarity’ allocation of resources, and this is shown by overlap between about relevant standards, planning processes, and the next the boxes in Figure 2 labelled ‘limited resources’ and steps to different role-players . They described the difficulty ‘assumptions about profits and community expectations’. of managing unpredictable behaviour of stakeholders when Participant comments reflected the difficulty faced by CRPs in setting up partnerships, and breaking down stereotypes that straddling two worlds: that of the company, dominated by may exist between stakeholder groups. profit margins and commodity prices, and that of the community, struggling to get basic needs met. Despite this ! #! "# "#"#"! # # # "# vast dichotomy, de facto local struggles to secure resource   !" commitments are affected by global commodity prices. Course Course participants were asked to reflect on what they would participant comments described the ‘disconnection between take away from the CRP Programme. These key learning community expectations and company performance,’ ‘the fall points are a reflection of the new insights gained by partic- of commodity prices’, and ‘the unrealistic expectations’ (both ipants into community relations practice. Six themes emerged community and company), as well as, the ‘the lack of support in the analysis of the key learning points. These were: from management’ in trying to find a constructive way ® Look for what is positive forward. ® Be a game-changer ! #! "# "#" !#!""# !"# ## ® Listening is the art of communication ® Be in someone else’s shoes The personal challenges are the areas of activity with which CRPs report that they have most difficulty. These are summarized in Figure 3. These challenges are both external Personal Challenges of the company and internal to it. In fact, the list of internal challenges was almost as long as that for the external External to the company In the middle |nternal to the company environment. Challenges in the internal company Managing contradictions Management attitudes, Poor governance • short-term/long-term perceptions, environment were coded into four themes. These are: community/government development understanding ® The attitudes, perceptions, and understanding of Achieving clarity Co-ordination between management Conflict between • about standards depts and working stakeholders • about planning processes ® The poor coordination between departments and in silos • about what is needed history of working in silos ® Employing the right person for the job and/or using the Establishing partnerships Absence of adequate • managing unpredictable Hiring the right person/ right consultants legislation behaviour managing consultants ® The inadequate alignment of policy priorities and • stereotypes resources inside the company with those of the Alignment of policy, community they are engaged with. priorities and resources with community priorities External to the company environment there were three broad themes that presented the greatest personal challenges - %./0!/0$/.(+),0'!,/) /(0",'/ 0#0'+&&%)-*#0./,*-+)( to participants. These were: $.,'*-*-+)/.(0-)0*!/-.0 ,#*+ ,#0+.0,(0./$+.*/ 0#0'+%.(/0$,.*-' ® Poor governance, both in government and the -$,)*(0+"0*!/00.+ .,&&/0

         
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® Learning never ends Programme resonates with other findings about CRPs ® Trust. worldwide. This points to the importance of supporting a Being a game-changer was the theme that emerged most globally recognized set of professional competencies for CRPs. strongly. Participants expressed this in different ways from However, the challenges faced by CRPs reflect their ‘thinking outside the box’ to ‘you don’t need to be afraid of immediate context and CRPs in Africa need to be prepared for conflict.’ Also ‘remain flexible because problems will arise’ political complexity. Training for CRPs can be conducted and learn to ‘accept chaos.’ The key learning points show across the globe provided there are opportunities to share that CRPs appear to benefit from strengthening both their experience and to engage with specific contexts. Importantly, interpersonal communication skills and the skills necessary a CRP trained and skilled in Africa can contribute to a global to manage complexity. In the pre-course survey only 32% of mining industry. respondents reported that their community relations staff /"/./)'/( have strong competency. Most respondents (44%) preferred BRECKENRIDGE, K. 2014. Marikana and the limits of biopolitics: themes in the adequate competency. Fewer respondents (24%) reported recent scholarship of South African mining. Africa, vol. 84, no. 1. that ‘some training’ is made available to community relations pp. 151–161. staff, suggesting there is enormous opportunity for BOURKE, P. and KEMP, D. 2011. The role of community relations practitioners as change agents in the minerals industry. Proceedings of the First appropriate training to upgrade practitioner competency in International Seminar on Social Responsibility in Mining, Santiago, Chile, Africa. 19–21 October 2011. https://www.csrm.uq.edu.au/publications/the-role- of-community-relations-practitioners-as-change-agents-in-the-minerals- industry +)'%(-+)( CHATHAM HOUSE. 2013. Revisiting approaches to community relations in extractive industries: Old problems, new avenues? Energy, Environment The preliminary findings presented here show that partic- and Resources Summary, vol. 4, June 2013. ipants enrolled in the CRP Programme report a largely DAVIS, R. and FRANK, D.M. 2014. Cost of company-community conflict in the cohesive set of ten positive drivers of resilient company- extractive sector. CSR Initiative at the Harvard Kennedy School. https://www.hks.harvard.edu/m- community relations in sub-Saharan Africa. In contrast to rcbg/CSRI/research/Costs%20of%20Conflict_Davis%20%20Franks.pdf this, they report that the restrainers to resilient company- DOORLEY, J. and GARCIA, H.F. 2011. Reputation Management: The Key to community relations are more context-specific. Notably, Successful Public Relations and Corporate Communication. Routledge, New York, London. politics associated with company-community relations is ERNST & YOUNG. 2016. Business risks facing mining and metals 2016-2017. found to be the biggest obstacle to building resilient http://www.ey.com/Publication/vwLUAssets/EY-business-risks-in- relationships. CRPs working in Africa need guidance and mining-and-metals-2016-2017/$FILE/EY-business-risks-in-mining-and- metals-2016-2017.pdf support to understand the inherently political context in FARRELL, L.A., HAMANN, R., and MACKRES, E. 2012. A clash of cultures (and which they work. Training in this area is challenging for lawyers): Anglo Platinum and mine-affected communities in Limpopo practitioners because it addresses ideology and the exercise Province, South Africa. Resources Policy, vol. 37, no. 2. pp. 194–204. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.resourpol.2011.05.003 of power. However, deepening practitioners’ understanding of FRANKS, D.M., DAVIS, R., BEBBINGTON, A.J., ALI, S.H., KEMP, D., and SCURRAH, M. the African development and political context will 2014. Conflict translates environmental and social risk into business costs. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 111, no. 21. undoubtedly strengthen those working on the ground. pp. 7576–7581. http://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1405135111 The findings here reinforce those of Kemp and Bond GILBERTHORPE, E. and BANKS, G. 2012. Development on whose terms?: CSR (2009), Bourke and Kemp (2011), Chatham House (2013), discourse and social realities in Papua New Guinea’s extractive industries sector. Resources Policy, vol. 37, no. 2. pp. 185–193. and Kemp and Owen (2013a, 2013b) that CRPs face as http://doi.org/10.1016/j.resourpol.2011.09.005 many, if not more, challenges inside the company as they do KEMP, D. 2010. Community relations in the global mining industry: exploring external of it. Course participants reported sitting in the the internal dimensions of externally orientated work. Corporate Social Responsibility and Environmental Management. middle mediating contradictions between stakeholders on the http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/csr.195/epdf inside and those on the outside. Kemp describes the necessity KEMP, D. 2006. Between a rock and a hard place: community relations work in for CRPs to demonstrate ‘ambidexterity.’ the minerals industry. Paper no. 5. Centre for Social Responsibility in Mining Research. http://info.worldbank.org/etools/docs/library/ ‘A key enabler of successful community relations was the 238485/kemp.pdf ability of organisations as well as individual practi- KEMP, D. 2004. The emerging field of community relations: profiling the practi- tioner perspective. Proceedings of the Inaugural Minerals Council of tioners to demonstrate ambidexterity’ (Kemp, 2006, Australia Global Sustainable Development Conference, Melbourne, p. 1). November 2004. https://www.csrm.uq.edu.au/publications/the-emerging- field-of-community-relations-profiling-the-practitioner-perspective One example of this is that practitioners may be expected KEMP, D. and BOND, C.J. 2009. Mining industry perspectives on handling to operate from a basis of consensus in the internal community grievances. Summary and analysis of industry interviews. Centre for Social Responsibility in Mining, University of Queensland and environment of the company, and manage a more conflictual Corporate Social Responsibility Initiative, Harvard Kennedy School. model of interaction in a community. While individual and http://www.csrm.uq.edu.au/docs/Mining%20industry%20perspectives%2 organizational tensions are rarely discussed openly in a 0on%20handling%20community%20grievances.pdf KEMP, D. and OWEN, J. 2013a. Mining and community relations practitioner workplace meeting, grievances, unhappiness, and anger are roundtable: report from South East Asia. readily shared in a community. Generally, Kemp’s 2006 study http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:331448 found that practitioners sought to find a balance between KEMP, D. and OWEN, J.R. 2013b. Community relations and mining: Core to business but not ‘core business.’ Resources Policy, vol. 38, no. 4. both environments and tried to balance both company and pp. 523–531. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.resourpol.2013.08.003 community perspectives, although it did appear that perhaps TATAR, I. Not dated. Community relations and the extractive sector. CIITO Strategies Inc. http://ciito.ca/wp-content/uploads/Community-Relations- the company perspective had priority. This ambidexterity is and-the-Extractive-Sector-CIITO.pdf an important practical consideration for those building the VAN WYK, D. Not dated. The policy gap a review of the corporate social respon- capacity of professionals for community relations practice. sibility programmes of the platinum mining industry in the North West Province. Bench Marks Foundation. http://www.bench- Overall, it appears that the preliminary analysis of the marks.org.za/research/Rustenburg%20platinum%20research%20summar comments of course participants registered on the CRP y.pdf N L 12    
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http://dx.doi.org/10.17159/2411-9717/2017/v117n1a3 Calculating ecological footprints for mining companies–an introduction to the methodology and an assessment of the benefits by D. Limpitlaw*, A. Alsum†, and D. Neale‡

sustainability imperative, mining companies are increasingly concerned with their  %" ecological footprint (EF). Ecological footprint analysis (EFA) was first described in 1996 as a A number of tools are available for measure of carrying capacity appropriated by human activities. EFA is a assessing the sustainability of an operation. resource and emissions accounting tool designed to track the demand on While this paper does not present a the biosphere’s regenerative capacity. Ecological footprints are comparative review of these tools (see Fang et increasingly used as indicators of organizational and corporate environ- al., 2013 for a comparison of footprint mental performance and product sustainability. There is a compelling argument to develop an EFA tool for mining companies. approaches), they can be briefly described as To determine the size of a mine’s ecological footprint, land follows. requirements for all categories of consumption and waste discharge must ® The water footprint—first introduced by be summed. This land is only made up of the ecologically productive land Hoekstra in 2002 (Hoekstra et al., and water in various classes (cropland, pasture, forests etc.) required on 2011). This is a tool for assessing water an ongoing basis to provide all energy and material resources consumed and absorb wastes. use along supply chains and is a A challenge in conducting an EFA for a mine is the shortage of comprehensive indicator of the accessible data. Undertaking an EFA for a corporation or individual site appropriation of freshwater resources entails compiling consumption and emissions data (which can be used for ® Carbon footprinting—a method of other reporting applications). The footprint results themselves highlight assessing the magnitude of the the most critical aspects of an organization’s impact on the environment emissions from activities based on and provide a platform for focusing actions and for educating the methodology outlined in the Greenhouse workforce to improve their contribution to best-practice operations. This paper discusses the benefits and challenges of undertaking an EFA for a Gas Protocol (WRI and WBCSD, 2004). mining company, and provides examples of the various components of Emissions to the atmosphere are ecological footprints associated with mines, as well as showinG how an converted to carbon dioxide equivalents

EFAcan be used to understand and communicate some of THEimpacts (CO2e) to assess the total impact of the associatedwith mining activities. organization’s activities. A clear & %! description of the methodology is environmental performance, sustainability, ecological footprint. provided by Lotz and Brent (2014) ® Biodiversity footprint—this is a modified form of the ecological footprint that takes specific biodiversity impacts of ) $!%$"% direct land use and combines them with the specific biodiversity impact of CO2 Fundamental biophysical and economic limits emissions. A description of the are now being experienced in many countries methodology is presented by Hanafiah et around the world. Herman Daly, a former al. (2012) World Bank economist, described this scenario as ‘uneconomic growth’, where the costs of growth exceed the benefits (Daly, 2005). This occurs when the economy’s expansion encroaches excessively on the surrounding * University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa. ecosystem, sacrificing natural capital. Under † Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. such conditions the sacrificed natural capital is ‡ Synergy Global Consulting, Oxford, United more valuable that the resulting economic Kingdom. growth. Consequently, the world faces large- © The Southern African Institute of Mining and scale threats to sustainability and especially to Metallurgy, 2017. ISSN 2225-6253. This paper was first presented at the Mining, Environment the viability and continued existence of the and Society Conference ‘Beyond sustainability— ecosystems that support human settlements Building resilience’, 12–13 May 2015, Mintek, (El Zein et al., 2014). In recognition of this Randburg, South Africa.

         
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® Life-cycle assessment (LCA)—a tool for assessing management system as a key performance indicator environmental aspects and potential impacts associated (KPI). with a product by compiling an inventory of inputs and outputs throughout a product’s life cycle and  ' & &' '" " '% "& evaluating the possible resulting impacts. ISO 14040 A challenge for all industrial entities (such as mines) is that provides more detail on the approach footprint analysis is heavily influenced by materials and ® Materials flow analysis (MFA)—a quantitative tool for energy input and is therefore data-intensive. While a assessing the flow of materials and energy through an significant amount of data is available on publicly accessible economy. MFA assesses whether the flow of materials databases, many companies may not have adequate physical is sustainable in terms of the environmental impacts accounting systems to provide the input required for an EFA. that result from it (see Xue et al., 2007). Typical site data inputs include water, fuel, and other forms Comprehensive national accounts based on the EF have of energy (e.g. grid electricity), reagents, materials, and been produced for several years (see WWF, 2014, for human resources. Outputs include effluents, emissions, solid example). These accounts show how far from long-term wastes, waste energy, product, economic benefits, and sustainability a country is in a particular year. They are based development. on the EF and on the water footprint. Applying an ecological The EF metric is not commonly reported by mining footprint assessment (EFA) is the first step in providing companies. This is partly due to the onerous data mining companies with a means of comparing their resource requirements and the subsequent disclosure of impacts. use efficiency with that of their host country – this is Because of the dominance of energy-related impacts in increasingly required in some countries, such as those of the mining and processing, companies have tended to focus more Gulf Co-operation Council (GCC). Calculating a water footprint on carbon footprinting. These observations notwithstanding, would be the second step. This paper discusses the EF of EFAs for mines can deliver the following benefits: mining companies. EF is used as the primary indicator of ® A first-order measure of the operation’s impacts on its sustainability, as it encompasses most of the materials and environment energy flows associated with mines (toxic pollutants being a ® An indication of how sites compare with each other notable exception) without requiring highly complex ® Data for comparing a company’s impact with other calculations that diminish the communication value of the multi-commodity companies and other large companies resulting indicator. The EF is an easily understood metric as operating in in the same or similar geographies. it is expressed in equivalent hectares of global average The first step in an EFA is the compilation of baseline productivity. consumption and emissions data for a site. Once this has Ecological Footprint Analysis (EFA) is a resource and been done it is possible to assess improvement measures to emissions accounting tool designed to track the demand reduce the footprint and to determine steps required to placed on the biosphere’s regenerative capacity by a defined implement these measures. entity. An EFA contrasts the biologically productive area appropriated by the company with the capacity of the planet to provide ecosystem services (Galli et al., 2012). Originally ( developed as an indicator of environmental impacts of To determine the area of the EF for a given entity, land nations, individuals, or human populations, EFA is requirements for all categories of consumption and waste increasingly used as an indicator of organizational and discharge must be summed. This land is made up of only the corporate environmental performance and as an indicator of ecologically productive land and water in various classes sustainability of products (Weidmann and Barrett, 2010). (cropland, pasture, forests etc.) that would be required on an EFAs have been undertaken to produce a baseline of ongoing basis to provide all energy and material resources consumption and emissions for mining companies, assess consumed and absorb the wastes discharged. This land is possible measures to reduce the companies’ footprint areas, used exclusively by the given population and is not available and determine steps required to implement such measures. for use by others. A complete analysis must include the direct Other benefits that can be derived from EFA include: land requirements and the indirect effects on the economy (consumption). Non-renewable energy is accounted for as ® Analysis of potential scenarios and determination of processing energy and use-related pollution effects targets, as well as prediction of possible footprint (Wackernagel and Rees, 1996). reductions Wackernagel and Rees (1996) originally divided the ® Assisting with corporate sustainable development (SD) demand into several categories of consumption: and environmental strategy formulation ® ® Providing a snapshot in time to inform local community Energy land (fossil energy consumption) ® strategies Consumed land (the built environment) ® ® Compilation of a baseline data-set from which future Farm land (food producing land) ® analyses can be performed Forest land (forest products). ® Providing useful information for public awareness and A marine/freshwater category has subsequently been education campaigns added to include the appropriation of biological production ® Inclusion of the company’s EF into the performance from oceans and freshwater bodies. 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The abstraction of water for human use compromises land use category. YFs are specific for each country and other possible uses of this water (such as ecological year (Monfreda et al., 2004). processes). Additionally, appropriation of land surface may Using the factors above, the following relationship can be reduce water volume and quality by degrading the land established between physical hectares and global hectares required to collect water for fluvial systems. Footprinting was (gha): first applied in Europe and North America, where water scarcity is not as critical as in Africa or the Middle East. Consequently, footprinting dealt only with water abstraction and consumption by considering the energy required to pump Biocapacity is therefore a function of the area of crop and treat the water. In this paper the concept of the ‘shadow land, grazing land, fishing grounds, and forest located within footprint’ of water (Chambers et al., 2004) has been included a defined area and the associated productivity of that to provide a weighting of water consumption more land/water (WWF, 2002). It gives the entire productive area appropriate to hyper-arid environments such as those found exclusive to a nation, or organization, and shows the in North Africa and the Middle East. It is acknowledged that a maximum theoretical rate of resource supply that can be water footprint, using the water footprinting method sustained assuming current technology and management (Hoekstra et al., 2011), should be calculated as a subsequent practices (Monfreda et al., 2004). Use of global hectares step in the sustainability assessment of a mine. The shadow allows for the summing of the EF and biocapacity values footprint is used as a first-order indicator in this assessment across different land use types into a single measure of and reflects the reality of limited time and resources available consumption-focused applications within a global context for mining assessments in today’s economic climate. (Borucke et al., 2013). This measure furthermore allows To assess an EF, the biologically productive area benchmarking of performance between individuals, appropriated by an entity is contrasted with the capacity of companies, or nations. the planet to provide ecosystem services (Galli et al., 2012). There are two fundamental approaches to footprinting: The biocapacity of the land in question is a key concept in the compound approach and the component approach. The EFA. It is ‘a measure of the amount of biologically productive former is commonly used in assessing national footprint land and sea area available to provide the ecosystem services accounts and the latter is used to assess sub-national that humanity consumes …’. This is nature’s regenerative populations, such as cities and regions. The compound capacity (Borucke et al., 2013, p. 4). Footprinting assumes approach is a bottom-up approach that constructs a footprint that the regenerative capacity of the planet is a key limiting from site-specific consumption data rather than national-level factor to the human economy under current development trade data. Consequently, the compound approach is trajectories. appropriate for the assessment of an industrial site. This A crucial difference between EFA and other ways of said, it is important to be able to contextualize the footprint assessing overall impact is that the footprint and related of a site or a company within the larger footprint of a nation biocapacity are resource flow measures expressed in units of or regional grouping of countries. Using the EFA as a area required to support the demand of the activities business strategy in isolation from a country strategy and assessed. As biological productivity varies between land global context (using the same methodology and measuring types and uses in different countries, footprint and unit – gha) will provide very little motivation for adoption by biocapacity values are expressed in units of world average business leaders. bioproductive area: global hectares1 (gha) (Galli et al., 2012). Two scaling factors – equivalence factors and yield factors – * '$ & are required to convert results to facilitate comparison  
 between areas. In the original footprinting concept, energy land was the area ® The EQF (equivalence factor) is measured in gha/ha. of land required to sequester the CO2 emitted from burning Equivalence factors represent the average potential fossil fuel and did not include other greenhouse gas (GHG) productivity of any given bioproductive area relative emissions. Average-age forests accumulate 1.8 t of carbon the world average potential productivity of all per hectare per annum – i.e. one hectare of average forest can productive areas (RPA, 2005). EQF captures the annually sequester 1.8 t of carbon. As this is equivalent to productivity differences between different land use the CO emissions generated by 100 GJ of global average categories. EQFs are constant for all countries for a 2 fossil fuel combustion (Wackernagel and Rees, 1996), one given year (Monfreda et al., 2004) hectare of forest is required per 100 GJ of installed power ® The yield factor (YF) is measured in t/ha/a (for generation capacity per annum (1 ha/100 GJ/a). This is the fisheries, pastures, and crops) and in m3/ha/a for land to energy ratio for fossil fuel that has been applied in timber. Yield factors capture the difference between historical EFAs. In the approach advocated here, all gases local and global average productivity within a given considered to have greenhouse warming potential (GWP) under the Kyoto Protocol are included as carbon dioxide

equivalents (CO2e). The land required to assimilate the total 1A global hectare represents a standard amount of biological productivity CO2e mass emitted is therefore used in the calculation of (Monfreda et al., 2004). carbon land areas – carbon land being a refinement of the

         
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 15 L Calculating ecological footprints for mining companies original energy land concept. Gases emitted by industrial to quantify consumption of timber used in packing crates and processes additional to the generation of energy are also other non-mining support related uses. included (e.g. blasting emissions and refrigerants). This   departure from the original EFA approach was required as energy land is the largest component of most ecological To calculate a ‘shadow footprint’ of water for a site, the 3 footprint assessments undertaken for mines and other large internal, annually renewable water resources (in km ) of the industrial complexes. country in question are divided by the surface area of the country. This generates a value in hectares per unit volume As CO2 is absorbed by the oceans, the final energy land area calculated must be factored by an absorption value. The per year (Chambers et al., 2004). Applying this area factor to sequestration rate is calculated by subtracting one-third of the volume of total water (groundwater, surface water, utility anthropogenic emissions (absorbed by the oceans) from total water, and bottled water) produces a shadow water footprint anthropogenic emissions (Monfreda et al., 2004): in hectares. As these are the local hectares required to generate a standard volume of water, they have been corrected for local conditions and can therefore be added to the global hectares calculated for other footprint components.

 " '!&$'#!%'" &' ' $      The ecological footprint associated with a specific operation is This land class includes all land that is excavated, paved dependent on the commodity produced, the mining and over, built upon, badly eroded, or degraded, and is considered processing methods employed, and the ecological setting of ’consumed’. Here, this is the land area that is physically the mine. For example, a mechanized underground metal occupied by mine infrastructure and that occupied by roads mine with an onsite processing plant (mill) and mine village and other transport infrastructure directly linked to the for 300 people, powered by a mix of grid electricity and diesel company. To keep calculations simple, roads leading directly power, processing around 200 000 t of ore annually and to the site can been assigned in their entirety to the site’s located in a hyper-arid zone such as the Namib Desert could footprint. The usual approach is to undertake a traffic have footprint components as follows: assessment and to allocate the entire footprint of the ® Food land: 2–2.2% of footprint transport network to the site according to the proportion of ® Forest land: 0.1–0.2% total traffic arising from the site. This process is data- ® Carbon land: 33–44% (more if grid power is sourced intensive. from fossil fuels, less if diesel gensets are used) Once the site infrastructure areas and the allocated ® Consumed land: 0.05% transport corridor area have been summed, the total is ® Shadow footprint of water: 50–65% in an arid climate. multiplied by the YF for productive land in the country in question. For a mine consuming 200 000 m3 of water annually, the shadow footprint of water could be between 10 000 and  20 000 ha in an arid desert environment (like Namibia or the Production of food is dependent on substantial resources and Kingdom of Saudi Arabia), around 300–500 ha in a dry thus has large environmental impacts (Collins and Fairchild, temperate country like South Africa, and less than 20–50 ha 2007). The surface area required to produce the food in a high-rainfall equatorial country like the Democratic consumed on a mine site is composed of crop land, grazing Republic of Congo (DRC) (country areas from World Bank, land, and ‘fisheries area’. These areas are determined by 2015; total renewable water yield from CIA World Fact Book, applying global average areas required for the production of a 2015). Figure 1 shows how sensitive the indicator is to the unit mass of each identified food type and then summing the environmental capacity of the local setting. results. Food land is not commonly considered in analyses of mining impacts. This is despite the significant impact of agricultural production due to its expansion at the expense of forests, grasslands, and ecozones: over the last 300 years, global crop land has increased by four orders of magnitude and pasture land by five (Khan and Hanjira, 2009). While food land areas are likely to be negligible at a site level, they become significant at national level and have important implications for sustainability.   Paper use at a mine site is estimated and converted into equivalent wood volumes using a ratio of 1.8 t wood per ton of paper (Wackernagel and Rees, 1996). Average forest productivity is set at 2.3 m3 of useable wood fibre per hectare "!&'&'&##&$'%#' '% $! '$%$ '!& & &' $&!'!&%!&'&! per annum (Wackernagel and Rees, 1996). Mine sites &$ !&'% '$&' $&!'#%%$!" $'%#' '" &'
 ' " %'%#' "'! "  commonly track paper consumption closely, but are less able  '&"'%#'%$'#!" '  ' &%! $"'&"'%#' % % L 16    
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Calculating ecological footprints for mining companies

Similarly, the consumed land footprint is sensitive to the and Fairchild, 2007). Despite these benefits, EFA has been average productivity of the setting. For example, consider an criticized for neither accurately reflecting the impacts of open pit mine with a heap leach pad, a disturbed site area of human consumption nor allocating the responsibilities of around 300 ha, and a transport infrastructure area of 90 ha. impact correctly (Collins and Fairchild, 2007). Consequently, The breakdown of the EF could look something like this: there is confusion about how different consumer activities ® Food land: 0.3% of footprint relate to the impact, and so EFA does not provide decision- ® Forest land: 0.003% makers with a useful policy-making tool. ® Carbon land: 16% (gensets used) EFA as a standalone approach has also been criticized for ® Consumed land: 0.07% not being capable of identifying, with certainty, how far an ® Shadow footprint of water: 84% in an arid climate. entity is from sustainability. This arises due to the restricted scope of EFA, differences in methodology (for example, using In a desert setting with a yield factor (YF) of 0.0796, the a compound or a component approach, limiting EFA to the total loss of globally equivalent productive land associated ‘energy land’ concept, or expanding it to include carbon with this mine would be around 32 gha. If the same mine land), and concern around the accuracy of calculating was located in South Africa with a YF of 0.4598, the mine biocapacity (RPA, 2005). EFA can, however, be used in would consume the equivalent of 182 gha. In the DRC, where conjunction with other measures, such as the water footprint, the YF is 0.7359, the mine would consume 291 gha. This is to provide an assessment of sustainability. shown in Figure 2. A serious shortfall from a mining perspective is the Different types of operations in the same environmental inability of the current methodology to adequately deal with setting will consume ecological resources in different ratios. toxic waste discharges. This is due mainly to the lack of A standalone gold mill could have a footprint as follows: reliable data describing how pollutants impact on bioproduc- ® Food land: 0.81% tivity (Rees, 2000, in RPA, 2005)2. EFA proponents state ® Forest land: 0.00% (only paper considered) ® Carbon land: 1.27% (grid power with diesel for mobile plant) ® Consumed land: 0.04% ® Shadow footprint of water: 97.87% in an arid climate (<100 mm mean annual precipitation). A large strip mine could have a footprint breakdown: ® Food land: 0.80% of footprint (mine village present) ® Forest land: 0.01% (only paper consumption) ® Carbon land: 31.17% (diesel gensets and mobile plant) ® Consumed land: 0.07% ® Shadow footprint of water: 67.95% in an arid climate (<100 mm mean annual precipitation).

"!&'&'&##&$'%#'"$&'% #"! $"% '% '% $"% '%#'&%%"   & &' '%!$#  !&%!& EFA provides the potential for policy-makers to prioritize their actions in a more informed and integrated way. In Cardiff, for example, EFA provided the city with a benchmark against which future footprints could be compared to track performance. It was also a way for the city to demonstrate that it was taking concrete action to implement SD (Collins

"!&'&'&##&$'%#'"$&'% #"! $"% '% '$&' %'#%%$!" $'%#  $&!

2EF requires wastes to be amenable to biological assimilation. Some work has been done on heavy metals and PCBs (see RPA, 2005) but fundamentally, the EF cannot deal with this due to the fundamental "!&'&'&##&$'%#' '% $! ' "&'# $%!'% '$&'% &'  assumption that toxic and non-biodegradable wastes should not be #%%$!" $'%#' '" & discharged to the environment.

         
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 17 L Calculating ecological footprints for mining companies that society should not tolerate highly toxic wastes and FANG, K., HEIJUNGS, R., and DE SNOO, G.R. 2013. Theoretical exploration for the radioactive substances for which there is no assimilative combination of the ecological, energy, carbon and water footprints: capacity in the environment. Such substances should be overview of a footprint family. Ecological Indicators, vol. 36. pp. 508–518. banned, phased out, or dealt with in closed circuits. Thus, EFA is not a standalone panacea for measuring mining GALLI, A., WIEDMANN, T., ERCIN, E., KNOBLAUCH, D., EWING, B., and GILJUM, S. environmental impacts and should be used as part of set of 2012. Integrating ecological carbon and water footprint into a ‘Footprint tools for environmental management. Family’ of indicators: definition and role in tracking human pressure on the planet. Ecological Indicators, vol. 16. pp. 100–112. % "% Despite several shortcomings, EFA provides valuable insights HANAFIAH, M.M., HENDRIKS, J.A., and HUIJBREGTS, M.A.J. 2012. Comparing the into the long-term ecological sustainability of industrial ecological footprint with the biodiversity footprint of products. Journal of systems such as mines and processing plants. EFA can be Cleaner Production, vol. 37. pp. 107–114. conducted at both macro- and micro-scales and is useful in linking impacts at site level to those at the scale of a nation- HOEKSTRA, A.Y., CHAPAGAIN, A.K., ALDAYA, M.M., and MEKONNEN, M. M. 2011. state. However, using EFA as a business strategy in isolation The Water Footprint Assessment Manual – Setting the Global Standard. from a country strategy and global context provides limited Earthscan, London. 228 pp. value to business leaders.

Although it is more convenient for business to use one KHAN, S. and HANJIRA, M.A. 2009. Footprints of water and energy inputs in food aggregate number (measured in global hectares) to monitor production – global perspectives. Food Policy, vol. 34. pp. 130–140 ecological performance, it is challenging for business leaders to interpret this metric and embed it in business evaluation LOTZ, M. and BRENT, A. 2014. Nedbank’s Carbon Footprinting Guide – a strategies. Given the increasingly high stakes and risk of practical footprinting calculation guide focussing on measuring, catastrophic ecological collapse, it is incumbent on business monitoring, reporting and verification. 1st edn. Nedbank Ltd. 100 pp. to work through these challenges to ensure that operations, especially in the extractive sector, can be optimized to deliver MONFREDA, C., WACKERNAGEL, M., and DEUMLING, D. 2004. Establishing national the greatest development dividend at the lowest ecological natural capital accounts based on detailed Ecological Footprint and cost. biological capacity assessments. Land Use Policy, vol. 21. pp. 231–246.

&#&!& & RPA. 2005. Sustainable consumption and production – development of an

BORUCKE, M.D. MOORE, G. CRANSTON, K. GRACEY, K. IHA, J. LARSON, E. LAZARUS, J.C. evidence base; study of ecological footprinting. Final Report prepared for

MORALES, M. WACKERNAGEL, M., and GALLI, A. 2013. Accounting for DEFRA. 134 pp. demand and supply of the biosphere’s regenerative capacity: The National Footprint Accounts’ underlying methodology and framework. Ecological WACKERNAGEL, M. and REES, W. 1996. Our Ecological Footprint: Reducing Indicators, vol. 24. pp. 218–533. Human Impact on the Earth. The New Catalyst Bioregional Series, New Society Publishers, Gabriola Island, BC, Canada. 160 pp. CHAMBERS, N., SIMMONS, C., and WACKERNAGEL, 2004. Sharing Nature’s Interest –

Ecological Footprints as an Indicator of Sustainability. Earthscan WEIDMANN, T. and BARRETT, J. 2010. A review of the Ecological Footprint Publications, UK. 185 pp. Indicator – perceptions and methods. Sustainability, vol. 2. pp. 1645–1693. CIA. 2015. World Factbook. Total renewable water yield per country,

https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world- WRI and WBCSD (World Resources Institute and World Business Council for factbook/fields/2201.html [Accessed January 2015]. Sustainable Development). 2004. The Greenhouse Gas Protocol – A Corporate Accounting and Reporting Standard. Revised edition, USA. COLLINS, A. and FAIRCHILD, R. 2007. Sustainable food consumption at sub- 116 pp. national level: an ecological footprint, nutritional and economic analysis. Journal of Environmental Policy and Planning, vol. 9, no. 1. pp 5–30. WWF. 2002. Living Planet Report 2002. World Wide Fund for Nature, Gland, Switzerland. 39 pp. DALY, H.E. 2005. Economics in a full world. Scientific American, September 2005. pp 100–107 WWF. 2014. Living Planet Report 2014 – Species and Spaces, People and

DE SHERBININ, A., CARR, D., CASSELS, S., and JIANG, L. 2007. Population and Places. World Wide Fund for Nature, Gland, Switzerland. 180 pp. environment, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2792934/ [Accessed December 2013]. World Bank. 2015. Country areas. http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/ AG.SRF.TOTL.K2 [Accessed January 2015].

EL ZEIN, A., JABBOUR, S., TEKCE, B., ZURAYK, H., NUWAYHID, I., KHAWAJA, M.,

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http://dx.doi.org/10.17159/2411-9717/2017/v117n1a4 Environmental management frameworks: balancing environmental and developmental imperatives in sensitive areas by L.G. Snyman*

participation. There are existing spatial planning tools that have the potential to lay  the foundation for appropriate and considered South Africa is well endowed with a plethora of valuable minerals, as well growth in sensitive rural areas (Gauteng EMF, as being of world renown for its significant ecological and cultural 2014). These tools are especially useful where resources. The unfortunate reality is that these two important attributes the area has the potential for high-impact often come into collision when developmental decisions are made. Robust developments and where a multitude of environmental planning tools are required to guide such development in interests, rights, and vulnerable ecosystems areas of heightened sensitivity. Environmental management frameworks are one of the tools that can attempt to achieve the desired developmental will be affected. and ecological balance by utilizing early identification and mapping of The early identification and mapping of sensitive ecosystems and resources to assist in pre-empting potential sensitive ecosystems and resources are future land use conflicts. This paper unpacks the characteristics of therefore crucial to pre-empting potential environmental management frameworks and further investigates their future land use conflicts (Slootweg et al., potential, as well as its current design and implementation challenges. The 2009). As a consequence, government findings show that environmental management frameworks have the regulators are increasingly using planning potential to provide meaningful resource information to decision-makers tools, such as environmental management on the opportunities and risks of developments in sensitive areas. They frameworks (EMFs), to achieve this balance. further provide a platform and process through which local stakeholders However, in so doing, they are encountering can voice their opinions and collectively drive the developmental priorities fundamental difficulties in both their design of the identified area. and implementation, suggesting considerable   scope for refinement. environmental planning, sustainability, sensitive areas, invasive development, environmental management frameworks, resource mapping.  The aim of this paper is to critically analyse the tools used in environmentally focused spatial planning in South Africa, with    particular focus on EMFs and with a view to At the core of a harmonious and prosperous revealing the areas that require attention in society is the balancing of a broad spectrum of order for this crucial instrument to reach its needs, rights, and imperatives. As South proper potential. This paper undertakes a Africa’s resource and energy needs expand, it high-level assessment of how EMFs can be becomes increasingly important to safeguard utilized as tools to balance the environmental, environmental rights and ensure sustainable social, and economic imperatives affected by development through creative measures. The high-impact activities in sensitive areas. This State’s drive for accelerated development to paper will form a part of a much larger thesis meet the targets in the National Development that will analyse the root causes of land use Plan 2030 is contributing to the growth of conflicts and attempt to make environmental invasive developments in previously planning tools more applicable to the South undeveloped areas. The unfortunate reality is African context. that the heightened tensions between rapid economic growth and environmental sustain- ability are threatening sensitive areas. A potential solution to these challenges is a clear and practically implementable spatial * Centre for Applied Legal Studies, University of the planning system with environmental and Witwatersrand, South Africa. ecosystem integrity at its core (Zaki et al., © The Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, 2017. ISSN 2225-6253. This paper 2000). Environmentally focused spatial was first presented at the Mining, Environment planning is a key pillar in achieving and Society Conference ‘Beyond sustainability— sustainable development through scientifically Building resilience’, 12–13 May 2015, Mintek, defined ecological thresholds and stakeholder Randburg, South Africa.

