REPORT NUMBER BUREAU OF HECLAMATTG~ ·.~. :,·: ,; HYDRAULIC LABORA'l'ORY Rf.:· -INDUSTRIAL TECHNOLOGY TID-4500 (19th ED] DO NOT REMOVE FROM THIS FILE '.

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Prepared by Bureau of Reclamation for Division of Isotopes Development United States Atomic Energy Commission Covering Work for Fiscal Year 1966 , September 30, 1966

PRINTED IN U.S.A. PRICE AVAILABLE FROM THE OFFICE OF

TECHNICAL SERVICES. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE. WASHINGTON, D .C. 20201 I' LEGAL NOTICE This report was prepared as an account of Government sponsored work. Neither the United States, nor the Commission, nor any person acting on behalf of the Commission: A. Makes any warranty or representation, expressed or implied, with respect to the accuracy, completeness, or usefulness of the information contained in this report, or that the use of any informa­ tion, apparatus, method, or process disclosed in this report may " not infringe privately owned rights; or B. Assumes any liabilities with respect to the use of, or for damages resulting from the use of any information, apparatus, method, . or process disclosed in this report. As used in the above, "person acting on behalf of the Commission" includes any employee or contractor of the Commission, or employee of such contractor, to the extent that such employee or contractor of the Commission, or employee of such contractor prepares, dissemi­ nates, or provides access to, any information pursuant to his employ­ ment or contract with the Commission, or his employment with such contractor.

i

FOREWORD This report, a product of the Research Division, is issued as part of a contract between the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission and the Bureau of Reclam~tion. Writing of the report was accomplished by R. L. Hansen and J. C. Schuster, under the supervision of W. Y . .. Holland and A. J. Peterka. The work was cooperatively done for the Hydraulics and Chemical Engineering Branches directed by Messrs. H. M. Martin and L. 0. Timblin.

The research effort was materially assisted by the analytical work of Professor E. R. Holley, Resident Faculty Engineer, and the experimental work of G. A. Teter, U. J. Palde, and R. B. Dexter.

iii

CONTENTS Page Legal Notice i Foreword . • iii Synopsis . . 1 Introduction 3 Program Coordination and Evaluation. 3 Outside Contracts . . 4 Literature Search . . 4 Hydraulics...... 4 Radioisotopes . . . . 5 Systems Development . 5 Hydraulics Investigations 7 Tracer-water Diffusion for Turbulent Flows. . . 7 Radial Diffusion Coefficients for Turbulent Flows 7 The 8-inch Pipe Model ...... 16 Reduction of Datao ...... 22 Analysis of Concentration Data...... 23 Experimental Determination of Diffusion Coefficients. 25 Diffusion Measurements--Contract with Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado . 31 Radioisotope Investigations. . . 33 Selection of Tracer ...... 33 Radioisotope Counting System . 33 Method of Computing Discharge 35 Counting System Calibration. . 38 Tracer Handling Procedures .. 41 Error Analysis...... o . . . . . 41 Radio-release Technique for Turbine Discharge Measurement ...... 42 • Flaming Gorge Powerplant Field Tests . 45 Preparations...... 45 Test Facilities and Equipment . . . . 45 Performance of Radioisotope Discharge Measurements . . . . 46 Discussion of Results . . 47 Future Tests. 50 References ..... 51 Tables and Figures . 53

V CONTENTS--Continued Appendix 1. International Atomic Energy Agency, Technique in Hydrology, Working Meeting Appendix 2. A Literature Survey of Radioisotopes Suitable as Tracers for Measuring Flow Rates of Water in High-head Turbines and Pumps, University of Denver, Denver Research Institute Appendix 3. Development of Radio-release Technique for Measurement 0£ Turbine Discharge

LIST OF TABLES Table Range of Parameters for Diffusion Measurements in 8-inch Pipe ...... 1 Salt Diffusion Test Statistical Data 2A Salt Diffusion Test Statistical Data 2B Summary of Diffusion Coefficients . . 3

Salt Concentration ...... 4 Results of Isotope Discharge Measurements 5

LIST OF FIGURES Figure •- Tracer Pattern Downstream from Centerline Injection. . . . . 1 " Laboratory Pipeline . . . 2

Details of 8-inch Pipeline. 3

Injection and Sampling Locations 8-inch Pipe Model . 4 Tracer Injection System 8-inch Pipeline ...... 5

vi LIST OF FIGURES--Continued Figure

Sampling Probes ...... 6 Conductance Probe Installation and Data Recording Instruments for 8-inch Pipeline...... 7 Coefficient of Variance of Concentration Distribution as a Function of Distance Between Injection and Sampling Stations ...... 8 Concentration Distribution at Sampling Station for Various Injector Positions Along the Horizontal Diameter at Stations 90D, lOOD, and llOD . . . 9 Radial Concentration Distributions (USBR Tests). 10 Radial Diffusion Coefficients for Pipe Flow . . . . 11 Variation of Dimensionless Diffusion Coefficient with Spread of Tracer ...... 12 Outside View of the Mobile· Nuclear Laboratory . . . 13 Arrangement of the Electronic, Rack-mounted Instruments within the Mobile Nuclear Laboratory ...... 14 Components of Radiation Detection Probe ...... 16 Sample Tank Assembled for Discharge Measurements 18 Sample Tank Assembled for System Calibration . 17 Volume of H20 vs Temperature--Sample Tank * 1 18 Tracer Mixing Evaluation--Sample Tank# 1·-Count Rate vs Mixing Time . . . . . 19 Automatic Burel . . . 20 Flaming Gorge Dam and Powerplant Section. . 21 Radioisotope Injection and Sampling Pumps, Flaming Gorge Dam ...... 22 Radioisotope Sampling Tanks and Mobile Laboratory, Flaming Gorge Dam ...... 23

vii

DISCHARGE MEASUREMENTS USING RADIOISOTOPES IN HIGH-HEAD TURBINES AND PUMPS (Fiscal Year 1966)

SYNOPSIS The Atomic Energy Commission and Bureau of Reclamation are coop­ erating in a research program to establish feasibility and develop pro­ cedures for measuring the waterflow through high-head turbines and other hydraulic machines using radioactive tracers. The program, planned to develop techniques for making precision discharge meas­ urements quickly and with a minimum of equipment to be installed in the pipeline or conduit is being accomplished in several divisions described herein. An extensive search of foreign and domestic literature produced about 300 references related to the measurement of flow using radioisotopes and chemical tracers and on radioisotopes suitable for making pipeline discharge measurements. An annotated bibliography will be included as a part of the report on contract work being done by Colorado State University. Theoretical studies were made to define and evaluate the hydraulic parameters that affect and control diffusion of the tracer with the flowing water. A 36-inch-diameter pipeline 825 feet long was used to study the diffusion of fluorescent dye in flows ranging to 62 cfs. The measurements resulted in approximately 1, 000 analog records of dye concentration in the pipeline for mixing lengths of from 27 to 184 pipe diameters. An 8-inch-diameter transparent plastic pipeline about 85 feet long was used to measure the diffusion of a chloride solu­ tion in the pipe flow for eight mixing distances ranging from 12 to 110 pipe diameters. A conductivity probe and electronic circuitry were developed to measure the concentration of the salt solution. The experi­ mental phases included the investigation of tracer injection and sampling techniques and of establishing basic requirements for accuracy of the equipment. The studies resulted in the development of preliminary methods for determining diffusion coefficients and pipeline lengths required for tracer water mixing. Equations K/v • 0.0188 .ft Re for computing the diffusion coefficient K, and Lid= 9.25/../f for com­ puting the mixing distance L, were derived for preliminary computa­ tions as a result of the study. Radioisotope calibration, counting, and sampling procedures were applied to a sample tank designed and fabricated in the laboratory. The check of procedures included the evaluation of the total error that might result from each operation. The maximum probable error at this stage of the program is ±0. 73% based on the results of preliminary tests. Improved methods were developed for radioiso­ tope dilution and volume measurement. A mobile muclear laboratory was designed, purchased, and assembled using USER funds provided specifically for that purpose and not a part of the research funds. The laboratory is being used for performing field tests using radioisotopes in ground-water tracer studies and flow measurement in open chan­ nels and closed conduits. A field test was performed in a 320-foot-long, 10-foot-diameter, high­ head turbine penstock of Flaming Gorge Dam near Vernal, Utah. Tracered water samples for discharge calculations were withdrawn from the penstock both upstream and downstream of the turbine. The planned objectives of the Flaming Gorge Dam turbine discharge meas­ urements were achieved. Much was learned about the injection, sam­ pling, and general procedures necessary for making radioisotope dis­ charge measurements in a high-head installation. These tests showed that good mixing does not occur in a pipeline length of about 30 diam­ eters for a single jet of isotope introduced at 0. 8" of the radius from the pipe wall. Continuation of the program calls for field tests of the prototype tracer injection and measurement systems. · Field conditions such as mixing length, hydraulic head, discharge rate, radiation measurement pro­ cedures, injection techniques, and tracer concentrations will be varied in making flow measurements at high-head turbine installations. In­ house research will continue on pipeline mixing lengths, radioisotope selection, radioisotope counting, compatability of equipment to develop a radioisotope discharge measuring system.