         
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  undeveloped and sensitive areas, an example being the upsurge of prospecting licenses in Limpopo Province, where How do we balance the seemingly conflicting environmental, over 400 new applications were made in 2013 (Limpopo social, and economic considerations that make up sustainable Business Guide, 2013). This results in an increasing tug-of- development? In other words, how do we harmonize the war between invasive development and environmental imperatives of conservation, biodiversity, and heritage protection. By taking the value of ecosystems services into protection with the need to develop and sustain steady job account, spatial planning can enable the identification of creation and poverty alleviation in a country that has real and alternative strategies that limit the impacts on the natural present problems with ingrained societal imbalances? This is resources that sustain rural livelihoods. Such strategies can ultimately a question of how we harmonize environmental capitalize on the economic potential of ecosystem services and developmental rights, and is therefore a human rights while maintaining environmental integrity and operating issue. within designated limits (TEEB, 2010). From a preliminary assessment, it seems that the Balancing the need for development, growth, and job regulatory frameworks for environmentally focused spatial creation with the importance of protecting sensitive areas is a planning are not sufficiently clear or aligned to provide the complex task. However, environmentally focused spatial answers to these important questions (EIAMS, 2014). The planning has the potential to strike this delicate balance and failure of this system to promote sufficiently integrated is a viable option for realizing sustainable development in management of sensitive areas jeopardizes the integrity of areas of ecological, hydrological, or cultural significance the natural capital and ecosystem services (the benefits (SEMP, 2014). people obtain from ecosystems, such as fresh water, clean air, South Africa has recognized the potential of spatial and arable soil) that are a necessary condition both for planning for guiding the optimal and sustainable use of commerce and basic human survival. ecosystem goods and services and balancing the aforemen- The fragmentation of legislation, additionally, creates tioned imperatives. It is one of the few countries to have management and governance problems allowing development legally adopted spatial planning tools, such as EMFs, buffer to occur in a manner inconsistent with the principles of sustainability and considered planning (Kotze, 2006). What zones, biodiversity frameworks, and catchment management is especially concerning is that these flaws open the door to areas (French and Natarajan, 2008). South Africa has also developments that place sensitive areas at risk. Some formulated and adopted National Biodiversity Strategies and examples of sensitive areas that have been subject to Action Plans as tools for integrating biodiversity into unconsidered planning, with particular focus on extractive planning (SCBD, 2010). Yet impact still lags considerably developments, are the Mapungubwe World Heritage Site, the behind intention, and despite the bold advances in the areas Blyde River Canyon Nature Reserve, Imfolozi Game Reserve, of legislation and policy, the desired results remain elusive. and the Mtunzini Conservancy. An integrated, aligned, and consistent regulatory system is therefore required in order to       produce results in line with the right to environment in        Section 24 of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa The legacy of apartheid-era planning has been an unwelcome Act 108 of 1996 (Constitution). inheritance for the spatial layout of South Africa and has EMFs are one of the chief tools chosen to implement the proven difficult to redress in the democratic era. The segrega- constitutional imperative of sustainable development. More tionist history of Johannesburg, for instance, is evidenced by specifically, they have been designed for the purpose of the location of the majority of black townships in the city’s enabling the accommodation of a broad spectrum of outlying areas. Although spatial planning is more equitable stakeholders and minimizing the social and economic cost of today it still focuses on zoning and largely unscientifically maintaining sensitive areas (Dowie, 2009). However, the delineated boundaries, promoting development above most EMF is still in its relative infancy and, not surprisingly, has other considerations. Addressing historical spatial imbalances its defects. Although the planning framework and design and the integration of the principles of sustainable needs further refinement, the EMF remains valuable as it is development into land use planning tools and legislative consistent with, and even embodies, the principle of, instruments is the basis of South African land use planning sustainable development, which is foundational to South (Section 12(1)(i) of the Spatial Land Use Management Act Africa’s system of environmental law and management. No. 16 of 2013 (SPLUMA)). At the same time, the weight accorded to each consideration remains uneven as environ-           mental considerations are often not sufficiently integrated Integrated, inclusive, and sustainable spatial planning has (Khulekani, 2010). become internationally accepted as a necessary component of Any analysis of the legal framework for spatial planning sustainable growth, especially in sensitive areas. This process needs to begin with the allocation of authority under the involves the scientific study of the biophysical and socio- Constitution. In terms of Section 40 of the Constitution, the economic systems of a geographically defined area to reveal South African government is constitutionally delineated into where specific land uses may best be practised and to offer a three-tier authority system (Wary Holdings (Pty) Ltd v performance standards for maintaining appropriate land use Stalwo (Pty) Ltd and Others 2009 1 SA 337 (CC) 80). These (EMF Regulations, 2010). spheres are distinctive, interdependent, and interrelated and South Africa finds itself in a situation where heavy must observe and adhere to the principles in Chapter 3 of the industry, in particular extractives, is entering previously Constitution and conduct their activities within set L 20    
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Environmental management frameworks parameters (Section 41(1) of the Constitution). Planning assessment of the suitability of the development but would powers in municipal areas are assigned to the local not have the effect of declaring the area a no-go zone1. The authorities and are captured in their individual local failure to consider the EMF therefore did not affect the integrated development plans (Maccsand (Pty) Ltd v City of substance of the decision but rather served as a factor to be Cape Town and Others 2012 (7) BCLR 690 (CC)). The court considered and weighed. The court made it clear that the has established that land use is central to developmental decision rests with the appropriate decision-maker and not planning. Local municipalities have the exclusive executive with the authors of the EMF. The EMF was branded as purely competence to tailor municipal developmental plans and are a policy consideration and not a legally binding prohibition best placed to allocate assets and map their own future (City on certain land use activities. of Johannesburg Metropolitan Municipality v Gauteng It is currently not a prerequisite for any authority to Development Tribunal and others 2010 (6) SA 182 (CC)). conduct an EMF (Magaliesberg), although once adopted the The foundational National Environmental Management Act EMF must be taken into account in the consideration of No. 107 of 1998 (NEMA) principles listed in Section 2 must applications for environmental authorization in or affecting be taken into account during decision-making on a local, the geographical area (Section 24(3) of NEMA). However, the provincial, and national level where actions significantly extent to which they must be taken into account is still up for affect the environment. Importantly, the court found that debate (Ilembe Municipality EMF Status Quo Report, 2012). municipalities have a constitutional obligation to promote It is important that EMFs have a greater status in ‘ecologically sustainable development’ (Le Sueur and Another legislation than simply being one of many considerations, as v Ethekwini Municipality and Others 2013 (6) ZAKZPHC 6). they focus on the scientific suitability of developments and The spatial planning system is currently undergoing involve broad-based agreement between stakeholders reform and will soon be subject to the new overarching (GEMF, 2014). Stakeholders should have confidence that the SPLUMA. SPLUMA attempts to align all planning principles considerable time and resources they have invested in the and law into one clear and unambiguous system. engagement process translates into a plan that is capable of Furthermore, SPLUMA is founded on constitutional rights, defeating the authorization of developments that contradict including the right to environment, water, food, and housing, the EMF in the future. and makes reference to sustainable development in forward Ongoing uncertainties as to the legal status and effect of planning and land use management. Case law supports the planning tools such as EMFs provide loopholes for inappro- interconnected nature of environmental and planning consid- priate developments to proceed. A cohesive regulatory erations, stating that they are ‘inseparable’ (Fuel Retailers approach is therefore required to protect areas of ecological Association of Southern Africa v Director-General: and spiritual value in South Africa. Environmental Management, Department of Agriculture, Conservation and Environment, Mpumalanga Province and 
        Others 2007 (6) SA 4 (CC)).   The new system recognizes the importance of EMFs and Having laid out the broad legal framework, we shall now look other environmental instruments as considerations during closer at EMFs that exemplify the thrust towards environ- developmental sustainable decision-making (Section 7(b)(3) mental spatial planning. The EMF is an environmentally of SPLUMA). The status of EMFs was significantly enhanced focused spatial development tool that can be used to assist in by the promulgation of the 2010 EMF Regulations and is now achieving integrated environmental management (IEM). The seen as a crucial part of the suite of integrated environmental tool looks at social and economic considerations through an management tools (EMF Guideline, 2010). environmental lens and attempts to guide development in a EMFs have been identified as one of the spatial decision specific geographic area (Cape Gateway EMF, 2005). An EMF support tools that can successfully be used to assist in can be described as a set of information that can be used by forward planning (Marais, 2015), environmental governance, decision-makers to assist in determining the best approaches and land use management within a jurisdictional area and (procedural and/or technical) to dealing with a variety of should be complementary to the provincial spatial environmental challenges (GREMF, 2010). EMFs can assist development framework (Section 7(b)(iii) of SPLUMA). The in mapping the ecological integrity of an area by considering EMF should be used to inform stakeholders and role-players impacts of invasive developments and harmonizing during the EIA process as to the environmental sensitivities conflicting land use imperatives, identifying different of an area that need to be considered in the planning and interests, and understanding how the costs and benefits of development processes or where potential environmental conservation are distributed (Czech, 2008). EMFs are issues conflict with development in a specific geographic area therefore a testament to and the embodiment of IEM, (Section 24(4) (b)(vi) of NEMA). focusing on strategic and pre-emptive measures that guide The legal effect of EMFs, however, remains somewhat stakeholders and raise awareness in biodiversity conser- uncertain. In the Magaliesberg Protection Association v MEC: vation (Marais, 2015). Department of Agriculture, Conservation, Environment and The development of an EMF involves the following Rural Development, North West Provincial Government and process. Once important information on the area’s attributes Others 2013 (80) ZASCA, the Supreme Court of Appeal has been collected and assessed (the status quo phase), the stated that assertions in an EMF regarding environmental sensitivities and recommended restrictions are not absolute. Therefore, the conclusions reached in an EMF would form part of the decision-making process during the regulatory 1For example, listed activities in terms of Section 24(2) of NEMA.

         
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This must mental, and economic wellbeing (EMF Guidelines, 2012). be recognized and carefully managed in order that the The entire system depends on the reliability of data disparity of power does not cause exclusion of or discrimi- collected and accuracy of assessments to establish the nation towards any party. Adaptations must be made ecological status quo and delineate thresholds for ecosystem regarding the language of presentations and material, as well services (GREMF, 2010). Establishing the ecological as the user-friendly nature of the information presented thresholds is crucial for protecting the ecosystem, as (EMF Guidelines, 2012). stakeholders begin to understand the capacity of an Traditional and indigenous knowledge systems need to ecosystem to tolerate disturbance without collapsing. be taken into account when explaining the course of A foundational characteristic of the EMF process, and development, as Western understandings of development what sets it apart from other spatial planning tools, is the might be different to that of those in a more rural setting. breadth of stakeholders who are involved in the process of Importantly, the traditional knowledge of a particular area design. EMFs embody the principle of participatory could prove invaluable in assessing the compatibility of democracy, utilizing the input of affected communities and certain activities in a specific area; oral histories and local governmental departments to craft options for a specified knowledge could add important information to assessments area, guided by the assessed ecological limits. Open and of biodiversity, hydrological cycles, and climate change. collaborative spatial planning enables agreement between While physical drivers of change can be modelled by experts, diverse stakeholders with a variety of agendas, backgrounds, impacts are ‘felt’ by people and are location-specific and interests (TEEB, 2010). (Sallenave, 1994). Meaningful participation and consultation must be a Inclusive and participatory planning requires that the consistent thread through the spatial planning process as requisite time must be taken to study and understand the important input can be garnered from the beginning of the social context in a specific area (Burns, 2004). Microcosms of impact assessment process, through to the policy framework society are incredibly complex and the impact of undertaking development stage and continuing through the implemen- the planning process must be understood in the context of a tation and monitoring phases (EMF Guidelines, 2012). specific area, with often various distinct political and cultural Partnerships between stakeholders, government, and project dynamics. For example, various political parties, with various teams can facilitate the exchange of important insights at all factions and traditional structures within a defined area, are stages of the process. commonplace. Community members living in the same area Robust discussion is required in order to come to often do not share the same priorities and may have mutually agreeable decisions. The EMF process is by its very conflicting opinions on conservation and development. These nature a negotiation, which requires compromise by all positions need to be understood thoroughly before any stakeholders with various conflicting interests. The EMF negotiation or mediation can take place with regard to a process should mediate these conflicts and agree on a way future developmental and conservation roadmap. forward that reasonably satisfies all parties. When consul- Information needs to be freely available and extra effort tation is not undertaken in a meaningful manner the process must be made by the management or project team to ensure suffers and the buy-in of stakeholders required to make that all stakeholders have the requisite information in order sacrifices under the EMF, for example farmers who will need to ensure that the process is transparent and understandable to limit their use of water, is less likely to be obtained. (du Plessis, 2008). If meetings are conducted in secret, a In order to enact a plan as integrated as an EMF, multiple suspicion of intentional exclusion can arise and distrust will governmental departments as well as national, provincial, mount, ultimately souring the process. and local spheres of government will typically all need to be Therefore, specific attention must be paid to access to consulted (EMF Guidelines, 2012). This is especially information, with organizers going beyond compliance to challenging when, for example, the designated area is a ensure that stakeholders can make informed decisions. national park, World Heritage Site, or protected ecosystem. Inclusive participatory structures such as multi-stakeholder The regulations do not assign tightly crafted roles to these management or compliance bodies should be established in different sectors during this process. With only the high-level instances where high-impact developments are expected in constitutional principle of cooperative governance to assist, sensitive areas. These bodies, if run properly, would go very the mediation of conflicting interests presents a challenge. far in creating trust and ensuring participation in the It must be the responsibility of the EMF project team and planning process. the government to capacitate and train stakeholders so that Generating support for EMFs can be a challenge, they can meaningfully engage with the information in order especially when attempting to garner support from role- to make informed comments and decisions (EIAMS, 2011; du players whose mandate is to drive development (Postel et al., Plessis, 2008). This type of training should focus on 2005). Arguably, many corporate and state role-players feel understanding ecosystem services and the impacts that that EMFs limit growth and development because of their L 22    
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Environmental management frameworks environmental focus. Therefore it is important that a Understanding the potential of a sensitive protected area business-oriented case for ecological protection and is a complex and time-consuming exercise that requires considered development be made through the completion of thorough scientific assessment of the economic, social, and an economic assessment of natural capital and ecosystem environmental characteristics that are unique to each services (Pagiola, 2007). Such a financial quantification is a sensitive area. EMFs provide the framework that enables persuasive tool when used to convince politicians, policy- decision-makers to factor such characteristics into develop- makers, and private sector developers of the economic value mental decisions in sensitive areas. in protecting and enhancing ecosystem services like watercourses and biodiversity. This is crucial, as no project         will be initiated without the requisite political will. Environmentally focused spatial planning is admittedly in its It must be kept in mind that from a political point of view, infancy in South Africa, yet I believe that this paper, in its politicians have five years to show the success and impacts examination of one form of spatial planning, namely EMFs, that they have made and there are far more visible projects to indicates that it has the potential to catalyse the kind of focus on during their term of office. Conserving ecosystem sustainable change we want to see in sensitive and services could take decades to return a profit that is not undeveloped areas. From the EMF example, I have also always as visible as industrial development. These economic identified a handful of principles that, if heeded, might make assessments of sensitive areas can therefore be critical in success more likely. generating support for such integrated projects as they are One of the main recommendations that I can put forward packaged in the form that developers and government can is that early planning is a developer’s best weapon; EMFs relate to and understand. provide this framework, albeit for mining or any large-scale This is not to say that an economic valuation can always development. In a planning context, being prepared and accurately quantify the full cumulative importance of the having environmental, social, and economic issues and value of a particular environment, especially when it comes to possibilities laid out strengthens the design process and less tangible attributes such as spiritual connectivity, sense makes the mitigation of impacts easier to manage. of place, heritage, and all the benefits of a stable ecosystem. Secondly, the EMF that is developed must be a living We live in a capitalist, profit-driven world and accurately document that is resilient and can be adapted to ever- assessing the financial value of sustainability seems an changing variables, such as identifying accurate growth rates unavoidable condition for securing long-lasting protection for for the area and climate change, which are crucial to the sensitive areas. sustainability of local economic viability and the protection of Sensitive protected areas should be seen as central assets sensitive areas. This living document must have people and to the surrounding communities and as an advantage and not the environment at its core, focusing on how best to preserve an obstacle to development. Utilizing ecosystem services to and sustainably utilize ecosystem services. The key to socio- drive a local green economy is a viable and sustainable form ecological integration is combining environmental with socio- of economic development, and EMFs can facilitate this economic decision-making into one process. through identification of economic potential. Protecting Thirdly, conducting rigorous and robust public partici- sensitive areas is more far-reaching than the protection of pation processes is imperative and ensures that a endangered biodiversity: it preserves human health and knowledgeable and supportive community base is wellbeing while creating various opportunities in the broader established. Planners and project managers must ensure that green economy. stakeholders remain involved throughout the planning Communities that surround sensitive areas are employed process and participatory structures are created to facilitate in a range of sectors, including commercial agriculture and information exchanges and collective decision-making. The the services sector. A significant proportion of rural decision-making process needs to be as transparent and as communities is made up of low-income households and fair as possible, recognizing power disparities between levels of unemployment are high. There is much potential for stakeholders, in particular between the State, business, and translating the unique value in protected areas into economic community parties. benefits for communities through the use of EMFs. The We must recognize that South Africa has a unique history tourism industry and ancillary services can be utilized for and therefore has specific socio-economic issues to deal with. community development. Sensitive protected areas can also Poverty alleviation is at the core of the State’s action and the facilitate education and social work with youth by allowing only way to preserve ecological resources is to show their people to reconnect with nature, reinforcing the interde- value from a balanced environmental, economic, and social pendence between the protected area and the surrounding perspective. Furthermore, the valuation of ecosystem services communities (Trzyna, 2007). Additionally, the management fosters political will and creates a culture of compliance 2 of controlled bioprospecting can facilitate the private and because of the potential economic benefits. commercial use of natural resources for the benefit of the The drivers of such processes must also realize that civil community, while not risking the sensitive balance of the society can play a supportive role, assisting with capacity- ecosystem. building on a local level but also playing an observational role on a higher level. For, instance civil society can assist in capacitation of local communities and authorities, giving them the tools and resources to manage their areas of 2Bioprospecting refers to the exploration and exploitation of biodiversity for commercially valuable genetic resources and biochemicals, including responsibility successfully. Civil society should strive to add for medicinal purposes meaningfully to the developmental and conservation conver-

         
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FUEL RETAILERS ASSOCIATION OF SOUTHERN AFRICA V DIRECTOR-GENERAL: SOUTH AFRICA. 2010. Environmental Management Framework Regulations. ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, CONSERVATION AND SOUTH AFRICA. 2010. National Environmental Management Act, 1998, ENVIRONMENT, MPUMALANGA PROVINCE AND OTHERS 2007 (6) SA 4 (CC)). Environmental Management Framework Regulations. Government Notice GAUTENG EMF. 2014. Gauteng Provincial Environmental Management no. R.547. Government Gazette no. 33306, 18 June 2010. Framework. 2014. Gauteng Province, Agriculture and Rural Development. SOUTH AFRICA. 2012. Environmental Management Frameworks: Guideline 6. GREMF. 2010. Garden Route Environmental Management Framework Final SPLUMA. 2013. Spatial Planning and Land Use Management Act No 16 of Report. 2010. Earth Incorporated. Department of Environmental Affairs 2013. and Tourism. TEEB. 2010. The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity. ILEMBE EMF. 2012. Environmental Management Framework for iLembe District Municipality. EMF status quo report. TRZYNA, T. 2007. Global urbanization and protected areas, challenges and opportunities posed by a major factor of global change — and creative KHULEKANI, M. 2010. Improving spatial planning in South African district ways of responding. IUCN and the California Institute of Public Affairs. municipalities: Towards inclusive growth and development. Proceedings of Overcoming Inequality and Structural Poverty in South Africa: Towards WATER RESEARCH COMMISSION. 2011. Technical teport for the National Freshwater Inclusive Growth and Development, Johannesburg, 20–22 September Ecosystem Priority Areas project. 2010. ZAKI, N., DAUD, M., ZOHDIE, M., and MOHD SOOM, A. 2000. Environmental KOTZE, L. 2006. improving unsustainable environmental governance in South planning model for sustainable rural development. Faculty of Information Africa: the case for holistic governance. Potchefstroom Electronic Journal. Science and Technology, University Multimedia. N L 24    
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http://dx.doi.org/10.17159/2411-9717/2017/v117n1a5 Bench mining utilizing manual labour and mechanized equipment – a proposed mining method for artisanal small-scale mining in Central Africa by S.M. Rupprecht*

Figure 1 demonstrates the open pit mining method applying a sequential approach to 6+'-8- mining. Artisanal mining is basic mining characterized by manually intensive work The current practice in most Rwandan and methods utilizing primitive or simple equipment and conducted by Burundian mines is to mine waste and individuals or small groups exploiting deposits. Artisanal mining in mineralized material simultaneously, Rwanda and Burundi is further complicated in that the techniques applied transporting the material into a single gully are often inadequate, resulting in low productivity and poor recoveries, and workers are paid low wages with owners reluctant to reinvest in the and making use of gravity and water to assist mining operations. A consequence of this vicious circle is often poor with the mining of the deposit. However, this working conditions, with miners operating under unsafe and/or unhealthy is often a risky practice as the overburden is working conditions. An additional problem is that mining is conducted in a often weak and can easily collapse (Figure 2), manner that is detrimental to the environment. especially when wet (Rupprecht, 2012). Artisanal mining is commonly more dangerous than large-scale Bench mining is not an unknown method modern mining operations. Artisanal operations are generally subsistence in Central Africa, and was applied in the mid- activities with the miners focusing more on immediate concerns than the 20th century, as seen in Figure 3. The purpose long-term consequences of their activities. When miners have no other of this paper is to describe a viable bench source of income, they will usually find ways to evade controls and carry mining method that employs both manual on working. Machinery tends to be expensive and often far beyond the mining and mobile machinery, thereby reach of most artisanal miners, and therefore there is a general tendency for workers to focus on labour intensive and riskier mining methods. offering employment to the local community This paper proposes the introduction of small-scale mechanization while constituting a safe and a productive with labour-intensive manual mining utilizing a bench mining approach in mining method. artisanal mines operating in Central Africa. From the 1950s to the 1980s Before discussing the transformation of bench mining was successfully conducted in Burundi utilizing manual artisanal mining to small-scale mining, an labour. In order to achieve a balance between job creation and project understanding of the two terms is required, as economics, the combination of manual and mechanized mining is they can mean different things to different proposed. Manual mining offers the benefit of local job creation while people. ensuring good mining techniques, such as minimizing mining loses and dilution. Through the introduction of mechanized loading and hauling   activities, areas of high stripping ratios can be viably mined, thus The World Bank defines artisanal mining as ‘a increasing the amount of resources that can be exploited. The use of a loader and tractor-trailer arrangement is proposed, thereby improving type of manual, low technology mining throughput, productivity, and worker safety and, reducing the impact on conducted on a small scale, predominantly in the environment. rural areas of the developing world’. Artisanal mining is the smallest and simplest mining ;7+5"- operations, which involves the use of simple artisanal mining, small-scale mining, bench mining, mechanization. tools with basic mining and processing techniques. Because of the informal nature of these operation, even subsistence farmers may get involved in mining on a seasonal basis. :615+"4018+6 Surface mining is generally the easiest form of mining for artisanal small-scale miners, as the mineral of interest is either outcropping or is very close to surface, requiring less effort to access and, to a certain extent, entailing a reduced risk to mineworkers. In principle, the * University of Johannesburg, South Africa. lower the stripping ratio (waste to ore ratio) © The Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, 2017. ISSN 2225-6253. This paper the greater the profits. Bench mining offers a was first presented at the Mining, Environment simple and safe method to exploit a deposit, and Society Conference ‘Beyond sustainability— but requires a systematic approach, with the Building resilience’, 12–13 May 2015, Mintek, removal of waste and ore in a sequence. Randburg, South Africa.

         
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important source of income for many communities. According to Biryabarema (2014), the ratio of jobs created to support artisanal mining is 5 to 1 Artisanal mining varies from site to site, but appears largely well structured despite its informality. The artisanal mining sites have some inherent management structure and the extraction itself is often organized through teams of about 10 to 20 diggers in a working area; these are generally accompanied by supporting crews (e.g. transporters, rock crushers, mineral washers, and *824579.)'769'819(868629$861+6%96"# waste disposal crews). Payment is usually based on the mineral content of the concentrate produced. The hazards for artisanal surface mining include highwall collapse or slumping, falling from heights, rockfalls from slopes above the workings, and undermining of pit highwalls. Mining is labour-intensive and is generally conducted utilizing hand digging methods, e.g. shovels or hammer and chisels. Artisanal mining is generally more dangerous than large-scale modern mining operations, as artisanal operations are generally subsistence activities with the miners focusing more on immediate concerns than the long-term consequences of their activities. When miners have no other source of income, they will usually find ways to evade controls and carry on working. A wide range of skills and abilities is used to exploit the *824579&)82,3//9!38/457931939-45!3079(868629+'75318+6986976153/ !5803 varied deposits, but in general there is a low level of understanding of safety and compliance with governmental rules, standards, or regulations. The objective of the government agencies, non-government organizations (NGOs), owners, and other concerned parties operating in Rwanda and Burundi is to find a safe and realistic approach to improve mining conditions, raise safety, health, and environment awareness, and improve the overall productivity of the operations in a manner appropriate to local circum- stances while maintaining employment levels. The capacity of government to oversee the artisanal mining sector is limited and is currently ineffective due to the government’s inability to cover the vast areas under their responsibility, the high number of granted concessions, budgetary and logistical constraints, and shortage of personnel and technical knowledge. *824579)760,9(8686293-90+6"4017"98694546"89869. 9$,+5734% . # Any remedial action proposed should be transparent to the artisanal mining community and should be presented to all stakeholders with real local ownership. The formalization  initiatives must secure local buy-in in order to succeed and achieve results in the long term. Small-scale mining involves the use of basic mining and processing technology such as mechanical drilling and 3!71%9,73/1,%936"976<85+6(7613/98--47-9 blasting, mechanized loading and hauling, hoisting, and processing by gravity concentration and similar techniques. There appears to be a difficulty in providing clear mine Traditional small-scale mining includes licensed and safety, health, and environment standards for mining registered non-mechanized or semi-mechanized mining operations. Occupational safety, health, and environmental operations, usually run by individual or organized cooper- guidelines, which are usually unenforceable, are often set as atives. Small-scale mining usually utilizes hired or contract mandatory codes of practice for mines and quarries. These labour and applies basic management principles in the guidelines discuss safety, health, and environmental issues operations. in general and are suitable for formal small-scale mining operations rather than informal operations, and are therefore, for the most part, irrelevant to artisanal mining operations. ,79276753/96314579+!93518-363/9(86862986976153/ Attempting to apply standard codes of practices to artisanal !5803 mining may be detrimental, as unrealistic standards or The artisanal mining sector in Central Africa is largely expectations could be imposed on the mines and workers. informal, yet provides an essential livelihood for many partic- Rather, the focus should be on the development of basic ipants (directly or indirectly), as well as providing an mining skills to improve current mining practices. L 26    
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The implementation of mining standards at artisanal some cases small tunnels (Figure 6) up to several metres in mining operations must be viewed in context. Artisanal length are developed into the deposit, which then induces the mining is currently mostly subsistence work, and thus safety overburden to collapse; or in other cases water accumulates standards may be seen as interference and could adversely on the surface where if causes swelling of the soil, resulting affect workers’ income. It is critical that mine owners realize in the collapse of the highwall area. In the gully, the heavier the importance of finding a balance between standards and material is concentrated and stockpiled adjacent to the gully the need to improve the working conditions. Standards must at the base of mining operations. The remaining material that be relevant, and the introduction of safety measures should has not been concentrated continues downstream where it be seen as requiring buy-in from a number of stakeholders; eventually settles, with the heaviest material settling close to starting with the miners themselves and including the mine the mining operation while the lighter material can travel owners, governmental agencies, the community, and mineral several hundreds of metres downstream. buyers. Appropriate minimum standards should be identified and progressive improvement in standards established. The 117('191+98615+"4079760,9(86862986936"3 implementation of mine health and safety standards should After a review of several artisanal mining operations near be seen as a process with immediate to short-, medium-, and Kigali, Rwanda (Rupprecht 2012), bench mining was long-term goals. Fundamental to the improvement of mine introduced at one of the mining sites. The introduction of safety is the introduction of increased productivity. bench mining was based on a mineworker loading 10 m3 (in Artisanal miners must be able to understand the benefits situ) of rock in eight hours. Based on a working bench height of the proposed safety standards in order to facilitate of 3 m, 10 lifts were required to mine a 30 m height. This meaningful change. Initial standards must be realistic and design resulted in a slope length of 70 m and a deposit width achievable so that immediate results can be seen, thereby of 9 m (Figure 7). Bench widths of 4 m were proposed to encouraging the miners to commit to and remain engaged in establish an overall slope angle of 37 degrees. In order to the process. Unrealistic goals will result in noncompliance exploit a 9 m deep excavation three benches were required, and failure. To some extent mine owners will be required to which created a 12 m wide waste strip on either side of the enforce basic safety standards. Failure to comply should excavation. Based on a 15-man mining crew, approximately result in corrective action being taken by the government and 14 000 m3 of material was required to be handled, which the threat of losing technical or financial support or the actual mining concession. Based on over five years of artisanal mining audits, the author concludes that artisanal miners are willing to adopt safety standards and better practices. Rewarding positive behaviour should be considered to jump-start the safety process so as to create a positive response. This could be in the form of an increase in salary or the purchase price of the metal/concentrate linked to general safety compliance and performance. It must be understood by all participants that transformation will incur some costs. The cost of such action needs to be shared between government, owners, workers, and buyers.

4557619(868629(71,+"- Mining is often conducted in an up-dip orientation (Figure 4) with water being used to move the mineralized material *824579 )/4-,7594-7"98694'"8'9(868629 downwards into gullies or slushers (Figure 5), where it is concentrated. Mining tools consists of picks and shovels. Material is excavated off the face using picks, with workers forming a line and transporting the material with shovels down-dip to the slusher in the centre of the mining area. In

*824579)82,3//9(868629$4''570,1%9& . 3# *824579)4667/9861+9,82,3//9$4''570,1%9& . #

         
VOLUME 117    
 27 L Bench mining utilizing manual labour and mechanized equipment equated to three months to mine a 30 m section. A schematic The bench configuration is based on empirical design, of the mining sequence is depicted in Figure 8 (Rupprecht, relying on in-field measurements from a number of defunct 2012). Belgian operations that were mined during the 1950s. Some The proposed mining plan failed, mainly due to the poor commitment of the owner, who was reluctant to pay for the additional costs. Little effort was made to implement the new mine design and within a number of days the operation returned to normal highwall mining. Even while operations were temporarily stopped so that the new mine design could be implemented, several of the miners entered the work site to conduct illegal mining during the hours of darkness. The lessons learned included the requirement for proper buy-in from all participants, correct supervision to ensure the mine plan is adhered to, and appropriate remuneration related to the additional work associated with bench mining. A fundamental conclusion from this exercise was the need to improve worker productivity so as to provide funding for the additional work. Thus, safety initiatives must be associated with real productivity gains or else the attempt to change will not succeed.

760,9(868629(71,+" The following section describes two approaches to conducting safe bench mining. Figure 9 indicates the start or the first cut of bench mining from the side of a hill or mountain. The *824579)0,7(3180-9+!9760,9(868629-7 47607-9$4''570,1%9& .&# proposed height between roads is 4.5 m, with road widths of 6 m. Figure 10 is a schematic of mining with a tractor- loader-bucket (TLB) arrangement, which can be used to establish mining operations. Alternatively, the cuts can be developed by hand mining methods as depicted in Figure 7 and Figure 8.

        Based on observations made by the author in Rwanda and Burundi, one man can load 1 m3 to 10 m3 (in situ) of rock in eight hours, depending mainly on the geology, the size and density of the rock pieces, and the height to be lifted.

*824579)0,7(3180-9+!9760,9(868629-7 47607-9$ 80,+/-%9. #

*824579. ) +75936"997-13/8-,8629760,9(868629$ 80,+/-%9.  *824579)0,7(31809+!9760,9(8686299!85-190419$4''570,1%9& .&# 7//%9& .#9 L 28    
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60 years later the benches and slopes remain in a stable  
 condition. The original bench design was used for the new Loading of mineralized and waste material will be conducted proposed mine design. Thus, a working mining cut height of by a combination of manual shovelling and mechanized 1.5 m utilizing three lifts is proposed to mine a 4.5 m bench loading. Mineralized material will be broken using picks, height. Utilizing a 0.5 m stepover per mining cut, an overall pinch bars, and shovels and the broken material either hand- slope angle of 37 degrees is created. loaded or mucked into trailers utilizing a multi-terrain loader. Mechanized loading can be done with a multi-terrain The broken material will then be transported to the benefi- loader (Figure 11) or a TLB, which can be used to excavate ciation plant by a tractor-trailer arrangement, as shown in and load the bench material. A typical 3 t machine is 1.75 m Figure 12 and Figure 13. Waste material is handled in a wide and 3.5 m long, with a reach of 3.8 m and a tipping similar manner, and transported to the waste dump. height of 2.2 m. Based on a bucket fill factor of 85% the loader has a rated operating capacity of 2.1 t and is capable of a maximum speed of 11.3 km/h with the ability to navigate gradients up to 40 degrees. The use of mechanical equipment poses a risk to the operator, hence thorough training is required. It is envisaged that the loader would require access roads to the mining benches. Access ramps and benches should be 6 m wide inclusive of a 1 m safety berm. The width of the bench is based on the overall body width of the tractor-trailer unit utilizing the standard factor (Thompson, n.d.) of twice the body width (2.5 m width of haulage equipment plus 1 m berm). Access to the benches will be by ramps designed with a slope of about 10 degrees. *824579.&)5301+51538/7593553627(7619$7//%9& .# There are many multi-terrain loaders available in the market, with purchase prices in the order of US$65 000 to US$95 000. A TLB would cost in the range of US$87 000 (Bell, 2016).


   For the majority of artisanal mining operations in Central Africa no drilling and blasting is required due to the weathered nature of the host rock. Fresh rock is usually encountered 20 m below surface, which is often beyond the economic viability for open pit mining in many low-grade and low value metal deposits such as tin, tungsten, and tantalite. *824579.)0,7(31809+!9"4('751538/759$7//%9& .#

*824579..)4/1817553869/+3"759$3175'8//35%9& .&#

         
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    Figure 16 depicts silting in streams adjacent to artisanal mining sites. Water management is an important aspect of Mineral process is typically conducted by means of sluicing or waste and tailings storage, and a plan is required to control panning (Figure 14). Mineral processing in artisanal mining the movement and storage of clean and dirty water. Under no is generally inefficient, with recoveries in the order of 30%. circumstance should water be released uncontrolled into the Recovery improvements between 10% and 30% can be environment. Ditches and drains should be used to control, achieved through the use of modern processing techniques. direct, and collect water. However, due to the size of the deposits and the entry costs Currently, based on the author’s observations over the of modern processing techniques, up-to-date processing past five years, most mines are treating mineralized material equipment is usually beyond the reach of artisanal miners. and waste together, thus requiring the storage of a significant     amount of waste/tailings material. Bench mining improves Waste management is an integral part of the mining cycle. waste management through the separation of waste and The use of mechanized equipment allows waste to be loaded mineralized material before mineral processing, thereby and hauled to selected and approved sites (Figure 15). These allowing waste material to be properly stored, and signifi- storage facilities can be benched and contoured and used to cantly reducing the amount of material to be processed and plant crops such as cassava or coffee. The volume of waste tailings material to be contained. material will depend on the mine design and therefore sufficient areas will be required to be secured for waste +60/4-8+6-936"9570+((76"318+6- storage. The site that is nearest the beneficiation plant is not Many artisanal mining operations are unsafe and do not always the best option for tailings disposal. The cost, safety, adhere to good mining practices or meet the minimum and environmental aspects must be investigated for a number of different options. Slope stability is important, and therefore a slope of less than 20 degrees should be considered with a 3:1 slope used as a rule of thumb. It is recommended that a qualified engineer design, construct, and monitor waste and tailing storage facilities. Precautions should be taken to ensure that any failure of the storage facility would not contaminate watercourses. As the host rock usually does not contain any detrimental elements, the main environmental concern is to control sediment deposition in the creeks and streams. Figure 17 illustrates one of the Rwandan operations making use of a designated tailings facility with tailing material contained with a dam area and spillage ditches used to catch run-off sediments. *824579. )3-1795+0
9"4('

*824579.)3668629+'75318+6- L 30    
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*824579.)38/862-9869-1573(-

Management and planning of waste handling and storage facilities will be critical to ensure that sufficient mineralized material is excavated timeously to support the proposed production profile. In addition, the mine design should include the waste storage facility that has the least impact on the environment.

7!757607-

BELL EQUIPMENT. Not dated. 11 m3 dumper trailer brochure, Broch/1156/04/12- *824579.)38/862-9!308/819-817 Trailers.

BELL EQUIPMENT SARL. 2016. (RDC) Quotation new Bell backhoe, 15/9/2016. Personnel communication. requirements set out by most government mining departments. BIRYABAREMA, M. 2014. Director, Rwanda Geology and Mines authority, Kigali, Where appropriate, bench mining can be undertaken to Rwanda. Personal communication. improve highwall conditions, increase slope stability, improve general safety, and increase productivity. Bench mining can CATERPILLAR. 2014. Skid track loader. http://www.cat.com/en_us/product/new/ be undertaken utilizing picks, shovels, and wheelbarrows, equipment/compact-track-and -multiterrain loader/18484359.html with the potential to increase productivity through the introduction of mechanization. Detail mine designs are HINTON, J. Not dated. Small scale mining handbook – a guideline for improving required for each project site, as each site will have its own the performance of artisanal and small scale mining in Uganda. Training particular geological conditions and mine design and Awareness Campaign Committee (TACC), Sustainable Management of requirements. Mineral Resources Project, Ministry of Energy and Mineral Development, Manual bench mining should be the surface mining Deptartment of Geological Survey and Mines. method of choice for remote operations or concessions that NICHOLS, H.L. JR. 1956. Modern Techniques of Excavation. Van Norstrand, have limited mineral resources. Mechanized mining utilizing a dozer or hydraulic shovel is currently applied by some Princeton, NJ. mines, but is applied intermittently, and often does not RUPPRECHT, S.M. 2012. Havila safety and review. Borrego Sun Consultancy, provide a positive return on the investment of hiring the Johannesburg. equipment. The use of small multi-terrain loaders, TLBs, and tractor-trailers with haulage benches is a practical solution RUPPRECHT, S.M. 2015a. Needs analysis for small scale mining. Journal of the for small- to medium-sized deposits with moderate stripping Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, vol. 115. ratios. pp. 1007–1012. Along with the introduction of bench mining, work standards must be put in place to ensure that workers adhere RUPPRECHT, S.M. 2015b. Safety aspects and recommendations for surface to the basic safety, health, and environmental guidelines. The artisanal mining. Proceedings of Copper Cobalt Africa – The 8th Southern value-add for mine owners and workers will be through the African Base Metals Conference, Victoria Falls, 6–8 July 2015. Southern improvement of productivity and the revenue generated from African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Johannesburg. - the increased output. The use of mechanized equipment will require strict supervision and adherence to the mine plan to THOMPSON, R.J. Not dated Mine haul road design, construction and maintenance ensure that machinery operates only on level benches. A management. http://www.slideshare.net/hungtranviet90281/mine-haul- fundamental conclusion from this research is the need to road-design-construction-and-maintenance-management improve worker productivity to such an extent that the additional work is adequately funded. Safety initiatives must THOREAU, J., ADERCA, B., and VAN WAMBEKE, L. (1958): LE GISEMENT DE TERRES be associated with real productivity gains or else the attempt rares de Karonge (Urundi). Bulletin des Séances de l’Académie Royale des to change will not succeed. Sciences d’Outre Mer (ARSOM), pp. 684–715. N

         
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 31 L MMMA A The Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy n & n Mine Metallurgical Managers Association is proud to host the o u WATER 2017 n c CONFERENCE e m lifeblood of the mining industry e BACKGROUND n The mining industry is faced with a number of challenges 10–11 July 2017 regarding the use, recycling and management of their water t resources. Some affected parties are unaware that the legislation around the use of water has become more onerous and strict controls have been put in place. This includes the requirements Emperors Palace, Hotel Casino for the application of water use licences. Convention Resort Johannesburg & The scarcity of water in the Southern African region is a fact and the availability of water is a major consideration in the development of mining ventures across the sub-continent. The C water authorities throughout the region have developed strategies to address the needs of the mines and their surrounding communities. OBJECTIVE a  Acid Mine Drainage has been a reality for quite some time and To sensitise the mining and metallurgical industry to the l with the “closure” of mines on the Witwatersrand it has become a requirements of the new legislation major issue for communities in Gauteng. A number of initiatives  Share the overall water distribution strategy across the sub- l have been put in place to address the challenge and the enormity continent of the task has taken many by surprise.  Introduce new technology for the processing and recycling of The use of fresh water alone is no longer an option and users water have to consider alternatives in the treatment and recycling of f  Report on various initiatives in the reclaiming of water water. Major advances have been made in the processing of o water yet these options have not been shared with the engineers  Update interested parties on the status of the Acid Mine r on the mines. Drainage threat. WHO SHOULD ATTEND  Senior and operational management of mines A TOPICS  Engineers responsible for mine water management b The Conference will include but not be limited to the following topics:  Regional and national officials from DoE, DMR, DWS, and  Legal requirements, amendments, and compliance DEA  s  What is required to obtain a water licence Companies and individuals offering water related solutions  t  Acid mine drainage Researchers   Status of water supply Environmentalists and NGOs r   New technology in proccessing and recovering of water Agricultural sector. a  Treatment plants c  Water analysis  Wetlands t  Agriculture vs. Mining  Case studies  Research. SPONSORSHIP/EXHIBITIONS For further information contact: Companies wishing to sponsor or Raymond van der Berg Head of Conferencing • Saimm exhibit should contact the Conference P O Box 61127, Marshalltown 2107 Co-ordinator Tel: +27 (0) 11 834-1273/7 E-mail: [email protected] Website: http://www.saimm.co.za http://dx.doi.org/10.17159/2411-9717/2017/v117n1a6 The status of artisanal and small-scale mining sector in South Africa: tracking progress by P.F. Ledwaba*

of livelihoods, particularly for those residing in rural areas with limited economic opportu- '&!$)$ nities. In the majority of countries, the Artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) in South Africa received official recognition of the ASM sector was driven by recognition after the change in government in 1994.The Reconstruction its increasing contribution to socio-economic and Development Programme (RDP) recognized the sector as a vehicle for development through job creation, poverty social and economic development for historically disadvantaged South alleviation, and rural development. In Africans (HDSAs) who had previously been excluded from participating in the mainstream economy. Having recognized the ASM sector, government response, a number of intervention strategies introduced several interventions and support structures to foster the were introduced in support of the sector to development of ASM, to encourage participation of HDSAs, and to address address its negative impacts and to increase its challenges facing the sector. The objective of this paper is to assess the potential benefits. progress made, with particular regard to challenges in the sector. The The ASM sector in South Africa was first paper focuses on the policy requirements that were deemed important for recognized in 1994 as a vehicle to foster social the growth of the ASM sector by the White Paper on Minerals and Mining and economic growth through participation of Policy (1998). These can be collated into five categories: access to mineral historically disadvantaged South Africans rights, access to finance, access to markets, technology and skills, and (HDSAs) in the mining industry. However, institutional support. The paper provides a review of the support since recognition, there have been limited interventions, their intended roles and impact on the sector, and identifies growth opportunities for both aspiring and existing gaps and possible ways of dealing with the challenges. There is a need for research to assess the real impact of these past and existing existing small-scale miners. Small-scale interventions on the ASM sector to draw lessons for future development. miners are still faced with a number of challenges relating to access to mineral rights, +&*$ access to capital, access to markets, inadequate artisanal and small-scale mining, disadvantaged communities, policy skills and knowledge, access to information, requirements, intervention strategies, socio-economic benefits. access to appropriate technology, and lack of institutional support (Nellie and Petersen, 2002; Hoadley and Limpitlaw, 2004; Department of Mineral Resources, 2011; .'%*& %)&' Ledwaba and Nhlengetwa, 2016). As is the The significant rise in artisanal and small- case in many other African countries, South scale mining (ASM) activities worldwide has Africa continues to struggle to transform the led to many countries recognizing the sector. ASM sector despite the implementation of ASM takes place in approximately 80 countries several support programmes. While interest (World Bank, 2013). It is estimated that the has grown from disadvantaged communities sector employs between 20 and 30 million wishing to enter and participate in the mining people around the world (Buxton, 2013). This compares to between 3 and 3.7 million in 1999 (International Labour Organization, 1999). ASM activities are widespread, occurring mostly in developing countries in Africa, Asia, Oceania, and Central and South America (World Bank, 2013). There has been a significant increase in the number of people participating both directly and indirectly in the * Centre for Sustainability in Mining and Industry sector and this is expected to continue given (CSMI), University of the Witwatersrand, South the socio-economic realities of most Africa. developing countries. High levels of poverty © The Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, 2017. ISSN 2225-6253. This paper and unemployment and growing inequality was first presented at the Mining, Environment continue to be largest problems facing the and Society Conference ‘Beyond sustainability— majority of developing countries today. The Building resilience’, 12–13 May 2015, Mintek, ASM sector plays an important role as a source Randburg, South Africa.