2 INTRODUCTION The Atomic Energy Commission and Bureau of Reclamation are cooperating in a research program to develop practical and simple methods for using radioisotopes in measuring the flow through high-head turbines and other hydraulic machines using radioiso­ topes. The purpose of the program is to establish and define the techniques to be used for making precision discharge measure­ ments safely, quickly and with a minimum of personnel and equip­ ment. The research and development program is being accom­ plished in several major divisions of work; some concurrently. Program Coordination and Evaluation The first part of the planned program requires coordination of the various phases and contracted parts of the research. The major effort in the latter part of the program would be used for total program evaluation and the preparation of a final report. A board of consultants selected by the Bureau and the AEC would be asked to meet (1) at the completion of the initial research work and before the design of equipment to be used for injection and sampling of the radioistope was finalized, (2) after the completion of the first series of field tests, and (3) during the second series of field tests. The board would include experts in engineering uses of radioiso­ topes in hydraulics and water measurements and would come from governmental, educational, and industrial concerns. Past work would be reviewed and the direction of future work would be studied by the board. Contacts with technical societies and institutions by correspondence and personal visits are planned to keep the investi­ gators up to date on developments in the science. The contacts would afford a means of keeping the appropriate technical socie­ ties informed of the program's progress for possible developing of an acceptable test code for the method. In connection with research programs jointly sponsored by the AEC and the Bureau, a representative of the Bureau participated in a 4-day working group meeting of the International Atomic Energy Agency on the isotope techniques in hydrology in Grenoble, France, October 1965, (Appendix 1). The discussions were of an informal type emphasizing recent developments and current problems, and covered such applications as radioisotopes flow measurement in streams and canals, reservoir leakage, ground­ water tracing, sedimentation studies, soil density and moisture measurements, and meteorology. Subsequent to the panel meeting, selected visits were made to organizations concerned with, or performing, flow measurements in high-head turbines and the general engineering applications of

3 radioisotopes. These visits proved most valuable and it was learned that a great deal of work is being done in flow measurements with radioisotopes at the EDF Research laboratories at Chatou, France, UKAEA Wantage Laboratory in Great Britain, and the Hydraulics Research Station, Wallingford, England. Outside Contracts Some of the research and development work of the contract can be most ably performed by agencies outside of the Bureau of Reclama­ tion. Contracts were made with (1) the Department of Interior Library, Washington, for a literature search, (2) Denver University, Denver, for a survey of radiotracers suitable for discharge measur­ ing, (3) Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, for diffusion measurements in flowing water, and (4) the Research Triangle Institute, North Carolina, for development of the radio­ release technique. The results are included in following parts of this report. Literature Search An extensive search of foreign and domestic literature was made to find information on the measurement of discharge using radio­ isotopes and chemical tracers. An agreement was made with the Department of the Interior Library for the search. The library was not limited specifically to radioisotope flow measurement in closed conduit systems, but was asked to include references on (1) open-channel flow, (2) chemical dilution flow measurement methods, (3) high-pressure fluid injection techniques, (4) flow sampling devices and techniques, (5) accurate and dependable instrumentation for on-line monitoring of radioactivity, and (6) radioactive isotopes for water tracing. The search produced about 200 references sent to us as pertinent to the program. These cards and other reference sources were used by the Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, to prepare an annotated bibliography on the use of tracers for flow measurement. About 300 references on subjects related to the program were found in the literature search by the Interior Library, Colorado State University, and the Bureau of Reclamation Office of Engineering Reference. These references permitted utilization of the experi­ ences of previous investigators to minimize the duplication of research effort. Hydraulics In-house and extramural investigations are being made of the fluid mechanics principles governing tracer mixing, radioisotope injec­ tion, and the sampling of the isotope-water mixture. The accuracy

4 of the discharge measurement depends greatly on adequate mixing of the tracer with the flowing water. Studies are being made to investigate the type of tracer-water diffusion occurring in closed conduits, the injection and sample collection systems, the effect of conduit geometry on the diffusion process, and the value of artificial turbulators. The studies are being performed on labo­ ratory and field-size pipelines. Radioisotopes One part of the isotopes research program concerns the proper selection and handling of radioactive tracers. To provide infor­ mation for an intelligent selection of isotope, it was necessary to make a thorough review of currently available radioisotopes and to reveal the advantages and disadvantages of tracers that might possibly be used. One of the most important phases of the isotope research program includes the study of easy, accurate, and dependable calibration of radioactivity counting equipment at field locations. New calibra­ tion techniques for field use are being investigated and methods and equipment are being developed for the turbine flow measure­ ment program. Systems Development Satisfactorily completed phases of the work will be combined in a practical way to form a discharge measurement system. The developed procedures of radioisotope handling, calibration, and counting, the equipment and instrumentation, the diffusion param­ eters, and methods of data interpretation will be used as the program progresses to obtain an integrated technique for accu­ rately measuring flow using radioisotopes.

5

HYDRAULICS INVESTIGATIONS Tracer-water Diffusion for Turbulent Flows Theoretical and experimental studies are in progress to investigate the fluid mechanics principles that cause the tracer and pipe flow to mix after injection of the tracer. The method of injection and the means of measuring the concentration in the tracer-water mixture are impor­ tant factors of the study. Our literature search disclosed some informa­ tion on diffusion coefficients and methods useful in computing the length of pipe necessary for thorough mixing of the radioisotope and water. An analysis of the mixing characteristics of the waterflow was started from these sources. Radial Diffusion Coefficients for Turbulent Flows General Considerations. Consider a tracer which is being used for discharge measurements in turbul~nt flow by injecting the tracer con­ tinuously at a constant rate on the centerline of a uniformly sized pipe where there is a constant fl.ow rate. It is assumed that the tracer faith­ fully follows, but does not affect, the fluid motion which existed before the tracer was introduced. This would not be the case, for example, if the density of the tracer were significantly different from the density of the fluid or if the tracer contained solid particles. When the tracer pattern does not change with respect to time, the law of continuity requires that the tracer move through each cross section at the same rate. If the injection rate for the tracer is known, concentra­ tions measured where the tracer is completely mixed in the flow may be used to calculate the pipe discharge. Thus, it is desirable to be able to predict the length of pipe required for complete mixing to take place. The use of radial diffusion coefficients appears to be one means of predicting the mixing distance. Consequently, work has been done in an effort to determine values of the radial diffusion coefficient for turbulent flow in pipes. There are at least three distinguishable regions downstream from an injection point, as indicated in Figure 1. Region 1 is characterized by the fact that significant amounts of the tracer have not yet reached the pipe wall. In Region 2, the tracer has reached the pipe wall, but has not yet become uniformly mixed across the pipe. Region 3 extends downstream from where the tracer becomes uniformly mixed. (The term "uniformly mixed" usually would imply uniformity within some tolerance, e.g. 0. 1% or 1%.) The combined length of Regions 1 and 2 is called the "mixing distance" (L), i.e., the distance required for "complete" lateral mixing to take place. The mixing distance depends on the tolerance used in the definition of uniform mixing as well as on the hydraulic parameters of the flow.

7 The hydraulic parameters on which the mixing distance depends are the fluid velocity (i. e. , the rate at which the tracer moves down­ stream) and those parameters affecting the rate at which the tracer spreads laterally. The radial diffusion coefficient K is representa­ tive of the rate of lateral spread of the tracer. If K could be related to the flow conditions, then it should be possible to predict the mixing distance required for a given pipe flow. (In this analysis the radial variation of the diffusion coefficient is neglected, and K is thus assumed to be constant within each cross section of the pipe. ) In turbulent flow, the rate of lateral spread or diffusion of the tracer is due to the kinematics of the turbulent fluid motion. In fully developed turbulent flow (1. e., where the velocity distribution is fully developed) the statistical properties of the flow are uniquely determined by the fluid, the flow rate, and the pipe as represented by the Reynolds num­ ber Re, and the equivalent sand grain roughness or the friction fac- tor f. Thus, for fully developed flow, it should be possible to repre­ sent the hydraulic dependence of K in terms of Re and f. However, in the entry region of a pipe which ends about 50 diameters downstream from the entrance (ref. 1, p 189), the boundary layer has not yet reached full development. Thus, the flow conditions and K depend on the geometry of the entrance and the turbulence level of the fluid entering the pipe, as well as on the pipe and the flow rate. The discussion of diffusion coefficients in this report concerns fully developed turbulent flow. Fully developed flow is not necessarily the flow condition of most practical interest but is physically less complicated and more readily analyzed than flow in the entry region of a pipe. An analysis of the diffusion in fully developed flow may to a better understanding of the diffusion in the entry region. Effect of Lateral Tracer Spread. In addition to the hydraulic param­ eters mentioned above, the radial diffusion coefficient should also depend on the amount of lateral spread of the tracer in the pipe. As the tracer spreads out, larger turbulent eddies are included in the area occupied by the tracer. As these larger eddies begin to affect the diffusion process, they cause the diffusion coefficient to increase. Thus, the diffusion coefficient should increase with increasing distance downstream from the injection point. The maximum value of K should be reached when the tracer fills or nearly fills the pipe cross .. section so that the largest eddies that are present are contributing to the diffusion process. Analogy with Diffusion of Momentum. The previously discussed pri­ mary factors which affect the diffusion coefficient are independent of the substance (e.g., mass or tracer, momentum, heat) being diffused. Therefore the diffusion coefficient for momentum Le., the eddy vis­ cosity (e) may be used to estimate the value -of K. For pipe flow,

8 there is a secondary dependence of the diffusion coefficient on the diffusing substance. Thus, e and K are not necessarily exactly equal. The eddy viscosity may be defined by

du T = pe - dy where • = shear stress, p = fluid density, u = fluid velocity with tur­ bulent fluctuations averaged out, and y = distance from pipe wall. Using (1) this definition, (2) the linear variation of • across the pipe (i.e. , -r/-r = r/b) and (3) the Prandtl-Karman equation for the veloc­ ity gradie:&t (i.e. , du/dy = u*/Ky), e may be shown to be g1 ven by

(An equation similar to this but for open channel flow is presented in ref. 2, p 800.) In these expressions, • = shear stress at y = O, r = radial position measured from the cinterline of the pipe, b = pipe radius, u* = shear velocity, K = Karman's constant, and e is the average value of e for the entire pipe cross section. Taking K as 0. 4, the equation becomes

Since u* = .Jr1S u and Re = ~ with f = Darcy-Weisbach friction fac­ tor, U = average (discharge) velocity, d = pipe diameter, and v = kinematic viscosity, the last equation may be written as

K = 0.0236 .Jr U b la or

K v = 0.0188 ..ff Re lb if K is assumed to equal e. Since e is the average value of the eddy viscosity for the entire pipe, equation la or lb should be expected to approximate K only when the tracer fills the entire pipe. When the area occupied by the tracer is less than the pipe area, K should be less than that given by equation 1, in accordance with the discussion of lateral tracer spread.

9 Analytical Considerations. The material contained in this section is presented to serve as background in understanding the discussions on the experimental determination of diffusion coefficients. Also, the material in this analysis may be used to predict mixing distances when the diffusion coefficient is known. Differential mass balance equation. --For flow in pipes in which both the flow and the tracer distribution are symmetrical with respect to the pipe a.xis (i.e., no variation in the circumferential direction), the mass conservation of the tracer in an incompressible fluid to the relation (ref. 3, chap. 20)

2

where C is the concentration of the tracer with turbulent fluctuations averaged out, U is the mean velocity with which the tracer moves downstream, K is the radial diffusion coefficient, r is the radial coordinate, x is the longitudinal coordinate, and t is time. In equation 2, any radial variation of K is neglected so that K would represent the average diffusion coefficient for the area occupied by the tracer. The longitudinal diffusion has been neglected since the longitudinal concentration gradients for the cases considered here are much less than the radial gradients. Equation 2 assumes that the concentration has been corrected for any decay of the tracer that may have taken place. If the tracer is injected continuously at a constant rate, the concentra­ tion distribution will reach a steady state (i.e., ?£/m = o). When this occurs, equation 2 becomes

3

The solutions presented below are based on this steady state condition and on the condition that the injector is either located on or symmet­ rically distributed about the centerline of the pipe. It is assumed that the injection of the tracer does not d,.sturb the existing flow. Infinite fluid. --In Region 1 (Figure 1) the fluid in the pipe may be considered to have an infinite extent since no significant amount of the tracer has reached the wall. ' Point injection. --If the tracer is injected at a constant mass rate from a point source on the centerline of the pipe, the solution to equation 3 is (ref. 4, p 27)

10 2 q ( Ur ) C = 4,cKx exp - 4Kx 4

On the centerline of the pipe (r = 0), the concentration c should decrease according to the expression C

C - --9,_ C - 4,c!{x 5

These two equations may be combined to give

f = exp (- r2 u/4Kx) 6 C Comparing this equation with the Gaussian distribution shows that 2 the variance, c, , of the concentration profile is given by

a2 = 2Kx/U 7 A point source of injection can never be realized physically, but this condition is often used as an approximation. The validity of this approximation for pipe flow is discussed later. Finite size injector. --If the injector is a circular tube of radius a and is centered about the centerline of the pipe, the solution to equation 3 is (ref. 4, p 27)

where c0 is the concentration of the injected tracer and I 0 is the Bessel function of the second kind of zero order. If the injection velocity is equal to U, equation 8 may be written in terms of mass 2 : injection rate q since q would be equal to C0 Thta

11 2 Alternatively, CO in equation 8 may be replaced by q»(b/a) , where CCX) is the concentration at complete mixing in Region 3 (Figure 1). The integral in equation 8 normally has to be evaluated numer­ ically. However, for the centerline of the pipe (r = 0), I 0 (0) = 0 and the integration can be completed in closed form to give

10

From equations 8 and 10, the concentration distribution may also

be written in terms of cc instead of c O :

C U exp(- ~)Jaexp(-~) 1 0 (~)r' dr' 11 c = 2Ki: C 1 - exp (-4:)

Comparison of point and finite injectors. --If the tracer is being injected at the same rate q from a point source and from a finite size injector, the tracer will be more spread out or better mixed at a given distance x for the finite size injector. This is due to the initial spread given to the tracer by the injector. Thus, by making the injector larger, the theoretical mixing distance would be shortened. The limit of this would be the case where the injec­ tor radius were equal to the pipe radius so that zero mixing distance would be required. Practically speaking, however, the larger the injector, the more the disturbance in the flow. At some point downstream from the injector, the turbulence caused by the injector should dissipate and equation 4 should give the same results as equation 9. The section xc at which these two solutions merge can be estimated by comparing the centerline concentrations given by equations 5 and 10. Designating these centerline concen­ trations cP and Cr respectively, the ratio of cP to Cr is

12

12 If x is taken as the section where c /c = 1. 01, equation 12 shows C P t that 4Kx/a2 U = 50. Thus, as a becomes smaller, xe becomes smaller. The limit, of course, is when a = O, since CP would then equal Cr for all x' s and xe equals zero. The value of 4Kx /a2u = 50 may be compared with the length ·of Region 1, which \nay be estimated by using equation 4 to obtain an approximation of when the tracer reaches the pipe wall (r = b). The end of Region 1 may be defined as the section ( x1 ) where the concentration at the wall becomes some percentage (say 1%) of c~, which is the concentration when the tracer is completely mixedin in the pipe. From continuity of the tracer, q = q'° 1tt>2 u. Us g 2 2 this expression, equation 4 predicts that 4Kx1/b U or (4Kx1/a U){a/b)2 is 0. 15. Setting xe = x1 gives a/b = 1/18. Thus, if a/b is less than 1/18, xe will be less than x1 and there will be a portion of Re- gion 1 (x < x < x ) in which it is sufficient to use equation 4 for a C l. point injection to approximate the concentration distribution obtained using a finite size injector. The value a/b = 1/18 corresponds to an injector diameter of 1/2 inch in a 9-inch pipe or 2 inches in a 36- inch pipe.

Length of Region 1. --The value 4K xi/b2u = 0.15 may also be used to estimate the length of Region 1 directly. Using equation 1 for K leads to a value for x /d of 1

X cf= 0.80/./r

For f = 0. 02, xl /d is approximately 5. 6. For a given pipe, f usually decreases as the flow rate increases. This would indicate an increase in the length of Region 1 with increasing flow rate. Confined Fluid. Downstream from Region 1, the confining effects which the pipe wall has on the tracer must be considered in obtaining the solution to equation 3. In the analysis presented above for Region 1, the fluid was only assumed to be infinite in extent. Since it is actually a confined fluid, the solutions presented below are also valid in Region 1. However, because of the nature of the infinite series in the solutions for a confined fluid, the solutions for an infinite fluid can usually be eval­ uated more easily near the injection point. Point injection. --Again, if the tracer is considered to be injected at a constant mass rate q from a point source on the centerline of the pipe, the solution to equation 3 is

13 .!.. ~) J 13 exp(-'2).2n bU d o (A. n !:)]b

where c00 = ultimate concentration at complete mixing, J O = Bessel function of first kind of zero order, Aon= nth positive (non-zero) root of JJ., J1 = Bessel function of first kind of first order, and d = pipe diameter. (The derivation of this solution is explained below.) Finite size injector. --If the injector is a circular tube of radius a and is centered about the centerline of the pipe, the solution to equa­ tion 3 is (ref. 5)

(IC) 14 where

Equation 13 was obtained by using L' Hospitals Rule to take the limit of equation 14 as the injector radius (a) approaches zero. Because of the infinite series in equations 13 and 14, there does not appear to be a simple test to see when the finite size of the injec­ tor can be neglected. On the other hand, the savings in using equa­ tion 13 rather than equation 14 is practically insignificant. Thus, the remainder of the discussion will be concerned with equation 14. Similar results can easily be derived for equation 13.