         
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 33 L The status of artisanal and small-scale mining sector in South Africa industry, the formal ASM sector remains small compared to study stated that: ‘Small-scale mining development in South other countries with relatively similar mineral endowments Africa should focus on the fostering of an efficient and (e.g. Zimbabwe and Mozambique)1. The majority of ASM effective small and junior sector that can drive exploration activities in South Africa take place outside the formal and cost-effective mining development in the country […] to structures created to regulate and manage the sector. achieve this, issues such as legislation of illegal operators, This paper reviews the past and present interventions finance, mineral and land rights access, and training all introduced to facilitate the development of the ASM sector in needs to be addressed’ (Scott et al., 1998). South Africa. The paper focuses on the five key challenges The ASM agenda was further supported by the White identified as being crucial to the success of the sector by the Paper on Minerals and Mining Policy of South Africa which White Paper on Minerals and Mining Policy released in 1998. was released in October 1998. With a dedicated section on These are: access to mineral rights, access to finance, access small-scale mining, government’s objective was to ‘encourage to markets, technology and skills, and institutional support. and facilitate the sustainable development of small-scale mining in order to ensure the optimal exploitation of small 1
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,*)( mineral deposits and to enable this sector to make a positive contribution to the national, provincial and local economy’ South Africa has a long history of mining, both on a small (Department of Minerals and Energy, 1998). The Minerals scale and large scale. The discoveries of copper followed by and Mining Policy was centred on three pillars, and these diamonds and gold were the first mining activities to be related to: the development of the ASM sector; encouraging recorded in the country. The history of the mining industry participation of disadvantaged communities; and addressing focused largely on the emergence of the large-scale mining challenges in the sector. The ASM sector in South Africa was (LSM) industries in the country. This is despite evidence that faced with a wide range of challenges, including access to ASM activities took place long before the emergence of large mineral rights, limited financial opportunities, access to modern mining industries. There are studies which suggest mineral deposits, lack of technical skills, poor access to that large mining industries started as artisanal and small- markets, and regulatory and administrative requirements scale mining operations (e.g. the case of copper mining in (Department of Minerals and Energy, 1998). Namaqualand in the Northern Cape Province)2. ASM is not a Over the past two decades, the government established new activity in South Africa, but it was largely ignored by the several programmes to facilitate the development of the ASM apartheid regime (Solomon, 2012) and became part of the sector. Section 1.4.4.2 (clause vii) of the White Paper on national agenda only after the change in government after Minerals and Mining Policy of South Africa stated that ’the 1994. DME will facilitate small-scale mining support on the broad ASM was among the key socio-economic programmes spectrum of activities […] and will further facilitate the identified in the Reconstruction and Development Programme establishment of a self-sustaining institutional support (RDP) – a policy framework aimed at eradicating past mechanism for small-scale mining’. It was based on these injustices created by the apartheid government (Government policy requirements that a number of programmes to support Gazette, 1994). The ASM sector was earmarked to redress and develop the ASM sector were established. imbalances of ownership created by the apartheid regime in the mining industry through the empowerment of 0 **+'%,$%(% $,&,%
+,,$+%&* disadvantaged communities, the provision of skills, the stimulation of entrepreneurial spirit in South Africa, and ASM in the country is relatively young compared to other better utilization of mineral resources (African National countries (using 1994 as a benchmark). As in many Congress, 1990). As part of its recommendations to the countries, the biggest motivations to participate in ASM resource-based industries, the RDP urged government to activities are high unemployment rates and high levels of ’consider ways and means to encourage small-scale mining poverty. ASM activities in South Africa take place mostly in and to enhance opportunities for participation by our people rural areas with known mineral availability. The number of through support, including financial and technical aid and people participating in the sector is estimated between 10 000 access to mineral rights’ (Government Gazette, 1994). and 30 000 (Mutemeri and Petersen, 2002; Buxton, 2013). In 1998, the Minerals and Energy Policy Centre (MEPC) To date, no proper baseline study has been conducted and undertook a study on small-scale mining in South Africa. The hence these figures might not be a reflection of the situation objective of the study was to provide an overview of small- on the ground. scale mining activities in South Africa with specific focus on There have been reports suggesting that the sector has the contribution of the sector to the economy, and existing grown considerably (Ledwaba and Nhlengetwa, 2016). practices in terms of compliance, interaction with institutions, Ledwaba and Nhlengetwa attributed this to the Mineral and and institutional support. The study was also aimed at Petroleum Resources Development Act (MPRDA) which was providing recommendations on the extent to which the sector enacted in 2002. The release of the MPRDA saw an increased should be promoted (Scott et al., 1998). In its conclusion, the interest from the public to participate in and enter the mining industry. According to the DMR, there has been an increase in the number of mining permits issued. A total of 103 and 141 mining permits were issued in 2005 and 2006 respec- 1The number of people participating in the ASM sectors in Mozambique tively (DMR, 2011). Figure 1 shows the number of permits and Zimbabwe is estimated at 60 000 and 500 000 respectively (Buxton, issued in each province between 2004 and 2010. Although 2013) 2http://www.mintek.co.za/Pyromet/Files/2015Jones-Copper.pdf this is not a conclusive representation the size of the sector, it [Accessed 8 August 2016] provides an idea of the level of interest and distribution of L 34    
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mining remains a critical issue in the ASM sector globally. It is known that the majority of ASM activities are conducted outside the legal framework. According to the South African Human Rights Commission (2015), up to 30 000 people have been involved in illegal mining in the past 10 years. In 1999, the Department Minerals and Energy reported the number of illegal miners in South Africa to be around 3000 (Engineering News, 1999). This implies that in just over 15 years, the number of illegal miners in South Africa has increased tenfold. Illegal mining activities continue to escalate despite government’s intervention through the creation of a

)# *+, "+*,&,")')'#,!+*")%$,)$$ +$,+%++', ,(',  ,!+* mining permit to allow small-scale miners to operate within !*&)'+,*&",(%(($+,!*&)+,,%
+,  the required regulatory framework. In the majority of areas, aspiring and existing miners are aware of the legal requirements and the processes for obtaining legal permission. However, the costs to obtain the permission ASM activities in the country. Over 1000 permits were issued remain a challenge for most of them. between 2004 and 2010. It must be noted that the distri- Entry to the sector has become difficult, with only a few bution of ASM activities depends on several factors such as being able to afford the financial obligations. As a result, the mineral availability, capital availability etc. profile of small-scale miners is changing. The formal ASM A study conducted by the Mine Health and Safety Council sector is made up emerging entrepreneurs with the necessary (MHSC) in 2011 estimated the number of registered small- financial resources rather than disadvantaged and poor scale mines to be 1030. The first case studies of ASM communities. As things stand, the current regulatory operations documented were of rural women in KwaZulu- framework favours those with the financial means and not Natal mining kaolin, diamond miners in the Northern Cape, those from poor backgrounds. This reality then brings into women miners extracting coal for brickmaking in KwaZulu- question the objectives and intended role of the MPRDA, Natal, and gold miners in the Barberton area in Mpumalanga particularly on small-scale mining development. (Dreschler, 2001). ASM activities have since grown and It is important to note that illegal mining activities in expanded to all nine provinces across South Africa. However, South Africa are not limited to the gold sector – they take they are more widespread in poverty-stricken regions such as place in other mineral sectors as well. The gold sector appears the Northern Cape, North West, Limpopo, and Eastern Cape to receive more media coverage because of its association provinces. These are provinces with high levels of with criminal activities and dangerous working conditions, unemployment (the unemployment rate is above the national which have resulted in a number of fatalities. A recent report average) (Statistics SA, 2016). by the Chamber of Mines (2016) estimated the number of Today, the bulk of ASM operations exploit industrial people involved in illegal mining to be 14 000, while the minerals and construction materials. According to the DMR, value of the industry was estimated at R6 billion annually. over 90 per cent of small-scale mining operations exploit According to the Chamber of Mines (2016), ‘illegal artisanal these minerals (Mutemeri et al., 2010; Mining Qualifications mining is on the rise in South Africa and presents challenges Authority, 2014). Industrial minerals (IM) have been deemed that need to be addressed from a range of perspectives’. The suitable for small-scale mining in the country (Department of main causes of illegal mining activities, particularly in the Mineral Resources, 2011; Dlambulo and Motsie, 2014). While gold sector, are mine closure, mineworker retrenchments, South Africa holds significant deposits of industrial minerals, high unemployment rates, high levels of poverty, declining the IM sector has received inadequate attention until recently. gold price, immigration, and narrowing of formal channels of A significant percentage of IM remain underexploited in entry (Nhlengetwa, 2016). South Africa largely because of their low economic value There is currently no reliable data on the extent of illegal compared to the gold and platinum group minerals (Malatsi et mining activities in South Africa. However, from available al., 2014). Furthermore, the IM sector presents an literature and reports, it can be deduced that the ASM sector opportunity for South Africa to diversify the mineral in South Africa consists of three broad activities: registered portfolio, especially during times when the high-value operations that are legal, the ‘traditional’ activities operating mineral commodities such as gold and platinum group outside the legal framework (also referred to as informal elements perform poorly. IM are also deemed suitable for mining operations), and the Zama-Zama type mining. small-scale mining because they are: found near the surface, The latter group consists of artisanal and small-scale are easy to mine and beneficiate, and they allow the use of miners who also operate outside the legal framework but simple equipment and machinery (Dlambulo and Motsie, their activities are associated with criminality and organized 2014). As key inputs in the construction industry, the crime. These miners operate mostly in abandoned shafts demand for IM is expected to increase, creating opportunities (Nhlengetwa and Hein, 2015). for emerging and existing small-scale miners across South Africa. 1
+,$%(% $, !(%+,&',!&),*+/ )*+"+'%$ Although opportunities for small-scale miners exist, the The key challenges facing the ASM sector can be grouped majority of them are unable to leverage the opportunities into five main themes: access to mineral rights, access to because they operate outside the legal framework. Illegal capital, access to markets, technology and skills, and institu-

         
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 35 L The status of artisanal and small-scale mining sector in South Africa tional support. These challenges were raised by the miners on of privately held mineral rights to the State to allow partici- the ground during the consultation processes as part of the pation of HDSAs. Under the MPRDA, all mineral resources drafting of the White Paper on Minerals and Mining Policy. belong to the people under the custodianship of the State. These have been the main focus of support interventions This implies that anyone can apply for a license to prospect during the past 20 years. and/or mine. The MPRDA recognizes all form of mining It is important to acknowledge that the development of activities, including small-scale mining. While the Act does the sector depends on a number of stakeholders involved in not clearly distinguish between the different categories of the sector directly or indirectly. Amongst the key challenges mining, it makes provisions for small-scale mines in the form identified in the sector was the lack of appropriate structures of a mining permit. A mining permit is a document issued by to assist with small-scale mining development in the country. the Department of Mineral Resources which allows one to During the consultation processes, the miners expressed the conduct mining operations. Section 27 of the MPRDA states need for an integrated and coordinated approach that a mining permit is issued only if: encompassing government departments and other relevant ® The mineral in question can be mined optimally within supporting agencies to promote and develop the sector a period of two years (Minerals and Mining Policy, 1998). These included ® The mining area in question does not exceed 1.5 government and other related institutions with the necessary hectares in extent (this has since been increased to 5.0 experience and expertise to assist with the development of hectares). the sector. There have been great efforts, particularly from The mining permit was introduced solely to provide a government, to satisfy these objectives. In fact, the majority platform for HDSAs that is affordable and easy to access. The of support interventions have been spearheaded by DMR differentiates small-scale mining activities into three government. Due to the multifaceted nature and the types, namely artisanal or subsistence mining operations complexities resulting in dealing the challenges facing the (new entrants), sub-optimal formal mining operations, and ASM sector, government continues to work with other key entrepreneurs with upfront capital3. Although mining permits role players to transform the sector. The subsequent sections are less costly compared to mining rights (designed for LSM), provide an assessment of the progress made in addressing small-scale miners are expected to meet the requirements the five key challenges. with respect to the Environmental Management Plan, consul-     tation with the landowner/ occupier and affected parties, In the past, South Africa used a dual system whereby some financial provision for rehabilitation, and proof of technical mineral rights belonged to the State and some to private ability. Due to the wide spectrum of ASM activities (and holders (Minerals and Mining Policy, 1998). This made it hence disparities in affordability), the requirements of the difficult for the majority to own or access mineral rights. The mining permit are not ‘easy and affordable’ to everyone. For main concerns relating to mineral rights access as it pertains the majority, financial requirements remain the largest entry to small-scale mining have been largely around qualifying for barrier. formal mineral rights and finding land or suitable deposits The other key issue raised by small-scale miners relates (Scott et al., 1998). According to the study conducted by the to the administrative processes, which are deemed complex. Minerals and Energy Policy Centre, all operators that partic- The DMR started off with a manual system for lodging and ipated in the research faced difficulties in accessing viable granting mining licences. However, in 2011, a move was mineral deposits (a total of 79 operations). The reason made to an online system known as the South African provided for this was that good potential deposits were under Mineral Resources Administration Online System (SAMRAD). the control of large mining companies as part of their longer- SAMRAD was launched in April 2011 with the primary term production strategies (Scott et al., 1998). The following objective of improving the application process (DMR, 2012). recommendations were proposed to address issues around While the online system was welcomed by the industry, access to minerals rights (Government Gazette, 1998): small-scale miners encountered challenges and as a result they have not fully accepted the system. The common ® Small-scale miners require information on the concerns of small-scale miners are that: availability of mineral rights and mineral deposits ® ® Unfragmented and adequate information is required on The system is too advanced and complicated ® mineral regulations, geology, mining and environ- They have no access to computers and the internet mental aspects, and mineral marketing ® Internet cafes are expensive ® Regulations in respect of mining should be relevant, ® Application fees can only be paid electronically There understandable, and affordable to the small-scale miner are also concerns around the geographical locations of ® Administrative procedures need to be simplified and the DMR regional offices speeded up. ® There are few satellite offices in rural areas The new democratic dispensation saw the enactment of ® Regional offices are located in major towns far from new legislative frameworks across different sectors of the rural areas economy as a way to take back control and open economic ® There is only one dedicated office in most provinces sectors to the majority of South Africans. The MPRDA came into effect on 1 May 2004 to lead the transformation of the mining industry. Part of the agenda of the MPRDA was to discard the past discriminatory mineral laws such as the dual 3http://www.dmr.gov.za/small-scale-mining.html [Accessed 15 system of mineral rights. The MPRDA transferred ownership December 2016] L 36    
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® There is only one person dealing with small-scale Small-scale miners are usually funded through three miners’ challenges in the province (Focus group channels: government initiatives, donor organizations, discussion, 2014). and/or middlemen (buyers) (Dreschler, 2001). The latter Small-scale miners have also raised concerns around option is most common where miners enter into contracts conflicts with traditional leaders, particularly in rural areas with buyers to invest into the business (e.g. in the form of where communities are still under the rule of traditional capital or equipment) in exchange of selling products solely leaders or chiefs. Traditional leaders have been accused of to them or at pre-determined prices. In the majority of cases, this has not proven feasible and has resulted in exploitation controlling mineral deposits and refusing to grant permission because of inequalities in bargaining powers (e.g. tiger’s eye to community members to mine (DMR, 2015). Although the mining in Northern Cape Province) (Ledwaba et al., 2013). MPRDA requires applicants to consult and obtain permission Government has also established initiatives to provide from interested and affected parties, it is suggested that funding for both aspirant and existing miners. In 2000, the traditional authorities usually make decisions with respect to DMR established the National Steering Committee of Service access to mineral rights. While the DMR conducts community Providers (NSC) as part of the National Small Scale workshops to educate and raise awareness on mineral rights Development Framework. The principal objective of the NSC and the requirements thereof, the distinction between mineral was to provide technical, managerial, and financial support to rights laws and surface rights laws is still not well compre- small-scale mining projects (Dreschler, 2001; Mutemeri and hended, particularly in rural and traditional communities. Petersen, 2002; Department of Mineral Resources, 2011). This has been the cause of conflicts in some areas. The funding was structured such that 90 per cent was offered Notwithstanding the existing challenges, the MPRDA has as a loan and the remaining 10 per cent was to be raised by made inroads in addressing some of these challenges. For the applicant. The funding was meant to be used to purchase instance, the MPRDA has managed to create an enabling equipment, provide rehabilitation guarantees, and cover environment to foster participation of disadvantaged operational costs. The poor outcomes of the programme led to communities. Through community workshops and education its being discontinued in 2005. The majority of the projects programmes, there is increased awareness across the failed to repay the loans. The NSC was replaced with the country. This has resulted in most communities being aware Small Scale Mining Board (SSMB) in 2006. According to of mineral deposits in their areas and the mining and benefi- Mutemeri et al. (2010), a total of 197 projects were handled, ciation opportunities around them. South Africa has also 173 of which were mining and 24 were beneficiation projects. seen an increase in interest from communities to enter and It is not clear how many projects were supported technically participate in mining. The MPRDA has managed to open up and/or financially, but an article published in 2015 in Mining the industry, particularly to women and the youth who Weekly reported that R15.1 million was allocated to assist 20 perceive mining as potential business ventures. In spite of the small-scale mining projects (Solomons, 2015). While these challenges of obtaining mining licences, the majority across programmes were able to assist some small-scale mining the country is aware of the regulatory and administrative projects to become viable, overall results are not visible. The processes and requirements thereof. The main barrier to DMR has since stopped providing funding to small-scale mineral rights access is the hefty costs. miners. Other policy issues relate to the provisions of the mining No impact assessment has been done to evaluate the permit. It has been argued that the restrictions in areal extent performance of these projects. While on site, it was and mining duration limit the sustainable growth of the discovered that some projects have been abandoned with sector (DMR, 2014). Common practice has been to apply for equipment and machinery vandalized at some operations. several mining permits to increase the mining area. As part of The projects which are still active are still struggling and the proposed amendments in 2008, the MPRDA increased the operate on a hand-to-mouth basis (the case of sandstone areal extent from 1.5 hectares to 5 hectares (MPRDA miners in the Free State). There are very few success stories. Amendment Act 2008). There is currently a proposal in the The failure of most projects is related to the following gaps: MPRDA Amendment Bill to increase the mining duration to a the lack of business skills, management skills, and lack of total of 7 years as opposed to 5 years (after renewals). This is capacity from the DMR to monitor and support projects. still under review, but some small-scale miners feel that it is still too little considering the size of the deposit they are   exploiting (for example salt miners). Access to markets is a major challenge for most small-scale miners. This is because most of these operations are located   in remote areas and far from major markets. In addition, the Mining (whether large or small) is a risky business given the majority of operations lack the requisite marketing skills and level of uncertainties. The bulk of small-scale mining knowledge to identify and compete in major markets. Most operations are in a much worse position than large-scale operations rely of word-of-mouth advertising and referrals as operations. This is because the level of uncertainties extends the only means of marketing. Common markets for ASM far beyond those experienced by LSM operations. This is constitute small markets and these comprise individual brought about by the lack of knowledge in terms of: mineral customers and small businesses operating in their areas. resource potential, lifespan of the deposit, economic value of Market opportunities for small-scale operations have the deposit, market availability, cash flows, and skills and been identified in the industrial minerals sector. Industrial capacity. Most financial institutions do not offer any financial minerals are defined as ‘any rock, mineral or other naturally assistance to small-scale miners. occurring substance of economic value, exclusive of metal

         
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 37 L The status of artisanal and small-scale mining sector in South Africa ores, mineral fuels and gemstones’ (Kogel et al., 2006). knowledge (indigenous knowledge), cost of intellectual Regarded as high-volume and low-value minerals, industrial property, lack of consultations with the miners, inadequate minerals remain underexploited in South Africa and hence needs analysis, and cost of equipment (Mutemeri, 2016; present opportunities for small-scale miners. Some of these Hilson, 2015). potential opportunities include salt production and sandstone The need for training and skills was identified as a mining. Salt resources in South Africa are estimated at 53 Mt requirement for the ASM sector. While the shortage of skills and currently only 50 per cent of the demand is met (DMR, in the mining industry is not unique to the ASM sector, 2007). This presents a potential opportunity for salt miners small-scale miners often lack the primary skills to conduct in South Africa. There are also opportunities in the sandstone mining operations. Mintek established the Artisanal and industry. While South Africa holds significant sandstone Small Scale Mining School in 2004 following the introduction deposits, end-users are importing sandstone from of Skills Development Act (No. 97 of 1998), MPRDA, and neighbouring countries, chiefly Lesotho. There are a number South African Qualifications Authority Act (No. 58 of 1995). of domestic market opportunities for small-scale operators, The training programmes offered are accredited by the MQA particularly those producing industrial minerals and and are conducted in accordance with the requirements and construction materials. The demand for industrial minerals is standards set out by the MQA. The courses offered include expected to rise on the back of increased demand for introduction to small-scale mining, mineral beneficiation, construction materials, which is driven by the massive health and safety, surface mining, and underground hard- Government Infrastructure Built Programme (Dlambulo and rock mining. Since its inception, the School has trained well Motsie, 2014). The public sector has spent more than R2.2 over 2000 participants across the country. trillion on infrastructure between 1998 and 2015 (National Figure 2 provide the profiles of participants according to Treasury, 2015). age group. The training programme targets largely Some of the key interventions identified as important in communities in rural and marginalized areas. Over 90 per terms of supporting of small-scale operations include cent of the participants are black South Africans. Of those improved technology, value addition, and access to finance. trained, more than 50 per cent of the participants were In addition, organization of small-scale miners and improved women. There is also a fair representation across different knowledge of markets have been identified as key age groups. It is interesting to note that there is still consid- interventions (Common Fund for Commodities, 2008). erable interest from older participants (>50 years) to enter and participate directly in the mining industry. 
  The training programme has contributed positively to the The level of technology deployed in the ASM sector is charac- development of the ASM sector, as well as making inroads in terized as low. It ranges from rudimentary tools (no terms of educating communities and raising awareness to mechanization) to mechanization on a limited scale. The stimulate interest from HDSAs. The programme has also majority of operations depend on manual labour and the use contributed to improvements in health and safety at existing of basic tools (such as pick and shovel) is very common. The operations. However, a monitoring and evaluation study of need for appropriate technology in the sector is driven by the 47 participants in the programme revealed that none of them need to improve operations to ensure that they are organized, had been able to obtain mining permits due to lack of safe, and environmentally sound. financial resources, costs associated with the license The lack of technology in the sector is partly a result of application, and title deeds issues (Legoale, 2014). the lack of research on the sector, and of funding to support     research. Several technologies have been developed in the sector, particularly for miners involved in gold mining. These The lack of structures to support and carry forward the technologies were developed to eliminate the use of mercury responsibility of assisting small-scale miners was identified during the gold recovery process. Mercury is widely used by as one of the critical gaps in ensuring the development of the artisanal gold miners to extract gold and it constitutes a sector. This was one of the recommendations made by the serious health and safety risk to humans and the Mining, Minerals and Sustainable Development (MMSD) surrounding environment. This can either be through direct report, which called for partnerships between government inhalation or through the consumption of contaminated bodies, educational institutions, private companies, and water, animals, or crops. Extensive research has been undertaken to reduce, and ultimately eliminate, the use of mercury (Common Fund for Commodities, 2008). Examples of such technologies are ThermEx retort, borax, and iGoli mercury-free technology. The iGoli Technology is a product of Mintek, one of South Africa’s science councils. The iGoli technology uses pool acid and bleach to extract gold with recoveries of 99 per cent. However, while it has been proven technically, it has been a struggle to induce small-scale operators to use the technology because of the cost involved, and the perceptions of miners towards the technology have also played a huge role. The reluctance to adopt technology can be attributed to )# *+,(*%))!('%$,)',)'%+ $,,%*()')'#,!*&#*(""+,(&*)'# inadequate training and support, no application of local %&,(#+,#*& !,+#&(+ ,  L 38    
 VOLUME 117          
The status of artisanal and small-scale mining sector in South Africa donors. The idea behind partnerships was to establish a the institutions still offer assistance to small-scale miners. coherent structure that will address the needs of the ASM The DMR has a dedicated Directorate that assists small-scale sector. This was based on the perception that challenges operators. The services provided include the establishment of facing the sector are interrelated, and hence a holistic a legal entity, guidance towards the identification of mineral problem-solving approach is critical. deposits, the compilation of environmental impact Access to information was also identified as a key assessments (EIAs), reserve estimation, and mining required by the Minerals and Mining Policy. Small-scale feasibility and market studies. There is still a need for an operators often lack the necessary information, particularly ‘assistance body’ to promote the sector – similarly to the regarding the location of minerals, geology and mineral structure of the NSC. There is a need to investigate the impact quality, technical mining and processing techniques, minerals of these programmes on the development of the sector, to marketing, regulatory and legislation issues, and compliance. identify successes and failures, and draw lessons for future Part of the responsibilities of the dedicated structure/s was to interventions. Figure 3 provides areas of intervention for provide the necessary information to both aspiring and small-scale miners along the mine value chain and existing miners. recommends key stakeholders that could take the lead in The government, through the DMR (then the Department these initiatives. of Minerals and Energy), took the lead in establishing There are a number of stakeholders with the necessary support structures for ASM development. As mentioned experience and expertise to address the challenges previously, government established several programmes to experienced by small-scale operators. There is a need to facilitate the development of the ASM sector. These include establish synergies and collaborative efforts between the National Small Scale Development Framework (1999), different stakeholders. The African Mining Vision links the National Steering Committee of Service Providers (NSC) poor performance of past interventions to the top-down, ad- (2000), Small Scale Mining Directorate (2004), and Small hoc approaches which mostly lack continuity and adequate Scale Mining Board (2006). The principal objective of these funding (African Mining Vision, 2009). It is argued that the initiatives was to provide technical, managerial, and financial top-down initiatives fail to take cognisance of the inherent support to small-scale mining projects (Dreschler, 2001; structural challenges of ASM (Buxton, 2013). In the majority Mutemeri and Petersen, 2002; Department of Mineral of countries, the central government is responsible for all Resources, 2011). In parallel to these government-led processes including policy formulation, administration, programmes, associated institutions introduced assistance regulation, implementation, and even monitoring and programmes to support the development of small-scale evaluation. South Africa finds itself in a similar situation mining. The MQA, in partnerships with key role-players, where the majority of institutions supporting ASM are developed qualifications, learnerships, and skills programmes national bodies, although there is some representation at the for small-scale mining (Solomon et al., 2012). According to regional level – but not at grassroots level. There is therefore the MQA, a total of 350 learners in all nine provinces, a need to increase the involvement of local organizations. including women, received small-scale mining technical According to Hoadley and Limpitlaw (2004), the low training (Mining Qualifications Authority, 2014). However, involvement of local and municipal government in ASM the MQA has reported that the training has been discon- initiatives and programmes impacts on the success of these tinued because its impact to the sector is unclear (MQA, programmes. The need to involve local authorities is 2014). increasingly cited as important in ensuring that the right There is limited information on the impact of these support is provided on the ground. programmes on the small-scale mining sector. Participants in a study conducted by Marriot (2008) on small-scale mining 0&' $)&'-,%
+, % *+,&,%
+,,$+%&* in KwaZulu-Natal attributed the poor performance to lack of It is difficult to measure progress and the impact of support skills and capacity within the Department, lack of continuity, interventions on the development of the ASM sector. This is and poor stakeholder communication and co-ordination. largely because of the lack of data on the sector and the Institutional support has been a learning curve for interventions themselves. In the few available studies, there government and related institutions. While most of the is no reliable data with respect to the exact number of people aforementioned programmes have been discontinued, most of employed by the sector, range of activities, geographical

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 39 L The status of artisanal and small-scale mining sector in South Africa distribution, demographic profiles, and its contribution to the HOADLEY, M. and LIMPITLAW, D. 2004. The artisanal and small scale mining economy. However, through field experience, it has been sector and sustainable livelihoods. Small Scale Mining Conference, Mintek, Randburg, South Africa, 9 September 2004. pp. 1–9. observed that ASM activities in South Africa are widespread, INTERNATIONAL LABOUR ORGANIZATION (ILO). 1999. Social and labour issues in occurring in all nine provinces. The majority of small-scale small-scale mines. Geneva, Switzerland. miners exploit industrial minerals such as sand and KOGEL, J.E., TRIVEDI, N.C., BARKER, J.M., and KRUKOWSKI, S.T. 2006. Industrial aggregates, clay minerals, and dimension stone. The Minerals and Rocks: Commodities, Markets and Uses. Society for Mining, challenges facing the sector today are similar to those when Metallurgy and Exploration, Littleton, CO. the sector was formally recognized. The major challenges LEDWABA, P., MALATSI, R., MOELETSI, R., and MOSENA, C. 2013. Understanding the remain access to minerals rights, finance, and markets, small-scale mining industry in the Northern Cape – Primary focus on appropriate technology and skills, and a structured support tiger’s eye. Internal Report. Mintek, Randburg, South Africa. framework. The past efforts introduced to support the sector LEDWABA, P. and NHLENGETHWA, K. 2016. When policy is not enough: prospects and challenges of artisanal and small-scale mining in South Africa. have made inroads in addressing some of these issues. There Journal of Sustainable Development Law and Policy, vol. 7, no. 1. is therefore a need for research to assess the real impact of http://www.ajol.info/index.php/jsdlp/article/view/140511 past and existing interventions on the ASM sector to draw LEGOALE, T. 2014. Monitoring and evaluation of previously trained SMMEs. lessons for future development. The ASM sector is an Internal Report. Mintek, Randburg, South Africa. important sector in the economy. Experience in other LOVE, J. 2015. Report of the SAHRC investigative hearing. Issues and countries suggests that if the sector is well supported, it could challenges in relation to unregulated artisanal underground and surface results in socio-economic benefits for local communities and mining activities in South Africa. A report prepared for the South African Human Rights Commission (SAHRC). the country as a whole. MALATSI, R., LEDWABA, P., and MAVUSO, M. 2012. Industrial minerals database. Internal Report. Mintek, Randburg, South Africa. '&+#+"+'% MARRIOTT, A. 2008. Extending health and safety protection to informal workers: This research was conducted at both the Centre for an analysis of small scale mining in KwaZulu-Natal. Research report no. Sustainability in Mining and Industry (CSMI) at the 76. School of Development Studies, University of KwaZulu-Natal. January 2008. University of the Witwatersrand and Mintek. The author MINE HEALTH AND SAFETY COUNCIL. 2011. The Mine Health and Safety Council would like to extend gratitude to both institutions. work on the small scale mining project. Johannesburg.

MINING QUALIFICATIONS AUTHORITY (MQA). 2014. Sector skills plan for the mining ++*+'+$ and minerals sector submitted by the Mining Qualifications Authority AFRICAN NATIONAL CONGRESS (ANC). 2004. Draft Mineral and Energy Policy. (MQA) to the Department of Higher Education and Training Update 2015- http://www.anc.org.za/show.php?id=253 [Accessed 11 April 2016]. 2020. p. 27.

BUXTON, A. 2013. Responding to the challenge of artisanal and small-scale MINING WEEKLY ONLINE. 2009. SA courts now recognise illegal mining as mining. How can knowledge networks help? International Institute for organised crime, http://www.miningweekly.com/print-version/sa-courts- Environment and Development. now-recognise-illegal-mining-as-organised-crime-2009-11-13 [Accessed Chamber of Mines. 2016. Illegal and artisanal mining. Fact sheet 2016. 8 October 2014]. Johannesburg, South Africa. MUTEMERI, N. and PETERSEN, F.W. 2002. Small-scale mining in South Africa: COMMON FUND FOR COMMODITIES. 2008. Regional Workshop: Small-scale Mining in Past, present and future. Natural Resource Forum. Africa - A Case for Sustainable Livelihood. November 2008. MUTEMERI, N., SELLICK, N., and MTEGHA, H. 2010. What is the status of small- DEPARTMENT OF MINERAL RESOURCES. 2007. Structure of the salt industry in the scale mining in South Africa?. Discussion document for the MQA SSM Republic of South Africa. Mineral Economics. Report R62/2007. Pretoria. Colloquium, August 2010.

DEPARTMENT OF MINERAL RESOURCES. 2011. Nurturing Junior Miners of the Future: NATIONAL TREASURY. 2015. Public-sector infrastructure update. A Strategic Framework to facilitate the growth of small scale mining sector http://www.treasury.gov.za/documents/national%20budget/2015/review/ in South Africa. Pretoria. Annexure%20b.pdf [Accessed 8 August 2016].

DEPARTMENT OF MINERAL RESOURCES. 2012. Annual Report 2011/2012. NHLENGETWA, K. and HEIN, K. 2015. Zama-Zama mining in the Durban http://www.gov.za/sites/www.gov.za/files/Department_of_Mineral_Resour Deep/Roodepoort area of Johannesburg, South Africa: An invasive or ces_annual_report_2011_2012.pdf [Accessed 8 August 2016]. alternative livelihood? The Extractive Industries and Society.

DEPARTMENT OF MINERAL RESOURCES. 2015. Community workshop. Mpakeni Tribal NHLENGETWA, K. 2016. Why it doesn’t make sense that all informal mining is Authority, White River, Mpumalanga. 4 August 2015. deemed illegal. http://theconversation.com/why-it-doesnt-make-sense- DEPARTMENT OF MINERALS AND ENERGY (DME). 1998. A Minerals and Mining that-all-informal-mining-is-deemed-illegal-57237 [Accessed 13 April Policy for South Africa. Department of Minerals Resources. 2012. Mining 2016]. Permit Applications Database. Pretoria. SCOTT, R., ROCKEY, N., and HUDSON, R. 1998. The status of small-scale mining in DLAMBULO, N. and MOTSIE, R. 2014. Industrial minerals overview. South Africa’s South Africa – A preliminary study. Minerals and Energy Policy Centre Minerals Industry. Department of Mineral Resources, Pretoria. and The Marketing Shop. October 1998.

DRESCHLER, B. 2001. Small scale mining and sustainable development within SOLOMONS, I. 2015. Artisanal, small-scale mining could stimulate huge socioe- SADC region. Minerals Mining and Sustainable Development (MMDS) conomic benefits. http://www.miningweekly.com/print-version/artisanal- Report. no. 84. August 2001. and-small-scale-mining-sector-needs-more-support---dmr-2015-07-17 ENGINEERING NEWS. 1999. http://www.engineeringnews.co.za/print- [Accessed 8 August 2016]. version/madunax2019s-pledge-to-south-africax2019s-3-000-illegal- SOLOMONS, M. 2012. The rise of resource nationalism: A resurgence of state mines-1999-02-26 [Accessed 8 August 2016]. control in an era of free markets or the legitimate search for a new FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION WITH SALT MINERS. Soutpan. Free State. 29 October 2014. equilibrium? A study to inform multi-stakeholder dialogue on state-partic- GOVERNMENT GAZETTE. 2002, Mineral Petroleum Resource and Development Act ipation in mining. Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, (No. 28 of 2002) (MPRDA). Republic of South Africa. 10 October 2002. Johannesburg. GOVERNMENT GAZETTE. 2013, Mineral and Petroleum Resources Development http://www.saimm.co.za/Conferences/ResourceNationalism/ResourceNatio Amendment Bill. Republic of South Africa. 31 May 2013. nalism-20120601.pdf

GOVERNMENT GAZETTE. 1994. White Paper on Reconstruction and Development STATISTICS SA. 2016. Quarterly Labour Force Survey. 9 May 2016. Pretoria. Programme (RDP). Cape Town, 15 November 1994. World Bank. 2013. Artisanal and small scale mining. GOVERNMENT GAZETTE. 2009. Mineral and Petroleum Resource Development http://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/extractiveindustries/brief/artisanal- Amendment Act, 2008. Cape Town, 21 April 2009. and-small-scale-mining [accessed 8 August 2016]. N L 40    
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http://dx.doi.org/10.17159/2411-9717/2017/v117n1a7 Employee attitudes to work safety in Poland’s coal mining companies by K. Tobor-Osadnik*, M. Wyganowska*, and A. Manowska*

(Najmiec, 2003), almost half of all work- )/-050 related accidents result from incorrect or inappropriate employee behaviour and an The behaviour of employees is an essential issue in the field of occupa- improper attitude towards safety in the work tional health and safety. Safe behaviour is to a large extent determined by, apart from motivation and preventive actions, an employee’s attitude environment. This refers not only to the towards hazard. Thus, attention should be given to defining employees’ attitude towards workplace hazards, but also attitudes, and following that, to the possibility of correcting and shaping to attitudes towards following health and these attitudes in relation to hazard and obeying occupational health and safety regulations and the notion of workplace safety regulations. The authors have focused on the analysis of employee safety. Hence attention should be given to attitudes to health and safety regulations in Polish coal mining companies, defining the attitudes of employees, and to the taking into consideration earlier research on the behaviour of selected possibility of correcting and shaping these employees. The paper presents the methods used to identify Z-type attitudes in relation to the notion of hazard (passive) behaviour. Next, this behaviour is analysed to identify and obeying occupational health and safety differences between a Z-type employee (enslaved) and other employees. regulations. Taking into account the To conclude, the paper presents a list of possible motivational tools that arguments above and previous research may be used to encourage occupational health and safety in Z-type employees. conducted in the area of freelance professions (expert creditors, accountants) (Tobór-Osadnik 71)-3.0 et al., 2013), corporations, metallurgy and coal mining, safety, employee attitudes. mining companies (Tobór-Osadnik and Wyganowska, 2012) on defining selected employees’ attitudes, the authors decided to address the problem of employee attitudes 8/23-.,&25-/ towards occupational health and safety in coal The technical state of equipment and mining companies. conditions in the workplace greatly influence Previous research indicates that a occupational safety. However, the deciding significant number of workers present a factor influencing the rate of accidents in the passive attitude towards work, expecting full workplace is the frequency with which care from what is widely understood as ‘the employees practise risky behaviour. Factors authorities’, unwilling to undertake any action such as the social conditioning of conduct and in order to change their situation (Tobór- motivation for organizing safe work conditions Osadnik and Wyganowska, 2012) in any facet have been included in the notion of creating a of their work life. This type is referred to as an positive culture of work safety. This notion ‘enslaved worker’ – a so-called Z-type has been approved as one of the main goals in personality (Korach, 2009). This syndrome, in management (Studenski, 1996). various degrees of intensity, can be traced Safe behaviour is to a large extent, apart back to imperfections in the management from motivation and preventive actions, systems in mining companies, mistakes determined by an employee’s attitude towards committed in the process of political transfor- hazard. All actions undertaken in the field of mation, as well as to the ongoing process of occupational health and safety, including training, motivational systems, or imitation of behaviour resulting from a high culture of occupational safety in a given work environment, will not bring about the desire effects if workers have an inappropriate attitude towards occupational health and * Faculty of Mining and Geology, The Silesian safety regulations. University of Technology, Gliwice,Poland. An essential issue in the field of occupa- © The Southern African Institute of Mining and tional health and safety is employee Metallurgy, 2017. ISSN 2225-6253. Paper received behaviour. According to statistical data Oct. 2015; revised paper received Jul. 2016.