The absolute values of J and J 1 are always between O and 1. Also, there is a negative0 exponential term in x in equation 13. Thus, at a large enough x, the second and all succeeding terms in the series should be negligible compared to the first term. An estimate of how large x must be for all but the first term to be negligible may be obtained by finding the value of x for which the second term is some percentage (say 0. 1%) of the first term. This small percentage is used because only the values of the exponential

14 terms and not the entire solution are being compared. The require­ ment that

S 0.001

leads to the condition that

X > 0.1 d - KfbU

Using equation 1 with f = 0. 02 to estimate.!.., the expression above becomes bU

x> d - 30

Thus for points 30 diameters or more downstream from the injec­ tion point, it should be sufficient to replace equation 14 by

15

where A_i, the first positive root of J1 , is 3. 8317, · ·. Estimate of mixing distance. --Equation 15 may now be used to esti­ mate the mixing distance (L) required for pipe flow. Let the toler­ ance used to define complete mixing be 1% (c/c = 1.01). The con­ = • centration at r 0 will generally deviate the most from q,0 Thus from equation 15, since J O (0) = 1. O, the expression

may be used to estimate L if L/d is greater than 30. Using equa­ tion 1 and taking ajb as 1/20 in the evaluation of D1 ( see definition of Dn, equation 14), one obtains

!! - 9.25 d - ./f . 16

15 With f = 0. 02, equation 16 yields L/d = 65. This calculated value of L/d is not very sensitive to the value of a/b, but the calculation does neglect the fact that K near the injector will be less than that given by equation 1. This variation in K will cause L/d to be greater than that calculated above. Also, an arbitrary value of f has been used in the calculation. Nevertheless, this calculation does serve to show that something on the order of 70 or 75 diam­ eters is probably required for the mixing distance in uniform, fully developed pipe flow when the tracer is injected on the centerline. The calculated L varies inversely as the logarithm of the toler­ ance used to define complete mixing. That is, if a tolerance of 0.1%(0. 001) had been used instead of 1%(0. 01), L would be log 0. 001/log 0. 01 = 3/2 times the value given above. It may also be observed from equation 16 that L increases as f decreases. For a given pipe, the friction factor decreases slightly as the flow rate (or Reynolds number) increases unless the flow is in the hydraulically rough regime. Thus, equation 16 predicts an increase in the mixing distance as the flow rate increases (except for hydraulically rough flows for which L should remain constant as the flow rate increases). Analytical and experimental studies of the tracer-water diffusion characteristics were in simultaneous progress. The experimental studies were performed in an 8-inch pipeline in the Hydraulics Branch Laboratory and in a 36-inch pipeline at Colorado State Uni­ versity, Fort Collins, Colorado. Published results of other investi­ gators were also used in defining the characteristics of diffusion and the pipe length required for tracer-water mixing. The 8-inch Pipe Model Construction. An 8-inch-diameter pipe about 90 feet long was con­ structed in the Hydraulics Branch La.boratory for the study of diffusion. The pipeline included a 10-inch vertical turbine pump and calming sec­ tion upstream of the test length, Figure 2A. The test-length part of the pipe contained extruded aluminum tubing and transparent plastic pipe sections that could be changed in position in the pipeline, Figure 2B. Water can be pumped from the underground supply tanks of the labora­ tory into the pipeline and back to the supply, Figures 2C and 4. When chemical tracers are used, the test water can be discharged into the sewer to prevent contaminating the supply. The discharge capacity of the system was about 2 cfs and produced a velocity range of from Oto about 6 fps. Discharges in the pipeline were measured by a calibrated 8- by 5. 5-inch orifice-venturi meter, Figure 2C. Calibrated orifice plates having diameters of 1-1/4, 1-3/4, 2-3/8, 3-3/8, 4-3/8, and 5. 5 inches can be inserted in the meter to cover a discharge range of from O to 5 cf s.

16 Access to the flowing water in the pipeline was provided by 1/4-inch­ diameter "0" ring packing glands located in the pipe walls, Figure 3A. These packing glands were located at the ends of horizontal and verti­ cal diameters in selected cross sections of the pipe, Figures 3B and 4. The glands were used for making velocity distribution measurements, Figure 3B, and for tracer injection and sampling, Figure 5. Tracer Injection and Control. Two tracers were chosen for the labo­ ratory study, sodium chloride (NaCl) and a fluorescent dye solution (Pontacyl Pink B). When both tracers were used, they were simultane­ ously introduced into the pipe flow from the same tank supplying the injector. The tracer was moved from the supply tank to the injector in the pipe by gravity or by a pump. Gravity flow was provided by the use of a Mariotte bottle and rigid plastic tubing. A gear pump con­ nected to the outlet of the Mariotte bottle was used to supply a higher pressure at the injector, Figure 5A. Volumetric measurements of the tracer injection rate were made by graduating the bottle and timing the falling head during injection. The injection probes were constructed of metal and of rigid plastic tubing. They were inserted into the pipe flow through the packing glands from one end of the diameter or completely across the pipe through two of the packing glands. Tracer was discharged from the open end of the probes at right angles to the pipe flow, from an opening in the side of the probe parallel to the flow, · and from a manifold of small holes in the side of the probe. A single line of rigid plastic tub­ ing was used between the tracer supply and injection location. The flow was divided by a "Y" branch at the injection probe when two probes were used or the tracer was pumped from both ends toward an outlet at the center of the probe, Figure 5B. The probe giving the most stable injection rate and direction contained five No. 70 drill holes near the midpoint of a 1/4-inch outside-diameter plastic tube (about 1/8-inch inside-diameter). The holes were spaced equally over a length of 7/16 inch and had a total area of approximately 0. 003 square inch. The probe was designed and constructed to mini­ mize the fluctuations in the tracer distribution that might be caused by the injection device. Tracer Sampling and Measurement. Preliminary evaluations were made of the use of saline and fluorescent dye tracers for study of dif­ fusion. A conductance probe was constructed for the measurement of the concentration of water and salt solution. The probe made of 1/4-inch-diameter phenolic resin rod contained seven pairs of 5/64-inch-diameter stainless steel electrodes. The electrodes in each pair were spaced on 1/8-inch centers. The pairs of electrodes were spaced in the rod on radii which extended to the centers of four equal concentric areas of the pipe. One pair of elec­ trodes was located at the pipe center.

17 Each pair of electrodes was connected through a circuit which matched one channel of an eight-channel direct writing recorder, Figure 6A. A direct trace, in analog form, proportional to the change in tracer concentration at the electrodes was obtained in this manner. An addi­ tional averaging circuit was made to use the eighth channel for record­ ing the average concentration from the seven pairs of electrodes. Study and use of the probe in the calibration system and in the pipe flow showed that too great an electrical interference existed between pairs of electrodes. A part of the interference was caused by the short con­ ducting paths between pairs of electrodes and a part by water leakage around individual electrodes. This system was abandoned when these problems could not be solved. A second condu.ctance probe was then designed to contain one pair of electrodes. One of the pair was a stainless steel tube forming the shell of the probe and extending across the pipe in the packing glands. A 1/16-inch stainless steel wire was supported in the 'Center of the shell and electrically insulated except near the midpoint of the shell length, Figure 6B. The conducting path between the shell and center electrode was formed near the 1/8-inch hole drilled in the side of the shell at the midpoint. At the measuring station, both dye and salt tracer in the pipe flow could be sampled simultaneously at any point along a diameter of the pipe. A vernier gage containing a rack and pinion travel mechanism was fastened to the conductance probe, Figure 7A. The gage was used to quickly and accurately position the 1/8-inch-diameter opening in the probe to the desired sampling position on the pipe diameter. Continuous samples of the flow were obtained by withdrawing water through the hole and out the end of the shell opposite the center elec­ trode. Conductance of the solution was measured as the flow passed the center electrode. The electrical output of the electrode circuitry (a resistance bridge) representing the concentration of the solution, was recorded in analog and digital form. A time-based graph of the concentration was made on a high impedance recording voltmeter. Simultaneously, the electrical signal was averaged over 10-second periods and the average value was recorded on printed tape, Fig­ ure 7B. Outflow from the conductivity-probe shell, when the solution contained fluorescent dye, passed through flexible plastic tubing to a fluorometer. The fluorometer, equipped with a continuous flow cuvette and external recorder, provided a time-based graph of the fluorescen~e of the sol_u­ tion. A fluorescent dial, calibrated to samples prepared for the study, permitted direct monitoring of the soluti~n fluorescence.

18 Dye and salt solutions were used in the initial phases of the investi­ gation. A priority requirement for field use of the fluorometer pre­ vented dye usage in later tests. The test results from the 8-inch pipe are based only on conductivity measurements of the salt solution. Range of Measurements. Concentrations were measured to deter­ mine the distribution of the tracer resulting from changing the dis­ tance between the injection and sampling locations, the pipe flow velocity, and the location and orientati_on of the injector nozzle along the pipe diameter. Data were obtained for ranges of these parameters as follows: Pipe velocity. --Velocity of the flow ranged from 1 to 6 fps, cor­ responding to Reynolds numbers of from 6. 2 x 104 to 3.1 x 105. The most complete set of concentration measurements.with respect to changes in other parameters was performed with a 2-fps velocity. About 6. 5-fps pipe velocity (2. 1 cfs) was the upper limit for which steady flow and pressure conditions could be maintained for the duration of a test run. Distance between injection and sampling. --The mixing distance could be varied by inserting the injector in the pipe at 10 different locations ranging from 7. 0 to 77. 0 feet, or 12. 5 to 120 pipe diam­ eters upstream from the sampling station, Figure 4. Most of the concentration measurements with respect to variance of velocity were obtained between 12. 5 and 70. 0 pipe diameters. The effect of varying the location of the injector nozzle in the pipe cross sec­ tion was studied at the 80, 90, 100, and 110 pipe diameter injec­ tion stations with a 2-fps pipe velocity. Data were also obtained with the injector at the 120-diameter injection station and a 2-fps pipe velocity. These data, however, were not used because the flow at this station was not fully developed. An irregular and unsteady velocity distribution existed at the 120-aiameter station caused by the pump. This same condition could be noted for higher velocities at some of the more distant downstream stations. Location of the injector nozzle along the pipe diameter. --The injec­ tor nozzle was normally located at the pipe centerline, but the effect of changing the location of the nozzle in the pipe cross section was also studied at injection stations of 80, 90, 100, and 110 pipe diam­ eters with a 2-fps pipe velocity. The injector was located on the diameter at 0. 5 and 0. 9 radius distance (1. 98 and 3. 56 inches, re­ spectively) from the centerline, in most cases on both sides to check any possible asymmetry of diffusion.

19 Directional orientation of injection jet. --With the .nozzle located at pipe centerline, concentrations were measured for both down­ stream and upstream directed jets at all injection stations and at all pipe velocities. The injection direction of the jet was parallel to the pipe axis, and no other directional variation was attempted. The injection rate and the velocity of the jets were varied over only a small range. The range of operation was limited by the capacity of the injection apparatus and the necessity for keeping the salt con­ centration at the sampling station measurably above the background level. The small change in injection rate was not considered as a variable affecting the tracer mixing. Sampling and calibration. --Conductivity measurements in all tests were obtained at the sampling station at 11 points on the horizontal diameter, at the pipe centerline, and at 0. 2 radius intervals on both radii up to the pipe wall. A sampling sequence consisted of 10 sec­ onds of integrated sampling at the pipe left wall, a pause of 5 sec­ onds to move the sampling probe opening to the next location at 0. 2 radius distance from the wall, and repititive actions until the probe was located at the right wall. After obtaining a second 10-second sample at the right wall, the probe opening was moved by 0. 2 radius intervals back to the left side of the pipe. The total time required for sampling during a test was 5-1/2 minutes. Thus, 2 separate, 10-second measurements were made for each of the 11 electrode positions; a total of 22 conductivity measurements for each test. The integrated conductivity measurements were related to salt con­ centration values by the use of a calibration curve. The calibration curve had to be established daily to account for the changing back­ ground level of salt concentration in the laboratory reservoir water. The measured co:r;i.ductance was not a function of the difference be­ tweep measured and backgrsmnd concentration alone. _ Changes in the absolute dissolved salt concentration level in the laboratory water as well as the water temperature also affected the conductance­ concentration relationship. No other factors were found which would have a significant effect on the relationship. The conductivity of the laboratory water normally ranged between 250 and 150 micromhos. This value was produced by about 85 to 140 mg/1 (milligrams per liter) dissolved salt concentration at 18° C. The saH concentratio~_of the water sup_Ely used to replenish the res­ ervoir water averaged about 70 mg/1. - Thus, during periods of active testing the reservoir water was being diluted and tended to .stay _near the lower concentration limit of about 85 mg/1. During periods when no reservoir water was being wasted, the concentration tended to increase because of recirculation through certain other hydraulic test facilities. Localized areas of the r·es-ervoir often contained dif­ ferent levels of background concentration of dissolved salt. The re­ sulting concentration gradient could be reduced to an acceptable level

20 by recirculating the water through the laboratory's system of pumps and supply pipes. The temperature of the reservoir fluctuated less than ±0. 2° C during an 8-hour , except when a temperature gradient existed in the reservoir itself. Refilling from the water main lowered the temperature in one or more localized areas. Again, the tempera­ ture gradient could be eliminated by recirculating the reservoir water through the laboratory's pumps. With proper mixing of the reservoir water, the conductivity could be maintained at a reasonably uniform level during a day, and par­ ticularly during the time period required to perform one diffusion measurement test. But because of the above-mentioned conditions, the concentration, temperature, and therefore the conductivity could vary considerably from day to day and over longer periods of time. Dissolved salt concentrations to be measured during the tests ranged between about 5 and 45 mg/1. The most frequently measured con­ centrations fell in the vicinity of 20 mg/1 (when the concentration distribution at the sampling station approached uniformity). While fluctuation of the background concentration during a day was very slight, the change in background over the longer term actually was greater than the concentrations measured during the diffusion tests. Therefore, the conductance probe was calibrated on each day for known concentrations above the existing background level. The calibration of the conductance probe was performed in a 24- liteI' tank made from a section of 8-inch transparent plastic pipe identical to that used in the testirig facility. The probe was inserted into the tank through packing glands along the horizontal diameter, and was electrically grounded to a 11 dummyn probe. The dummy probe (a hollow stainless steel tube, identical to the shell of the conductance probe) was-insertea. in place of the actual probe at the pipe sampling station, with water flowing in the pipe. The conditions of electrical grounding of the conductance probe during calibration were therefore identical to those during diffu­ sion measurement. The calibration procedures included filling the tank with water from the pipe flow, balancing the amplifier bridge, setting the sensi­ tivity to an arbitrary calibration factor, and recording an average reading (near zero voltage output from the amplifier) from several 10-second integrated counts. Next the salt concentration in the tank was increased to a known level (usually 10 mg/1 above back­ ground) and again the average of s~v~ral ~e_adings was recordeq. Usually two more calibrations_at 20 and 30 mg/1 were recorded in the same manner. '.I'his calibration was o_btained before perform­ ing any diffusion measurements but only after the reservoir-water

21 had been mixed. Time permitting, the calibration was repeated after the day's diffusion measurements to check for any changes in background conditions. The sum of the voltage readings of the daily before-and-after-test calibrations, corresponding to 20- second integrated_readings was used as points to define the average concentration-above-background versus conductivity curve. When the conductance probe was reinserted into the pipe sampling sta­ tion, the conductance bridge was again checked for balance and the sensitivity adjusted, if necessary, to correspond to the proper cali­ bration factor on the amplifier. Before each .diffusioi) measurement. the amplifier was reset near zero output voltage ( to the order of one mv or less from zero, out of a total range of ±700 mv) and the numerically integrated 10- . second count recorded as "background conductance. " At the end of a test, after all the injected tracer was determined to have passed, another background count was recorded. If the final reading indi­ cated a change of more than 0. 5 mg/1 concentration, the test was repeated after monitoring of the background had indicated that it was no longer changing. Reduction of Data The two separate, 10-second conductance measurements at each point were combined and considered as one 20-second sample. The true conductivity count was taken as the 20-second measurement count minus the sum of the initial and final 10-second background counts. The sam­ pling sequence described previously provided for the mathematical valid­ ity of this procedure if the change in background could be assumed to be linear, and also nullified any continuous linear change in injection rate. Background conductivity usually increased somewhat during a test and the injection rate was observed at times to decrease by 1 to 2 percent. Both rates of change, while not always being constant, were noted to remain either positive or negative. A linear change was therefore con­ sidered to be a satisfactory approximation, particularly since the magni­ tude of the change was small in comparison to the magnitude of the meas­ ured values. From each day's calibration, a least-squar_es-method was used to fit a parabola to the 4 points defined by O, 10, 20, and 30 mg/1 of salt solu­ tion. These curves were then used to convert the aiffusfon measur-e­ ment conductivity counts to their corresponding concentrations in mg/1. All of the above mathematical operations were performed on a com­ puter. Input data cards were punched directly from the digital printer paper tape. Computed concentration values were also punched on cards which could be used as computer input data for desired computations and analyses.

22 Analysis of Concentration Data Tables 2A and 2B list the variable parameters for each test: distance to the injection station, velocity of the pipe flow, and injector location and orientation. Table 4 lists the concentrations at the 11 sampling points on the horizontal diameter for each test. Values of the mean concentration, standard deviation, coefficient of variance, and percent mixing were computed for each diffusion meas­ urement, where

- i=l mean concentration, C=-,n

i=l standard deviation, s = -----,n

coefficient of variance, v = '! 1oofo,

percent, mixing, and where Ci = concentration at each sampling point, and n = 11 in all tests. The standard deviation, coefficient of variance, and percent mixing were computed from two different arrangements of the data. In the first analysis the actual concentration values at the 11 points from Table. 4 were used in the computations, Table 2A. In the second computation, Table 2B, the concentration at each point was replaced by the average of the concentrations at that point and the correspond­ ing point on the opposite radius. This method transformed the asym­ metrical concentration profile into a symmetrical one before comput­ ing the statistical parameters.