         
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 41 L Employee attitudes to work safety in Poland’s coal mining companies strengthening procedures in many areas of company Factor ‘M’ is a measure of an ingrained sense of injustice activities, which may lead to a decline in creativity, a sense of and oppression. Such an attitude is characterized by co-responsibility and self-control among some workers. excessive suspicion, putting blame on others, insane claims. An interesting fact is that an attitude such as this occurs Factor ‘E’ is a measure of the ‘egotistic attitude’ in an among workers raised or even born in Poland following the organization. When this factor is intensified in an employee, changes in the political system in 1989. These workers, it shows in an attitude of unwillingness to take responsibility similarly to their peers in other countries, display a syndrome for the fate of others. This dimension is particularly of learned helplessness in the professional environment dangerous in relation to attitudes towards OHS regulations at (Moczydłowska, 2005; Coutu, 2002). This probably results work (Tobór-Osadnik, Kabalski, and Wyganowska, 2013). from the Polish education system. It often refers to As an employee cannot be assigned to one type only, it is individuals as having enormous potential and development possible to determine only the dominating type. Thus, while possibilities, but at the same time unwilling to change their studying these three assumed dimensions (factors) in the Z- situation. These people expect full control and actions in type worker, we can determine a distance to each of the accordance with patterns (‘fill in the test’, ‘follow the factors, treating them as a measure of the dominance of procedure’) (Harvey, 2009; Douglas and Martinko, 2001; individual factors in the employee’s general attitude. Martinko et al., 2005). Such attitudes are strengthened in On the basis of such assumptions the authors developed corporations with a strong hierarchy and an autocratic a tool (study questionnaire) to measure the intensity of S, M, management style. Large coal mining corporations belong to and E traits in the Z-type worker. Each question was graphed this category. from a decided lack of a particular trait to the strongest Management effectiveness or adherence to occupational intensity of the trait. The questions included various areas of health and safety (OHS) regulations tend to be weakened professional and personal life to exclude accidental answers when Z-type attitudes dominate in a work team and become or attempts at positive self-creation. the behavioural norm for the majority because other The enslaved attitude as such is not detrimental towards employees, observing no reaction to the behaviour of a Z- workplace safety. Appropriate management and choice of type worker, may adopt a similar attitude (Muethel and tasks for such an employee will ensure a correct attitude Hoegl, 2010). towards OHS. Blanchard (2007), the originator of the concept of situational management, recommends a style of instruction management in such a situation – creating clearly defined 10&3525-/6-(61!+-)110602,.51.642252,.10 goals, a full action plan, and controlling its realization. Employee attitudes have been widely characterized in the Identification of such employees’ attitudes allows an effective works of Tobór-Osadnik and Wyganowska (Tobór-Osadnik manager to control all subordinates in such a way as to and Wyganowska, 2007, 2011; Tobór-Osadnik, 2012; Tobór- realize intended goals, including those in the field of occupa- Osadnik, Kabalski, and Wyganowska, 2013). The studies tional health and safety. show that employee attitudes do not depend on age or duration of employment, but are presented by individuals :10143&96!129-.-+-*) displaying a syndrome of ‘learned helplessness’ in their professional environment (Moczydłowska, 2005). Such In order to identify the attitude of a Z-type worker towards individuals expect full control and pattern-following (‘fill in OHS regulations, a survey was conducted involving three of the test’, ‘follow the procedure’) (Harvey, 2009). Such the largest Polish coal mining companies: KHW SA, KW SA, attitudes are strengthened in organizations with a strong and JSW SA. hierarchy and an autocratic management style. Arnott emphasizes that the strong culture of such organizations is reflected in the hierarchical structures based on following S slavery procedures, full control, and normativity (Yildiz, 2014). Studies on such behaviour in Polish companies were conducted by Grzywacz and Ochinowski (2003), who also demonstrated the existence of this phenomenon in the organizations they studied. Employee engagement in an organization’s activities was also analysed by Macey and Schneider (2008). Aspects of employee engagement in the organization’s activities described by Macey and Schneider correlate with the traits (factors) of a Z-type worker determined by Korach (2009): ® Factor ‘S’ – slavery ® Factor ‘M’ – martyrdom ® Factor ‘E’ – egotism (Figure 1). E M egotism martyrdom Factor ‘S’ determines the degree of dependence upon the system displayed by the individual. It denotes an enslaved 5*,316% 5024/&162-6(4&2-306"6 "6 640646!140,316(-3646.10&3525-/ attitude, displaying an ‘it must be so’ character. -(6462)16-3136 -'304./5"6% L 42    
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Employee attitudes to work safety in Poland’s coal mining companies

Selecting the appropriate sample size is an important [5] issue in employing surveys as a tool, as the results from the sample should reflect the entire population of which the where h is the range of the interval. sample is a part. Equation [1] can be used to determine the In this manner seven variability intervals were estimated minimum sample size with a predefined level of precision: and determined for further analyses (Table I). The percentage distribution of individual respondents in [1] the intervals is shown in Figure 2. A comparison of responses to those of the assumed where pattern (no evidence of traits of Z-type employee) was used s^2 is the variance to identify employee attitudes. The resulting differences in 2 t is the value read off from Student’s t distribution tables observed values, or dispersion, were used for further for confidence level 1- analyses, in which the larger the value of dispersion, the e2 is the maximum permissible estimate error. more the value for each observation deviated from the Many different techniques, both direct and indirect, are expected pattern (Aczel, 2010). used to select a random sample. For this investigation, a Thus, in order to illustrate the dispersion of employee sample was drawn from the staff time-registration system. In attitudes in relation to the pattern, the Mahalanobis distance order to comply with all the rules of probability, a random- was used – the distance between two points in n-dimensional selection algorithm was used to select workers to complete space, which varies the contribution of individual the survey. A sample selected in this manner is most likely to components and uses the correlation between them. This display the characteristics of the entire population. technique is used in statistics in determining the similarity In order to determine the minimum sample size, one must between the unknown random variable and the variable from also specify, in advance, the level of confidence 1- and the known set (standard) (Statistica, 2010). maximum (permissible) margin of error e. In the present Studying the correlation between unknown random survey, it was assumed that 95% of the results did not differ variables (x) for workers involved in the study, the similarity from the actual values, thus setting a significance level  = (i) of each variable was compared to variable
of the model, 10%, resulting in a maximum margin of error also at 10% taking into account the information on the variances in the i-

(value t was read from the Student’s t-level distribution variables and the correlations between them. The  tables 1—2, as there is a two-tailed critical region). Equation Mahalanobis distance is equal to the Euclidean distance when [1] takes the following form: each i variables are not correlated, which is expressed by Equation [6] (Aczel, 2010): [2] [6] It can be assumed from Equation [2] that the sample is representative at the level of 186 ± 18 correctly completed questionnaires. Thus, we may assume that in accordance with the assumptions the research met the requirements of sample size for further analysis. Table I The surveys were research-directed – that is, they were 4354'5+52)65/213$4+0 characterized by all participants being trained and directed as to how to correctly complete the questionnaire. In addition, No traits 0 2.714286 Traits barely noticeable 2.714286 5.428571 support from a researcher was available throughout the Noticeable traits 5.428571 8.142857 entire time the questionnaire was being completed. The Medium-significant traits 8.142857 10.85714 workers who participated in the study were diverse in terms Significant traits 10.85714 13.57143 Essential traits 13.57143 16.28571 of age, seniority, education, and position at work. Overall, Strong traits 16.28571 19 218 correctly completed questionnaires were collected and used for statistical analysis. Respondents were differentiated according to age, length of employment, level of education, and work position. The minimum size of the research sample was determined using an independent simple selection: To estimate the number of intervals the following formula was used (Stanisławek, 2010): [3] where k is the number of intervals and n is the size of the survey sample. [4] Seven variability intervals were assumed for further research. The ranges of the intervals were determined on the 5*,316 13&1/24*16.50235',25-/6-(60,3$1)1.6-313064&&-3.5/*62- basis of the mathematical dependency (Starzynska, 2009): $4354'5+52)65/213$4+065/.5$5.,4+602,.)

         
VOLUME 117    
 43 L Employee attitudes to work safety in Poland’s coal mining companies where The responses of workers who did not demonstrate any dm(x,
) is the Mahalanobis distance i of the variable for x- of the Z-type traits were completely different: employee ® Only 67% believed that they were prepared well to the x1, … xn are the answers of respondents professional work during the process of professional
1, …,
n is the model, adaptation Mahalanobis distance calculations were performed using the Matlab 7.1 program, in which a procedure for determining the degree of slavery of a surveyed worker in relation to the assumed model was implemented. The procedure was as follows: for i = 1:n, X(:,i) = dane(:,i)-idea; C(i) = cov(X(:,i)); end where: the data table includes the survey responses the idea table is the developed model ‘cov’ is the Matlab 7.1 function entered, illustrating the covariance of the ‘data’ and ‘idea’.

:10,+20 For individual variability intervals, employee attitudes towards OHS in the workplace, from the least intensified Z- 5*,316 4354'5+52)634/*106(3-!6#62-6#%"6-25&14'+16234520 type traits to the strongest ones, were characterized. Then, 5/.5$5.,4+602,.) extreme intervals were compared to identify whether a Z-type worker displays a different attitude towards OHS than that of others. The research included the following issues: ® Has the professional adaptation process prepared you well for work in a safe environment? ® Are you personally responsible for following OHS regulations? ® Does your family’s financial wellbeing depend on your career security? ® Does complying with OHS regulations make your work more difficult? ® Would you breach OHS regulations in order to keep your job? ® Would you breach OHS regulations in order to make your work easier? The attitudes of employee from the lowest to the highest intensity of Z-traits (from ‘Noticeable traits’ to ‘Essential 5*,316 4354'5+52)634/*106(3-!6#%62-6%#"6 1.5,!05*/5(5&4/2 traits) are compared in Figures 3–6. 23452065/.5$5.,4+602,.) The results of the survey showed that 13.4% of the respondents showed a ‘significant level’ of Z-type worker attitudes (Figure 2). The attitudes of this group of employees can be summarized as follows (Figures 3–6). ® Employees with Z-type attitudes believed that they were well-prepared for professional work during the process of professional adaptation (96% of respondents) ® As many as 25% of individuals with such an attitude did not feel directly responsible for complying with OHS regulations ® 50% of individuals believed that the financial security of their families depends on their career security ® As many as 67% of respondents with the enslaved Z- type attitude expressed the opinion that complying with OHS regulations makes work more difficult ® 54% of respondents would breach OHS regulations to 5*,316 4354'5+52)634/*106(3-!6%#62-6%# "65*/5(5&4/26234520 make their work easier. 5/.5$5.,4+602,.) L 44    
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5*,316 4354'5+52)634/*106(3-!6%# 62-6%#"6 001/254+623452065/.5$5.,4+602,.)

® 100% felt directly responsible for complying with OHS such workers would be less diligent in complying with regulations and actively applying those regulations. This is a cause ® 67% of individuals believed that the financial security for concern, since such attitudes, if strongly displayed, of their families depends on their career security could adversely affect compliance with OHS regulations ® 67% of respondents were of the opinion that complying in the entire community with OHS regulations does not make their work more ® Z-type workers are willing to breach OHS regulations difficult in order to keep their jobs. ® 67% of respondents would breach OHS regulations to The differences in attitudes between Z-type workers and make their work easier. These are individuals who are the remaining respondents proves the necessity of studying more strongly self-controlled. the phenomenon and conducting further investigations in The research showed a difference in attitude between this field, especially in the area of recruitment (to eliminate employees with a strong intensity of Z-traits and other such candidates), periodic evaluations, safety motivational workers regarding compliance with OHS regulations and their programmes, analysis of causes of accidents, and OHS perception of safety in the workplace. This encourages us to promotion. concentrate on developing motivational tools to control such On the basis of the characteristics of the Z-type attitude, workers so that they do not become a source of danger for we can state that a system of motivation for safe work their colleagues. should: 1. Rely on clearly specified principles of individual rewards and punishments, including all essential ,!!43)64/.6&-/&+,05-/0 areas of activities The survey confirmed the occurrence of a significant (13.4%) 2. Precisely determine the range of duties for such group of workers representing the ‘Z’-type attitude in the workers and control their observance of OHS three mining companies, i.e. the passive-enslaved worker regulations strictly and consistently characterized at the beginning of the paper. The answers of 3. Determine evaluation criteria clearly and objectively. respondents in this group indicated a relationship between Z- In this way we may eliminate the sense of injustice type behaviour and attitudes towards OHS regulations. This among workers so as not to strengthen Z-type attitudes. It is was confirmed by comparing the answers of surveyed also worth emphasising that a Z-type (‘passively active’) enslaved workers with those from the respondents that did worker (Tobór-Osadnik and Wyganowska, 2011) needs a not present any traits of the Z-type ‘enslaved’ worker. strong, respected leader or superior, perhaps one displaying ® A larger number of passive-enslaved individuals an authoritarian style of management. indicated that they had been well prepared for safe The developed methodology of research and the original working during their professional adaptation program written for this investigation allows research and ® An enslaved worker feels less direct responsibility for experiments to be performed in any enterprise, automating complying with OHS regulations (25% fewer the generation of results and reporting on the current state. respondents) than other respondents The results obtained allow innovative motivational tools to be ® 67% of workers without passive traits stated that developed for those individuals displaying Z-type personality complying with OHS regulations does not make their traits. The model presented also allows for periodic testing to work more difficult detect any changes in employee behaviour. The generated ® 67% of passive workers stated that OHS regulations model is so versatile that it can be adapted to any local make their work harder, which certainly suggests that occupational health and safety regulations.

         
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MARTYKA, J. 2013. Stan podstawowych elementów kultury bezpieczeństwa osób TOBÓR-OSADNIK, K. and WYGANOWSKA, M. 2011. Identyfikacja postaw pracown- dozoru ruchu w wybranych kopalniach węgla kamiennego (State of the iczych (Identification of employee attitudes). Wiadomości Górnicze, no 3. basic elements of the safety culture of traffic supervisory workers in the pp. 155–161. selected coal mines). Przegląd Górniczy (Polish Mining Review), no. 3. pp. 85–92. TOBÓR-OSADNIK, K. anD WYGANOWSKA, M. 2012. Postawy wobec bezpieczeństwa pracy i bezpieczeństwa zatrudnienia w polskich przedsiębiorstwach MOCZYDŁOWSKA, J. 2005. Wyuczona bezradność - psychologiczna bariera w górniczych węgla kamiennego (Attitudes towards security and security of ograniczaniu nierówności społecznych (Acquired Helplessness - a employment in the Polish coal mining enterprises). Wiadomości Górnicze, Psychological Barrier to Reducing Social Inequalities). [w] Woźniak no. 10. pp. 578–585. M.G.(red.): Kapitał Ludzki i Intelektualny, University of Rzeszów Press, Rzeszów. pp. 419–426. TOBÓR-OSADNK, K. 2012. Identyfikacja Postaw Pracowniczych w Rónych Kulturach Technicznych na Przykładzie Przedsiębiorstwa Górniczego. MUETHEL, M. and HOEGL, M. 2010. Cultural and societal influences on shared (Identification of `workers` attitudes In various technical cultures on the leadership in globally dispersed teams. Journal of International example of mining company), Silesian University of Technology Press, Management, vol. 16, no. 3. pp. 234–246. Gliwice. pp. 10–25.

NAJMIEC, A. and MILCZAREK, M. 2003. Indywidualne uwarunkowania TOBÓR-OSADNIK, K., KABALSKI, P., and WYGANOWSKA, M. 2013. International bezpiecznych zachowań pracowników (Individual determinants workers’ financial reporting standards vs. homo sovieticus personality – the case of safe behaviors), Bezpieczeństwo Pracy (Ocupation Safety. Science and Poland. International Journal of Business and Social Research, vol. 3, Practic) 6. pp. 5. no. 6. pp. 17–35.

OCHINOWSKI, T. and GRZYWACZ, W. 2003. Kult korporacyjny-zwyrodnienie relacji YILDIZ, E.H. 2014. Not all differences are the same: dual roles of status and między firmą a pracownikami (The Corporate Cult : Degeneration of the cultural distance in sociocultural integration in cross-border M&As. Employee-Company Relationship). Zarządzanie Zasobami Ludzkimi Journal of International Management, vol. 20, no. 1. pp. 25–37. N L 46    
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http://dx.doi.org/10.17159/2411-9717/2017/v117n1a8 The influence of mining sequence and ground support practice on the frequency and severity of rockbursts in seismically active mines of the Sudbury Basin by P. Morissette*, J. Hadjigeorgiou*, A.R. Punkkinen†, D.R. Chinnasane†, and A. Sampson-Forsythe†

Passive monitoring is a useful tool in assessing the performance of ground support systems. Forensic analysis, in the context of *=?0:<: rock support in burst-prone ground conditions, The performance of ground support systems under dynamic loading is is the assessment of the damage to an typically assessed in a qualitative and subjective manner. As a result, it is excavation or its support with the purpose of difficult to develop an explicit knowledge on the mechanisms of action and identifying the cause(s) of failure and/or interaction of support elements subjected to rockbursts. This paper validating design parameters (Kaiser and Cai, examines rockbursts that have occurred at Creighton, Copper Cliff, and 2013). This information can be used to Coleman mines since 2000, 2004, and 2006, respectively. The mines are propose remediation strategies or to design located in the Sudbury Basin, in Ontario, Canada. The majority of pertinent information was obtained through on-site field assessments, seismic new reinforcement elements (Li, 2010, 2012; system records, and numerical elastic stress modelling. Passive monitoring Li and Doucet, 2012) or ground support is used to link the evolution of the frequency and severity of rockbursts to systems. Passive monitoring based on reviews the evolution of mining and support practice at the three mine sites. Based of historical rockburst data, on the other hand, on the collected data, ground support elements that enhanced the capacity can trace the evolution of mining and support of support systems to withstand dynamic loads are identified. practice at a mine site and further trace their relation to the frequency and severity of CA*)?;6: rockburst, ground support systems, passive monitoring. rockbursts. This type of analysis, based on observed improvements in managing the consequences of rockbursts, can justify changes in mining strategy and/or support practice. Unusual occurrence reports for =@;?675@

         
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'<37;AB-BB A?9?3<5>9B4>0B?2B@8AB76/7;*B>;A>B:8?)<=3B@8AB9?5>@=6B.?9A4>=B%4?6<2=6B.>;6(B,11!#

A retrievable database was constructed with 183 case studies Morissette et al. (2014) have presented a comprehensive of ground support damage from Creighton, 35 from Copper review of the geology and rock mass properties at Creighton, Cliff, and 105 from Coleman. This paper reports on lessons Copper Cliff, and Coleman mines. Ranges of rock mass quality learned by monitoring changes in mine design and ground and stress conditions typical for the three mines are support with references to rockburst case studies from three represented in Figure 3. In this conceptual diagram, the high-stress underground mines. This is a continuation of observed conditions suggest the potential for brittle rock previous work by Morissette et al. (2014). mass failure and movement of blocks. The stress gradient for Creighton mine is provided in Table I. Stress gradients at <:@?;*B?2B;?5$/7;:@:B>@B.;A<38@?=(B.?00A;B.9<22(B>=6 Copper Cliff and Coleman mines are similar to that at Creighton, given the proximity of the mines. .?9A4>=B4<=A: The mine sites were selected for this investigation based Creighton, Copper Cliff, and Coleman mines operate at on their history of rockbursts and the quality of their seismic different depths and are located within several lithological data. Creighton mine has operated a calibrated seismic units. The majority of rockburst case studies considered in monitoring system for many years. For the purposes of this this analysis were associated with mining of the Deep 400 project, the collection of rockburst data at Creighton covered and 461 orebodies at Creighton, the 100 and 900 orebodies events from January 2000 to September 2013. At Copper Cliff at Copper Cliff, and the Main (MOB) and 153 orebodies at and Coleman mines, the operation of a calibrated seismic Coleman. These six orebodies are represented on the same monitoring system began in 2004 and 2006. Consequently, scale in order to illustrate variations of size and depth among the three mine sites (Figure 2). Slot-and-slash and vertical retreat mining (VRM), i.e. variations of open stope mining, are the predominant mining methods at Creighton and Copper Cliff. The Deep 400 and 461 orebodies at Creighton are mined using a top-down/centre- out (or V-shaped) sequence in order to accommodate higher levels of mining-induced stresses and seismicity. Mining at Copper Cliff, on the other hand, progresses using a bottom-up sequence. At Coleman mine, until December 2013, post pillar cut-and-fill was the predominant mining method in the MOB, with open stope mining being used for sill pillar recovery in the upper part of the orebody (MOB1). The mine is currently transitioning from cut-and-fill to open stope mining in the lower MOB (MOB2 and MOB3) for sill pillar recovery. These areas are represented in magenta on the side view of the MOB (Figure 2). Overhand cut-and-fill is the predominant mining method employed in the ‘narrow-vein’ 153 orebody. Underhand cut-and-fill is used for most of the sill pillar '<37;AB,&A9>@<+AB6A0@8B>=6B+?974AB?2B?;A/?6::?5<>@A6B)<@8B@8A recovery; open stoping accounts for less than 10% of the 4>?;<@*B?2B;?5$/7;:@B5>:AB:@76@B.;A<38@?=(B.?00A;B.9<22(B>=6 mining in the 153 orebody. .?9A4>=B4<=A: L 48    
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frequency and severity of rockbursts might reflect the influence of the increasingly high-stress conditions faced at Creighton as the mining progressed to greater depths. The trend observed at Creighton mine further suggests a gain of experience in managing high-stress and burst-prone conditions over time. Since 2004, Creighton has experienced the least amount of rock displaced due to rockbursts, despite being the deepest of the three mines and the one that experienced rockbursts the most frequently. In the following sections, the evolution of the frequency and severity of rockbursts at Creighton, Copper Cliff, and Coleman mines is analysed by exploring correlations with the evolution of mining and ground support practice at the three sites.

+?97@=6B:700?;@B0;>5@<5A   The 400 and 461 orebodies (Figure 2) have been mined at Creighton over the time period covered by this study. Most of the ore extraction took place in the deep part of the mine, i.e. below the 6400 level (1950 m). Currently, the majority of economic mineralization has been depleted down to the 7400 level (2255 m) in the Deep 400 orebody and to the 7840 level (2390 m) in the 461 orebody. '<37;AB"&?@A=@<>9B2?;B@7==A9B<=:@>/<9<@*B>=6B/;<@@9AB;?5$B4>::B2><97;AB>@ .;A<38@?=(B.?00A;B.9<22(B>=6B.?9A4>=B4<=A:B/>:A6B?=B@8AB59>::<2<5>@;@<=B  %-!!!# At Creighton mine, the occurrence of rockbursts appears to be influenced by the depth and maturity of mine levels (Figure 5). A noticeable increase in the total number of rockbursts Table I is observed as the mine depth approaches the 7400 level (2255 m). Open stopes varying from 53 to 60 m in height @;A::B3;>69B:@;A::A: >3=<@76AB >;A=6 97=3A Below the 7400 level, the spacing between top and bottom sills was reduced to 40 m in anticipation of higher stress σ1 10.35 + 0.0421*Z 270º 10º conditions at greater depths and to better delineate the σ2 8.69 + 0.0330*Z 000º 00º σ3 0.0290*Z 90º 80º mineable reserves. Since 2005, the majority of stopes were mined below the 7400 level in Creighton Deep. Mining in the 461 orebody began in 2006. Recognizing the unfavourable Z represents the depth below the ground surface in metres orientation of the orebody with respect to the major principal stress, reflected by seismic activity in the area over the last few years, the mine employed stopes with a design height of 26 m. Fine-tuning of stope design is an ongoing process at rockburst data from January 2004 and January 2006 to Creighton mine. September 2013 was collected and analysed for Copper Cliff and Coleman mines. From the collected rockburst data, the severity of each rockburst was assessed using visual estimates of the displaced tonnage reported by the ground control personnel at the time. The evolution of the frequency and severity of rockbursts can be represented by the cumulative displaced tonnage over time, given that the complete rockburst history has been collected over the studied time period (Figure 4).

Large-magnitude seismic events (> 2.0 mN) and the associated damage have been much more frequent at Creighton than at Copper Cliff and Coleman. This is reflected by the steady increase in the cumulative displaced tonnage at Creighton (Figure 4). Copper Cliff and Coleman have been occasionally affected by very severe rockbursts that displaced substantial amounts of material. However, at Copper Cliff and Coleman, the rate of displaced tonnage between severe events '<37;AB&.7479>@<+AB@?==>3AB6<:09>5A6B?+A;B@<4AB>:B>B;A:79@B?2 is relatively low. This distinction in the evolution of the ;?5$/7;:@:B>@B.;A<38@?=(B.?00A;B.9<22(B>=6B.?9A4>=B4<=A:

         
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 49 L The influence of mining sequence and ground support practice on rockbursts

'<37;AB&=297A=5AB?2B6A0@8B>=6B4>@7;<@*B?2B4<=AB9A+A9:B?=B@8AB?557;;A=5AB?2B;?5$/7;:@:B>@B.;A<38@?=B4<=A

The reduction in the stope height at Creighton has likely A discrepancy was observed between the HDDR and contributed to preventing an escalation of seismic activity as Paladin raw magnitude data (Figure 8a). To enable the mine progressed to greater depths. This is reflected by the comparison with the Nuttli magnitude scale employed by the evolution of the rate of seismicity, which was assessed from January 2000 to September 2013 using the magnitude-time history analysis technique (Figure 6). This technique is described in detail by Hudyma and Potvin (2010). On the magnitude-time history chart, an approximately constant rate of seismicity was observed between two labour interruption periods, which lasted from April to August 2003 and from July 2009 to July 2010. These two periods are highlighted by grey-shaded areas in Figure 6, within which decay of seismic activity is representative of labour interruption. Between these two periods, a slight decrease in the rate of seismicity was noticed starting late 2005, which could be attributed to the mining of smaller stopes in the 400 orebody. On the other hand, a noticeable increase in the rate of seismicity at Creighton occurred, starting September 2001 '<37;AB& >3=<@76A@<4AB8<:@?;*B2?;B.;A<38@?=B4<=AB:8?)<=3 and accelerating in September 2002. Seismicity during this 4>3=<@76ABA+A=@:B3;A>@A;B@8>=B1B4 period was exacerbated by mining a footwall extension of the  400 orebody between the 7000 and 7200 levels, which generated stress concentrations in the vicinity of the Plum shear zone. This structure is currently amongst the most seismically active of ten major shear zones interpreted within Creighton Deep. Figure 7 illustrates the concentration of seismic events from January to April 2003 in the immediate footwall of the 4487 stope mined in early 2003. These events, of reported magnitude greater than 0.8 mN, coincide with the observed high stress conditions in this area. Differential stresses were assessed using Map3D, a 3D elastic boundary element numerical package. The magnitude-time history analysis for Creighton included data from the two macroseismic monitoring systems employed at the mine: the HDDR from 2000 to May 2008 and the Paladin starting May 2008. The magnitudes recorded on site were cross-validated using the large-magnitude seismic events captured by the Geological Survey of Canada (GSC) (Figure 8). The Nuttli magnitudes of those large events were '<37;AB&<22A;A=@<>9B:@;A::A:B>::?5<>@A6B)<@8B4<=<=3B?2B>B2??@)>99 obtained through the National Earthquake Database A @A=:;6:B@8AB974B:8A>;B?=B@8AB,11B9A+A9 (National Resources Canada, 2015). <=B,11" L 50    
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The influence of mining sequence and ground support practice on rockbursts

in December 2004. In February 2005, a 2.0 m long, 46 mm diameter friction set was introduced as part of the wall support system. This bolt replaced the 1.7 m long, 35 mm diameter friction set and its predecessor, the 39 mm version (Punkkinen and Yao, 2007). As of November 2006, the minimum ground support standard consisted of a diamond pattern of 2.4 m long resin rebars and mechanical bolts in the back and 2.0 m long 46 mm friction sets in the walls. Mechanical bolts and rebars in the back were both installed on a 1.2 m × 1.5 m diamond pattern. Friction sets were the only reinforcement elements employed in the walls and were installed on a 1.2 m × 0.8 m pattern. Reinforcement elements were installed in conjunction with no. 4 gauge galvanized welded wire mesh down to floor level. Shotcrete was frequently applied over the bolts and mesh to provide further surface support. In areas of the mine susceptible to rockbursts, the support standard was enhanced by adding 2.4 m long MCBs and 0/0 gauge straps (Malek et al. 2008) (Figure 9a). The use of mechanical bolts at Creighton mine was discontinued in June 2010 in response to corrosion issues and inadequate performance under dynamic loads. In September 2010, MCB33s (modified cone bolts for instal- lation into 33 mm diameter boreholes) became part of the primary support system below the 7810 level in areas where enhanced support is prescribed. MCB33s are installed along '<37;AB &67:@4A=@:B@?B@8ABA+A=@B4>3=<@76A:B5>0@7;A6B/*B@8AB with resin rebars on a dense, 1.2 m × 1.0 m, diamond >=6B>9>6<=B:A<:4<5B4?=<@?;<=3B:*:@A4:B@?BA=:7;AB>6A 7>@AB5>9@;A>:B:7:5A0@@B.;A<38@?=B4<=AB)<@8B@8AB:700?;@B:*:@A4:B7:A6B2;?4B%># gauge straps as part of its ‘enhanced’ ground support system ,11B@?B,1-1B>=6B%/#B,1-1B@?B6>@A

         
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 51 L The influence of mining sequence and ground support practice on rockbursts longer part of the minimum support standard as it could not in June 2005. Cable bolts are also employed where geological effectively manage higher dynamic loads and often cracked structures, high walls, dynamic loading conditions, or ground and spalled, requiring frequent rehabilitation. Shotcrete is, conditions warrant, at the request of the ground control however, still used regularly on the lower walls and pillar department (Vale 2012). Double 16 mm (5/8 inch) plated noses of bottom sills to prevent damage by production cables are typically installed on a 2.1 m × 2.1 m pattern. For equipment or to rehabilitate damaged mine openings. It is excavation spans smaller than 12 m, the pair of cement- also used as a stiff support element beneath mesh installed grouted cables installed in 5 cm diameter drill-holes consists with dynamic support for permanent infrastructure such as of a 6.4 m long bulged cable and a 5.5 m long plain strand refuge stations or mine power stations, at stope bottom sills cable. as brow control for the production phase, and in backfill A systematic review of rockburst occurrences at Creighton development beneath backfill stopes. Shotcrete is also used mine indicated that in large excavations (span or wall height for all stope fill barricades and in wall or post construction to > 7.3 m), the installation of cable bolts tended to enhance the reduce span in wide openings. Large-diameter inflatable bolts overall performance of the support system (Table II). This are often used in rehabilitation and in areas where the was reflected by the increased severity of damage, presence of highly fractured rock mass does not facilitate the represented by the reported displaced tonnage, in areas where use of resin-grouted bolts. cable bolts were not part of the support system. The Ground control personnel at Creighton mine monitored advantage of using cable bolts can be attributed to their the performance of individual reinforcement and surface capacity of tying the support back to stable ground due to the support elements over time in order to identify limitations in additional length. It may, furthermore, be attributed to the the employed support systems. Following observations of softer behaviour of cable bolts as opposed to other rebar failures in the threaded portion of the tendon through reinforcement elements. Bulged cables provide an immediate 2011 and 2012, the rebar nut was modified with a spherical stiff load response, which is desirable in highly fractured seat to accommodate a dome washer plate (Vale, 2012). The ground, whereas the plain strand cables are capable of dome assembly provides for effective installation of the rebar withstanding moderate dynamic loading conditions without risking damage to the threaded portion of the bolt (Hutchinson and Diederichs, 1996). when installed in unavoidable angular orientations. For several years, the mine successfully employed 46 mm post galvanized friction set bolts (FS-46) with a crimp design bushing. As the production front adversely loaded pillars with the progression of mining to greater depths, crimp failures began to occur in 2011–2012. These repeated failures suggested the limitation of this bolt configuration for the high-stress bottom sills of the 461 orebody and motivated the adoption of a welded-ring design. Pull tests conducted on site demonstrated that the capacity of the ring was enhanced from 10–11 t to 17–18 t with the welded design (Vale, 2012). Furthermore, as part of continuous efforts to explore new support strategies, the mine was, as of September 2013, investigating the performance of the D-bolt on 7910 level (Figure 10).  &'"% !'"' #&'& % "!$ Cable bolting at Creighton Deep is performed systematically and in a timely manner, prior to the installation of mine services, in all intersections where development headings are larger than 5 m × 5 m. In practice, the mine cable-bolts excavations with a span greater than 7.3 m, which corresponds to three times the length of primary '<37;AB-1&8AB0A;2?;4>=5AB?2B@8AB/?9@B%*A99?)0><=@A6B09>@A:#B7=6A; reinforcement elements, as per the support standard reviewed A+>97>@B;;B?=B@8AB!-1B9A+A9B>@B.;A<38@?=B4<=A

Table II =297A=5AB?2B5>/9AB/?9@:B?=B;?5$/7;:@B:A+A;<@*B<=B9>;3ABA 5>+>@;>5@A;<A6B/*B>B:0>=B?;B)>99B8A<38@B3;A>@A; @8>=B"B4B>@B.;A<38@?=B <=A

,111,11 ,11,1-" =:@>99>@@A6B +A;>3AB@?==>3ABB 74/A;B?2B .7479>@A6B +A;>3AB@?==>3ABB 5>/9AB/?9@:;?5$/7;:@:6<:09>5A6B@?==>3A ;?5$/7;:@ ;?5$/7;:@: 6<:09>5A6B@?==>3A ;?5$/7;:@

Yes 5 227 45.4 11 73 6.6 No 9 2021 224.6 4 122 30.5 L 52    
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The influence of mining sequence and ground support practice on rockbursts

 $$$ "! events was triggered by the crown blast of the 94561 stope in the upper 100 orebody (3050 to 3200 level) at 07:21. The The majority of changes in stope dimensions and support seismic events resulted in damage to mine excavations from practice at Creighton were initiated between 2004 and 2005. 2700 level down to 3710 level. The distance between the Recent modifications to the enhanced support system became epicenter of the 3.8 m seismic event and the damage ranged part of the standard in 2010. The evolution of the frequency N from 40 m to over 200 m. The rockburst displaced an and severity of rockbursts at Creighton, depicted in Figure 4, estimated total of 2100 t as the most prominent damage shows strong correlations with these changes. These mechanism was interpreted as seismic shakedown due to the correlations are emphasized in Figure 11. As ground support 3.8 m event (Suorineni and Vasak, 2008). The most severe practice was modified for deep and high-stress conditions, a N damage, estimated at 1360 t displaced, occurred in the mine significant decline in the rate of rockburst damage was ramp between the 3500 and 3550 levels (Figure 13a). This observed. damage area was located 73 m away from the 3.8 mN event    and was characterized by a span of 4.9 m. The reported depth Copper Cliff and Coleman mines, although not as deep and of failure in the ramp extended far beyond the primary seismically active as Creighton, have encountered very reinforcement, varying from 3 m to 6 m. The other three most severe, although sporadic, rockbursts since 2004 and 2006 severely damaged areas comprised the section of the ramp respectvely. At Copper Cliff Mine, the most severe events between the 3000 and 3050 levels (Figure 13b), the return occurred on 25 March and 11 September 2008 (Figure 4). air drift on 3500 level, and the 3710 level footwall drift. The damage to mine excavations and support systems in these ' # ''#"#$% three areas was localized at the intersection with the Trap Dyke and was estimated at 181, 363, and 91 t respectively. On 25 March 2008, a recorded 2.9 mN seismic event generated over 635 t of displaced material on the 3880 level The ramp, as well as the majority of the excavations of the 900 orebody. The seismic source was located in the affected by the 11 September 2008 rockburst, was supported vicinity of the Trap Dyke, one of the most prominent using a diamond pattern of 1.8 m long mechanical bolts and seismically active geological structures at the mine (Hudyma rebars in the back and 1.8 m long mechanical bolts in the and Brummer, 2007), which is located between the 100 and walls (Chinnasane, 2009). The surface support in the damage 900 orebodies (Figure 2). Damage to the installed ground locations generally consisted of no. 6 welded wire mesh. support system occurred within 31 to 39 m from the epicentre Plain shotcrete, however, was applied over the mesh on the 3200 (Figure 14) and 3710 levels. Although the damage was of the 2.9 mN seismic event. The damage areas at the time were supported using a combination of 1.8 m long typically less severe in areas where shotcrete was applied, the mechanical bolts and rebars in the back and 1.7 m long 39 support system generally did not perform satisfactorily under mm friction sets in the walls. The surface support consisted seismic shaking (Suorineni and Vasak, 2008). of no. 6 welded wire mesh overlapped with plain shotcrete. In intersections, 6.4 m long cable bolts were installed on a 2.1 × 2.1 m pattern. Photographs of the most severely damaged areas revealed a complete collapse of the surface support and failure of several friction set and mechanical bolts, which were found in the muck pile (Figure 12). '&%&&#''#"#$% The 11 September 2008 rockburst was the result of a series of 10 seismic events that ranged from 1.2 to 3.8 mN and occurred from 07:21 to 08:06 (Yao et al., 2009). The series of

'<37;AB--&.?;;A9>@4>3AB@?B@8AB!, 1B:<99B?=B@8AB" 1B9A+A9B?2B@8AB!11B?;A/?6*

:*:@A4:B>=6B@8AB2;A 7A=5*B>=6B:A+A;<@*B?2B;?5$/7;:@:B>@B.;A<38@?= >@B.?00A;B.9<22B4<=A(B@;<33A;A6B/*B>B;A5?;6A6B,!B4 :A<:4<5BA+A=@B?= 4<=A ,B >;58B,11 B%>>+<(B,11 #

         
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pattern. When burst-prone conditions were anticipated, the 39 mm friction sets were replaced by 46 mm friction sets in the design. Shotcrete was applied over the mesh and 2.4 m long MCBs were installed in conjunction with 0/0 gauge straps on a 1.2 × 1.8 m pattern (Chinnasane et al., 2012). Since 2013, Copper Cliff mine has moved towards the use of 2.4 m long D-bolts on a 1.2 m × 1.5 m diamond pattern in the back and shoulders, and 46 mm friction sets in the walls as part of a first-pass dynamic ground support strategy. Second-pass wall support includes 2.4 m long D-bolts on a 1.5 m × 1.5 m pattern in conjunction with three 0/0 gauge straps installed horizontally at 1.5 m spacing. Since 2008, the mining sequence has been adjusted by postponing the extraction of the 900 orebody in order to minimize the seismic hazard associated with mining on both sides of the Trap Dyke, (Vale, 2010). Finally, preconditioning of rock masses became standard practice when developing in the vicinity of the Trap Dyke. From a ground control point of view, the use of de-stress blasting in development headings and adjustments to the mining sequence and ground support systems have been beneficial to Copper Cliff mine. Since the 11 September 2008 events, only eight rockbursts have occurred at the mine. These rockbursts resulted in 91 t of cumulated displaced rock material from nine mine locations. Damage to the installed support system occurred in only four of these locations. In '<37;AB-"&>4>3AB@?B@8AB.?00A;B.9<22B4<=AB;>40B>:B>B;A:79@B?2B>B the remaining locations, the broken material was displaced " B4 :A<:4<5BA+A=@B?=B--BA0@A4/A;B,11 B%>#B5;?:::A5@40B/A@)AA=B@8AB"11B>=6B"1B9A+A9:B>=6B%/#B08?@?3;>08B?2B@8AB- -B@ ?2B4>@A;<>9B6<:09>5A6B)8A;AB@8AB;>40B<=@A;:A5@:B@8AB;>0B*$AB/A@)AA= faces. Since 2008, the mine has been able to significantly @8AB"111B>=6B"11B9A+A9:B%.8<==>:>=A(B,11!# reduce the rockburst hazard associated with production blasting. In effect, six of the eight rockbursts since 2008 were associated with development activities, and three of them occurred while progressing through the Trap Dyke.

 At Coleman mine, the most severe series of rockbursts occurred from September 2010 to April 2011 (Figure 4). The three rockbursts that were the most damaging to the support are reviewed in this section.

'&%&&#''#"#$%

On 24 September 2010, a 2.6 mN seismic event displaced approximately 181 t from two accesses to Block 2 of the 153 '<37;AB-&<3=<2<5>=@B5;>5$<=3B?2B:8?@5;A@A(B@8AB<=:@>99A6B:700?;@ orebody on the 4700 mine level (Figure 15a). The seismic :*:@A4B<=B@8AB4><=B<=@A;:A5@@A;<>9B?=B--BA0@A4/A;B,11 B%.8<==>:>=A( imately 55 m from the resulting damage. About 172 t were ,11! displaced from the back of the 11/12 access (5.5 m span) near the intersection, at the location of a narrow bornite stringer (Razavi, 2010).  $%&!%$'%"'$"#%'# % &' !' ! !'$&&!&' % The 2.4 m long rebars and mechanical bolts installed in "&#' ' !& the backs of the Cut 11/12 and 9/10 accesses were heavily The significant levels of rehabilitation required after the 11 corroded (Figure 15b, c). Consequently, the bolts were not September 2008 rockburst prompted a revision of the support effective in holding the damaged ground. The no. 6 gauge practices at Copper Cliff mine. Since 2008, many of the mesh-reinforced shotcrete was also severely damaged during support elements successfully used at Creighton mine have the event. Cable bolts installed in the backs of the been introduced on the site. At the present time, the intersections were, however, very effective in preventing minimum ground support standard employed at Copper Cliff further damage from extending outside of the accesses. consists of no. 4 welded wire mesh installed with 1.8 or 2.4 m long resin rebars in the back, depending on the size of '" &&#''#"#$% the opening, and 1.7 m long 39 mm friction sets in the walls. An estimated 360 to 450 t was displaced from the 4320-3 The reinforcement is installed on a 1.2 × 1.5 m diamond access on the 4400 level of the narrow-vein 153 orebody on L 54    
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The influence of mining sequence and ground support practice on rockbursts

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20 November 2010. A development blast had been fired at stope were fired on 17 December 2010 and 4 April 2011. 05:07 that day in the 4320-3-access footwall drift, triggering During this period, five seismic events were recorded with a a recorded 2.9 mN seismic event which plotted in the vicinity magnitude greater than 2.0 mN. Rockbursts occurred on the of the blast. The 2.9 mN event occurred at 05:20 and was 3511 top sill level, in the vicinity of the 7760 stope, on 26 followed two minutes later by a 2.0 mN event which plotted in January, 18 March, and 6 April. These rockbursts were the vicinity of the ore contact. The succession of events associated with 2.9, 3.4, and 3.7 mN seismic events, as therefore suggested that the 2.9 mN event triggered a slip reported by the GSC. The 6 April 2011 rockburst was the along the ore contact. The damage was located in the access most severe of the three events, resulting in a total of about to Cut 12, at the intersection of the ore/footwall contact 2360 t displaced from six stope accesses on the top sill level,

(5.8 m span), about 45 m southeast of the blast. Most of the 17 to 50 m away from the epicentre of the 3.7 mN event. broken material was displaced from the back of the Given the orientation of the major principal stress, roughly excavation and extended up to 3 m deep, beyond the 2.4 m perpendicular to the trend of the MOB in this area, high length of the installed resin-grouted rebars. stress conditions were observed within the 7760 stope and Numerical elastic stress modelling indicated that the generated high confinement on the ore/footwall contact footwall drift where the development blast had been fired was (Figure 17). It is our interpretation that mining of the 7760 likely undergoing stress changes due to mining of the sill stope contributed in ‘unclamping’ this discontinuity, which in pillar between the 4400 and 4250 mining horizons (Figure turn resulted in the occurrence of large-magnitude seismic 16). Greater stress concentrations were located in the events. immediate footwall of the 153 orebody at the Cut 12 elevation. It is therefore possible that, prior to the 2.9 and

2.0 mN seismic events, the rock mass at the damage location was already highly fractured. The mining-induced seismicity observed in the morning of 20 November 2010 would have, consequently, contributed in shaking the broken material and resulted in the load-bearing capacity of the installed support system being exceeded. A rehabilitation plan released after the event requested the installation of MCBs or Yielding Swellex in conjunction with 0/0 gauge straps, as well as a second pass of cable bolts in the back of the Cut 12 intersection (Sampson-Forsythe, 2010). '# ''#"#$%

Mining of the 7760 secondary pillar in the narrow west end '<37;AB-& >?;B:A<:4<5BA+A=@:B>=6B6<22A;A=@<>9B:@;A::A:B% ># of the MOB1 generated extensive seismic activity in late 2010 >::?5<>@A6B)<@8B@8AB,1B?+A4/A;B,1-1B;?5$/7;:@B<=B@8AB",1"B>55A:: and early 2011. The first and final (crown) blasts in this @?B.7@B-,B?2B@8AB11B4<=<=3B8?;<?=B>@B.?9A4>=B4<=A

         
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prescribed in the west abutment of the MOB1 in order to manage high stress levels and promote the stability of mine openings in this area, as mining of the sill pillar progresses to the west (Sampson-Forsythe, 2011).  $%&!%$'%"'$"#%'# % &' %'"& !' !&

Since the 6 April 2011 3.7 mN event, there has been a significant reduction in excavation damage due to rockbursts at Coleman mine (Figure 4). This can be attributed partly to the introduction of a yielding support system. The current practice in burst-prone ground conditions consists of enhancing the primary support system (composed predomi- nantly of resin rebars and no. 6 welded wire mesh) using 0/0 '<37;AB-&=3<=3)>99B?2B@8AB  B:8?)<=3B@8AB9?5>@=6B@8AB5?=2<=A4A=@B?=B@8AB?;A2??@)>99B5?=@>5@ 3A=A;>@A6B/*B@8AB4>?;B0;<=5<0>9B:@;A::B% >#B0;@A6B7:<=3B >0" its ease of installation in areas where (a) the ground is significantly fractured in the immediate vicinity of excavations and seismic shakedown is anticipated, (b) older

The 3.7 mN event plotted at the footwall contact of the excavations have previously experienced large magnitude MOB and occurred at 02:34 on 6 April 2010, 45 hours after seismic events, and (c) excavations have a shorter service the crown blast. It had been reported that the blast did not life. The D-bolt and 0/0 gauge straps are used in newer break through the crown and that a 10 m thick pillar development headings and are installed immediately after the remained. Consequently, it was suspected that the footwall of primary support. The demonstrated performance of the the 7760 stope was still under high stress at that time. At support systems at Coleman from April 2011 to September 17:06 on 5 April, in the 07 slot, a development blast was 2013 corroborates the adjustments made to the support fired at the ore/footwall contact, about 60 m northeast of the practice during this period (Figure 4). 7760 stope. This development blast most likely triggered the fault-slip event along the ore/footwall contact, which resulted <:57::

'<37;AB- &.8;?=?9?3*B?2BA+A=@:B>::?5<>@A6B)<@8B@8ABB0;<9B,1--B;?5$/7;:@B%>40:?='?;:*@8A(B,1--# L 56    
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The influence of mining sequence and ground support practice on rockbursts high-severity rockbursts of 2008 at Copper Cliff and 2010- poorly under dynamic loads due to its high stiffness and 2011 at Coleman necessitated an immediate intervention in fundamentally brittle behaviour. Shotcrete loosening has the ground support systems as opposed to the continuous become a major issue in high-stress mines under both static evolution at Creighton. Consequently, lessons from Creighton and dynamic loads (Counter, 2012). Nevertheless, shotcrete Mine provided a useful template. is capable of keeping the ground tight by limiting rock mass Designing mining sequences under high-stress conditions dilation, as opposed to mesh, which is passive. As a result, requires attention to both ground control and production shotcrete is capable, to a certain extent, of preserving a constraints. The 11 September 2008 rockburst at Copper Cliff laminated beam and maintaining confinement around and the 6 April 2011 rockburst at Coleman were potentially reinforcement elements (Simser, 2012). The 3.8 mN seismic attributable to issues related to the extraction sequence. event at Copper Cliff mine indicated that the use of shotcrete Mining both the 900 and 100 orebodies, on each side of the could be effective in preventing large seismic shakedowns.

Trap Dyke, contributed to the 3.8 mN seismic event at Copper Recently, some high-stress mines have adopted a mesh-over- Cliff. At Coleman, the 7760 stope was used as a secondary shotcrete approach in order to better manage dynamic loads pillar in order to allow the mining of open stopes west of the (Punkkinen and Mamidi, 2010; Counter, 2012; Simser, post pillar cut-and-fill area. When mining of the 7760 stope 2012). Such an approach allows the shotcrete to keep the began, the footwall contact was clamped due to the high ground tight, whereas the mesh can better absorb high levels major principal stress. Severe mining-induced seismic events of kinetic energy and accommodate larger deformations. The occurred as the stress along the contact was released due to topic of shotcrete requires more attention in order to define production blasting. It is recognized that mining in burst- its use as part of support systems designed for managing prone ground conditions requires a trade-off between dynamic loads. production requirements and ground control. .?=597:9B5>7:A:B?2B3;?7=6B:700?;@B2><97;AB7=6A;B6*=>4<5 beyond a certain threshold of loading. Shotcrete performs 9?>6:B>=6B@8AB>::?5<>@A6B08>:A:B?2B@8AB3;?7=6B:700?;@B5*59A

         
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A2A;A=5A: NATURAL RESOUCES CANADA. 2015. National earthquake database. http://www.earthquakescanada.nrcan.gc.ca/stndon/NEDB-BNDS/index- CHINNASANE, D.R. 2009. Unusual occurrence report for rockburst NM-117. Vale, eng.php [Accessed 8 Apr. 2015]. Copper Cliff, ON. ORTLEPP, W.D. and STACEY, T.R. 1998. Testing of tunnel support: Dynamic load CHINNASANE, D.R., YAO, M., LANDRY, D., and PARADIS-SOKOLOSKI, P. 2012. testing of rockbolt elements to provide data for safer support design. Performance of dynamic support system in highly burst-prone ground Report no. GAP 423. Safety in Mines Research Advisory Committee, conditions at Vale’s Copper Cliff Mine−a case study. Proceedings of the VI Johannesburg, South Africa. 43 pp. International Seminar on Deep and High Stress Mining. Potvin Y. (ed.). PLAYER, J.R., THOMPSON, A.G., and VILLAESCUSA, E. 2008. Dynamic testing of Australian Centre for Geomechanics, Perth, WA. pp. 57−69. reinforcement systems. Proceedings of the Sixth International Symposium COUNTER, D.B. 2012. Support system evolution at Kidd mine. Proceedings of the on Ground Support in Mining and Civil Engineering Construction, Cape Dynamic Ground Support Applications Symposium, Sudbury, ON, 13 Town, South Africa. Stacey, T.R. and Malan, D.F. (eds). Southern African September 2012. Workplace Safety North, North Bay. Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Johannesburg. pp. 597–622. http://www.workplacesafetynorth.ca/sites/default/files/ Punkkinen, A.R. ANd Yao, M. Change of ground support system and mining Support%2520System%2520Evolution%2520at%2520Kidd%2520Mine. practice in the Deep at Creighton Mine. Proceedings of the CIM Conference pdf [Accessed 4 August 2014]. and Exhibition−Montreal 2007, Montreal, QC. 2007. Canadian Institute of DOUCET, C. and VOYZELLE, B. 2012. Technical information data sheets. Mining, Metallurgy and Petroleum, Montreal. CanmetMINING, Ottawa, ON. 37 pp. PUNKKINEN, A.R. and MAMIDI, N.R. 2010. Effective ground support system design HUDYMA, M. and BRUMMER, R. 2007. Copper Cliff North Mine seismicity review: to manage seismic hazard in a high stress diminishing pillar at a Vale 2004-2006−first draft. Itasca Consulting Canada, Sudbury, ON. mine. Proceedings of the Fifth International Seminar on Deep and High

HUDYMA, M. and POTVIN, Y.H. 2010. An engineering approach to seismic risk Stress Mining. Potvin, Y. and van Sint Jan, M. (eds). Australian Centre for management in hardrock mines. Rock Mechanics and Rock Engineering, Geomechanics, Perth, WA. pp. 367−381. vol. 43. pp. 891−906. RAZAVI, M. 2008. Unusual occurrence report for rockburst NM-115. Vale,

HUTCHINSON, D.J. and DIEDRICHS, M.S. 1996. Cablebolting in underground mines. Copper Cliff, ON. BiTech Publishers, Richmond, BC. RAZAVI, M. 2010. ME-149 rockburst at Coleman mine. Vale, Levack, ON.

KAISER, P.K. and CAI, M. 2013. Critical review of design principles for rock ROUSSELL, D.H. and CARD, K.D. 2009. Sudbury area geology and mineral support in burst-prone ground−time to rethink. Proceedings of the VII deposits. A Field Guide to the Geology of Sudbury, Ontario. Roussell, D.H. International Symposium on Ground Support in Mining and Underground and Brown, G.H. (eds.). Open File Report 6243. Ontario Geological Survey. Construction. Potvin, Y. and Brady, B. (eds). Australian Centre for pp. 1−6. Geomechanics, Perth, WA. pp. 3−38. SAMPSON-FORSYTHE, A. 2010. Unusual occurrence report for rockburst ME-152. LI, C.C. 2010. Field observations of rock bolts in high stress rock masses. Rock Vale, Levack, ON. Mechanics and Rock Engineering, vol. 43. pp. 491−496. SAMPSON-FORSYTHE, A. 2011. Unusual occurrence report for rockburst ME-156. LI, C.C. 2012. Performance of D-bolts under static loading. Rock Mechanics and Vale, Levack, ON. Rock Engineering, vol. 45. pp. 183−192. SIMSER, B. 2012. Ground support in ‘deep’ underground mines. Proceedings of LI, C.C. and DOUCET, C. 2012. Performance of D-Bolts under dynamic loading, the Dynamic Ground Support Applications Symposium, Sudbury, ON, 13 Rock Mechanics and Rock Engineering, vol. 45, pp. 193−204. September 2012. Workplace Safety North, North Bay.

MALEK, F., TRIFU, C., SUORINENI, F.T., ESPLEY, S., anD YAO, M. Management of http://www.workplacesafetynorth.ca/sites/default/files/ high stress and seismicity at Vale Inco Creighton Mine. Proceedings of the Ground%2520Support%2520in%2520Deep%2520Underground%2520Mi XLII US Rock Mechanics Symposium, San Francisco, CA, 29 June−2 July nes.pdf [Accessed 4 Aug. 2014] 2008. American Rock Mechanics Association. pp. 1069−1076. STACEY, T.R. 2012. Support of excavations subjected to dynamic (rockburst)

MANSOUR MINING. (2015). Product catalogue. http://mansourmining.com/ loading. Proceedings of the XII ISRM International Congress on Rock Downloads/MMTI%20Product%20Catalogue%20V2.pdf [Accessed 17 Apr. Mechanics, Beijing. Qian, Q. and Zhou, Y. (eds). International Society for 2015]. Rock Mechanics. pp. 137−145.

MARTIN, C.D., KAISER, P.K., anD MCCREATH, D.R. 1999. Hoek-Brown parameters SUORINENI, F.T. and VASAK, P. 2008. Expert opinion report on North Mine for predicting the depth of brittle failure around tunnels. Canadian seismic events of September 11th 2008. Mirarco, Sudbury, ON. Geotechnical Journal, vol. 36, no. 1. pp. 136−151. VALE. 2010. Mining methods. Copper Cliff Mine − 2010 Mine Design Package.

MINES AND AGGREGATES SAFETY AND HEALTH ASSOCIATIOn (MASHA). 2009. Chinnasane, D.R. (ed.). Vale, Sudbury, ON. Technical report−unusual occurrence report for groundfall/rockburst. VALE. 2012. Ground support. Plant 17 Creighton Mine − Mine Design Package MASHA, North Bay, ON. 2012 Update. Punkkinen, A. (ed). Vale. Sudbury, ON.

MORISSETTE, P., HADJIGEORGIOU, J., and THIBODEAU, D. 2014. Investigating the YAO, M., CHINNASANE, D.R., and HARDING, D. 2009. Mitigation plans for mining dynamic-load demand on support systems using passive monitoring data. in highly burst-prone ground conditions at Vale Inco Copper Cliff North International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences, vol. 67. Mine. Proceedings of the 3rd CANUS Rock Mechanics Symposium. pp. 115−126. Diederichs M. and Grasselli, G. (eds). Canadian Rock Mechanics

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http://dx.doi.org/10.17159/2411-9717/2017/v117n1a9 A systemic study of mining accident causality: an analysis of 91 mining accidents from a platinum mine in South Africa by J. Bonsu*, W. van Dyk†, J-P. Franzidis*, F. Petersen‡, and A. Isafiade*

of almost 85% of all accidents (Patterson and Shappell, 2008). In Australia, it is the cause of #%)() two out of every three occupational accidents This paper aims to demonstrate how a systemic approach can be applied to (Patterson and Shappell, 2008). Various the analysis of the causes of accidents in South African mines. The mining companies maintain that they run accident analysis framework used was developed previously by the efficient systems, and hence the behavioural authors from the combination of the Mark III version of the Swiss Cheese model, Incident Cause Analysis Method (ICAM), the Nertney Wheel model, problems of workers are to blame for most and safety management principles. Data on 91 accidents occurring from accidents. An understanding of accident 2010 to 2012 at the site of a platinum mine in South Africa were used to causality could be a major step in the quest to populate the newly developed framework. The results obtained show that reduce accidents. Only with a good while routine violations (45% of all accidents analysed) were the most understanding of the accident process can common form of human error, problems in the physical environment of effective remedies can be designed. workers were the most common workplace factor (39.6% of all accidents The Swiss Cheese model (Reason, 1990) analysed). Furthermore, inadequate leadership was found to be the most has indisputable value in analysing industrial common systemic factor responsible for accidents (51.6% of all accidents accidents. The model is based on the analysed). Some workplace factors were more commonly associated with fundamental components of all successful particular unsafe acts than others, and some systemic factors were more production systems, viz. decision-makers, line associated with particular workplace factors than others. The outcome of this study demonstrates that systemic factors, rather than human errors management, preconditions for effective work, and violations, are the chief causes of accidents in the mining sector. production activities, and safeguards against known hazards. Effective and safe production .+%$ ) can be achieved only when the right decisions mine safety, systemic factors, accident causality, human error. are taken at each level of the production system. The process leading to an accident starts when inappropriate decisions taken at the management level are propagated through /#*$% "&*(%# the various components of the production The mining industry is a very important sector system. These decisions create ‘holes’ in the of the South African national economy. A barriers put in place to prevent accidents. In major factor threatening the sustainability of this model, an accident is seen as a this industry is mining accidents, which combination of unsafe acts by front-line frequently result in injuries or deaths, operators and latent conditions in the organi- destruction of property, and pollution of the zation (systemic factors). environment. In the past, mining accidents Techniques based on this model have been have led to the shutdown and threat of applied to the aviation (Li and Harris, 2006; Li shutdown of mines (Ryan, 2008; Mail and et al., 2008) and railway industries (Baysari et Guardian, 2011). The country stands the risk al., 2008), and more recently to the mining of incurring significant losses if the mining industry (Patterson and Shappell, 2010; industry continues to experience shutdowns. Sanmiquel et al., 2010; Lenné et al., 2011). In 2012, the mining sector accounted for R262.7 billion (equivalent to US$32.83 billion) representing 8.3% of GDP directly, on a nominal basis (Chamber of Mines of South Africa, 2013). Mining safety is a global concern and has * Department of Chemical Engineering, University of attracted significant international attention. Cape Town, South Africa. This has precipitated various studies into † Arete Consultants (Pty) Ltd. ‡ Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, different aspects of mining. Unfortunately, University of Cape Town, South Africa. human error has been blamed for the majority © The Southern African Institute of Mining and of these accidents. A study by the US Bureau Metallurgy, 2017. ISSN 2225-6253. Paper received of Mines found that human error is the cause Apr. 2015; revised paper received April. 2016.

         
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Patterson and Shappell (2010) used a modified version of -+*% the Human Factors Analysis and Classification System (HFACS) to analyse mining accidents in Queensland,    Australia. The results showed that although human error was A newly developed analysis framework (Bonsu et al., 2015) involved in most of the accidents, other factors such as was used to analyse accident data from a South African existing conditions, unsafe leadership climate, and organiza- platinum mine. The framework has three major sections, tional factors also contributed. Sanmiquel et al. (2010) used namely causal analysis, agency and barrier analysis, and a framework that incorporated multiple causal factors such as metadata (Figure 1). behavioural, medical, equipment, training, and environmental     causes to analyse accidents from the Spanish mining industry. The results show that factors (environmental, The first section of the framework provides a structure for the training, and equipment) other than human behaviour also analysis of accident causality. It is divided into three levels, contributed to mining accidents. Lenne et al. (2011) used the viz. proximal causes, workplace factors, and systemic factors. HFACS framework to analyse accident reports from Australia. The first level of the causal section, which is proximal causes, The results showed that, in several instances, failure in one seeks to identify the human error that led directly to the part of the system led to failures in other parts. For example, failure of controls/defences, and thereby to the accident. a failed organizational climate was commonly associated with These errors are subdivided into slips and lapses, mistakes, inadequate supervision, and inadequate supervision was violations, and non-human causes. The workplace factors commonly associated with failure in team resource level, which is the second level of the causal section, management. The results obtained from different studies addresses error- or violation-producing conditions in the using different methods support the view that a systemic workplace that contribute to accidents. The subcategories are approach to accident causality is the right way to tackle competent people, safe work practices, fit-for-purpose mining-related safety issues. equipment, and a controlled work environment (Bullock, Although results from previous studies conducted in 1979). Systemic factors comprises the third layer of the other countries are very insightful, the context in which these causal section, and it identifies ways in which the actions of management contribute to error- or violation-producing studies were conducted is very different from that of South conditions in the workplace, leading to an accident. The Africa and hence they may be of limited applicability. These subcategories include training and competence, contractor differences usually manifest themselves in the level of management, design, management of change, hazard identi- mechanization of the industry, the type of mining (ultra-deep fication, monitoring and auditing, maintenance management, vs shallow), and socio-economic factors such as migrant resource provision, strategic decision/planning, risk labour and the educational level of the miners. management, leadership, work scheduling, and emergency Although there have been some studies (Ashworth and response. Peake, 1994; Moseme et al., 2003; Maisa and Pienaar, 2011) into accident causality in South African mines, to the best
      knowledge of the authors there has not been any structured This section of the framework records information on the study linking human error to upstream causal (systemic) accident-causing agencies (mode of injury) involved in each factors. A systemic study of mining accident causality in of the accidents analysed. The accident classification codes South Africa would be useful for a full appreciation of the employed in Item 12 of the South African Mines Reportable dynamics of safety issues in the industry. Accidents Statistics System (SAMRASS) were used to This paper aims to demonstrate how a systemic approach categorize the accidents analysed (Department of Mineral can be applied to the analysis of the causes of accidents in Resources, 2007). Under Item 12 of the SAMRASS code, South African mines. In this study, a newly developed accident-causing agencies identified include fall of ground; accident analysis framework was used to analyse 91 machinery, tools, and equipment; transport and mining; accidents from a platinum mine in South Africa. The conveyance accidents; electricity; fire; explosives; and caving. subsequent sections explain the framework, the methodology Safety barriers broken were recorded because knowledge applied, and the results obtained. of the nature of barriers broken, as well as how and why they were breached, provides insight into the causes of accidents. Safety barriers can be defined as any means (physical or non-physical) instituted to prevent, control, or mitigate accidents (Hollnagel, 2008). The need for safety barriers in industry arises from the fact that due to the nature of some industrial activities is not always possible to remove all hazards by design. In such situations the safety of employees is ensured by placing a barrier between them and the hazard. This implies that the harm from a hazard reaches a target only when there is no safety barrier to prevent it or the barriers put in place were not effective. The nature of the safety barriers in place also tells a lot about the nature of the ("$+,&&( +#*,'#')(),!$' +%$, ++%+ ,!$% ,*+,()) industry and the kinds of unsafe acts that will be most ++)+, % +,
%#)",, prevalent in such an industry. L 60    
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    violation, physical environment etc.) was counted a maximum of once as the cause of an accident. However for In addition to data on barriers and accident-causing agencies, some accidents more than one kind of unsafe act (such as a the new framework was designed to capture specific mistake and a violation) was identified. This accounts for the metadata about the accidents analysed. Metadata can simply total number of unsafe acts being greater than the total be defined as information (e.g. data) describing other data. number of accidents (see Table I). The percentages within This data was chosen to elucidate other factors that may have each category were calculated using the total number of influenced these accidents, e.g. the knowledge that most accidents (91) rather than the number of counts under a accidents occur at a particular time of day could help in level. Because of this, none of the categories under a level understanding why those accidents are happening. sum to 100%.  Unsafe acts were identified in 98.9% of the accident The data used in this study comprised 91 investigation reports analysed. This comes as no surprise, since the mine is reports on accidents that occurred on a platinum mine in very labour-intensive. Workplace and systemic factors were South Africa between 2010 and 2012. The platinum mining involved in 97.8% of cases analysed. sector has the second highest annual fatalities (Chamber of From Table I it can be seen that the most common form of Mines of South Africa, 2012). unsafe act identified was routine violation (identified in 45% of all cases), followed closely by mistakes (43%) and then  slips and lapses (30.8%). The most prevalent workplace Accident data from the reports was coded into the new factor identified was the physical environment (39.6% of all framework. The different categories used for classification in accidents analysed), closely followed by the behavioural the newly developed framework were identified from sections environment (34.1%). of the accident reports such as the description of the event, Unsafe work practices, fit-for-purpose equipment, and sketches or photographs of incidents, immediate and basic competence of people were also identified as contributing causes, and recommendations made. This was done so as to significantly to accidents. Leadership was the most common prevent over-representation of a single incident. Other systemic factor identified in this study. This is due to the relevant metadata such as time of the accident, qualification already-stated fact that most safety barriers put in place were of victim etc. were also recorded. The pivot table and chart not self-enforcing and therefore needed the input of leaders tools in Microsoft Excel® 2010 were used to categorize and before they could function. Other systemic factors identified summarize the data. The filter tool was used to single out as leading to accidents at the mine were hazard identifi- sections of the needed information. cation, maintenance management, and management of change. Hazard identification was cited as a causal factor in 0+)"*), instances when an accident happened even though the  accident victims followed company procedures. This was seen to be as a result of a deficiency in the original hazard identifi- The accidents in the reports analysed involved one fatality, cation process during the formulation of the procedures. 27 serious injuries, 31 lost time injuries, and 32 minor injuries. A serious injury is defined as any injury that leads to a permanent disability or renders the victim unable to work for 14 days or more. A lost time injury is defined as any Table I injury that renders the victim unable to work for 1 to 13 &&( +#*,&'")',!'&*%$) days. A minor injury is any injury that renders the victim unable to work for up to one day. These definitions are in $' +%$,&'*+%$ $+ "+#& +$&+#*'+ harmony with the standards prescribed by SAMRASS (Department of Mineral Resources, 2007). Direct causes Slips and lapses 29 30.8 The analysis of the reports showed that the most common Mistakes 39 43.0 accident-causing agencies (mode of injury) were hand Routine violation 41 45.0 tools/equipment (20%), falls of ground (15%), falling of Deviant violation 2 2.2 material/rolling rock (14%), slipping and falling (13%), and Workplace factors Competent people 18 19.8 manual handling of material (11%). The most common tasks Fit-for-purpose equipment 16 17.6 being performed by victims at the times of the accidents were Physical environment 36 39.6 drilling (25%), engineering tasks (24%), transportation of Behavioral environment 31 34.1 Unsafe work practices 14 15.4 people (11%), and manual handling (11%). Systemic factors The study also discovered that most barriers broken in Management of change 11 12.1 the process of accidents occurring were administrative in Leadership 47 51.6 Training and competence 7 7.7 nature (standards, risk assessments, and supervision). This Contractor management 8 8.8 shows that barriers and safeguards put in place to prevent Risk management 9 9.9 accidents are not engineered (not self-enforcing), thus Design 8 8.8 Maintenance management 7 7.7 creating room for human error. Hazard identification 18 19.8 Monitoring and auditing 5 5.5  Strategic decision 0 0.0 Work scheduling 4 4.4 Table I summarizes the accident causal factors identified in Emergency response 0 0.0 this study. Each category in the framework (such as mistake,

         
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Specific examples of management of change include instances reported by Lenné et al. (2011), who found that adverse in which loss of qualified employees (either due to physiological states (synonymous with health problems) had resignation or leave) and changes in task environment or significant causal relationships with skill-based errors task requirements) were not managed properly, leading to (synonymous with slips and lapses). However, in this study, accidents. very little was known about the state of the victim (such as psychological problems) as far as the tendency to cause slips    and lapses is concerned. This was because the accident Some workplace factors were more commonly associated with reports were not structured to capture such details. Situations particular unsafe acts than others (see Figure 2). such as modifications to equipment and equipment without From Figure 2, the most common workplace factor handles are examples of the few occasions when (un)fit-for- identified with routine violations was behavioural purpose equipment led to slips and lapses. environment (72% of the workplace factors identified with Figures 3–7 shows that some systemic factors were more behavioural environment). This means that most routine associated with particular workplace factors than others. The violations occurred because of the absence of a system that most common cause of unsafe work practices was hazard frowns upon violations by workers and different levels of identification (see Figure 3). This usually led to hazards not leadership. Other workplace factors such as physical being catered for in design of procedures, which put workers environment, competent people, fit-for-purpose equipment, at risk while performing tasks. This condition, the authors and unsafe work practices were barely identified as reasons believe, created situations in which existing work procedures for the violation of the company’s standards and procedures. did not protect workers from hazards. Management of change The workplace factors identified with mistakes are much and monitoring and auditing were identified in a few more diversified. While competent people (29%) and unsafe instances as contributing to unsafe work practices. work practices (27%) were the two leading workplace factors, Management of change was identified as a contributing factor fit-for-purpose equipment (12%), physical environment to unsafe work practices when an initially adequate (22%), and behavioural environment (10%) were also procedure became inadequate due to changes in the usual significant. Most cases of competent people identified with work condition (e.g. working in a new section). Monitoring mistakes in this study included lack of experience, and auditing was also cited when there was cause to believe inadequate skill level, not undergoing planned task that the unsafe work practice was due to failure of observation, and inadequate personnel. These situations monitoring of systems. obviously left mineworkers vulnerable to committing Resource provision was the main systemic factor (29%) mistakes. Most instances of unsafe work practices identified identified with instances of fit-for-purpose equipment (see with mistakes in this study included nonexistence of Figure 4). In most of these cases workers had no choice but standards for a specific task, and situations in which to use available tools. The second most prevailing situation standards did not fully cover tasks. Confined spaces, poor (25%) was scenarios in which leadership (mainly shift illumination, and poor ground conditions were the most bosses and team leaders) did not report shortage of common examples of physical environment identified with equipment or leaders gave workers tools that were unsuited mistakes. These conditions usually exacerbated the effect of to the task. Maintenance management was identified as a the mistakes rather than being the actual cause. The presence significant contributory factor (17%) to issues of fit-for- of tools unsuited to the task requirement (e.g. short pinch purpose equipment in this study. The poor maintenance of bars), or equipment not functioning properly, or the absence existing equipment usually affected the ability of the tools to of the needed tool, are specific examples of instances of fit- safely perform the task. Poor design, management of change, for-purpose equipment identified with mistakes in this study. and risk management each made minor contributions to the Behavioural environment was cited in situations where situations of fit-for-purpose equipment at the workplace. uncoordinated activities and lack of communication led to Examples of poor design of equipment identified in this study mistakes. included equipment lacking handles and lack of protection Physical environment (79%) was the most common against hazards while using equipment. Scenarios in which workplace factor identified with slips and lapses. The poor risk and change management were cited included existence of harsh environmental conditions makes victims liable to such slips and lapses. This finding differs from those

("$+,()*$("*(%#,%!,"#)'!+,'&*),')+ ,%#,%$'&+,!'&*%$) ("$+,)*+ (&,!'&*%$),'))%&('*+ ,(*,"#)'!+,%$,$'&*(&+) L 62    
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()&"))(%# 
 The characterization of accidents provides the basis for understanding the results obtained in this study. The results show that the mode of operation in the mine is very labour- intensive; hence workers operate in very close proximity to hazards. As already stated, drilling (24%), engineering tasks (25%), and manual handling (11%) were the most accident- prone tasks. These tasks are manual and are performed using ("$+, )*+ (&,!'&*%$),'))%&('*+ ,(*,!(*!%$"$%)+,+ "( +#* handheld tools like drilling machines, crowbars, and spanners, placing workers very close to the hazards. This view on the issue of exposure to hazards is reinforced by the situations where modifications to existing types of slipping and falling accidents identified in this study. equipment/operation introduced new risks, thereby leading to The CSIR of South Africa has predicted that South African accidents and situations in which reported equipment mines will be labour-intensive for many years to come (CSIR, deficiencies were not dealt with. Training and competence and leadership were the most common systemic factors (32% for each) identified with instances of competent people (Figure 5). Common situations classified under training and competence included inadequate training and the absence of training for particular tasks. These situations made workers incompetent for the task assigned. Examples of leadership lapses identified with the absence of competent people included failure to conduct planned task observation and failure to supervise inexpe- rienced workers. This was usually identified as leading to accidents involving inexperienced workers. Other systemic factors identified with competent people were monitoring and auditing, work scheduling, and hazard identification, contractor management, and management of change. While ("$+,)*+ (&,!'&*%$),'))%&('*+ ,(*,&% +*+#*,+%+ incompetent contractors performing tasks was the main link between contractor management and competent people, common examples of management of change included the effect of a worker’s official leave on the training of other workers. An example of management of change found in this study was the situation where the impact of shift leaders failing to provide adequate training to workers was not identified until it led to an accident. This is seen as an indication of a poor monitoring system. A specific example of poor work scheduling was the presence of an inadequate workforce on voluntary shifts. This, in the authors’ opinion, reduced the workers’ ability (competence) to execute the task assigned to them. An example of hazard identification identified in this study is when workers behaved in a risky manner because of lack of knowledge of a ("$+, )*+ (&,!'&*%$),'))%&('*+ ,(*,+'(%"$',+#($%# +#* particular hazard in the operating procedures. Leadership was the most common (75% of all systemic factors associated with the workplace factor) identified with behavioural environment (Figure 6). Poor leadership was identified at different levels, from section manager, shift boss, and technical head, to team leader. There were many instances when wrong acts were committed in the presence of leaders. This indicates a problem with safety culture. The systemic factors identified with physical environment were leadership, risk management, design, hazard identification, maintenance management, and change management (see Figure 7). Examples of leadership identified in this study as a cause of situations under physical environment included failure to correct known problems at the workplace and failure to enforce thorough workplace inspections. ("$+, )*+ (&,!'&*%$),'))%&('*+ ,(*,)(&',+#($%# +#*

         
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2007). This supports the view that a significant number of more developed countries. While key safety concerns in the accidents are due to the proximity between workers and aforementioned countries may be how to deal with residual hazards. hazards associated with a high level of mechanization of The level of exposure of humans to hazards in mining activities, the South African mining industry is still engineering tasks (e.g. maintenance) is similar across most faced with the challenge of removing well-known hazards industries. Reason (1997) stated that while some industries (e.g. falls of ground) which have existed in its operations for have been able to automate most functions, thereby moving a long period. workers further away from hazards, maintenance-related In summary, the results from the accident characteri- activities remain one field where there is still a significant zation in this study have clearly shown the potential of the level of contact between humans and hazards. He argued that current work systems on the mine to serve as a precursor for close contact between people and technical components many human-induced accidents. The following sections makes up the single largest human factor problem when proceed to discuss the pertinent human factor issues facing most hazardous technologies. identified in these accidents. An inference that can be drawn from the above argument is that the activities at the mine under study that involve  close contact between humans, technological components of The analysis of accident causality showed that routine the system, and hazards are partly responsible for the high violations were the most common unsafe acts. This is involvement of human error in most accidents. This view is consistent with the observation that most barriers broken supported by the results obtained in the barrier analysis were administrative in nature. Routine violations were section of this study, which showed that standards, risk widespread among all workers, and this indicates a higher assessment, and supervision are the three barriers that were cause. In an earlier study on mine accidents by Patterson and frequently breached. It can thus be deduced that safety at the Shappell (2010) in Australia, skill-based errors (slips and mine is heavily dependent on the workers’ willingness to lapses) formed the bulk of the unsafe acts committed. The obey rules, the supervisors’ ability to enforce the rules, and high number of violations identified in the current study the workers’ ability to perceive danger in their environment relative to that of Patterson and Shappell (2010) can be and avoid it. This also seems to suggest that the equipment attributed to the difference in the two mining systems. being used for task is not fit for purpose. While the accident reports used in the current study were The results from the accident characterization were all from an underground mine, Patterson and Shappell compared with those of Ashworth and Peake (1994), (2010) used reports from a balance of underground and Sanmiquel et al. (2010), Kecojevic et al. (2007), Cawley opencut coal mines, underground and opencut metal/non- (2003), and Lenné et al. (2011). Ashworth and Peake metal mines, quarries, and processing plants. Surface mining (1994), who studied causes of accidents in the South African is usually mechanized, and processing plants are mostly platinum and gold industries, also identified falls of ground, automated, and these factors help to separate people from trackbound equipment, slipping and falling, and scrapers and hazards. It is therefore not surprising that the most common winches as frequent causes of accidents. This implies that the human errors encountered in the Patterson and Shappell profile of accidents in the mine used as a case study in this (2010) study were inadvertent operations (slips and lapses). research is a reasonably good representation of the accident Although the language barrier is probably a contributing profile of the South African platinum industry as a whole. factor to the errors and violations observed, deductions made Sanmiquel et al. (2010), whose study was based on in this study were limited to the evidence in the accident Spanish mines, stated that most of the underground accidents reports. The coders were not privy to the educational level of reported were caused by falling and collapsing objects, the operators, hence such extrapolations could not have been followed by victims being trapped between objects. These made. accidents are very similar to fall of ground, falling material, or rolling rock identified in this study as some of the most     common agencies. Kecojevic et al. (2007) reported that from The accident causality analysis also suggested that poor 37% to 88% of the annual mine fatalities in the USA were leadership is the root cause of most of the violations attributable to mine equipment (e.g. haul trucks, belt identified in this study. This is based on the fact that the conveyors, front-end loaders, and miscellaneous equipment). most common workplace factor identified with most routine This may be due to the fact that mining in the USA is more violations was behavioural environment, i.e. an environment mechanized. Cawley (2003) reported that electrical-related in which people who violated the standards or procedures accidents represent the fourth-highest cause of mining were not corrected either by co-workers, team leaders, or accidents in the USA. Lenné et al. (2011) found that shift supervisors. These results are similar to findings operations involving surface mobile equipment, working at reported by Lenné et al. (2011), where violations had a high heights, and electrical equipment were the chief causes of association with crew resource management (i.e. lack of mining accidents in Australia. However, it is worth stating teamwork, failure of leadership, and also how the social that neither the present study nor that of Ashworth and environment of the worker is managed). Furthermore, on Peake (1994) (which are both based on South Africa) behavioural environment, Paul and Maiti (2008) reported identified electrical equipment as a significant cause of that the presence of social support (from co-workers and accidents in South African mines. The differences in the leadership) reduces the possibility of workers having a dominating types of accident-causing agencies between the negative attitude. These results illustrate the need for different studies highlights fundamental differences in safety creating a work environment that does not support violations. concerns between the mining industry in South Africa and in According to Reason et al. (1998), this situation is due to the L 64    
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A systemic study of mining accident causality: an analysis of 91 mining accidents existence of conflicting goals. For instance, there can be a existing working procedures on barring are equivocal on how conflict between organizational goals in terms of rules and far to stand when barring rock or exactly what constitutes an regulations (e.g. conducting mid-shift barring) and meeting a unsafe environment. Tools used in barring, such as pinch personal goal (e.g. achieving a production bonus). Ensuring bars, equally put workers in danger. This leads to the that safe behaviour is psychologically rewarding is a viable deduction that hazard identification, management of change, option in addressing such a gross culture of impunity. provision of resources, and risk management are the systemic Creating a social environment where wrong behaviour is factors that need to be dealt with if mistakes leading to falls eschewed and the concordance of individual and organiza- of ground are to be reduced. The study of Lenné et al. (2011) tional goals is maximized were the recommendations of identified technological environment (synonymous with fit- Reason et al. (1998) to deal with violation-inducing for-purpose equipment) as the main cause of decision errors environments. Based on the current study, it can be deduced (mistakes). This tends to agree with the findings of this that lapses in leadership/supervision are the root causes of study, that the nature of the tools being used affects the routine violations. The accident analysis sheet did not quality of workers’ judgement. Saleh and Cummings (2011) provide enough information about why the various levels of proposed the concept of defence-in-depth as a better way of leadership failed in their supervision duty. This may be due dealing with hazards in mines. The merits and demerits of to other factors such as excessive administrative duties. defence-in-depth have been discussed elsewhere (Reason, The authors are of the opinion that high production 2000). pressures exerted on workers might have contributed to the The authors of the current study propose the consid- high routine violation rates identified (note that this was not eration of the use of technologies such as automation for stated in any of the reports used in this study). One of the making-safe procedures (Teleka et al., 2012), virtual reality most common routine violations identified in this study is training (Squelch, 2001), and in-stope netting to increase the failure to do mid-shift barring. Workers were supposed to level of safety in the presence of complex hazards. stop working and bar down any hanging or loose rocks. Most slips and lapses identified in this study were Workers are unlikely to conduct this barring operation if they deemed to be caused by the presence of a non-supporting are behind in completing the shift’s work. In the analysis of physical environment. This is not really surprising, the accident reports, the authors came across instances of considering the harsh environmental conditions to which routine violations occurring in the presence of supervision. workers are exposed. The effect of the physical environment This indicates the possibility of conflicting goals. This view is on the performance of mineworkers corroborates the studies shared by Ashworth and Peake (1994), who conducted of Sanmiquel et al. (2010) and Patterson and Shappell separate research on the South African gold and platinum (2010) which, although conducted in different countries mining industry, and the findings of a study by Lenné et al. (Spain and Australia, respectively), identified the working (2011) which reported significant causal relationships environment as a major factor affecting the performance of between violations and adverse mental states. Adverse mineworkers. The results show that the systemic factors that mental state as used in the Lenné et al. (2011) study lead to physical environment problems can be categorized describes situations of mental fatigue, which may happen as into two major groups. While design and hazard identifi- a result of long hours of work. cation occur during the construction of the workplace, risk The results (Figure 2) also showed that the causes of management, maintenance management, and change mistakes identified in this study are more complicated and management occur during day-to-day mining operations. diverse than the other unsafe acts. This view is influenced by While factors such as design and hazard identification the fact that the causes of mistakes were distributed across usually create permanent conditions such as narrow stopes, the five workplace factors. This seems to suggest that factors such as poor risk management, maintenance training is not a panacea for dealing with the occurrence of management, and management of change degrade an mistakes. The systemic factors leading to these workplace originally suitable working environment. Both of these make factors are also diverse, as explained previously. This it difficult for workers to carry out tasks efficiently. This situation may be due to the complex nature of mining scenario validates Reason’s (1990) explanation of the hazards, which makes it difficult to predict all possible varying nature of holes in various organizational structures scenarios of danger. Inadequate communication amongst that lead to accidents. While the first group of holes (design workers and poor risk/situational assessment were and hazard identification) lie dormant in the organization for commonly identified as leading to mistakes. This is similar to a long time, the second group (risk management and the findings of Patterson and Shappell (2010) and Ashworth maintenance management problems) are usually created as and Peake (1994). Such inadequate communications leads to production activities are carried out. This also confirms wrong decisions. The study of Patterson and Shappell (2010) Reason’s (1997) description of safety as not being something identified procedural error and faulty risk and situational an organization has, but what it does. assessment as the most common decision errors The role of leadership/supervision has been discussed in (synonymous with mistakes). Ashworth and Peake (1994) detail in this study due to the number of instances in which it identified inadequate examination/inspection of the work was identified as a causal factor in various incidents. environment as the cause of 21.4% of all accidents analysed. Leadership, as referred to in this study, involves shift bosses, The authors of the current study agree with the reasons given team leaders, and sectional supervisors. Due to the adminis- by Ashworth and Peake (1994) for ineffective risk trative nature of barriers used by the company, the role of assessments by mineworkers, which include inadequate leadership in the safety of operations cannot be overem- methods of examination and the use of ineffective tools and phasized. Different levels of leaders are in charge of inadequate training system. The study discovered that operationalization of various components of safety