23 Some asymmetry of the concentration distribution was frequently ob­ served even with centerline injection. The asymmetry w_as primarily caused by two factors: irregularities in the pipe velocity distribution and the clinging of the injected solution in the low pressure region downstream of the injection tube. Random fluctuations and nonuniform changes in the injection rate, pipe discharge, and _background conduc­ tivity also could produce asymmetry or eccentricity in the concentration profile. The symmetrical concentration profile produced by the averag­ ing method was thought to more closely represent the profile which would have resulted from a fully developed pipe flow turbulence. The statistical parameter, coefficient of variance, was used to evaluate the completeness of mixing, or the uniformity of the concentration pro­ file. A coefficient of variance equal to zero, corresponding to a straight line concentration profile, would indicate complete mixing, Figure 1 (Region 3). A value of 100% for the percent mixing parameter also indicates a uniform concentration profile. Because both param­ eters approach their ultimate values asymptotically with respect to mixing distance, complete mixing would occur only in an infinitely long pipe. For practical purposes, however7 complete mixing could be de­ fined arbitrarily to have occurred when the coefficient of variance be­ comes less than 0. 1%, or the percent mixing greater than 99. 9%, etc. The coefficient of variance from Table 2B for the tests with injector located at centerline and facing downstream has been plotted as a func­ tion of the distance to the injection station for four different pipe flow velocities, Figure 8. Theoretical curves have also been plotted for 1-, 5-, and 20-fps velocities to points defined by equations 1 and 13. Only fair agreement was obtained between the experimental data and the theoretical coefficient of variance curves. Nearly all of the exper­ imental values, however, fall below the theoretical curves for coeffi­ cient of variance values greater than about 0. 5%, indicating better dif­ fusion of tracer in the experiments than would be predicted by theory. The high tracer injection velocity (30 to 35 fps) and finite spacing of the injection jets probably account for the better experimental diffusion. The experimental values for 2, 3, and 5 fps were very close to each other for each injection distance and exhibited no trend toward more complete mixing for either higher or lower pipe velocities_. All of the coefficient of variance values for the 1-fps velocity data, however, were considerably lower than those for the higher velocities for the respec­ tive injection distances. The plotted points for 1-fps velocity also define a rather smooth curve. A probable explanation is that at some ratio of injection to pipe flow velocity between 30 to 1 and 15 to 1 (the values at 1-:- and 2-fps pipe velocity, respectively) the initial jet diffu­ sion becomes significant in comparison to the diffusion produced by natural pipe flo~ turbulence. As was mentioned previously, the injec­ tion velocity in these experiments was not varied over a wide range to evaluate the effect on mixing. There are indications, however, that the

24 distance required for complete mixing can be reduced by increasing the injection velocity. Equipment could be modified to allow a greater range of injection velocities. Studies of the injection to pipe velocity ratio as a variable parameter could be performed in the future. Coefficient of variance values plotted for the 70-diameter and larger injection distances reflect more scatter of data than for the shorter distances. Most of the coefficients are less than 1%, however, and strongly reflect the small fluctuations in the recorded data caused by random fluctuations of background conductance, tracer injection rate, pipe discharge, and recording equipment drift. The magnitude of these fluctuations was estimated by recording 22 consecutive 10- second conductivity measurements with the sampling probe station- ary at the centerline of the pipe. Injection was at 110- and 100-diameter stations with the injector located at centerline and facing downstream. The data were then analyzed in the same manner as the diffusion measurement data. The coefficients of variance resulting from four of these checks varied from 0. 189 to 0. 263%. Because of the magni­ tude of the scatter of the recorded data, coefficients of variance com­ puted from diffusion data could not be expected to be lower than about 0. 2% (corresponding to about 99. 8% mixing). Varying the injector nozzle location along the horizontal pipe diameter changes the distribution of tracer at the sampling station, Figure 9. The dimensionless concentration profiles show that the most uniform distribution was obtained in the 8-inch pipe for the centerline injector location. For the injector located to either side of the center, a higher concentration occurs on the side containing the injector. The distribution curves show, however, that the asymmetry diminishes rapidly for an increase in mixing distance of 20 diameters, from 90- to 110-diameter injection. This suggests that complete mixing could be attained for other than centerline injection only if the injector were located more than 110 pipe diameters upstream of the sampling station. Experimental Determination of Diffusion Coefficients Based on the analytical considerations presented in the section on Tracer-water Diffusion for Turbulent Flows, this section presents both some techniques for calculating experimental values of the dif­ fusion coefficient (K) and some K-values which were derived from literature sources and from the Bureau's laboratory investigations. These empirical K-values are compared with equation 1 and are also used to investigate the effect of lateral spread of tracer. Region 1. Equation 4 might adequately represent the concentration distribution in the downstream portion of Region 1. If this is the case, then K may be determined relatively easily by plotting the concentra­ tion data for a given x as log c/cc vs r2 on semilog graph paper, where the log is base 10. The data should plot as a straight line. (The degree

25 to which the data does fall on a straight line may be used as a check on the applicability of equation 4. From equation 6, the slope, i. e. , 6(1og c/c ) / 6r 2 , of the best-fit straight line through the data is equal 10 C to -U/(2. 3• 4Kx) where the 2. 3 is the conversion factor from loge to log10. Knowing U and x, K may be calculated. As an alternative, equation 5 could be used to find K by plotting Cc vs. 1/x . This data should fall on a straight line whose slope is -g]4:11:K. Generally, this is less desirable, since the injection rate q must be known accurately and data must be taken at several stations along the pipe to obtain a good representation of the variation of Cc with 1/x. When equation 8 or one of the alternative forms must be used in Region 1 K must be found by trial and error. A digital computer program has been written to find K from equation 8 by using trial values of K to determine the best fit of the equation to concentration profiles. In Region 1, there is some question as to what value should be used for U; U had been defined as the mean velocity with which the tracer moves downstream. In Region 1, the tracer does not fill the entire flow area and is therefore in the part of the pipe where the highest velocities exist. Thus, U is not equal to the average flow velocity Ua. Rather the value of U should lie between Ua and the centerline velocity Uc, which is larger than Ua by about 15 to 20% (ref. 6, chap. 20). Usually, some judgment must be used in selecting an appropriate value of U. The following sketch may help in visualizing that the average tracer velocity (U) is larger than the average flow velocity (Ua) in Region 1.

~, t----C_c__ --;;:a-....il ~ ----~-- u C r

r=b

Velocity Concentration Velocity and concentration distribution in Region 1.

26 Region 2. Only the use of equations 14 and 15 for a finite size injec­ tor will be discussed. As previously pointed out, equation 14 also applies in Region 1 and could be used rather than those equations pre­ sented specifically for Region 1. However, the techniques presented for finding K in Region 1 will usually be more efficient than using equation 14, since the infinite series does not converge very rapidly in Region 1. As with equation 8, K must be found from equation 14 by trial. The digital computer program can also be used to find K from equation 14. As part of the data read into the computer, instructions are given to use either equation 8 or 14 to find K. When x is large enough for equation 15 to apply, K may be found directly. Differentiating equation 15 with reBpect to J (i\_ r/b) the following equation is obtained. 0

17

To evaluate this derivative from concentration data, a special graph paper (somewhat similar to semilog paper) has been prepared, Fig­ ure 10. The values of c/c (or C) should plot as a straight line on this paper if equation 15 applies.00 The slope of this line evaluated as 6.(c/c ) /6.J (A r/b) can be equated to the right-hand side of equation 17 and used00 to0 findl K provided U and x are known. In Region 2 the tracer fills the entire pipe and U should be approximately equal to U a· (Until the tracer becomes uniformly mixed across the pipe, U will not be identically equal to U a, )

Using the ratio of c/cc rather than c/c00 may be more convenient. From J = 1.,0, equation 15, since O (o)

C 1 + Dl exp (-A) Jo( Al f) Cc= 1 + Dl exp (-A) where

A = 2A2 .!. 2£ 1 bU d

27 Thus, c/cc vs J 0 (~ r/b) should still plot as a straight line if equa­ tion 15 applies. Differentiating with respect to J 0 (J...1 r/b) gives

D1 exp (-A) = 1 + D exp ( -A) l.