         
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 65 L A systemic study of mining accident causality: an analysis of 91 mining accidents management such as provision of resources (making sure BULLOCK, M.G. 1979. Work Process Control Guide, System Safety Development equipment moves from storage to workers), enforcing rules, Centre. EGandG Idaho, Inc. Idaho Falls, Idaho. CAWLEY, J.C. 2003. Electrical accidents in the mining industry, 1990-1999. IEEE conducting risk analysis on new tasks, and ensuring safe Transactions on Industry Applications, vol. 39, no. 6. pp. 1570–1577. housekeeping. It is no wonder that leadership was identified CHAMBER OF MINES SOUTH AFRICA. 2013. Facts and Figures. https://common- as a root cause of most workplace factors. The level of datastorage.googleapis.com/comsa/facts-and-figures-2013.pdf [Accessed 1 September 2014]. leadership lapses encountered in various accidents hints at CHAMBER OF MINES SOUTH AFRICA. 2012. Facts and Figures. https://common- deeper systemic problems. The authors believe a further datastorage.googleapis.com/comsa/facts-and-figures-2012.pdf [Accessed investigation of the factors that affect the performance of 20 April 2015]. CSIR. 2007. Occupational health and ergonomics. leaders is needed. http://www.csir.co.za/mineral_resources/ohe.html [Accessed 5 February In conclusion, the study has clearly identified the 2013]. complexity of accident causality. However, the results suggest DEPARTMENT OF MINERAL RESOURCES. 2007. South African Mines Reportable Accidents Statistics System. http://www.dmr.gov.za/samrass- that with positive safety measures and a constant codebook/summary/143-occupational-safety/594-samrasscodebook-for- commitment to safety, a safer workplace can be achieved. A mines2007.html [Accessed 1 September 2012]. foundation has also been laid for the use of a larger data-set HOLLNAGEL, E. 2008. Risk + barriers = safety? Safety Science, vol. 46, no. 2. pp. 221–229. for a cross-commodity (different type of mines and products) JANSEN, J.C. and BRENT, A.C. 2005. Reducing accidents in the mining industry— analysis. This will bring to light the broader picture of the an integrated approach. Journal of the South African Institute of Mining systemic factors to be considered. and Metallurgy, vol. 105. pp. 719–726. KECOJEVIC, V., KOMLJENOVIC D., GROVES W., and RADOMSKY, M. 2007. An analysis of equipment-related fatal accidents in U.S. mining operations: 1995–   2005. Safety Science, vol. 45, no. 8. pp. 864–874. As with all post-hoc analysis, the efficacy of the technique LENNÉ, M.G., SALMON, P.M., LIU, C.C., and MARGARET, M. 2011. A systems approach to accident causation in mining: An application of the HFACS depends on the genuineness of the information in the method. Accident Analysis and Prevention Journal. accident reports. The authors have no means of cross- doi:10.1016/j.aap.2011.05.026 checking such information. LI, W.C. and HARRIS, D. 2006. Pilot error and its relationship with higher organizational levels: HFACS analysis of 523 accidents. Aviation, Space and Environmental Medicine, vol. 77. pp. 1056–1061. %#&")(%# LI, W.C., HARRIS, D., and YU, C.S. 2008. Routes to failure: analysis of 41 civil aviation accidents from the Republic of China using the human factors A framework developed from the Swiss Cheese model analysis and classification system. Accident Analysis and Prevention, (Reason 1990, 1997) has been used to analyse accidents in vol. 40. pp. 426–434. the South African mining industry. The results have shown MAIL AND GUARDIAN. 2011. SA mines face shutdown over deaths. 15 April. http://mg.co.za/article/2011-04-15-sa-mines-face-shutdown-over-deaths that owing to the nature of operations in the mining industry [Accessed 1 February 2013]. in South Africa, routine violations are the main unsafe acts MASIA, U. and PIENAAR, J. 2011. Unraveling safety compliance in the mining leading to accidents, although other unsafe acts are also industry: examining the role of work stress, job insecurity, satisfaction and commitment as antecedents. SA Journal of Industrial Psychology/SA significant. The physical environment is the most common Tydskrif vir Bedryfsielkunde, vol. 37, no. 1. Article 937, 10 pp. workplace factor and leadership and systemic factor identified MOSEME, R., FOSTER, P.J., DEMANA, R.L., and RUPPRECHT, S.M. 2003. Investigation into the causes of accidents on scraper systems in the gold and platinum in most accidents. Some workplace factors are more mining sectors. CSIR Miningtek and Camborne School of Mines, commonly associated with particular unsafe acts than others, Pretoria/UK. and some systemic factors more commonly associated with PATTERSON, J.M. and SHAPPELL, S.A. 2008. Analysis of mining accidents in Queensland, Australia from 2004 to 2008 using HFACS-MI. some workplace factors than others. This study shows that http://www.nost.edu.au/icms_docs/143965_Report_Analysing_Human_Fa the causes of accidents are complicated and several factors tors_in_Qld_Mine_Incidents_HFACS_-_MI.pdf [Accessed 23 July 2015]. need to be considered during accident investigations. There is PATTERSON, J.M. and SHAPPELL, S.A. 2010. Operator error and system deficiencies: Analysis of 508 mining incidents and accidents from a need to apply the framework on a wide range of accident Queensland, Australia using HFACS. Accident Analysis and Prevention, reports from different mines. vol. 42, no. 4. pp. 1379–1385. PAUL, P.S. and MAITI, J. 2008: The synergic role of sociotechnical and personal characteristics on work injuries in mines. Ergonomics, vol. 51, no. 5. &#%+ + +#* pp. 737–767. This work is based on research supported by the South REASON, J. 1990. Human Error. Cambridge University Press. African Research Chairs Initiative of the Department of REASON, J. 1997. Managing the Risks of Organizational Accidents. Ashgate. REASON, J., PARKER, D., and LAWTON, R. 1998. Organizational controls and Science and Technology and National Research Foundation of safety: The varieties of rule-related behaviour. Journal of Occupational South Africa, which is gratefully acknowledged. and Organizational Psychology, vol. 71, pp. 289–304. Any opinion, finding, and conclusion or recommen- REASON, J. 2000. Safety paradoxes and safety culture. Injury Control and Safety Promotion, vol. 7, no. 1. pp. 3–14. dations expressed in this material is that of the authors and RYAN, B. 2008. Mine safety a threat to SA's economy. Mining MX higher grade. the NRF does not accept any liability in this regard. http://www.miningmx.com page/news/archive/179999-Mine-safety-a- threat-to-SA-s-economy#.UQvOAGdnDF8 [Accessed 1 February 2013]. SALEH, J.H. and CUMMINGS, A.M. 2011. Safety in the mining industry and the 0+!+$+#&+) unfinished legacy of mining accidents: Safety levers and defense-in-depth ASHWORTH, S.G.E. and PEAKE, A.V. 1994. Assessment of the dominant circum- for addressing mining hazards. Safety Science, vol. 49, no. 6. stances and factors giving rise to accidents in the gold and platinum pp. 764–777. mining industries. Safety in Mines Research Advisory Committee, GAP SANMIQUEL, L., FREIJO, M., EDO, J., and ROSSEL, J.M. 2010. Analysis of work 055, March, 1994. http://hdl.handle.net/10204/1687 [Accessed 25 April related accidents in the Spanish mining sector from 1982-2006. Journal of 2015]. Safety Research, vol. 41. pp. 1–7. BAYSARI, M.T., MCINTOSH, A.S., and WILSON, J. 2008. Understanding the human SQUELCH, A.P. 2001. Virtual reality for mine safety training in South Africa. factors contribution to railway accidents and incidents in Australia. Journal of the South African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, vol. 101. Accident Analysis and Prevention, vol. 40. pp. 1750–1757 pp. 209–216. BONSU, J., VAN DYK, W., FRANZIDIS, J-P., PETERSEN, F., and ISAFIADE, A. 2015. A TELEKA, S.R., GREEN, J.J., BRINK, S., SHEER, J., and HLOPHE, K. 2012. The systems approach to mining safety: an application of the Swiss Cheese automation of the ‘making safe’ process in South African hard-rock model. Journal of the Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, underground mines. International Journal of Engineering and Advanced vol. 116, no. 8. pp. 776–784. Technology (IJEAT), vol. 1, no. 4. pp 1–7. N L 66    
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http://dx.doi.org/10.17159/2411-9717/2017/v117n1a10 Modes of arsenic occurance in coal slime and its removal: a case study at the Tanggongta Plant in Inner Mongolia, China by C. Zhou*†, L. Cong*†, C. Liu†, N. Zhang†, W. Cao†, J. Pan†, X. Fan*‡, and H. Liu**

using X-ray absorption (Kolker et al., 2000). However, inorganic arsenic is the principal source of pollution because of its leachability )57+494 and high concentration compared with organic The modes of occurrence of arsenic and the effects of low-intensity arsenic (Fujino et al., 2004; Gao, Lu, and leaching-flotation on arsenic removal from coal slime from the Tanggongta Plant, Inner Mongolia, China were investigated. The coal slime was Wang, 2010; Jiang et al., 2008; Kolker et al., examined using hydride generation inductively coupled plasma optical 2000). emission spectrometry and X-ray diffraction to obtain the content of Coal combustion is a major process for the elements and the major minerals. The modes of occurrence of arsenic in release of trace elements, such as arsenic, minerals were determined using selective leaching, float-and-sink analysis, and polarized light microscopy. The results indicate that pyrite is mercury, and fluorine, to the environment (Dai the dominant carrier of arsenic in the coal slime, which predominantly et al., 2014; Finkelman et al., 2002; Kolker et exists in association with clay. Significant proportion of the arsenic is al., 1999). Arsenic can be removed before, removed by a low-intensity leaching-flotation process, consistent with the during and after coal combustion (Gao, Lu, data from selective leaching and flotation of gangue. The results show that low intensity leaching-alkali washing-flotation is more efficient than and Wang, 2010). However, coal washing is a direct flotation and low-intensity leaching-flotation. more efficienct and lower cost method of arsenic removal (Demir et al., 1998; Feng, <:)72/4 arsenic removal, coal slime, low-intensity leaching, flotation. 2009). Arsenic and mercury can be removed to a high degree in the process of coal cleaning (Wang et al., 2006). Finkelman studied the effects of trace elements on coal washability (Finkelman, 1994). Physical and physico-
5627/-16975 chemcial coal washing techniques such as Understanding the occurrence of arsenic in gravity separation and flotation can remove coal and its removal is significant in 50–80% of the harmful trace element content optimizing coal utilization, because arsenic in from the coal product (Luttrell, Kohmuench, the environment is viewed as a potentially toxic trace element (Finkelman, Belkin, and Zhang, 1999; Hall, 2002; Smith et al., 1992; Smedley et al., 2003; Zheng et al., 1999). Many studies on the modes of occurrence and concentration trends of arsenic in different coal and washing products have been performed * School of Chemical Engineering and (Diehl, Goldhaber, and Hatch, 2004; Kolker et Technology, China University of Mining and al., 2000; Quick and Irons, 2002; Wang et al., Technology, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, China. 2006; Fan et al., 2016). Trace elements are † Key Laboratory of Coal Processing and Efficient Utilization (Ministry of Education), China usually preferentially associated with certain University of Mining & Technology, Xuzhou, minerals and the form that these minerals take Jiangsu, China. will influence the efficiency of removal during ‡ Jiangxi Key Laboratory for Mass Spectrometry and Instrumentation, East China University of cleaning (Quick and Irons, 2002). Arsenic is Technology, Jiangxi, China. mainly associated with minerals such as ** Xuzhou Environmental Monitoring Center pyrite, carbonate, and silicate (Demir et al., Station, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, China 1998; Diehl, Goldhaber, and Hatch, 2004; © The Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, 2017. ISSN 2225-6253. Paper Zhou et al., 2014). The existence of received Jul. 2015; revised paper received Mar. organically bound arsenic was also confirmed 2016.

         
VOLUME 117    
 67 L Modes of arsenic occurrence in coal slime and its removal and Yoon, 2000; Zheng, Liu, and Chou, 2008). Furthermore, effectiveness of low-intensity leaching-flotation for the demineralization or desulfurization of coal by chemical coal removal of arsenic with various modes of occurrence is also cleaning techniques has been reported by many investigators discussed. (Meshram et al., 2015; Waugh and Bowling, 1984; Pietrzak and Wachowska, 2006; Xia, Xie, and Peng, 2015). Waugh =+:29.:5683; and Bowling, 1984 reported 90% reduction of the mineral     matter content of an Australian coal after a caustic wash. A coal slime sample was collected from Tanggongta coal Pietrzak and Wachowska (2006) considered that treatment preparation plant in Inner Mongolia, China. According to with HNO is effective for the removal of pyrite in coal 3 China national standards for coal classification (GB5751-86), desulphurization. As the harmful trace elements generally the sample is classified as long-flame coal (CY42). The occur in minerals (e.g. pyrite and carbonate), chemical sample was dried at 70°C for 3 hours after screening. techniques are essential for their removal. The experimental procedure is shown in Figure 1. Coal Arsenic can enter the human body through various slime was separated by heavy liquids with densities of 1.4, channels such as the respiratory tract, digestive tract, and by 1.5, 1.6, 1.7, and 1.8 g/cm3, using mixtures of benzene, skin contact (Finkelman, Belkin, and Zheng, 1999; Smedley carbon tetrachloride, and bromoform at appropriate ratios, et al., 2003; Zheng et al., 1999). Chronic arsenic poisoning following Chinese standards (GB/T 478-2008). may induce cancer, hypertension, diabetes mellitus, and After float-and-sink and flotation experiments coal slime cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases, etc. (Smith et solids were digested with HNO3 (5mL, 68% (w/w)) and HF al., 1992; Hall, 2002). Wang et al. (2006) reported that trace (5mL, 48% (w/w)) by a microwave digestion system (MDS) elements such as arsenic, mercury, sulphur, etc., tend to into liquid samples, which were analysed by hydride become enriched in coal slime. The annual production of coal generation inductively coupled plasma optical emission slime in China is more than 70 Mt tons. In order to be able to spectrometry (HG-ICP-OES) for As, Al, and Fe. Forward estimate mass emissions of arsenic and also to develop cost- power was 1200 W. Nebulizer, auxiliary, and coolant argon effective, efficient removal technologies in the future, it is speeds were 0.8 L/min, 0.75 L/min, and 13.50 L/min, respec- necessary to research the occurrence, deportment, and tively. The internal Tm standard was used to determine the removal of trace elements like arsenic in the coal slime detection limit (0.50 pg/mL) and error range (less than washing process. Most of the arsenic removal techniques in 2.0%). coal preparation have utilized gravity and flotation methods, Mineralogical and petrographic characteristics of the coal and the effect of a low-intensity leaching-flotation removal slime and gangue were determined using X-ray diffraction method on a low-rank bitumite has not yet been explored. (Philips PW 1830 diffractomoter system using Cu K Apart from this, most of the modes of occurrence of arsenic radiation) and optical microscopy (ZEISS Imager M1m), on low-rank bitumite have also not been critically assessed. respectively. In this study, we present semi-quantitative and quantitative The flotation tests were conducted with the addition of results on the mineral content, speciation, and modes of collector (diesel 20.0 kg/t) and frother (sec-octyl alcohols 5.0 occurrence of arsenic in coal slime from Inner Mongolia. The kg/t). After being washed with deionized water and dried,

(9,-2:;&8.+3:;+2:+8286975;+271:44;072;1*:.9183;3:81*95,'037686975#;03786'85/'495$#;85/;4:3:169%:;3:81*95,;8583)494 L 68    
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Modes of arsenic occurrence in coal slime and its removal flotation tailings and concentrate were used as fine mud and was between 5.6 and 5.7. The flotation tests were started coal particles, respectively. Fine mud and coal particles were with the addition of collector (diesel 20.0 kg/t) and frother mixed with deionized water to produce slurry with a liquid- (sec-octyl alcohols 5.0 kg/t). After flotation, the concentrate solid ratio of 1:10. HNO3 and NaOH were added to the was dried and analysed. slurries to adjust the pH to values from 1.0 to 12.0. The              samples, adjusted to different pH values, were agitated 30 minutes and transferred to a beaker. After standing for 24 Low-intensity leaching was carried out in the optimal pH hours, the zeta potential of the supernatant liquid was conditions (pH=1, HNO3) and the other conditions of leaching measured by ZetaPALS. remained unchanged. After low-intensity leaching and deionized water washing, the sediment from centrifugal     separation was transferred to a flotation cell (XFD-1.0 L). A Selective leaching was carried out on duplicate 5.0 g coal solution of 10% (v/v) NaOH was added to the deionized samples. Raw coal slime and clean coal were ground to pass a water to adjust the initial pH to 10, which was subsequently 200 mesh sieve, and sequentially extracted with 35 mL of adjusted to pH of 8.0–9.0 and a pulp density of 80 g/L.

1 N CH3COONH4, 3 N HCl, 48% (w/w) HF, and 2 N HNO3 at room temperature (Kolker et al., 2000). After each extraction, >:4-364;85/;/941-44975 the leachable fraction was centrifuged and the clear solution          was analysed by HG-ICP-OES. The sequence of leaching steps Figure 2 shows the XRD pattern of coal slime. The mineral used was adopted so that arsenic associated with various assemblage is dominated by quartz and clay minerals (e.g. components of the coal would be removed as shown in kaolinite and chlorite) with trace amounts of pyrite, Table I. carbonate, and bohmite. The pyrite occurs mainly in      association with quartz and with clay minerals, (Figue 3) Two consecutive steps of first low-intensity leaching and rather than as free pyrite. The relative contents of quartz and flotation were performed. In the first step, coal slime was leached by agitation and aeration. The low-intensity leaching process was investigated at stirring speeds of 150 min-1 at 303 K to dissolve some of the inorganic mineral content of coal. The leach slurry was prepared by mixing 100 g of coal slime with 1000 mL deionized water in 1500 mL bottles.

HNO3 and NaOH were then added to adjust the pH of the slurry to 1.0, 3.0, 5.7, 10.0, and 12.0 in order to compare the leaching-flotation behaviour of arsenic following pre- treatment in acid, neutral, and alkali environments. The leach residue was collected using centrifugal separation after 1 hour and washed three times with deionized water and then transferred to a flotation cell (XFD-1.0 L), where the pulp density was adjusted to 80 g/L. The pH of the flotation pulp

(9,-2:; & '28);/9002816975;+866:25;70;1783;439.:; Table I :3:169%:;3:81*95,;468,:4;85/;6*:;.95:2834 /:17.+74:/

:3:169%:;3:81*95,;468,: 95:2834;39$:3);67;":;/:17.+74:/

1 CH3COONH4 Exchangeable cations and a portion of the carbonate-hosted cations 2 HCl Carbonates and monosulphides (sphalerite, galena, and chalcopyrite) 3 HF Silicates, including those hosted by the clay minerals (illite and kaolinite)

4 HNO3 Disulphides (pyrite and marcasite)

Note: Elements remaining in the solid residue may be present in the organic matrix, or occur in insoluble phases such as zircon or one of the (9,-2:; &11-22:51:4;70;138);85/;+)296:;95;6*:;1783;439.: titanium dioxide polymorphs. 944:.9586:/;+)296:;85/;$8739596:;!8 ;/944:.9586:/;+)296:;85/;-826 ;!"

         
VOLUME 117    
 69 L Modes of arsenic occurrence in coal slime and its removal clay are different. Table II shows the content of major     minerals in coal slime obtained by petrographic analysis. The igure 6 shows the results of the consecutive selective leaching relative contents of clay and pyrite are 85% and 11% (by tests. In total, 91% of arsenic is leached by the four solvents, volume), respectively. Quartz accounts for only about 2% of the minerals in coal slime, which is consistent with the semi- quantitative analysis by XRD. The results indicate that the deportment of pyrite is mainly consistent with that of clay. Therefore, pyrite might be removed with the removal of clay.   
       As shown in Figure 4, arsenic removal decreased consid- erably as separation density increased from 1.4 to 2.0 g/cm3, which can be ascribed to the mode of occurrence of arsenic. Although 96% of the total arsenic was removed at separation density 1.4 g/cm3, the cumulative yields of clean coal and ash were only 5.7% and 5.0%, respectively. It is therefore clear that gravity separation is not effective for the removal of arsenic. As shown in Figure 5(b), there is a negative correlation between the removal of arsenic and the content of (9,-2:;&(3786'85/'495$;6:464;75;1783;439.: ash (R2=0.98597), which indicates the inorganic affinity of arsenic. The removal of iron and aluminium have a positive correlation with that of arsenic (R2=0.9964 and 0.94565) (Figure 5a), as would be expected given their dominant occurrence in pyrite and clay. Thus both pyrite and clay are the predominant carriers of arsenic in coal slime. Furthermore, the intercepts of the regression equations (0.32888% and 5.24577%) indicate that a small amount of arsenic might occur in the form of other minerals.

Table II *:;1756:56;70;.8 72;.95:2834;95;1783;439.:

95:283;4+:19:4 38) )296: -826 6*:2

Content (% by volume) 85 11 2.2 1.5 (9,-2:;&24:591;2:.7%83;027.;6*:;1783;439.:;-5/:2;%8297-4;4:3:169%: 3:81*95,;175/969754

(9,-2:;&722:386975;8583)494;"84:/;75;6*:;03786'85/'495$;6:464; L 70    
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Modes of arsenic occurrence in coal slime and its removal

and the HNO3-leachable arsenic accounts for 77%. This yield of flotation concentrate is almost unchanged, approxi- indicates the dominant association of arsenic with pyrite, mately 58%.When the pH of leaching is 12.0, the removal of which is consistent with previous reports (Finkelman, 1994; arsenic and ash after flotation is approximately 58% and Huggins et al. 2009; Kang et al., 2011; Zheng, Liu, and 57%, respectively. The removal of arsenic and ash by Chou, 2008; Zhou et al., 2014). The results of selective flotation increased considerably under acidic conditions of leaching on the predominant carrier of arsenic are different leaching and reached 83% and 60% at pH=1.0, respectively. from the correlation analysis, because the pyrite is predomi- Direct flotation (pH=5.7) was found to be ineffective while nantly embedded in clay (Figure 3). A small fraction of low-intensity leaching-flotation is suitable, which could be arsenic is removed by HF and HCl, which indicates that ascribed to the dissolution of some minerals and the arsenic is not significantly associated with carbonates and separation of minerals from the organic matter after leaching. silicates, which are leached by HCl and HF, respectively The maximum removal of arsenic in low-intensity leaching- (Kolker et al., 2000). The same result was also indicated flotation is lower than that in heavy medium separation from the correlation analysis. Zhou et al. also reported the (Figure 4), but the yield of clean coal is higher. Therefore, existence of arsenic in clay and carbonate mineral (Zhou et low-intensity leaching-flotation has some advantages al., 2014). The 9.0% of the arsenic not removed by the compared with heavy medium separation and direct flotation. leaching procedure may occur in the organic matrix or in Demir et al. reported that when the degree of removal of insoluble phases such as zircon or titanium dioxide (Gao, Lu, an element is greater than that of ash in the washing process, and Wang, 2010; Kolker et al., 2000). this element is more related with epigenetic minerals, and these minerals will be easily removed in the physical coal   washing process (Demir et al., 1998). Arsenic is removed to Direct flotation was carried out at ambient temperature using a greater degree than ash (Figure 7), which indicates that the deionized water (pH=5.7) and a pulp density of 80 g/L to arsenic occurs mainly in epigenetic minerals. remove some of the ash and arsenic from the coal. After flotation, the concentrate was dried, then analysed. The           results showed a reduction in ash and arsenic contents of 55            and 54 % respectively. The clean coal yield is approximately The leaching-flotation behavior of arsenic with different 58%. In direct flotation, the removal of arsenic is low, modes of occurance was studied by selective leaching because the carrier minerals of arsenic are closely combined experiments. The results are shown in Figure 8. The consid- with the organic matter in the form of fine particles and erable differences in behaviour can be ascribed to the report to the clean coal during flotation. dissolution of carrier minerals and the separation of minerals Thus, low-intensity leaching should be carried out prior from the organic matter after leaching. to the flotation step, since the acid lixiviant can penetrate into The removal of CH3COONH4-leachable arsenic by the coal particles and attack the arsenic carried minerals. leaching-flotation is higher than that of CH3COONH4- leachable arsenic by direct flotation (pH=5.7). The maximun          removal of CH3COONH4-leachable arsenic is about 97% at pH Figure 7 shows the effects of low intensity leaching-flotation 1.0. With alkali leaching-flotation, the removal of arsenic is on the quality of clean coal. The pH of 5.7 corresponds to the result of direct flotation. After low-intensity leaching, the

(9,-2:;&00:164;70;37'956:5496);3:81*95,'037686975;75;6*:;-8396);70 (9,-2:;&00:16;70;37'956:5496);3:81*95,;75;2:.7%8;70;824:5913;96* 13:85;17833;!576:;+;;1722:4+75/4;67;6*:;2:4-364;70;/92:16;037686975 /900:2:56;.7/:4;70;711-22:51:4

         
VOLUME 117    
 71 L Modes of arsenic occurrence in coal slime and its removal approximately 62% at pH 10.0–12.0. This arsenic fraction flotation, which in turn affected the arsenic removal process. generally exists in the pore water and carbonate or is HNO3 and NaOH were added to the deionized water to adjust adsorbed on the surface of organic matter and minerals (Gao, the pH to 1.0, 3.0, 5.7, 10.0 and 12.0 in order to compare the Lu, and Wang, 2010). After acid leaching-flotation, nitric acid flotation behaviour of gangue in an acid, neutral, and reacts with calcite inducing the release of arsenic ions, and alkaline environment. The testing process was the same as arsenic ions desorb from the surface of organic matter and for slime leaching-flotation. The results are shown in Figure minerals due to competitive adsorption and dissolution in the 9. Gangue yield decreased with increasing acidity or basicity leaching medium and are removed by flotation. In alkaline compared to neutral conditions. Thus, flotation under acid or leaching-flotation, alkaline conditions restrain desorption and basic condition promotes arsenic removal from clean coal. exchange of arsenic ions in comparison to direct flotation             (pH=5.7), which in turn decreases the removal of      CH3COONH4-leachable arsenic. The degree of removal of HCl-leachable arsenic increased Fine mud coating is ascribed to the change of zeta potential considerably as pH decreased from 5.7 to 1.0 and the on the mineral surface (Gaudin, Fuerstenau, and Miaw, 1960; maximum removal of arsenic is 98% at pH 1.0. Under Xu et al., 2003), and is detrimental to de-ashing and arsenic alkaline conditions, the removal of HCl-leachable arsenic removal. The zeta potential of fine mud, coal particles and fluctuated around 47%. HCl-leachable arsenic is primarily coal slime showed a reduction with increasing pH (Figure associated with carbonates and monosulphides such as 10). The zeta potential of coal slime gradually approached sphalerite, galena, and chalcopyrite, which are dissolved by that of coal particles with increasing pH to 9.0, and then HCl. The acid reacts with carbonates and monosulphides, gradually approaches that of fine mud as pH>9.0. This inducing the release of arsenic ions and carrier minerals of phenomenon indicates that fine mud covers the surface of arsenic. The floatability of carrier minerals (carbonates and monosulphides) is weaker than that of coal. Therefore, the likeliness of HCl-leachable arsenic reporting to clean coal is reduced. However, carbonates and monosulphides do not react with alkalis so the removal of HCl-leachable arsenic is similar to that by direct flotation.

The removal of HNO3-leachable arsenic is close to that of total arsenic, because the dominant arsenic fraction is removed by HNO3 as shown in Figure 5. Disulphides, such as pyrite and marcasite, are dissolved by HNO3 (Equation [1]).

The removal of HNO3-leachable arsenic showed a significant increase as the pH decreased from 5.7 to 1.0 and reached 88% at pH 1.0. There was a slight increase in arsenic removal under alkaline leaching, reaching 56% at pH 12.0. Chemical leaching is an effective method for coal desulphurization and de-ashing. Pyritic sulphur is usually extracted by direct method with acid (Xia, Xie, and Peng, 2015). In the present (9,-2:;&*:;9.+816;70;+;%83-:;75;6*:;03768"9396);70;,85,-: study, the reaction between pyrite and acid in low intensity leaching process can be described by Equation [2]. ¡ [1]

¡ [2]

Compared to the other lixiviants, the removal of HF- leachable arsenic is erratic as the amount of arsenic associated with silicates is highly variable. Gao, Ju, and Wang (2010) reported that some minerals are completely encased by organics or a silicate matrix, hence digestion of the sample may not be complete.              (9,-2:; &;
.+816;70;+;75; :68;+76:56983;70;095:;.-/#;1783;+826913:4 Pre-leaching changed the response of the gangue minerals to 85/;1783;439.: L 72    
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Modes of arsenic occurrence in coal slime and its removal

Table intensity leaching-alkaline washing-flotation process is 3% higher than that of low-intensity leaching-flotation alone, 271:44;17.+829475;8583)494 which can be ascribed to the dispersion of pulp. 271:44 24:591;2:/-16975#; 4*#; 1$573:/,.:564 Leaching-flotation (pH=1) 83 59 Flotation- alkali washing - leaching 86 61 This work was supported by the National Key Basic Research Program of China (Grant Nos. 2014CB238905) and the Priority Academic Program Development of Jiangsu Higher Education Institutions. coal as pH<7.0 and pH>10.0. Therefore, a weak alkaline environment is beneficial for the dispersion of fine mud. >:0:2:51:; The removal of arsenic and ash by flotation increased considerably to 86% and 61%, respectively, 3% and 2% CORNELIS, G., POPPE, S., VAN GERVEN, T., VAN DEN BROECK, E., CEULEMANS, M., and higher than that of low-intensity leaching-flotation alone. VANDECASTEELE, C. 2008. Geochemical modelling of arsenic and selenium The results show that low-intensity leaching-alkali washing- leaching in alkaline water treatment sludge from the production of non- ferrous metals. Journal of Hazardous Materials, vol. 159. pp. 271–279. flotation is beneficial for the removal of arsenic in coal compared with direct flotation and low-intensity leaching- flotation. In addition, an alkaline environment increases the DEMIR, I., RUCH, R.R., DAMBERGER, H.H., HARVEY, R.D., STEELE, J.D., and HO, K.K. hydrophobicity of the surface of pyrite (Moslemi, Shamsi, 1998. Environmentally critical elements in channel and cleaned samples and Habashi, 2011) and contributes to enhancing the of Illinois coals. Fuel, vol. 77. pp. 95–107. mobility of arsenic oxyanionic species which usually adsorbed on the surface of organic matter and minerals DIEHL, S.F., GOLDHABER, M.B., and HATCH, J.R. 2004. Modes of occurrence of (Cornelis et al., 2008). mercury and other trace elements in coals from the warrior field, Black Warrior Basin, Northwestern Alabama. International Journal of Coal 7513-49754 Geology, vol. 59. pp. 193–208. Most of the arsenic in Tanggongta coal slime is associated with pyrite. The presence of pyrite-hosted arsenic is proven DAI, S., SEREDIN, V.V., WARD, C.R., JIANG, J., HOWER, J.C., SONG, X., JINAG, Y., by selective leaching because the dominant arsenic fraction WANG, X., GORNOSTAEVA, and T., LI, X. 2014. Others Composition and was removed by leaching with HNO3. Examination by modes of occurrence of minerals and elements in coal combustion polarizing microscope showed that pyrite is mostly products derived from high-Ge coals. International Journal of Coal embedded in kaolinite as fine grains. Geology, vol. 121. pp. 79-97. Low-intensity leaching-flotation is more efficient for arsenic removal compared with heavy medium separation FINKELMAN, R.B. 1994. Modes of occurrence of potentially hazardous elements and direct flotation. The removal of arsenic and ash after in coal: levels of confidence. Fuel Processing Technology, vol. 39. low-intensity-flotation increased considerably and reached pp. 21–34. 83% and 60% at pH= 1, respectively.

Under acid leaching, the CH3COONH4-leachable arsenic FINKELMAN, R.B., BELKIN, H.E., and ZHENG, B. 1999. Health impacts of domestic and HCl-leachable arsenic are the easiest removable fractions coal use in China. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, to remove, and HF-leachable arsenic the most difficult. The vol. 96. pp. 3427–3431. recoveries of CH3COONH4-leachable arsenic and HCl- leachable arsenic were over 97%, and that of HF-leachable FINKELMAN, R.B., OREM, W., CASTRANOVA, V., TATU, C.A., BELKIN, H.E., ZHENG, B., arsenic and HNO3-leachable arsenic 88% and 57%, respec- LERCH, H.E., MAHARAJ, S.V., and BATES, A.L. 2002. Health impacts of coal tively. Under alkaline leaching, the decreasing sequence of and coal use: possible solutions. International Journal of Coal Geology, highest recovery is CH3COONH4, HF, HNO3 and HCl - vol. 50. pp. 425–443. leachable fractions. The leaching had different influences on arsenic removal, depending on the reactivity towards acids and bases, the amphiphilic properties of the reaction FUJINO, Y., GUO, X., LIU, J., YOU, L., MIYATAKE, M., YOSHIURA, T., and GROUP, products, and mode of occurance of the carrier minerals. J.I.M.A. 2004. Others Mental health burden amongst inhabitants of an The floatability of gangue was reduced with an increase arsenic-affected area in Inner Mongolia, China. Social Science and in acidity or basicitycompared to neutral conditions. Medicine, vol. 59. pp. 1969–1973. Therefore, ash removal was improved, which in turn decreased the content of arsenic in clean coal. FENG, L.P. 2009. The study of mercury Occurence in coal and Migration A weakly alkaline environment is of advantage for the Regularity during coal preparation. China University of Mining and dispersion of the pulp. The removal of arsenic in the low- Technology, Bijing.

         
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FAN, X., JIANG, J., CHEN, L., ZHOU, C.C., ZHU, J.L., ZHU, T.G., and WEI, X.Y. 2016. QUICH, W.J. and IRONS, R. 2002. Trace element partitioning during the firing of Identification of organic fluorides and distribution of organic species in an washed and untreated power station coals. Fuel, vol. 81,.pp. 665–672. anthracite with high content of fluorine. Fuel Processing Technology, vol. 142. pp. 54–58 QIAO, J., JIANG, Z., SUN, B., SUN, Y., WANG, Q., and GUAN, X. 2012. Arsenate and

arsenite removal by FeCl3: effects of pH, As /Fe ratio, initial as concen- GAUDIN, A.M., FUERSTENAU, D.W., and MIAW, H.L. 1960.Slime coatings in galena tration and co-existing solutes. Separation of Purification Technology, flotation. CIM Bulletin, vol. 53. pp. 960–963. vol. 92. pp. 106–114.

GAO, J.S., LU, J., and WANG, J. 2010. Coal chemical process of pollution and SMITH, A.H.., HOPENHAYN-RICH, C., BATES, M.N., GORDEN, H.M., HERTZ-PICCIOTTO, I., control, Chemical Industry Press: DUGGAN, H.M., WOOD, R., KOSNETT, M.J., and SMITH, M.T. 1992. Cancer risks from arsenic in drinking water. Environmental Health Perspectives, HALL, A.H. 2002. Chronic arsenic poisoning. Toxicology Letters, vol. 128. vol. 97. p. 259. pp. 69-72.

SMEDLEY, P.L., ZHANG, M., ZHANG, G., anD LUO, Z. 2003. Mobilisation of arsenic HUGGINSS, F.E., SEIDU, L., SHAH, N., HUFFMAN, G.P., HONAKER, R.Q., KYGER, J.R., and other trace elements in fluviolacustrine aquifers of the huhhot basin, HIGGINS, B.L., ROBERTSON, J.D., PAL, S., and SEEHRA, M.S. 2009. Elemental inner Mongolia. Applied Geochemistry, vol. 18. pp. 1453–1477. modes of occurrence in an Illinois #6 coal and fractions prepared by physical separation techniques at a coal preparation plant. International Journal of Coal Geology, vol. 78. pp. 65–76. WAUGH, A.B. anD BOWLING, K.M. 1984.Removal of mineral matter from bituminous coals by aqueous chemical leaching. Fuel Processing Technology, vol. 9. pp. 217–233. JIANG, Y., FU, C., BAI, X., and LI, W. Distribution features of arsenic content in China coal. Coal Scicience and Technology, vol. 2. p. 30.

WARREN, L.J. 1985.Determination of the contributions of true flotation and entrainment in batch flotation tests. International Journal of Minerral KOLKER, A., GOLDHABER, M.B., HATCH, J.R., MEEKER, G.P., and KOEPPEN, R.P. 1999. Arsenic-rich pyrite in coals of the warrior field, northwestern Alabama: Processing, vol. 14. pp. 33–44. Mineralogical evidence for a hydrothermal origin. Geological Society of America, Abstracts with Programs. WANG, W.F.., QIN, Y., WEI, C., LI, Z., GUO, Y., and ZHU, Y. 2006. Partitioning of elements and macerals during preparation of antaibao coal. International

KOLKER, A., HUGGINS, F.E., PALMER, C.A., SHAH, N., CROWLEY, S.S., HUFFMAN, G.P., Journal of Coal Geology, vol. 68. pp. 223–232.

and FINKELMAN, R.B. 2000. Mode of occurrence of arsenic in four US coals. Fuel Processing Technology, vol. 63. pp. 167–178. XU, Z., LIU, J., CHOUNG, J.W., and ZHOU, Z. 2003. Electrokinetic study of clay interactions with coal in flotation. International Journal of Mineral KANG, Y., LIU, G., CHOU, C., WONG, M.H., ZHENG, L., and DING, R. 2011.Arsenic in Processing, vol. 68. pp. 183–196. Chinese coals: Distribution, modes of occurrence, and environmental effects. Science of the Total Environment, vol. 412. pp. 1–13. XIA, X., XIE, G., and PENG, Y. 2015. Recent advances in beneficiation for low rank coals. Powder Technology, vol. 277. pp. 206–221. LUTTRELL, G.H., KOHMUENCH, J.N., and YOON, R. 2000. An evaluation of coal preparation technologies for controlling trace element emissions. Fuel Processing Technology, vol. 65. pp. 407–422. ZHENG, B.S., DING, Z.H., HUANG, R.G., ZHU, J.M., YU, X Y., WANG, A.M., ZHOU, D. X., MAO, D.J., and SU, H.C. 1999. Issues of health and disease relating to coal use in southwestern china. International Journal of Coal Geology, MESHRAM, P., PUROHIT, B.K.., SINHA, M.K.., SAHU, S.K., and PANDEY, B.D. 2015. vol. 40. 119–132. Demineralization of low grade coal – a review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Review, vol. 41. pp. 745–761.

ZHENG, L., LIU, G., and CHOU, C. 2008.abundance and modes of occurrence of mercury in some low-sulfur coals from china. International Journal of Coal MOSLEMI, H., SHAMSI, P., and HABASHI, F. 2011. Pyrite and pyrrhotite open circuit potentials study: effect on flotation. Minerals Engineering, vol. 24. Geology, vol. 73. pp. 19–26. pp. 1038–1045.

ZHOU, C.C., LIU, G.J., WU, D., FANG, T., WANG, R.W., and FAN, X. 2014. Mobility

PIETRZAK, R. and WACHOWSKA, H. 2006.The influence of oxidation with hno3 on behavior and environmental implications of trace elements associated with the surface composition of high-sulphur coals: xps study. Fuel Processing coal gangue: a case study at the Huainan coalfield in china. Chemosphere, Technology, vol. 87. pp. 1021–1029. vol. 95, pp. 193–199. N L 74    
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http://dx.doi.org/10.17159/2411-9717/2017/v117n1a11 Performance optimization of an industrial ball mill for chromite processing by S.K. Tripathy*, Y.R. Murthy*, V. Singh*, A. Srinivasulu†, A. Ranjan†, and P.K. Satija†

The product of the existing grinding circuit #23*171 at the Sukinda chromite ore beneficiation In this investigation, we optimize the grinding circuit of a typical chromite (COB) plant contains about 30–40% ultrafine beneficiation plant in India. The run-of-mine ore is reduced to a particle particle (<45
m). The generation of ultrafines size of less than 1 mm in the comminution circuit and concentrated using adversely affects the efficiency (higher specific gravity separation. The comminution circuit comprises two-stage crushing power consumption, losses of ultrafine and single-stage grinding in a ball mill in closed-circuit with a high- chromite in the tailing, etc.) of the benefi- frequency screen. A detailed circuit audit was undertaken at the plant to ciation circuit. The ROM ore properties (size understand and evaluate the performance of the grinding circuit. The audit revealed abnormalities in the process and design parameters which caused distribution, grindability, liberation, physical high energy consumption, lower throughput, and loss of ultrafine properties, etc.) vary significantly between the chromite. Laboratory studies indicated the differences in the grinding different ore layers (northern band and mid properties (work index, breakage rate, etc.) and liberation sizes of these band). So it is necessary to revisit and ores. Studies also revealed that grinding media size, particle retention optimize the existing grinding circuit based on time, and pulp density are crucial in coarse grinding. Based on the the ore characteristics. Grinding is an laboratory grinding and characterization studies; simulation studies were inefficient process, and many factors can affect performed to optimize the operating parameters of the grinding circuit. the grinding performance. The grinding mill :8#36,1 performance is assessed based on the load coarse grinding circuit, ball mill, process optimization, chromite benefi- behaviour, mill power, and the rate of ciation, ultrafine reduction. production of fines. Grinding performance, regarding material breakage and power consumption, has been studied and reported in 2563,+-5732 the literature with a broad range of operating parameters, such as mill speed, charge filling, Comminution is a critical process in mineral ball size, and lifter type (Austin, Klimel, and processing which strongly influences the Luckie, 1984; Powell and Smit, 2001; Cleary, economics of production. In mineral 2001; Dong and Moys, 2003; Tripathy, processing, particles containing valuable minerals must be disintegrated at a sufficiently Murthy, and Singh, 2013). It is, however, fine size to liberate valuable minerals from crucial to explore other available avenues that waste constituents, so that they can be easily can lead to an understanding and separated by an appropriate beneficiation improvement in the process. method. The Sukinda chrome ore beneficiation With this objective, a detailed study was plant utilizes different types of run-of-mine carried out at the plant as well as at laboratory (ROM) ore with different physical properties scale to optimize the grinding process in order (viz. grindability characteristics, work index, to minimize the generation of ultrafine mineral composition, liberation, chemical material and improve the productivity. By composition, etc. for the production of chrome reducing the production of ultrafines in the concentrate. In the feed preparation circuit, grinding mill, the energy consumption will the ROM ore is crushed and ground to below improve. Furthermore, the downstream gravity 1 mm. Grinding in the chromite beneficiation plant is a critical unit operation to achieve the desired product size of below 1 mm and to control the generation of the ultrafine particles. Furthermore, about 40% of total power * Research and Development Department, Tata Steel consumption in the beneficiation plant is Ltd. Jamshedpur, India. † Ferro Alloys Minerals Division, Tata Steel Ltd. accounted for by the grinding of the ore. This Sukinda, India. implies that any improvement of the circuit © The Southern African Institute of Mining and performance will lead to an overall increase in Metallurgy, 2017. ISSN 2225-6253. Paper received productivity. Sep. 2014; revised paper received Jun. 2016.

         
VOLUME 117    
 75 L Performance optimization of an industrial ball mill for chromite processing separation will also improve, since the particle separation is from two separate mines, namely the northern band and better at coarser size fractions. middle band at Sukinda. The samples were crushed to 6 mm in a jaw crusher and mixed thoroughly to ensure  *867.825409.85)3,303(# homogeneity. Standard methods (riffling and splitting) were Sukinda COB plant receives feed from two mines and stores it used to prepare representative samples for characterization at four different lots based on the chemical analysis. The studies. Chemical analyses of these three chromite ores are various ores are blended and supplied to the beneficiation given in Table II. The characterization studies included size plant in order to achieve a target feed grade of approximately distribution and liberation analysis using an automated mineral analyser (QEMSCAN). Different grinding characteri- 35% Cr2O3. Seven different ore ratios were provided to the beneficiation plant during the sampling campaign. The initial zation studies such as Bond Work Index (BWI), Hardgrove phase of the study was carried out both in the laboratory and Grindability Index (HGI), friability, grindability, and breakage on the full-scale plant. The second phase focused on rate were also carried out. optimizing variables that were identified as critical in achieving target production. This work was divided into three stages: (i) performance study of the grinding circuit, (ii) characterization studies of different chromite ores, and (iii) optimization of the grinding circuit.   
 The schematic process flow sheet of the COB plant grinding circuit is shown in Figure 1. The ball mill is in closed circuit with a high-frequency screen, which has an aperture of 1 mm. The specifications of the ball mill are given in Table I. Different sampling points were identified in the circuit for collecting the representative sample, as shown in Figure 1. The sampling campaign was carried out for two months. Representative samples were collected on a two-hourly interval basis for each shift. The composite sample was mixed, dried, and weighed for further analysis.   7(+689672,72(9-76-+7593/9"9*0425$9 +!72,4$91)372(914.*072( About 200 kg each of three different samples were collected *37251

Table I *8-7/7-45732193/9'4009.7009459-)63.7589'828/7-7457329*0425$9 +!72,4

464.85861 854701 464.85861 854701

Mill dimension Diameter 3 300 mm Feed system Spout feeder Length: 4 200 mm Discharge system Trammel screen over flow type Motor power 700 KW Bearing Spherical roller bearings Mill power (max.) 605 KW Bearing Spherical roller bearings Mill speed (variable) 17.8 r/min (max): 74.6% Ncr Trunion (both ends) Type FAG 239/850K.MB.C3 14.3 r/min–60% Ncr Hydraulic sleeve FAG H564124 12.7 rpm (min)–53% Ncr Grinding media size 70 mm (max.) Mill lining Wear resistant rubber lining Grinding media type Chrome steel

Table II )8.7-4094240#17193/9,7//868259-)63.75893681

09 3 4.*089 114#99%&

6" 8%& 0" 7" 4" (" "

01 Low-grade middle band 30.5 28.7 8.4 5.6 0.3 5.2 7.6 02 High-grade northern band 45.9 16.2 11.8 3.4 0.4 8.9 4.2 03 High-grade middle band 34.1 21.7 14.9 4.9 0.1 6.2 7.5

(LOI: Loss on ignition) L 76    
 VOLUME 117          
Performance optimization of an industrial ball mill for chromite processing

   "&$ !%$&&! & "%$%$ &% Optimization studies were carried out by using the real-time The power consumption of the grinding mill is a critical data analysis of the circuit, as well as by simulating the parameter in the economics of the chromite beneficiation parameters with different developed empirical equations for process. The ball mill consumes about 25–30% of the total the optimum process and design parameters of the ball mill. energy in the beneficiation plant, and hence any The details of these are discussed in the next section. improvement will improve the overall economics of the plant. The power consumption of the ball mill was monitored for 81+051942,9,71-+11732 two months, and the data is shown in the histogram in Figure 2c. It can be seen that the power consumption for each    shift varied between 250 and 350 kWh. The data-set is Performance studies of the circuit at full plant scale were negatively skewed, and the average power consumption for initiated by considering the type of ore to be fed as well as each shift during this period was 294 kWh. the blending ratio. The main process parameters examined " &#%!&#!#&"& "%$%$ &%"%! during the sampling campaigns were feed rate, feed pulp density, ball mill speed and grinding media consumption rate, In addition to the ultrafines generation and energy water spray rate on the high-frequency screen, and feed pulp consumption, the average values for each of the process density to the screen. The performance of the ball mill varied parameters, along with all key performance indicators, are with the ore properties. The effect of process parameters on given in Table III. The values of these parameters vary ultrafines generation and power consumption in the ball mill widely. This may be due to adverse changes in the physical is explained further. properties of the ores. There are also a few correlations which were derived from the plant analysis data. #$!%!&&!"#%$ &%$& &#$& "%$%$ & "! The effect of ultrafines generation in the ball mill on During mining and crushing (before the grinding circuit), a power consumption for each shift is shown in Figure 3. It is significant amount of fines (less than 1 mm) is generated found that the power consumption can be reduced to below (Figure 2a). The data-set in the figure indicates the number 280 kWh for a shift at a feed rate higher than 40 t/h. It is of shifts considered and represented statistically. The also observed that with an increase in the feed rate, ultrafines depicted quantity of the ore is not fed to the ball mill. It is generation in the ball mill decreases. The correlation is observed from Figure 2a that the fines content of the feed depicted in Figure 3a, from which it can be seen that the varied from 82% to 17%, and the histogram indicates a negatively skewed distribution. Skewness in the histogram indicates distribution of the data towards either negative or Table III positive values. Most data values are between 50% and 70%. The mean value of the data-set is 57.8%. 864(8940+8193/95)89*63-8119*464.85861942,9!8# !"#%$ & $ "#!%$&%$& "%$%$ &%"%! *86/36.42-8972,7-4536197295)89(672,72(9-76-+75

Ultrafines generation in the ball mill has many demerits such 464.85861 864(8940+81 as lower throughput, energy loss, and inadequate capture of Feed rate to ball Mill (t/h) 45 ultrafine chromite particles in the beneficiation process. It is Feed pulp density (%sol. by wt.) 29 therefore always advantageous to minimize the generation of Grinding media consumption (kg/ton of ore) 4.2 Ball mill speed (r/min) 16–17 ultrafines. The ultrafines content of the ball mill product was Grinding media size (mm) 75 monitored for two months, and the production of each shift Spray water flow rate in HF screen (m3/h/panel) 30 is presented in Figure 2b. The percentage of ultrafines Feed pulp density to HF screen (g/cc) 1.32 Ball mill product, D80 (μm) 312 (<45
m) in the ball mill product varied from 6% to 60%, Ultrafine generation (<45 μm) 29% with an average of about 28%. 40% of the samples taken Plant throughput (tp=/h) 108 Power consumption in ball mill (kWh/shift) 294 over this period contained more than 30% ultrafine material.

7(+689 81+05193/95)8972757409*042594+,759%4&9.3+2593/9/728197295)89/88,$9%'&9+0564/72819729'4009.7009*63,+-5$9%-&9*3869-321+.*573293/95)89.700&

         
VOLUME 117    
 77 L Performance optimization of an industrial ball mill for chromite processing

7(+689366804573219'858829%4&9/88,964589539'4009.700942,9+0564/72819(828645732$9%'&9/88,964589539'4009.700942,9*3869-321+.*5732 production of the ultrafines can be kept below 20% by Fe-silicates being the major gangue minerals. In the high- maintaining the feed rate higher than 60 t/h. The relationship grade northern band ore, about 85% by weight of the sample between the mill throughput and power consumption is is chromite. In the case of the high-grade middle band ore, shown in Figure 3b. It can be observed that with an increase the main gangue minerals present are Fe-silicates, goethite, in feed rate, there is an increase in power consumption. haematite, and gibbsite. Liberation analysis results of the However, the overall production cost per ton will decrease at head samples (crushed at 6 mm) are shown in Figure 5b. It is higher throughput, due to the increase in production rate for observed that in the northern band ores, the liberation is high the same level of energy consumption. and almost 75% of the chromite is liberated at >50%. In the case of the middle band low-grade ores, only 20% is liberated   at >50%. These ores will require more grinding than the % &#$& %#&#$#% high-grade ores to improve the liberation. The head sample of Particle size distribution measurement was carried out by the low-grade middle band ores contains 40% chromite in the using a vibratory laboratory sieve shaker (Analysette3, Fritsch, Germany). The size distributions of the three samples are given in Figure 4. It is clear that these ores produce huge quantity of fines during crushing and handling of the sample, as the generation of <45
m particles varied from 26% to 49%, compared to the target of <20%. It is also found that mid band low-grade chromite ore is softer and more friable than the mid band and northern band high-grade chromite. %$ "# %#&#$#%&%$ &  QEMSCAN is an extremely versatile SEM-based automated mineralogical analysis system which gives the quantitative modal mineralogical data to trace mineral levels, calculated chemistry, mineral association and liberation data, and elemental deportment with a mineralogical map of the sample (Tripathy, Murthy, and Singh, 2013). The analyses of the head samples of size <6 mm are depicted in Figure 5. It can be observed (Figure 5a) that the low-grade mid band ore 7(+6894657-0891789,71567'+5732193/9,7//868259-)63.758936819-6+1)8, contains about 50% by weight chromite, with goethite and 539'80399..

7(+689 81+05193/95)89  915+,78193/95)6889-)63.758936819-6+1)8,94599..9%4&972864094240#171$9%'&907'864573293/9-)63.7589(6472197295)8936895#*81 L 78    
 VOLUME 117          
Performance optimization of an industrial ball mill for chromite processing form of 40–50% liberated. This means that half of the (below 45
m) produced by comparing before and after the particles are half-locked. In the northern band ores, 32% test and expressed as: chromite by weight is in the particles that are 70-80% liberated. This means that a significant amount will be [1] liberated at a minimum grinding time. Furthermore, the liberation of chromite grains is determined by grinding the ore to different sizes, and these results are tabulated in Table Friability value varies from 0 to 100, with higher values IV. It is observed that the northern band high-grade ore indicating increased friability. The results obtained from the liberates at a coarser size (359
m) than the others. It is also test work are given in Table IV. It is evident that the low- noted that chromite particles in the low-grade middle band grade middle band chromite ore produces less ultrafines ore are liberated at finer size, i.e. 112
m. For the different (<45
m) than the other two types. combination of ore blends, the liberation size will be the !%#!%$&&" #
# &"#! & intermediate size of the respective blended ores. The order of The experimental methodology is known as the ‘one-size liberation is as follows: fraction method’. Special feed charges are prepared to Low-grade middle band ore (112
m) < High-grade correspond to the different size fractions of interest. The size middle band ore (327
m) < High-grade northern band fraction of interest is made the topmost size interval, i.e., the ore (359
m) feed charge contains no material coarser than this size  interval. Each feed charge has more than 90% material in the respective topmost size interval. The remaining material is &&#$&"%#%%! mostly in the next finest size interval. Depending on the Representative samples were prepared separately by expected grinding rate of the topmost size fraction, the ball stagewise crushing to less than 2.8 mm. The BWI tests were mill is run for a short time, t, (30 seconds to 1 minute or so) carried out as per the standard procedure (Bond, 1961). The such that not more than 25–30% material is lost from the BWI for these three types of chromite ore is given in Table IV. topmost size interval. The specific breakage rate ki for the ith Similarly, HGI was determined as per the standard procedure size class, which happens to be the topmost size class for the (Edwards et al., 1980) and the results are also shown in experiment under consideration, can be calculated from the Table IV. The BWI of these ores is found to range from 5.8 to following expression (Narayanan, 1987; Narayanan, Hess, 7.9 KWh/t, which indicates that the chromite ore of this and Burns, 1987): region is friable and soft compared to the ferrous minerals such as haematite and magnetite. The low-grade middle band [2] ore is softer that the high-grade middle band. The sequence of the BWI for different chromite ores is as follows: Results obtained on the breakage rate parameter values (Figure 6) show that above 500
m size, high-grade mid Low-grade middle band ore > High-grade northern band band ore particles break at a much slower rate than particles ore > High-grade middle band ore of the same size of the other two samples. Particles below A similar trend is observed for the HGI values. It is noted 500
m break at nearly the same rate for all three samples. that higher the HGI, the softer the ore. The brittleness tests Although the top three size fractions of high-grade northern can determine friability of ores. The test apparatus used by band and low-grade mid band break at a much higher rate Ozkahraman (2005) to check the friability of limestone was than same size particles of high-grade mid band ore, the used for determining the friability of the three different difference in BWI values is relatively small. This is because chromite ores. The test parameters were kept constant for the recycled fraction of the particulate charge (71% of total the three ore types. The particle size of the sample was below charge weight) in the Bond test contains only a very small 6 mm, and the quantity was 500 g. The drop weight is was amount of these coarse particles and the fresh feed 14 kg, and the number of drops maintained during the test constitutes only about 29% of the total particulate charge of was 200. The details of the test procedure are explained in the feed in each cycle. Ozkahraman (2005). The friability of the chromite sample was determined by calculating the amount of ultrafines

Table IV 7'8645732$932,936!92,8 $9/674'7075#$942,9  40+819/369,7//868259-)63.75893681

"6895#*8 7'86457329 36!9 9 674'7075# 1789%
.& 72,8 9%!)& 40+8

High-grade middle band ore 327 7.9 97.5 4 Low-grade middle band ore 112 5.8 110.0 51 High-grade northern band ore 359 7.2 104.3 13 7(+689684!4(896458193/9,7//868259-)63.758936895#*81

         
VOLUME 117    
 79 L Performance optimization of an industrial ball mill for chromite processing

  An increase in the solids concentration will therefore help to improve the performance, but it should be optimum because Based on the characterization, laboratory grinding studies, at high solid concentration, there is a chance of overgrinding and plant audit of the circuit, an optimization strategy was resulting in excessive generation of ultrafines (Shi and formulated. For better understanding, the parameters are Napier-Munn, 2002). As mentioned in Table III, the feed pulp classified into two types; i.e. design and process parameters. density to the mill was 29% solids by weight, which is very From the results of the plant audit, it was found that the low. An increase in the pulp density to 40% solids by weight capacity of the ball mill was underrated against the designed was targeted. For tumbling mills, the speed of the mill is capacity of 75 t/h. The ball mill was operating at 45 t/h expressed as the fraction (%) of the speed at which the during the audit period. Conventionally, a ball mill is charge at the liner surface would centrifuge, i.e. centrifugal preferred for fine grinding, whereas a rod mill is for coarser force matches gravity. The critical speed (Cs) in revolutions grinding (Napier-Munn et al., 1996). The top particle size in per minute is given by (Napier-Munn et al., 1996): the feed to the ball mill was 25 mm, which is very high for this type of mill. In other words, the retention time inside the [4] mill was not sufficient to discharge particles of size 3 mm (the aperture size of the discharge trommel). The coarser where D is the mill diameter in metres. Larger ball mills are particles were therefore discharged from the ball mill (i.e. often operated more slowly. However, even for large mills, reported without grinding as the oversize particles in the maximum grinding usually occurs at about 80% of Cs. In this trammel). Based on the design criteria, the top particle size of case, the speed of the mill was maintained between 15 to the feed to this type of mill should not exceed 15 mm 17 r/min initially, which was 60–75% Cs. It was therefore (Narayanan, 1987; Napier-Munn et al., 1996). Also, the decided to keep the ball mill speed at optimum between 16– grinding media size plays an important role in particle 17 r/min. The energy consumption in the ball mill was found breakage and kinetics. The top make-up size of the balls for to be 6.5 kWh/t of ore with a targeted product size below the grinding mill can be computed as: 1 mm. The BWI of the ores varied from 5.8 to 7.8 kWh/t to reduce the particle size below 100 μm, but in real time, the energy consumption is very high compared with the reported [3] value of 6.5 kWh/t. This may be due to the overgrinding of the material inside the mill. Feed rate and power consumption where b is the diameter of the make-up ball (mm), F80 is the are correlated with each other, along with the ultrafines feed size in micrometres (80% passing), sg is the specific generation. Feed rate was another critical parameter which gravity of the ore feed, WI is the work index of feed, D is the has to increase, which in turn decreases the retention time of diameter inside the shell liners (metres), %Cs is the the particle inside the mill and reduces ultrafines generation. percentage critical speed. K is the constant in Equation [3] This will also automatically reduce the specific power which depends on mill type (i.e. 350 for wet overflow mills). consumption per ton of ore. With this background, a plant Based on Equation [3], the top size of the media should be trial was carried out at different optimized process 90–100 mm for the coarse grinding operation in this mill. parameters, which resulted in increasing mill throughput and Further, the pulp density inside the mill was found to be very minimizing the generation of ultrafines in the grinding mill. low, which is an indication of poor performance. Ultrafines With these optimized values, further plant trials were generation will decrease with increasing grinding media size conducted for two months, and the findings are given in (Mainza et al., 2012). At a lower solid concentration of the Table V. It is evident that with these particular changes, there feed pulp to the mill, the impact energy of the grinding media is a significant improvement regarding ultrafines generation, is dissipated in the slurry rather than impacting on a particle. power consumption, etc.

Table V "*57.78,9!8#9*63-8119*464.85861942,9*86/36.42-8972,7-45361

464.85861 8/36893*57.745732 /58693*57.745732

Feed rate to grinding circuit(t/h) 45 82 Feed pulp density (% solids by weight) 29 34 Grinding media consumption (kg/ton of ore) 4.2 0.1 Grinding media size (mm) 75 90/100 Ball mill speed (r/min) 16/17 16/17 ¬ Ultrafine generation (% < 45μm) 29 22 Plant throughput (t/h) 108 132 ¬ Ball mill product size (D in μm) 312 455 80 ¬ Power consumption (kWh/ton) 6.5¬ 3.6 L 80    
 VOLUME 117          
Performance optimization of an industrial ball mill for chromite processing

+..46#942,9-32-0+17321 carrying out the grindability studies of the ores. The support and services provided by R&D and SS division staff are also An optimization study of the grinding circuit of the COB duly acknowledged. plant, Sukinda was undertaken, and the generation of ultrafines (particle size below 45
m) was reduced from 29% 8/8682-81 to 22% by conducting a detailed characterization of different chromite ores along with an in-plant circuit audit. The major AUSTIN, L.G., KLIMPEL, R.R., and LUCKIE, P.T. 1984. Process Engineering of Size conclusions are as follows. Reduction: Ball Milling. AIME-SME, New York, USA. ® Three different ore deposits (which are the feed source BOND, F. 1961. Crushing and grinding calculations. British Chemical for COB plant) from the middle band and northern Engineering, vol. 6. pp. 543–548. band orebodies of Sukinda chromite mines were investigated for detailed characterization and CLEARY, P.W. 2001. Charge behavior and power consumption in ball mills: laboratory grinding studies. High-grade northern band sensitivity to mill operating conditions, liner geometry and charge ore analyses 45.9% Cr O , whereas high-grade and 2 3 composition. International Journal of Mineral Processing, vol. 63. low-grade middle band ores contain 34.02% and pp. 79–114. 30.5% Cr2O3 respectively ® Liberation analysis on the different ores showed that DONG, H. and MOYS, M.H. 2003. Load behavior and mill power. International the chromite in the high-grade northern band ore is Journal of Mineral Processing, vol. 69. pp. 11–28. liberated at a coarser size (359
m) compared to the others. The order of chromite liberation from different EDWARDS, G.R., EVANS, T.M., ROBERTSON, S.D., and SUMMERS, C.W. 1980. ores is as follows: Assessment of the standard method of test for the grindability of coal by Low-grade middle band ore (112
m) < high-grade the Hardgrove machine. Fuel, vol. 59, no. 12, pp. 826–830. middle band (327
m) < high-grade northern band (359
m) MAINZA, A.N., CLAREMONTDE, B., HAAS, B., KESHAV, P., CRAFFORD, D., and PLINT, T. 2012. Optimisation of the ball mill circuit using a simulator in conjunction ® Grindability studies concluded that the BWI is highest with measurements from a non-intrusive sensor. Proceedings of the XXVI for the high-grade middle band ore (7.9 kWh/t). The International Mineral Processing Congress (IMPC) 2012, New Delhi, BWIs for the high-grade northern band and the low- grade middle band ore are 7.2 and 5.8 kWh/t respec- India, 24–28 September. pp. 3098–3106. tively NARAYANAN, S.S. 1987. Modeling the performance of industrial ball mills using ® The grinding circuit is designed as a close circuit with single particle breakage rate. International Journal of Mineral Processing, high-frequency screen to produce particle of size below vol. 20. pp. 211–228. 1 mm. The particle size (D80) of the ball mill discharge

increased from 312
m to 455
m after circuit NARAYANAN, S.S., HESS, F.W., and BURNS, R.S. 1987. Optimisation of optimization. The recirculating load of the grinding comminution stages at Bougainville Copper Ltd. Proceedings of Copper- circuit was not improved due to the rejection of >3 mm 87: Mineral Processing and Process Control. Mular and Gonzalez (eds.). particles during feeding of hard ore (high-grade middle Facultad de Ciencias Fisicas y Matematicas, Universidad de Chile. band ore). There should be a suitable handling system pp. 43–57. for particles up to 8 mm (maximum) in order to obtain

a coarser size distribution NAPIER-MUNN, T.J., MORRELL, S., MORRISON, R.D., and KOJOVIC, T. 1996. Mineral ® On optimizing the process parameters, the energy comminution circuits: their operation and optimisation. JKMRC, University consumption of the grinding mill was reduced from 6.5 of Queensland, Brisbane. to 3.6 KWh/t OZKAHRAMAN, H.T. 2005. A meaningful expression between Bond work index, ® The average feed rate to the ball mill during the trial grindability index and friability value. Minerals Engineering, vol. 18. was increased to 82 t/h compared with the previous feed rate of 45 t/h. COB plant throughput was improved pp. 1057–1095. to an average of 132 t/h from the regular 108 t/h by POWELL, M.S. and SMIT, I. 2001. Startling effect of ball scats removal on SAG proper optimization and control of the ball mill during mill performance. International Autogenous and Semi-Autogenous the trials. Also, smooth operation of the ball mill was Grinding Technology, vol. 4, no. 4. pp. 124–137. observed during the optimizing period.

SHI, F.N. and NAPIER-MUNN, T.J. 2002. Effects of slurry rheology on industrial -!2308,(8.8251 grinding performance. International Journal of Mineral Processing, The authors would like to thank Tata Steel management for vol. 65. pp.125–140. permission and approval to publish this work. We also acknowledge the boundless support and assistance rendered TRIPATHY, S.K., MURTHY, Y.R., and SINGH, V. 2013. Characterisation and by COB Plant personnel and NRD division of Sukinda. separation studies of Indian chromite beneficiation plant tailing. Authors would like to acknowledge Dr. V. K. Gupta for International Journal of Mineral Processing, vol. 122. pp. 47–53. N

         
VOLUME 117    
 81 L ock 2 ISRM International Symposium R 0 i ‘ Rock Mechanics for Africa’ r 1 f 7 2–7 October 2017

A Cape Town Convention Centre, Cape Town

Keynote Speakers Nick Barton Sergio Fontoura Luís Lamas Dick Stacey Nielen van der Merwe

BACKGROUND Sponsors The 2017 ISRM International Rock Mechanics Symposium is to be held in Cape Town. The conference theme is ‘Rock Mechanics for Africa’. Mining has traditionally been a mainstay of African economies, while Oil and Gas industries are rapidly growing throughout Africa. Infrastructure is being developed to support these industries. Rock engineering design is and therefore will continue to be essential for the growth of the continent. Prior to the conference, the ISRM Board, Council and Commission meetings will take place. Technical visits are being arranged for after the conference.

WHO SHOULD ATTEND  Rock engineering practitioners TECHNICAL VISITS  Researchers The following technical visits are confirmed for the conference:  Academics  Phalaborwa Mine  Mining engineers  Tau Tona Mine  Civil engineers  Petroleum engineers  Engineering geologists.

TENTATIVE PROGRAMME

Sunday Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday 1/10/2017 2/10/2017 3/10/2017 4/10/2017 5/10/2017 6/10/2017 7/10/2017

ISRM ISRM Technical Session Board Board Morning Refreshments For further information contact:

Meeting Meeting ISRM Technical Session Meetings Raymond van der Berg, Head of Conferencing Workshop Commission Lunch SAIMM, P O Box 61127, Marshalltown 2107 Technical Session Tel: +27 (0) 11 834-1273/7 · E-mail: [email protected]

Afternoon Refreshments Visits Technical Website: http://www.saimm.co.za ISRM Council

Meetings Technical Session Workshop Supported by Board Network Conference Dinner Function Dinner

EXHIBITION/SPONSORSHIP Sponsorship opportunities are available. Companies wishing to sponsor or exhibit should contact the Conference Co-ordinator.

 
    http://dx.doi.org/10.17159/2411-9717/2017/v117n1a12 Flotation of mercury from the tailings of the Agh-Darreh gold processing plant, Iran by Y. Kianinia*, M.R. Khalesi‡, A. Seyedhakimi†, and F. Soltani*

If flotation is carried out before or after leaching, it might contaminate the recycle *893262 water and have adverse effects on the leaching The feed ore to Agh-Darreh gold processing plant (Takab City, Iran) and adsorption of gold. Increased flotation contains 2 ppm Au, 7 ppm Ag, and 120 ppm Hg. After cyanide leaching of reagent dosages could exacerbate these effect the feed at pH 10.4, 80% of the total mercury (in the form of cinnabar and (Salarirad and Behnamfard, 2010, 2011). metacinnabar) goes to the tailings dam. In this research, separation of Salarirad and Behnamfard investigated the mercury from the tailings by flotation was investigated. The effects of effect of flotation reagents on gold leaching collector type and dosage, pH, and the number of cleaner stages were and sorption kinetics, as well as the loading studied. The results showed that after two stages of cleaning a 40–62% recovery of Hg at a grade of 14.3% Hg is attainable. Recycle water from a capacity of gold onto activated carbon. They test in which 50 g/t amyl xanthate and 30 g/t pine oil was used in the showed that flotation reagents had a flotation stage showed no adverse effect on the leaching and adsorption of detrimental effect on the leaching process, and gold onto activated carbon. such effects increased with increasing reagent =;*"97-2 concentrations. They also reported that the mercury removal, tailings, leaching, flotation, Agh-Darreh. adsorption of organic material on activated carbon influences the gold sorption kinetics, but does not have a significant effect on the loading capacity. In another investigation, Salarirad and Behnamfard (2010, 2011)
8:79-,4:698 showed that the kinetic constant of the Mercury, most commonly found in the nature leaching rate was reduced by 46% using 20 as the mineral cinnabar (HgS), is a hazardous ppm PIBX, compared to when the collector is substance because of its mobility and toxicity not used. (Kyle et al., 2012). Roasting is the well- Gold ore from the Agh-Darreh deposit, established treatment method for mercury located in Takab, Iran, contains silver and ores, in which the sulphur is burned and mercury. The ore from the mine is crushed and

volatilized and mercury recovered milled in closed circuit (P80= 53
m) and then subsequently by cooling and condensation. treated by carbon in leach (CIL) (Figure 1). However, for low-grade ores, flotation is The leaching reagent is cyanide and the pH of mainly applied for primary concentration due the pulp is normally adjusted to a value of to its comparatively low costs, low environ- 10.5–11. Leached gold, silver, and mercury are mental hazards, and flexibility regarding feed adsorbed onto the activated carbon, which is variations (Bulatovic, 2007). Particularly, transferred to acid washing and elution cinnabar can be easily recovered by flotation columns for desorption of precious metals by using pine oil and a collector such as xanthate sodium hydroxide and sodium cyanide. After (Bulatovic, 2007; Crozier, 1991). Floatability elution, the pregnant solution containing gold, of cinnabar is reduced due to surface oxidation when it is exposed to the atmosphere after crushing. This problem can be eliminated by adding copper sulphate and lead nitrate or acetate. The best pH for cinnabar flotation is in * Department of Mining Engineering Nasr Bridge, the range of 6.5 to 8.5 according to Erspamer Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran. and Wells, (1954), who reported that cinnabar † Pouyazarcan Agh-Darreh COmpany, Tehran, Iran. and stibnite can be floated with long-chain ‡ Corrosponding Author, Department of Mining xanthate collectors and an alcohol frother, with Engineering Nasr Bridge, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran.. cumulative recoveries of 97.8% and 94.7%, © The Southern African Institute of Mining and respectively. Lead acetate was used as an Metallurgy, 2017. ISSN 2225-6253. Paper received activator. May 2015; revised paper received Jul. 2016.

         
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 83 L Flotation of mercury from the tailings of the Agh-Darreh gold processing plant

)6.,7;<$!.+577;+<.90-<3794;2268.<3058:

)6.,7;<$;74,7*<68

 (carbon that had and had not been exposed to flotation reagents). Potassium ethyl xanthate (PEX), potassium amyl xanthate (PAX), and sodium isobutyl xanthate (SIBX) were used as ® Stage 1: CIL experiments—In the first stage, a flotation collectors. To compare the performance of the three collectors, experiment was done with 50 g/t of PAX and 30 g/t of flotation conditions were selected to be identical, as tabulated pine oil at pH 10. At the end of the experiment, the in Table I. To perform the experiments, a sample with 30% flotation tail was filtered and its water collected for the solids was prepared. Then, the pulp pH was reached reduced CIL experiment. To perform the CIL experiments, 2 kg to 9.8 by the addition of sulphuric acid. Finally, each of sample (1.420 g/t gold) was ground to a d80 of experiment was conducted in two steps and at each step 60
m and divided into three equal parts. One part was concentrates were collected twice. Concentrates and tailings kept as a control sample and the other two samples were weighed and dried at 60°C and the mercury contents were poured into bottles. Experiments were done at determined by atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS). The 40% solids and pH 10.5 with fresh water used in the number of steps for adding the collector and the best times plant (experiment 1) and water recovered from the for concentrate removal were determined in preliminary tests. flotation tailings (experiment 2). The properties of fresh water and recovered water are shown in Table II.    Sodium cyanide (0.3 g) was added and the bottles were Lime was used for pH adjustment. Preliminary tests showed placed on a bottle roll apparatus. After 5 minutes, 5 g that the formation of pine oil froth is very poor and the froth of carbon was added to each bottle, and after 24 hours is not stable at pH < 8, even at high doses, and therefore the the bottles were removed from the apparatus. The recovery was very low. MIBC and alcohol frothers were also carbon from each bottle was separated by sieving and used, but froth formation with these frothers was also very two samples from each bottle were prepared for poor, so the experiments were performed at pH > 8 using analysis of solution and solid. pine oil, as shown in Figure 3.   In most cases, concentrate from the rougher flotation stage is Table I not considered as the final concentrate and several cleaning )09:5:698<:;2:2<498-6:6982

  First step Collector (35 g/t) - 0    Pine oil (30 g/t) - 2 These experiments were carried out in two series as shown in - Concentrate 1 4-8 Figure 4. In first stage, carbon in leach (CIL) experiments - Concentrate 2 8-12 using fresh water and water recovered from flotation tests Second step Collector (15 g/t) - 12 were conducted. In the second stage, adsorption experiments - Concentrate 3 14–17 - Concentrate 4 17–20 were carried out using the carbon from the previous stage

)6.,7;<$% 3;761;8:2<498-,4:;-<:9<68';2:6.5:;<:+;<;//;4:<9/<3

         
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 85 L Flotation of mercury from the tailings of the Agh-Darreh gold processing plant

)6.,7;<$% 3;761;8:2<:9<68';2:6.5:;<:+;<;//;4:<9/

Table II +5754:;762:642<9/

5:;7<:*3; ! < #< !.< !,< #< );< 8< . < %< 3< 331< 331< 331< 331< 331< 331< 331< 331< 331< 121<

Fresh water 0 0 0 0 0.71 1 0 0 0 0.48 7.8 Recovered water 2.4 0.06 0.07 0.005 1.16 3.2 37.5 5.5 6.8 1.46 9.85

® Stage 2: determination of adsorption kinetics—To [1] study the adsorption kinetics, two bottles were prepared, each containing one litre of solution with Equation [1] can also be expressed in the linearized 10 g/t of gold, 200 g/t of cyanide at pH 10.3, and the logarithmic form: carbon from the first stage with the same experiment number (Figure 4). The bottles were then placed on a [2] bottle roll apparatus for 24 hours at a rolling speed of where [Au] t is the change in gold content adsorbed onto 30 rpm. Samples of 50 ml were taken throughout the c carbon from time zero to time t (g/t), [Au] t is the gold course of the experiments at predetermined times. s concentration in solution at time t (mg/L), n is an empirical 
  constant dependent on the characteristics of the activated Solutions were directly analysed for gold by atomic carbon, k is the kinetic rate constant (h–1), and t is the absorption spectrometry (AAS) (Varian Model AA240). adsorption time (h). t t Mercury analysis was done by dissolution with aqua regia By plotting log([Au]c/[Au]s vs. log t, a straight line is followed by extraction by diisobutyl ketone (DIBK) and AAS obtained and therefore the k value can be easily determined analysis. Other elements were measured by AAS. The PAX from the intercept. All experiments were performed in concentration in the recovered water was determined by UV triplicate and the mean k values were taken into account. spectrophotometry. Electrical conductivity was determined by conductivity meter. ;2,0:2<58-<-624,22698   The fouling effect of flotation reagents on the kinetics of gold Results of experiments comparing the collectors are shown in adsorption can be evaluated through the adsorption kinetic Figure 5. After four stages of concentrate collection, PAX constant k (Equation [1]). shows better grades and recoveries. However, in the first L 86    
 VOLUME 117          
Flotation of mercury from the tailings of the Agh-Darreh gold processing plant

content of the concentrate was 86 667 ppm, compared with 84.5 ppm in the feed, an enrichment ratio of 1025. This experiment was repeated with the same conditions as the previous experiment; except that the leach tailings samples were collected on different days. The results of the repeat experiment confirmed the results presented in Figure 6. The mercury grade in replicate feed sample was 113.6 ppm, and 143 000 ppm in the concentrate (enrichment ratio 1258).

 The effect of pH on mercury recovery and grade is shown in Figure 7. In these experiments, the highest grade and lowest recovery was at pH 9, and the highest recovery and lowest )6.,7;<$%//;4:<9/<4900;4:97<:*3;<98<1;74,7*<7;49';7*<:9<:+;10.5. At lower pH higher than with PAX (mercury recovery of 51.26% for SIBX values, the stability of pine oil froth is reduced. compared to 43.48% for PAX). Tails from flotation with PAX were sieved and the mercury in each size fraction   determined. The highest mercury grades in the feed and in    the flotation tailings was in the -37
m fraction; 79.08% and    80.4% respectively. Maximum mercury recovery was obtained in the +37 –53
m fraction, with 97 ppm mercury in The results of the CIL experiments are shown in Table III. In the feed reduced to 30.5 ppm in the tailings. In the -37
m fraction of the tailings, the mercury grade was 53 ppm, compared with 104.5 ppm in the feed.     In this experiment, the mercury grade of the concentrate reached 6400 ppm, from 153 ppm in the feed, an enrichment ratio of 42. Recoveries of mercury to the final tail and concentrate were 42.75% and 45.07%, respectively. Recovery of mercury to the tailings of the first-stage cleaner was 12.18%, which can be returned to the flotation circuit.     Figure 5 shows that after two steps of cleaning, the mercury )6.,7;<$%//;4:<9/<3<98<7;49';7*<58-<.75-;

)6.,7;<$)09:5:698<"6:+<:"9<40;5868.<2:5.;2<

         
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 87 L Flotation of mercury from the tailings of the Agh-Darreh gold processing plant

Table III could be an additional reason for their reduced fouling properties (Molina et al., 2013). ;2,0:2<9/<457#98<68<0;54+<; 3;761;8:2 9840,2698 % 3;761;8:< 906-< 6 ,6-< ;54+68.< !-2973:698< 9 5225*<(331& 5225*<(331& 7;49';7*<(& 7;49';7*<(& Flotation experiments were conducted to investigate the recovery of mercury from leach tailings. With two stages of 1 0.133 Below 0.005 90.63 99.4 cleaning, the maximum mercury recovery and concentrate 2 0.134 Below 0.00590.56 99.4 grade were 62% and 14.3%, respectively, with an enrichment ratio of over 1000. The flotation concentrate can be roasted and mercury recovered by cooling and condensation. Further experiments were performed to investigate the effect of flotation reagents on gold leaching and adsorption, as in the final flow sheet the water would be recovered from the proposed flotation circuit and used in the gold leaching and adsorption sections. The reagents used in the flotation tests had no significant effects on the gold leaching and adsorption processes at the dosages used in the experiments. Particularly, if the water is recovered from the tailing of the flotation cells, the effects of reagents are predicted to be negligible.