Solving for A (which contains K)

A=lnB+lnD 18 l. where

1 B 'o(c/c ) - 1;. C

Introducing Re into A, equation 18 may be written as

KLv 1 Re = X (ln B + ln Dl.) 19 4J... 2 - l d

Thus, from the slope of the plot of c/c vs J O (J...1 r/b), K may be determined, Figure 10. c Correction when Diffusion Coefficient is not Constant. As discussed briefly under II Effect of lateral tracer spread, "' the value of K in­ creases with increasing distance downstream from the injection point, until it reaches some maximum or ultimate value. The methods dis­ cussed above effectively use the concentration distribution at only one section (x) to evaluate K. At this section x, the distribution is the net result of all of the diffusion from the injection point to x. Thus, the value of K that is found is some kind of average value for the region between the injection and measurement stations rather than being the value of K which applies at the measurement station. Fischer (app. 1 of ref. 7) has shown for any initial distribution of tracer that the longitudinal diffusion coefficient KL is proportional to 2 . the second moment r, L of the concentration distribution according to the relation

o2 =K -+a X L LU

28 where ex is constant for a given flow and a given init~al distribution of tracer at x = 0. If it is assumed that a similar result applies for radial diffusion in a pipe, then

<1 2 -K 2£ u + a 20

2 where rj is the second radial moment or variance of the concentration distribution at x. Differentiating equation 20 with respect to x/U will give the rate at which r:, 2 is changing at a given x, i.e., the rate at which the tracer is spreading at a given x. This, in turn, should give the value of K at that x rather than an average value of K from the injection point to x. Differentiating equation 20, then writing the deri­ vative in finite difference form for two stations 1 and 2 gives

c,2 _ c,2 K - dr/ 2 l 1-2 - d(x/u) = - (x/u) 2 (x/u)i

(Kx/U) + a - (Kx/U) - a 2 1 = 21 (x/u) - (x/U) = X - X 2 1 2 l where K is the average value of K between stations 1 and 2, K 1-2 2 2 l K and 2 are the diffusion coefficients related to cr 1 and cr 2 (equation 20), i.e., to the total spread of the tracer at x1 and x2, and it is assumed that U1 = . Thus, K and K are average values of the diffusion u2 2 coefficient between the l.njectibn point and x1 and x2, respectively. Equation 21 shows that these average values K 1 and may be used k2 to find the value of K1-2 in the region between x1 and x2. Data must be available at two stations in order to apply equation 21. Note that a, and hence any effect of the initial tracer distribution, cancel out of equation 21. This means that any initial disturbance of the flow due to the_injection of tracer should also cancel out and not affect the value or K1-2 found for the interval x2 - xi, provided of course that the flow and the tracer are symmetrical with respect to the centerline of the pipe at x1 and x2, Substitution of equation 19 into equation 21 gives 22

29 where the numerical value A.1 = 3. 83 has been inserted. Note that D1 is not present in equation 22. The fact that D1 incorporates the effect of the initial distribution of tracer can be seen by noting that only D1 would change if a solution for a point injection had been used in place of equation 15 as a starting point in deriving equation 22. Thus, the absence of D1 from equation 22 is a specific demonstration of the fact that the initial distribution of tracer or disturbance due to the injec- tion does not affect the calculated value of K1-2 in equation 21 or 22. Summary of Values of Diffusion Coefficients. Figure 11 presents values which have been obtained to date for radial diffusion coefficients. Some of these values have been presented as such in the literature. Other values have been calculated from concentration data in the literature, and still others have been obtained from tests in the USER, 8-inch pipeline. The values and some remarks are tabulated in Table 3. In each case, K represents the value at the measurement station rather than an average value between the injection point and the mea­ surement station. Figure 10 shows some of the data taken during the USER 8-inch pipe­ line tests. Each of the points on the figure is the average of four concentration measurements, except the points on the centerline (r /b = 0) which are the average of two measurements. The slopes of the straight lines on this special graph paper were used in conjuc­ tion with eq~_ations 19 and 22 to find K. On the graph paper, the lines are indicated. where J O = o and J O = 1. Between these two lines,

D.J9 = 1.. Thus, the slope (llc/c0 /t:J0 ) may be evaluated simply as the difference in c/c c between these two lines were J O = o and J O = 1. The line shown on Figure 11 corresponds to equation 1. As previously pointed out in connection with this equation, K given by the equation should be expected to apply only when the tracer fills the pipe cross section. For all but eight of the tests, the tracer did not fill the pipe, and the values of K/v fall below the line as anticipated. The effect of the lateral spread on the value of K is shown by Figure 12, where (K/v) /J? Re is plotted vs 2c /b • In this plot, o is the standard devi­ ation of the radial distribution of concentration, and 20' /b was used as a convenient measure of the portion of the pipe cross section which the tracer occupies. For a normal or Gaussian distribution of tracer (equa­ tion 4), c/c is 0. 135 at r = 20' and 86. 5% of the tracer is in the region. C O

30 is not surprising. If the tracer filled the pipe_.,. 2tJ /b was taken as unity. In spite of the scatter, Figure 12 seems to inru.cate a tendency for K to approach the value given by equation 1 as 2ts/b approaches unity, i.e., as the tracer fills the pipe.

If a consistent and well-defined variation of K with '211/b can be deter­ mined, this information can be used to predict the diffusion of the tracer in Region 1. This in turn should lead to a better estimate of the mixing distance than that given by equation 16. Diffusion Measurements--Contract with Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado Because of physical limitations with regard to test length and pump capacity the pipelines available in the Hydraulics Branch of the Bureau for diffusion studies are relatively small. Colorado State University had available for use an 825-foot-long, 36-inch-diameter pipe which had been constructed for fluid mechanics investigations and had been instrumented to some degree. Consequently, a contract arrangement was made to have CSU conduct tests on this facility to determine the effectiveness of natural turbulence of a developed velocity distribution to produce a uniform cross-sectional diffusion of a tracer introduced into flowing water. The pipe was used to ( 1) determine the m1nimum mixing distance between the point of tracer introduction into the pipe and the point of maximum cross-sectional diffusion of the tracer, (2) evaluate the diffusion and the mixing distance of the tracer in terms of uniformity of distribution in a cross section, and (3) develop pro­ cedures for introducing radioisotope material into the pipe including determination of the optimum position or positions of an injection device within the flow cross section to provide maximum mixing effect. The study has been completed and a report has been written. These· studies are briefly summarized in the following paragraph. The results of the diffusion coefficient measurements obtained from con­ tract studies at Colorado St~te University on the 36-inch _pipeline should significantly extend the range and reliability of the available data. Dif­ fusion of Rhodamine WT dye was measured for lengths of 27, 47, 75, 139, and 184 pipe diameters between the injection and sampling loca­ tions. Continuous injections of dye were made at the pipe center, at 0. 5, 0. 8, and O. 9 of the pipe· radius to determine the optimum position. Centerline injection appeared to give the best diffusion. Concentra­ tion measurements were made for each pipe length for discharges of 8, 33, 42, 54, and 61 cfs. . Dye concentrations were measured by a fluorometer at 14 points on the horizontal and 14 points on the. vertical diameters at each sampling station. In addition, for the 54-cfs dis­ charge and each pipe length, the dy~ concentrations were measured at 14 points on the diameter for Efach 30 degrees of the pipe cross sec- tion. The measurements resulted in approximately 1, 000 analog records of tracer concentration in the pipeline. Accurate determination of

31 completeness of mixing at any given distance from the point of tracer injection is fundamentally dependent on precise and constant control of the tracer injection rate. Prolonged tests were necessary during the investigation to find a tracer injection system that would produce a precision of ±0. 5 %. A combination of a diaphragm-type pump and tur­ bine flowmeter produced an acceptable, but not ideal, system for dye injection. The system or an adaptation may be used in the field testing program of turbine flow measurements. To obtain maximum benefit from the two major testing programs the theoretical and experimental studies made on the 8-inch line in the Hydraulics Branch will be related to diffusion coefficients from the 36-inch pipeline tests and those obtained by other investigators. The diffusion coefficients will be related to the geometry of the conduit and to injection and sampling systems to determine the quality of mix­ ing to be expected in the large pipes of power and pumping plants.

32 RADIOISOTOPE INVESTIGATIONS Selection of Tracer A part of the research program has been directed toward obtaining data and information to allow confident selection of the best radio- active tracer. To supplement the Bureau 1s efforts, a contract was entered into with the University of Denver, Denver Research Institute, for a thorough review of currently available radioisotopes, Appendix 2. After considering a long list of radioactive materials, the number has been reduced to a list of 11 commercially available isotopes having a radiological half-life in the 1- to 9-day range. The reasons for limit­ ing the half-life range from 1 to 9 days are to (1) have a long enough half-life to allow transport and use of the material at the field site before too much activity is lost by decay and (2) have a short enough half-life so that the residual radioactivity will soon be gone from the waters being measured and from the apparatus used in the test. The radiation emission from the tracer must include gamma rays. Even though the presence of gamma radiation from concentrated solutions at the injection point does present handling problems, the ease of detection of gamma rays at the point of measurement warrants the use of gamma emitting tracers. Any tracer used in flow measurement, radioactive or not, must be completely water soluble and any loss of tracer caused by adsorption on the exposed surfaces of the conduit must be minimal. The radioisotope, -198, has been used in all of our flow measure­ ments in canals and pipes. There is indication that gold is strongly adsorbed on surfaces of sand and clay, and probably on concrete. How­ ever, when working with the measurement in turbines and pumps, the surfaces of the conduit are usually lined with a protective coating and the contact of the concentrated tracer with these surfaces is minimal, resulting in an insignificant amount of tracer loss. The use of Gold-198 in both laboratory and field phases of the turbine flow measurement program has been satisfactory. Investigations are continuing to determine whether others, including the 11 reported in the Denver University survey, might be better used for discharge measurement. Radioisotope Counting System The mobile nuclear laboratory, Figure 13, was designed _specially for performing field tests using radioisotopes in ground-water tracer stud­ ies and flow measurement with radioisotopes in open and closed systems. The laboratory is mounted on a 4-wheel-drive vehicle and is completely self-contained. It is equipped with a precision-regulated power supply to enable the use of any standard laboratory instrument in the field.