!4>89"0;-.;1;8:2 All laboratory personnel of Agh Dareh gold processing plant are thanked for their assistance.

;/;7;84;2

)6.,7;<$ 5765:698<9/<.90-<7;156868.<68<290,:698<  :61;

BULATOVIC, S.M. 2007. Handbook of Flotation Reagents: Chemistry, Theory and Practice: Volume 1: Flotation of Sulfide Ores. Elsevier.

both experiments, gold remaining in the solution is less than CROZIER, R. 1991. Sulphide collector mineral bonding and the mechanism of the detection limit of the instrument. More than 99% of the flotation. Minerals Engineering, vol. 4, no. 7. pp. 839–858. dissolved gold was absorbed by activated carbon in both experiments. These results showed that the recovered ERSPAMER, E. and WELLS, R. 1956. Selective extraction of mercury and antimony flotation water at reagent dosages used in the flotation experiments had no effect on leaching of gold. from cinnabar-stibnite ore. US Bureau of Mines.

  KYLE, J. BREUER, P.L., BUNNEY, K.G., and MAY, P.M. 2012. Review of trace toxic The adsorption patterns of gold onto activated carbon in elements (Pb, Cd, Hg, As, Sb, Bi, Se, Te) and their deportment in gold experiments with fresh and recovered water, are shown in processing: Part II: Deportment in gold ore processing by cyanidation. Figure 8. The main difference between the two graphs is the Hydrometallurgy, vol. 111. pp. 10–21. initial slope; the adsorption kinetics for the carbon that was not in contact with flotation reagents were faster than for the MOLINA, G.C., CAYO, H.C., RODRIGUES, M.A.S., and BERNADES, A.M. 2013. Sodium carbon that was in contact with flotation reagents. The plots t t isopropyl xanthate degradation by advanced oxidation processes. Minerals of log([Au]c/[Au]s versus logt for experiments 1 and 2 were drawn and the k values for the experiments were calculated Engineering, vol. 45. pp. 88–93. as 458 and 332 h–1 respectively. This indicates that the dosage of collector and frother had little impact on the SALARIRAD, M.M. and BEHNAMFARD, A. 2011. Fouling effect of different flotation kinetics of gold adsorption. Both kinetic constants were and dewatering reagents on activated carbon and sorption kinetics of gold. higher than minimum practical level, which is 80–100 h–1 Hydrometallurgy, vol. 109, no. 1. pp. 23–28. (Salarirad and Behnamfard, 2011). The limited effect of flotation reagents on the adsorption kinetics may be due to the deportment of a large quantity of them into froth phase SALARIRAD, M.M. and BEHNAMFARD, A. 2010. The effect of flotation reagents on (the concentrate), while the recovered water is recycled from cyanidation, loading capacity and sorption kinetics of gold onto activated the leach tailing. The degradation of reagents during flotation carbon. Hydrometallurgy, vol. 105, no. 1. pp. 47–53. N L 88    
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http://dx.doi.org/10.17159/2411-9717/2017/v117n1a13 Cost modelling for flotation machines by S. Arfania*, A.R. Sayadi*†, and M.R. Khalesi*

A number of approaches can be employed with the aim of developing the cost models. A 13*040 review of these methods can be found in Flotation is one of the most widely used operations in mineral processing recent papers by Niazi et al. (2006) and plants and assumes a significant share of the total milling costs. The Huang, Newnes, and Parry (2012). Regression purpose of this paper is to introduce a new set of capital and operating is one the most frequently applied techniques cost models for major flotation machines based on the application of single for cost modelling (Smith and Mason, 1997). (SRA) and multiple regression analysis (MRA). Thirty-seven major Several cost models have been established flotation machines were analysed for this purpose. Depending on the related to mining and milling projects machinery type, different technical variables such as diameter, required air (Table I). One of the preliminary works was flow rate, required floor space, cell volume, required air pressure, and undertaken by Prasad (1969) and has been power were considered as predictor variables, individually (in SRA) or carried on in the recent work of Sayadi, simultaneously (in MRA). Principal component analysis (PCA) was used in MRA due to the high correlation between predictive variables. The Khalesi, and Khosfarman (2014). Almost all of performance of each model was evaluated using R2, MAER (mean absolute these models have been developed based on error rate), and residual analysis. In the case of MRA, the RMSE (root exponential single regression approaches; mean square error) test was also conducted. Maximum obtained MAER of correlating only one independent variable to a 13.5% and minimum R2 of 0.86 indicated that these models could be cost value (Stebbins, 1987). Consequently, in applied as credible tools in estimation of capital and operating costs of spite of the usefulness of these models in flotation machines for design and feasibility studies. preliminary cost estimation, the role of other 9532-0 effective parameters has simply been cost estimation, flotation machine, regression model, principal component overlooked. Some of these models have analysis. become old and updating them also may cause significant errors. Furthermore, these models mainly estimate total operating cost, and estimation of detailed operating cost items such as maintenance, lubrication, etc. is not 1623-+.6431 possible. To overcome these deficiencies, this Mineral processing is a vital part of mining paper aims to introduce up-to-date capital and projects and mainly involves comminution, detailed operating cost models considering sizing, concentration, extractive metallurgical multiple effective factors of flotation machines. processes, and dewatering. Flotation is one of Two sets of single (SRA) and multiple the most widely used methods for mineral regression (MRA) cost functions are concentration. Flotation can represent the presented. The first set is suitable for cost second major cost item in mineral processing estimation at the initial phases of a project and after grinding (Wills and Napier-Munn, 2011). is mainly appropriate for building rapid cost Accordingly, it is a main concern of mining estimates where only one particular design project managers to select and optimize factor of a flotation machine is accessible. flotation circuits in order to decrease costs and However, the second set is appropriate for increase productivity. In any equipment detailed estimation at the feasibility study selection, several interactions between stage along with plant simulation processes. engineering and economic considerations must be taken into account. Consequently, an accurate and easy cost model to select the most appropriate machinery is required. Moreover, cost models could be used in flow sheet simulations applied in design and * Tarbiat Modares University, Iran. optimization. Models of unit operations built † Corresponding author. into the simulators could be improved by © The Southern African Institute of Mining and linking the equipment cost models (Khalesi et Metallurgy, 2017. ISSN 2225-6253. Paper received al., 2015). Apr. 2015; revised paper received Jul. 2016.

         
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Table I 8(245,8$4063283,8.30685064%764318418%4141)871-8%4//41)8*23
5.60

+6$32 572 "$5%5

Mohutsiwa and Musingwini 2015 Parametric capital costs estimation for coal mines in South Africa Sayadi et al. 2014 Parametric cost modeling for mineral grinding mills Lashgari and Sayadi 2013 Overhaul and maintenance cost of loading equipment in surface mining Sayadi et al. 2012 Estimating capital and operational costs of backhoe shovels Sayadi et al. 2011 Hard-rock LHD cost estimation using regression techniques McNab 2009 Simplified cost estimation for processing of iron ores Loh et al. 2002 Processing equipment cost estimation Mular 1978 Estimation of capital costs of mining and mineral processing equipment using regression analysis Mular 1982 Estimation of capital costs of mining and mineral processing equipment using regression analysis Mular and Poulin 1998 Estimation of capital costs of mining and mineral processing equipment using regression analysis Camm 1994 Cost modeling for mine and mill Noakes and Lanz 1993 Estimating the costs of mining and milling industry, using graphical or formulation methods O’Hara 1980 Development of a set of cost formulas as estimators of capital and operating costs of mining and milling O’Hara and Suboleski 1992 Development of a set of cost formulas as estimators of capital and operating costs of mining and milling Pascoe 1992 Capital and operating costs of minerals engineering plants USBM 1987 Estimation of mining and milling costs using regression analysis Prasad 1969 Mineral processing plant design and cost estimation

Table II 7678-50.24*643183,8,/36764318%7.$4150

65% '41 '7 '571 671-72-8-5#476431

Column Sulfide Variables Diameter (m) 0.91 4.00 2.28 0.95 Required air flow rate (m3/min) 8.50 850.00 212.97 261.18 Costs Capital (US$) 112600 393700 224558 78526 Operating (US$/h) 3.25 11.36 6.48 2.27 Coal Variables Diameter (m) 2.4 4.3 3.35 0.82 Required air flow rate (m3/min) 850 3398 1876.25 1152.20 Costs Capital (US$) 179200 289400 240200 45801 Operating (US$/h) 5.17 8.35 6.92 1.32 Self-aerating Variables Cell volume (m3) 0.31 85 17.20 26.22 Required floor space (m2) 0.83 23.2 7.56 7.44 Power (kW) 2.23 149.14 35.96 46.56 Costs Capital (US$) 17800 279900 74372.73 77819 Operating (US$/h) 0.51 8.07 2.14 2.24 Standard Variables Cell volume (m3) 0.28 158.6 35.64 52.87 Required air flow rate (m3/min) 0.42 85 21.11 28.42 Air pressure required (kP) 10.34 103.42 32.95 31.29 Power (kW) 1.11 149.14 35.94 48.79 Costs Capital (US$) 17600 302600 100580 95962 Operating (US$/h) 0.51 8.73 2.89 2.77

'56$3-3/3) ® Column flotation: based on 36-foot, mild steel column, includes automatic sparger system, wash water system,  and level control Thirty-seven major flotation machines (16 columns, 11 self- ® Self-aerating cells: individual cells based on a 10-cell aerating, and 10 standard cells) are considered in this study. row and including paddles, feed boxes, junction boxes, The data descriptions are presented in Table II (InfoMine, discharge boxes, skimmer drives, and motor guards, 2013). InfoMine conducts annual surveys on costs of but not motors or launders equipment from manufacturers and distributors; fuel, energy, ® Standard cells: individual cells based on a 10-cell row and lubricant suppliers; and US mining companies and and including paddles, feed boxes, junction boxes, provides the data without mentioning the manufacturers' discharge boxes, skimmer drives, and motor guards, names: but not motors, blowers, and launders. L 90    
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The data contained technical and cost specifications of the and operating costs and as a result, the power function machines. Technical parameters were diameter (D), required framework of Equation [1] was chosen for the univariate air flow rate (AF), cell volume (CV), required floor space (FS), model: required air pressure (AP) and power (P) depending on the [1] type of flotation machine (Figure 1). These parameters were individually or simultaneously used as predictor variables in where Y refers to capital or operating costs, X defines an cost models. independent variable (one of the machine predictor Costs included capital (CC) and total operating cost (OC) variables), and a and b are constant values (parameters) of based on US dollars (2013) and dollars (2013) per hour, the models. respectively. Moreover, the operating costs could also be In the case of multivariate models, the multiple linear estimated in detail, i.e. the overhaul (parts and labour), regression framework (Equation [2]) showed promise in this maintenance (parts and labour) and lubrication cost items. research, based on testing different model structures and also The operating costs data is provided based on certain unit on previous works (Sayadi, Khalesi, and Khosfarman, 2014). costs in the USA in 2013: electrical power, lubricant and [2] repair labour were assumed as 0.076 US$ per kWh, 3.32 US$ per litre, and 37.57 US$ per hour, respectively. where xi defines independent explanatory variables and ai are The overhaul costs (including both parts and labour) are regression coefficients (model parameters). As was those associated with scheduled refurbishing or replacement mentioned, independency of xi variables from each other is of major wear parts. Likewise, the maintenance costs required before initiating any regression analysis due to the (including both parts and labour) are associated with both regression assumption. As will be discussed later, unscheduled repairs and scheduled servicing of all of minor correlations between regressors existed in this research and and major components, excluding overhaul actions and therefore such dependencies were eliminated by the principal lubrication. The cost of operator’s time was not included in component analysis (PCA) method. this study. The data and therefore the developed models For evaluation of the SRA models, R2, RMSE (root mean represent flotation machines with separate motors. The costs square error), and MAER (means absolute error rate) were of motors are generally estimated separately. Here, for ease carried out. R2 is the coefficient of determination and of use of the models, separate capital and operating cost indicates measures of the dependent variable variance which functions for variable-speed DC motors are provided later. is explained by the regression model. The RMSE shows the difference between observed and predicted values according   to the model and can be calculated by Equation [3]: The relationship between a variable of interest and a set of related predictor variables can be well expressed by [3] regression analysis. In each regression model, one dependent variable and some independent variables are related to each where Xobs is the observed value, xe the estimated value other. The regression is called single regression (SRA) if just at time/place I, and n, is the number of observations. one independent variable exists, while in multiple linear For evaluation of the MRA models, analysis of residuals, regression (MRA) several independent variables are tests of MAER values and evaluation of R2 were conducted. correlated to the dependent variable. In this regard, By using Equation [4], differences between actual and independency of regressors (so-called independent variables) estimated costs for any data are examined and an average is a must. Multicollinearity affects the stability of the difference based on per cent of actual costs is given (Kim, An, regression coefficients and violates the presumptions of the and Kang, 2004). ordinary least-squares method used in regression (Montgomery and Runger, 2003). [4] In this paper, both single and multiple regression analysis were conducted on the data. MATLAB software was used in where Ce is the estimated cost, Ca the actual cost, and n the order to evaluate different univariate structures for capital number of data. MAER values should be in low levels as much as possible.


 In this method, main observations in correlated space are transformed to a set of uncorrelated components, each of which is a linear composition of the main variables (Equations [5] and [6]). The new uncorrelated variables are called principal components (PCs). As can be seen in

Figure 2, neither X1 nor X2 is the main direction of the data, while the ellipse with main diameters PC1 and PC2 matches the direction of the data. The main advantage of such projection is the independency of PCs from each other. It

follows that there are linear relations between PCs and Xi as Equations [5] and [6]:

4)+258 7247(/5083,8,/36764318%7.$4150 [5]

         
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[9]

50+/60871-8-40.+00431

   Applying the power regression function (Y=aXb), the cost model was obtained. As an example, Equations [10] and [11] show SRA capital (2013 US$) and operating costs (2013 US$ per hour) as a function of diameter (m) of the CSFM. [10] 4)+258!&087408 %7418740

Table III

[6] &3225/764318(56551865.$14.7/8#7247(/508& '

In this research, main variables of X1, X2 … Xn were first &3225/7643108 transformed into PCs in order to eliminate the '725-8.3225/7643108725804)14,4.7168768*8 8  multicollinearity, and then the multiple linear regression  8&7054058-5/5643183,8%40041)8-767 model was built with PCs as the regressors. After evaluation '571 6-8-5# 47%5652 5+425-87428,/382765 of the model, the PCs were replaced by the main variables Diameter 2.2792 0.9471 1.000 000 0.931 963 and the final model based on the main variables was Required air 212.9667 261.1806 0.931 963 1.000 000 introduced. flow rate    To clarify the steps by which multivariable costs models have been obtained, the development of capital cost function for Table IV the column sulphide flotation machine (CSFM) is presented "5.$14.7/8#7247(/58#7/+508 )5152765-8!&0 here as an example. Table III illustrates the high correlation between predictor variables for the CSFM. & '8 The PCA approach was implemented to define new     !& !& predictor variables with low correlation values. Conversion of     the technical variables to the PCs was conducted using 0.91 8.5 -1.57 581 -0.468 686 1.22 11.3 -1.33 678 -0.244 814 STATISTICA software. Table IV shows the main variables and 1.52 22.7 -1.08 193 -0.051 691 the new generated PCs of the CSFM together, while Table V 1.68 50.1 -0.88 829 -0.006 414 demonstrates the correlation matrix of the new PCs. As can 1.82 68 -0.73 530 0.049 652 2.1 102 -0.43 419 0.166 656 be seen, the new PCs are completely independent from each 2.3 136 -0.19 282 0.223 930 other and therefore multiple regression models can be built 2.4 170 -0.02 611 0.206 542 using PCs as regressors. 2.7 227 0.35 220 0.276 210 3.0 312 0.80 631 0.270 071 Using the PCs as independent variables, a capital cost 3.7 598 2.10 324 0.018 404 (CC) model for the CSFM was developed (Equation [7]). 4.0 850 3.00 948 -0.439 861 However, the final model should be based on the main technical variables, as those values are available for the user. Equation [8] has been used for converting the PC-based model to a model with main variables (Timm, 2002; Kaiser, Table V 1960) &3225/764318.35,,4.451608(565518!&083,8& ' [7] &3225/7643108%725-8.3225/7643108725804)14,4.7168768*8 8 8  .7054058-5/5643183,8%40041)8-767 [8] '571 6-8-5# !& !&

PC1 0.0 1.389 951 1.0 0.0 PC2 0.0 0.260 839 0.0 1.0 where Xi are main technical variables (like power or required air), ai are calculated by multiplication of coefficients of the model based on PCs as predictors by the eigenvectors of PCs

(as illustrated in Figure 3), Six and Xi,ave are the standard deviation and mean of main variables, respectively (can be found from Table II) and C refer to constant value of PC- based model (here 224 558.3). Equation [9] shows the final capital cost model for the CSFM. 4)+258 417/8%3-5/8.35,,4.45168)5152764318 L 92    
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[11]    The steps in the development of a multivariable model were It can be seen that the capital and operating costs are briefly presented previously. As was mentioned, the validity proportional to the 0.791 and 0.790 power of diameter in the of regression models like Equation [9] were tested by case of the column sulphide flotation machine. The R2 is different statistical approaches. Figure 4 shows the residuals about 0.94 for both cases, i.e. 94% of the variation in capital of the capital cost model of the CSFM, confirming their correct and operating costs could be explained by the model. Tables normal distribution. Table X represents the coefficients of the VI to IX demonstrate results for the machines modelled in final MRA models (a1, a , a ) and new intercept (a ) along this research. 2 3 0

Table VI 41)/5825)25004318717/0408,328.3/+%180+/*$4-58,/36764318%7.$4158& '

*/7176328 '3-5/8 &7*467/8 *527641)8.3060 +(24.76431 #7247(/5 -50.24*6431 .306 "367/83*527641)8 #52$7+/'74165171.5 .306 .306!7260 7(3+2 "367/ !7260 7(3+2 "367/

Diameter a 118 226.4 3.410 613 0.493 788 0.462 357 0.914 055 0.914 055 0.861 211 1.7752 0.673 749 (m) b 0.791 01 0.790 883 0.790591 0.795 579 0.791 869 0.791 869 0.792 835 0.7923 0.793 598 R2 0.9379 0.9377 0.9391 0.9375 0.9369 0.9369 0.9387 0.9378 0.9383 MAER 4.86 4.88 4.77 4.86 4.83 4.83 4.85 4.84 4.82 RMSE 113.90 0.61 0.23 0.23 0.32 0.32 0.31 0.44 0.27

Table VII 41)/5825)25004318717/0408,328.3/+%18.37/8,/36764318%7.$4158&& '

*/7176328 '3-5/8 &7*467/8 *527641)8.3060 +(24.76431 #7247(/5 -50.24*6431 .306 "367/83*527641)8 #52$7+/'74165171.5 .306 .306 !7260 7(3+2 "367/ !7260 7(3+2 "367/

Diameter (m) a 95 523.91 2.754 794 0.4006 0.3691 0.7697 0.74 194 0.7013 1.4433 0.543 649 b 0.765 573 0.765628 0.7614 0.7780 0.769 50 0.76 200 0.7603 0.76 122 0.76 731 R2 0.9284 0.9290 0.9282 0.9285 0.9284 0.9315 0.9271 0.9294 0.9246 MAER 11.63 11.45 12.02 11.89 11.64 11.80 11.53 11.66 11.53 RMSE 94.46 0.51 0.19 0.19 0.27 0.26 0.26 0.36 0.23

Table VIII 41)/5825)25004318717/0408,32805/,7527641)8,/36764318%7.$4158 '

*/7176328 '3-5/8 &7*467/8 *527641)8.3060 +(24.76431 #7247(/5 -50.24*6431 .306 "367/83*527641)8 #52$7+/'74165171.5 .306 .306 !7260 7(3+2 "367/ !7260 7(3+2 "367/

Cell volume a 23 907.727 0.690 0.098 0.092 0.190 0.186 0.175 0.361 0.137 (m3) b 0.469 0.469 0.474 0.474 0.474 0.467 0.467 0.467 0.469 R2 0.8655 0.8655 0.8671 0.8700 0.8685 0.8611 0.8624 0.8618 0.8665 MAER 11.63 11.45 12.02 11.89 11.64 11.80 11.53 11.66 11.53 RMSE 110.92 0.59 0.23 0.22 0.31 0.31 0.30 0.43 0.26

Table IX 41)/5825)25004318717/0408,3280671-72-8,/36764318%7.$4158 '

*/7176328 '3-5/8 &7*467/8 *527641)8.3060 +(24.76431 #7247(/5 -50.24*6431 .306 "367/83*527641)8 #52$7+/'74165171.5 .306 .306 !7260 7(3+2 "367/ !7260 7(3+2 "367/

Cell volume a 25 351.280 0.715 0.103 0.101 0.174 0.196 0.185 0.381 0.146 (m3) b 0.452 0.457 0.460 0.449 0.496 0.452 0.453 0.452 0.450 R2 0.9561 0.9571 0.9618 0.9541 0.9776 0.9561 0.9561 0.9561 0.9552 MAER 10.82 11.99 9.93 10.91 15.55 10.90 10.55 10.73 10.56 RMSE 108.32 0.58 0.21 0.21 0.27 0.30 0.29 0.42 0.26

         
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4)+258504-+7/8717/0408,328' 8.7*467/8.30683,86$58& '

4)+258 (052#5-8 *25-4.65-8#7/+5083,8' 8.7*467/8.3068,3286$58& '

with the MAER. As an example, the validity of the developed [13] model in reproducing the measured data of capital costs for the CSFM machine is demonstrated in Figure 5.

    40.+00431 As has been mentioned, the costs of the motor are not Three major types of flotation machines, including 37 included in the developed cost functions of flotation individual machines, were studied. The explanatory variable machines. Therefore, when a flotation cell is chosen and its in SRA was either diameter or cell volume; whereas in MRA costs are estimated, the capital and operating costs of the (depending on the machine type), different technical relevant motor (based on the required power (P) in kW) can variables such as diameter, required air flow rate, required be estimated by Equations [12] and [13]. Motors are floor space, cell volume, required air pressure, and power assumed to be variable speed with 1150 r/min drive rating. A were considered as predictor variables simultaneously. variable-speed motor is provided here so that the user can The models were classified into capital and operating have an estimate of the motor’s cost regardless of the costs. Moreover, the operating cost was detailed in different required speed rating. cost items. The cost models are valid within a certain range, indicated in Table II, and major extrapolation should be [12] avoided. L 94    
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Table X &35,,4.4516083,8%+/64#7247(/58.3068%3-5/088 878878878788

'7.$4158 */7176328 &35,,4.45160 &7*467/8.306 *527641)8.3060 +(24.76431 6*5 #7247(/50 "367/83*527641) #52$7+/ '74165171.5 .306 .3060 !7260 7(3+2 "367/ !7260 7(3+2 "367/

Column, Intercept a0 55 057.22 1.5927 0.2284 0.2129 0.4272 0.4272 0.3947 0.8219 0.3112

sulphide D a1 70938.63 2.0429 0.2974 0.2801 0.5478 0.5478 0.5219 1.0697 0.4070

AF a2 36.7212 0.0011 0.0001 0.0001 0.0003 0.0003 0.0003 0.0005 0.0002 MAER 4.98 4.98 4.94 5.07 5.04 5.04 4.93 4.98 5.08 R2 0.9417 0.9416 0.9427 0.9409 0.9408 0.9408 0.9420 0.9414 0.9417

Column, Intercept a0 -7769.630 -0.19 900 -0.0088 -0.0359 -0.0448 -0.0235 -0.0431 -0.0667 -0.06008

Coal D a1 88 745.590 2.545 99 0.358 75 0.348 56 0.707 31 0.668 26 0.642 32 1.310 59 0.514 09

AF a2 -26.29080 -0.00075 -0.0001 -0.0001 -0.0002 -0.0002 -0.0002 -0.0003 -0.00016 MAER 3.3 3.3 3.42 3.4 3.41 3.28 3.33 3.31 3.37 R2 0.9509 0.9509 0.9471 0.9495 0.9483 0.9511 0.9493 0.9502 0.9490

Self- Intercept a0 24 976.6 0.7206 0.1021 0.0951 0.1971 0.1951 0.1840 0.3791 0.1425

aerating CV a1 4130.6 0.1190 0.0172 0.0160 0.0331 0.0327 0.0304 0.0632 0.0236

FS a2 1114.9 0.0319 0.0045 0.0050 0.0094 0.0086 0.0078 0.0164 0.0068 P a3 -624.4 -0.0179 -0.0025 -0.0024 -0.0049 -0.0051 -0.0047 -0.0098 -0.0036 MAER 13.48 13.55 13.09 13.88 13.45 13.19 13.56 13.37 13.43 R2 0.9940 0.9939 0.9943 0.9939 0.9941 0.9941 0.9940 0.9940 0.9937

Standard Intercept a0 30 240.78 0.8330 0.1216 0.1146 0.2241 0.2307 0.2162 0.4469 0.1728

CV a1 -5415.50 -0.1552 -0.0241 -0.0206 -0.0527 -0.0419 -0.0396 -0.0814 -0.0306

AF a2 10 220.11 0.2944 0.0422 0.0392 0.0871 0.0795 0.0739 0.1534 0.0573

AP a3 -13354.40 -0.3664 -0.0568 -0.0472 -0.1242 -0.1011 -0.0944 -0.1955 -0.0746

Pa4 2312.0450 0.0649 0.0111 0.0085 0.0252 0.0175 0.0170 0.0345 0.0133 MAER 3.05 5.05 3.56 2.56 11.78 3.4 3.06 3.12 2.81 R2 0.9997 0.9993 0.9996 0.9997 0.9988 0.9996 0.9997 0.9996 0.9997

The most expensive machine is a type of flotation column univariate structure, and the role of other operative variables that has capital and operating costs of about $394 000 and has simply been disregarded. A new up-to-date statistical $11 per hour, respectively. The capital cost of a CSFM and cost model for flotation machines (column as well as coal and CCFM is proportional to the 0.79 and 0.76 power of diameter, sulphide, self-aerating, and standard) has been developed. whereas in the case of the SAFM and SFM, it is proportional Two sets of cost functions including univariate to 0.47 and 0.45 of the cell volume, respectively. This exponential regression and multivariate linear regression are indicates that the highest level of economy of scale belongs to presented. Individual cost functions are presented for each the standard flotation machine; i.e. the SFM cost advantage operational cost item category such as overhaul (parts and increases with increasing size of the machine. The R2 values labour), maintenance (parts and labour), power and between 0.87% and 0.96% indicate that at least 87% of total lubrication items. However, costs can vary from mine to mine variation in costs can be explained by the model. The lowest and from time to time, and should be adjusted for conditions MAER of SRA belongs to the CSFM (4.86%) that designates specific to the operation based on local unit costs (such as the cost model with the maximum accuracy. In the MRA electrical power, lubricants, and repair labour), and annual cases, this property is owed to the SFM (3.05%). cost index of mineral processing equipment. The proposed cost models are reliable in device specifications ranged as noted in Table II, and over- extrapolation could result in &31./+0431 misguiding estimates. Estimation of the capital and operating costs of process plant The MAER, RMSE, R2, and residual analysis methods equipment, particularly flotation machines, along with were applied for the evaluation of the models. Maximum determination of detailed operating costs, is an indispensable MAER of 13.5% and minimum R2 of 0.86 indicate that these task in feasibility studies of mineral projects. Almost all of models can be used as a reliable tool in cost estimation of the current models are obsolete and need to be updated. flotation machines at the pre-feasibility and even feasibility Moreover, the majority of the available models have a study level of projects.

         
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MULAR, A.L. and POULIN, R. 1998. Capcosts 1998. A Handbook for Estimating An Introduction to the Practical Aspects of Ore Treatment and Mineral Mining and Mineral Processing Equipment Costs and Capital Expenditures Recovery. 7th edn. Elsevier/Butterworth Heinemann, Amsterdam. N L 96    
 VOLUME 117          
INTERNATIONAL ACTIVITIES

2017 11 February 2017 — Young Professionals Council— Contact: Paul-Ernst-Straße Introduction to The SAMREC and SAMVAL Codes Tel: +49 5323 9379-0, Fax: +49 5323 9379-37 Worley Parsons Conference Room, Melrose Arch, Melrose E-mail: [email protected], Website: http://emc.gdmb.de Contact: Raymond van der Berg 27–29 June 2017 —4th Mineral Project Valuation Tel: +27 11 834-1273/7, Fax: +27 11 838-5923/833-8156 Colloquium E-mail: [email protected], Website: http://www.saimm.co.za Mine Design Lab, Chamber of Mines Building, 9–10 March 2017 — 3rd Young Professionals Conference The University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg Unlocking the Future of the African Minerals Industry:Vision Contact: Raymond van der Berg 2040 Tel: +27 11 834-1273/7, Fax: +27 11 838-5923/833-8156 Innovation Hub, Pretoria E-mail: [email protected], Website: http://www.saimm.co.za Contact: Camielah Jardine Tel: +27 11 834-1273/7, Fax: +27 11 838-5923/833-8156 10–11 July 2017 — Water 2017 Conference E-mail: [email protected],Website: http://www.saimm.co.za Lifeblood of the Mining Industry Emperors Palace, Hotel Casino Convention Resort, Johannesburg 20 April 2017 — Proximity Detection and Collision Avoidance Contact: Raymond van der Berg Systems in Mining Colloquium 2017 Tel: +27 11 834-1273/7, Fax: +27 11 838-5923/833-8156 Striving for zero harm from mining mobile machinery E-mail: [email protected], Website: http://www.saimm.co.za Emperors Palace, Hotel Casino Convention Resort, Johannesburg Contact: Camielah Jardine 7–9 August 2017 —Rapid Underground Mine & Civil Access Tel: +27 11 834-1273/7, Fax: +27 11 838-5923/833-8156 Conference 2017 E-mail: [email protected],Website: http://www.saimm.co.za Emperors Palace, Hotel Casino Convention Resort, Johannesburg 3–4 May 2017 —The SAMREC and SAMVAL Codes Contact: Camielah Jardine Advanced Workshop: Can you face your peers? Tel: +27 11 834-1273/7, Fax: +27 11 838-5923/833-8156 Emperors Palace, Hotel Casino Convention Resort, Johannesburg E-mail: [email protected], Website: http://www.saimm.co.za Contact: Raymond van der Berg 22–24 August 2017 — The Southern African Coal Processing Tel: +27 11 834-1273/7, Fax: +27 11 838-5923/833-8156 Society Conference and Networking Opportunity E-mail: [email protected], Website: http://www.saimm.co.za The key to profitability 9–12 May 2017 — 6th Sulphur and Sulphuric Acid Graceland Hotel, Casino and Country Club, Secunda 2017 Conference Contact: Gerda Craddock Southern Sun Cape Sun, Cape Town Tel: +27 11 432-8918, E-mail: [email protected] Contact: Camielah Jardine 30 August–1 September 2017 — MINESafe Conference 2017 Tel: +27 11 834-1273/7, Fax: +27 11 838-5923/833-8156 Striving for Zero Harm—Driving Excellence through Compliance E-mail: [email protected], Website: http://www.saimm.co.za Emperors Palace, Hotel Casino Convention Resort, Johannesburg 20–27 May 2017 — ALTA 2017 Nickel-Cobalt-Copper, Contact: Raymond van der Berg Uranium-REE and Gold-PM Conference and Exhibition Tel: +27 11 834-1273/7, Fax: +27 11 838-5923/833-8156 Pan Pacific Perth, Australia E-mail: [email protected], Website: http://www.saimm.co.za Contact: Allison Taylor Tel: +61 411 692 442 11–15 September 2017 — Uranium 2017 International E-mail: [email protected] Conference Website: http://www.altamet.com.au/conferences/alta-2017/ Extraction and Applications of Uranium — Present and Future Swakopmund, Namibia 22–23 May 2017 — Entrepreneurship in Mining Forum Contact: Raymond van der Berg A Focus on new Business in the Value Chain Tel: +27 11 834-1273/7, Fax: +27 11 838-5923/833-8156 Johannesburg E-mail: [email protected], Website: http://www.saimm.co.za Contact: Camielah Jardine Tel: +27 11 834-1273/7, Fax: +27 11 838-5923/833-8156 2–7 October 2017 — AfriRock 2017: ISRM International E-mail: [email protected], Website: http://www.saimm.co.za Symposium—Rock Mechanics for Africa 6–7 June 2017 —Mine Planning Colloquium 2017 Cape Town Convention Centre, Cape Town Mintek, Randburg Contact: Raymond van der Berg Contact: Camielah Jardine Tel: +27 11 834-1273/7, Fax: +27 11 838-5923/833-8156 Tel: +27 11 834-1273/7, Fax: +27 11 838-5923/833-8156 E-mail: [email protected], Website: http://www.saimm.co.za E-mail: [email protected], Website: http://www.saimm.co.za 16–20 October 2017 — AMI Precious Metals 2017 19–20 June 2017 —Chrome Colloquium 2017 The Precious Metals Development Network (PMDN) What’s next for Chrome? A debate on the tough questions Contact: Raymond van der Berg, E-mail: [email protected] Mintek, Randburg In Association with Contact: Camielah Jardine 18–20 October 2017 — 7th International Platinum Conference Tel: +27 11 834-1273/7, Fax: +27 11 838-5923/833-8156 Platinum—A Changing Industry E-mail: [email protected], Website: http://www.saimm.co.za Protea Hotel Ranch Resort, Polokwane 25–28 June 2017 — Emc 2017: European Contact: Camielah Jardine Metallurgical Conference Tel: +27 11 834-1273/7, Fax: +27 11 838-5923/833-8156 Leipzig, Germany E-mail: [email protected], Website: http://www.saimm.co.za

         
   
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Ltd SANIRE Schauenburg(Pty) Ltd SENET (Pty) Ltd Senmin International (Pty) Ltd Smec South Africa SMS group Technical Services South Africa (Pty) Ltd Sound Mining Solution (Pty) Ltd South 32 SRK Consulting SA (Pty) Ltd Technology Innovation Agency Time Mining and Processing (Pty) Ltd Tomra (Pty) Ltd Ukwazi Mining Solutions (Pty) Ltd Umgeni Water Webber Wentzel Weir Minerals Africa WorleyParsons RSA (Pty) Ltd New Concept Mining (Pty) Limited New Concept Mining (Pty) - Zondereinde Northam Platinum Ltd PANalytical (Pty) Ltd Engineers Paterson & Cooke Consulting (Pty) Ltd Perkinelmer Thyssenkrupp Polysius A Division Of Industrial Sol Precious Metals Refiners Rand Refinery Limited Redpath Mining (South Africa) (Pty) Ltd Rocbolt Technologies Rosond (Pty) Ltd Royal Bafokeng Platinum Roytec Global Pty Ltd RungePincockMinarco Limited Rustenburg Platinum Mines Limited Salene Mining (Pty) Ltd Sandvik Mining and Construction Delmas (Pty) Ltd Sandvik Mining and Construction RSA(Pty)          Exxaro Coal (Pty) Ltd Exxaro Resources Limited Filtaquip (Pty) Ltd Ltd FLSmidth Minerals (Pty) Ltd Fluor Daniel SA (Pty) Franki Africa (Pty) Ltd-JHB Fraser Alexander Group (Pty) Ltd Geobrugg Southern Africa Glencore Goba (Pty) Ltd Hall Core Drilling (Pty) Ltd Hatch (Pty) Ltd Herrenknecht AG HPE Hydro Power Equipment (Pty) Ltd IMS Engineering (Pty) Ltd Ivanhoe Mines SA Joy Global Inc.(Africa) Kudumane Manganese Resources Leco Africa (Pty) Limited Longyear South Africa (Pty) Ltd Lonmin Plc Magotteaux (Pty) Ltd MBE Minerals SA Pty Ltd MCC Contracts (Pty) Ltd MD Mineral Technologies SA (Pty) Ltd MDM Technical Africa (Pty) Ltd Metalock Engineering RSA (Pty) Ltd Metorex Limited Metso Minerals (South Africa) Pty Ltd MineRP Holding (Pty) Ltd Mintek MIP Process Technologies (Pty) Ltd MSA Group (Pty) Ltd Multotec (Pty) Ltd Murray and Roberts Cementation Nalco Africa (Pty) Ltd Namakwa Sands (Pty) Ltd Ncamiso Trading (Pty) Ltd Company Affiliates Company 






 The following organizations have been admitted to the Institute as Company Affiliates to the Institute have been admitted organizations The following x 3M South Africa (Pty) Limited 3M South Africa (Pty) AECOM SA (Pty) Ltd AEL Mining Services Limited Air Liquide (PTY) Ltd AMEC Foster Wheeler (Pty) Ltd AMIRA International Africa Ltd ANDRITZ Delkor (Pty) Ltd Anglo Operations (Pty) Arcus Gibb (Pty) Ltd Aurecon South Africa (Pty) Ltd Aveng Engineering Aveng Mining Shafts and Underground Axis House Pty Ltd Bafokeng Rasimone Platinum Mine Barloworld Equipment -Mining BASF Holdings SA (Pty) Ltd BCL Limited Becker Mining (Pty) Ltd BedRock Mining Support Pty Ltd Bell Equipment Limited Blue Cube Systems (Pty) Ltd CDM Group CGG Services SA Concor Mining Concor Technicrete Cornerstone Minerals Pty Ltd Council for Geoscience Library Cronimet Mining Processing SA (Pty) Ltd CSIR Natural Resources and the Environment (NRE) Data Mine SA Department of Water Affairs and Forestry Digby Wells and Associates DRA Mineral Projects (Pty) Ltd DTP Mining - Bouygues Construction Duraset Elbroc Mining Products (Pty) Ltd eThekwini Municipality Expectra 2004 (Pty) Ltd L  EXHIBITS/SPONSORSHIP ies wishing to sponsor Compan these and/or exhibit at any of 
 events should contact the conference co-ordinator as soon as possible SAIMM DIARY 2017 N SCHOOL or the past 123 years, the Young Professionals Council—Introduction to The SAMREC and SAMVAL Codes Southern African Institute of 11 February 2017, Worley Parsons Conference Room, Melrose Arch, Melrose Mining and Metallurgy, has N CONFERENCE F 3rd Young Professionals Conference promoted technical excellence 9–10 March 2017, Innovation Hub, Pretoria in the minerals industry. We N COLLOQUIUM strive to continuously stay at the Proximity Detection and Collision Avoidance Systems Colloquium 2017 cutting edge of new 20 April 2017, Emperors Palace, Hotel Casino Convention Resort, Johannesburg developments in the mining and N WORKSHOP metallurgy industry. The SAIMM The SAMREC and SAMVAL Codes—Advanced Workshop: Can you face your peers? 3–4 May 2017, Emperors Palace, Hotel Casino Convention Resort, Johannesburg acts as the corporate voice for N CONFERENCE the mining and metallurgy 6th Sulphur and Sulphuric Acid 2017 Conference industry in the South African 9–12 May 2017, Southern Sun Cape Sun, Cape Town N FORUM economy. We actively Entrepreneurship in Mining Forum encourage contact and 22–23 May 2017, Johannesburg networking between members N COLLOQUIUM Mine Planning Colloquium 2017 and the strengthening of ties. 6–7 June 2017, Mintek, Randburg The SAIMM offers a variety of N COLLOQUIUM conferences that are designed Chrome Colloquium 2017 19–20 June 2017, Mintek, Randburg to bring you technical N COLLOQUIUM knowledge and information of 4th Mineral Project Valuation Colloquium interest for the good of the 27–29 June 2017, Mine Design Lab, Chamber of Mines Building, The University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg industry. Here is a glimpse of N CONFERENCE the events we have lined up for Water 2017: Lifeblood of the Mining Industry Conference 2017 2017. Visit our website for more 10–11 July 2017, Emperors Palace, Hotel Casino Convention Resort, Johannesburg N CONFERENCE information. Rapid Underground Mine & Civil Access 2017 Conference 7–9 August 2017, Emperors Palace, Hotel Casino Convention Resort, Johannesburg N CONFERENCE MINESafe Conference 2017 30 August–1 September 2017, Emperors Palace, Hotel Casino Convention Resort, Johannesburg N CONFERENCE Uranium 2017 International Conference 11–15 September 2017, Swakopmund, Namibia For further information contact: N SYMPOSIUM AfriRock 2017: ISRM International Symposium ‘Rock Mechanics for Africa’ Conferencing, SAIMM 2–7 October 2017, Cape Town Convention Centre, Cape Town P O Box 61127, Marshalltown 2107 N CONFERENCE Tel: (011) 834-1273/7 AMI Precious Metals 2017 ‘The Precious Metals Development Network (PMDN)’ Fax: (011) 833-8156 or (011) 838-5923 16–20 Octoberber 2017 E-mail: [email protected] In Association with 7th International Platinum Conference 18–20 October 20178, Protea Hotel Ranch Resort, Polokwane