33 The vehicle provides the capability of performing any field tests with radioisotopes which can be envisioned in the Bureau's program. An automatic counting system, magnetic tape, and recording system has been installed in the mobile laboratory for use in the turbine flow measurement program, Figure 14. The system includes: (1) Dual­ channel scaler, (2) high-voltage power supply, (3) parallel printer, (4) two complete, integral line, scintillation counter assemblies with transistorized preamplifiers, (5) dual-pen potentiometric recorder, (6) four-channel digital tape recorder. The dual-channel scaler has two 5-decade fast readout scalers with indicators and buffer storage with a 4-decade electronic timer that has 999 preset positions. The two scalers can be operated in series as a single 10-decade scaler. The instrument can be used manually as a regular scaler with one or two counting channels for preset time or preset count measurements, or as an automatic in­ strument with the data fed to the recording devices. When the count or time has reached its preset value, the information accumulated by each of the scalers is transferred to a buffer storage and the scalers are reset and restarted, all within 10 microseconds. The information accumulated by the dual-channel scaler is recorded in two ways. The digital data stored in the buffer storage circuits are read out to the parallel entry printer, along with the index number from the 2-decade internal index counter. The printer records these 12 digits of informa­ tion (two index, five from each scaler) at a maximum repetition rate of three printings per second. In addition or alternatively, an analog signal is available from each buffer storage channel for a histogram presenta­ tion on a potentiometric recorder. Input data going to the dual-channel scaler can be simultaneously re­ corded on tape for playback at another time. This recorder is a high­ speed, high-fidelity memory unit designed specifically for radioisotope measurement systems. It includes a digital buffer storage to deran­ domize pulses for reliable recording, a choice of speeds for both record­ ing or playback, a background simulator for net playback (background subtraction), and a very flexible track assignment. The use of this in­ strument allows the scientist the opportunity to repeat a questionable measurement after the completion of the field tests and will enable him to manipulate the time scale of the data. It is possible to use four detec­ tors at one time when using the instrument. One objective of this research program in high-head turbine flow meas­ urement is to refine methods and equipment to reduce all measurement errors to the absolute minimum. Tests in the laboratory have shown that the high-voltage output from the portable scalers for operating the detectors will vary directly with the battery voltage and with ambient temperature. These changes and the resulting error in counter response are insignificant in many field applications but induce an undesirable de­ gree of error in precision measurement of turbine flow rate.

34 Now in use, as a part of the counting system, is a line-operated, high­ voltage power supply. This power supply has two outputs (A and B). Output A is variable from 500 to 1, 500 volts. Output B is the same output plus or minus an adjustable percentage to allow two detectors which are closely matched to be operated simultaneously. The tem­ perature stability is 0. 002% per degree centigrade change in temperature. With such a power supply, the changes in ambient temperature and the resultant changes in high-voltage output no longer create a measurable error in our counter response or in the operation of the detectors. In addition, the entire electronic system is enclosed in the controlled tem­ perature environment of the mobile laboratory where temperature changes are small. Timing for the counting system is based on a 60-cycle line frequency. This frequency is subject to significant variations at times. In order to make corrections in the time measurement, the alternating current line frequency is monitored continuously during the test run using a crystal-controlled frequency counter. Two radiation detection probes have been fabricated in our laboratory. Scintillation crystals were used rather than geiger tubes because the crystals have higher sensitivity to gamma radiation. The detectors are activated, sodium iodide crystals, optically bonded to a photomultiplier tube in an integral line assembly. The electrical pulses from the photomultiplier tube are taken through a transistorized pre­ amplifier which is a dual emitter follower configuration providing suf­ ficient current to drive the pulse through the cable to the scaler with a minimum of pulse shape deterioration or attenuation. The probes are both metallically encased and sealed with 0-rings to make them water­ tight. Probe D-II* is encased in a 2-inch outside-diameter brass tube with a threaded stud on the lower end. A shaped endpiece or a weight can be attached by the threads, for submergence in water, Figure 15. The NaI(Tl) cry:stal in D-II is 1-1/4-inch diameter by 3/4 inch. Probe D-ID is of similar design but is encased in a 2-7 /8-inch-diameter alu­ minum case. The crystal is 1 inch thick and 1-1/2 inches in diameter. The scintillation detectors when used in flow measurement are attached to a 50-foot cable and input connectors near the rear door of the labora­ tory, Figure 13. Method of Computing Discharge The radioisotope technique of discharge measurement is directly related to an older principle of measurement, the chemi~al dilution method. The dilution method of measuring discharges eliminates the need for knowing or determining the area of flow, the velocity of flow, the roughness of the flow boundary, the water stage, the head loss, or any of the other hydraulic *USBR nomenclature.

35 quantities encountered when rating by usual methods. In the dilution method, chemical or radioactive tracer detectable by chemical or electronic means, of known concentration c is introduced at a con- 1. stant rate, q, into a flow, Q, containing natural amounts of tracer, CO • At a cross section of the flow sufficiently far downstream from the place of injection to assure adequate transverse mixing of the tracer and flow, the concentration is then c . From the equation of continuity, where Q is the unknown discha~ge,

QC +QC = (Q + Q )C or O ""l. l. ""l. 2 (1) C - C 1 2 Q=<1;i.c -c 2 O

if c0 is negligible compared to c , and q is negligible compared to Q 2 ~

then

Q - ~c1 - C 2

An inspection of the terms in equation (1) shows that no knowledge is required of the flow or cross section geometry, the velocity, gradi­ ent, or other hydraulic characteristics normally associated with flow measurements. The discharge, Q, in the conduit may be determined from the measured concentractions, c , c , c and the injection rate, q o 1 2 1· In the total count or integrated sample methods using radioisotopes, a known amount of radiotracer, A, (C1 vol1) is introduced into the flow in a comparatively short time, producing a pulse of radioactivity in the flowing water. At the measurement cross section downstream, where the tracer is thoroughly mixed with the flowing water, the con­ centration of the tracer is determined from the gamma ray emissions detected and counted by a scintillation detector. However, where C is a constant of concentration in the chemical dilution equation, the 2 concentration of radioactivity in the pulse is variable with time. In this case, considering the conservation of matter,

A= Q! C~it or (2)

36 where changes in concentration, c , are measured with respect to 2 time. If the varying concentration, c , is integrated over the time, T, required for the entire tracer cl01fd to pass, equation (2) reduces to

A (3) Q---CT where C is the average concentration during that time. It should be noted that again physical quantities to be measured to determine the discharge, Q, do not refer to the conduit shape or the hydraulic char­ acteristics of the flow.

When using the total count method (ref. 21) of flow measurement, the radiation detector is positioned in a sample tank which is continuously sampling the discharge and the total net counts are observed during the time of passage of the tracer through the system. The total count, N, is dependent upon the count rate, R, thus

N =[ Rl:lt = RI'

then

- N R=T (4)

This average count rate, R, is also directly proportional to the con­ centration by a simple relationship

R = FC (5) by equating (4) and (5), we obtain

-N = FC- T or

- N CT=F (6)

37 The proportionality factor, F, is a function of the counting system, the radioactive material used, and the geometry of the detector posi­ tion. The measurement of F is discussed in another section of this report,_Counting System Calibration. By substitution of the equiva- lent to C T into equation (3),

(7) the equation for the total count method. Counting System Calibration Equipment. Experience shows the reported quantity of radioactive material received from suppliers to be widely variable. A previously developed method to determine the quantity, using the portable cali­ bration bench as reported by Hull (ref. 22), is also not accurate enough to meet our requirements for field calibration. Therefore, a method has been developed to calibrate the counting systems at the field site using an aliquot of the material ordered for that specific test. Using this method it is not necessary to know precisely the activ­ ity injected as long as the calibration factor is relative to that amount. Measurements were performed in the Bureau's Denver Office labora­ tory to evaluate the procedures for calibrating the sample tank and counting systems for radioisotope flow measurements. A sample tank, Figures 16 and 17, was designed and fabricated in our labora­ tory. The measurement system used was the automatic dual-channel scaler-printer, purchased specifically for the flow measurement pro­ gram, and a scintillation counter with a 1-1/4- by 1-inch NA(Tl) crystal. In this test the isotope Gold-198 was used. Test Procedures and Discussion. The response of the photomultiplier tube and solid state preamplifier in the counting system are subject to variation with temperature. Also, the tank will expand and contract with changes in temperature, thus changing in volume. To minimize the temperature effect, the sample tank was filled from a flowing source of water and allowed to stabilize until the tank and the scintil­ lation counter had come to a temperature equilibrium. Since. the volume of the tank must be accurately known for calibration purposes, a series of measurements of the tank volume were made over a temperature range of 40° to 90° F to determine the variations in volume with temperature. This range of water temperature would include temperatures normally expected in turbine and pump installa­ tions. Only a small correction of tank volume is required for tem­ perature variations and the maximum error after correction is plus or minus 0. 05 percent. Figure 18 shows the volume correction curve for sample tank No. 1.

38 During the field measurements, the temperature of the water will not vary significantly in the relatively short period of time for the tests. Therefore, it is only necessary to measure the water temperature at the beginning and again at the end of the test period to determine the volume of the tank. The background count rate must be determined before any tracer mate­ rials are brought near the counting system. The background should be measured to a statistical accuracy of about plus or minus 1 percent. A 1 percent error in the background measurement will result in a negligible error in the gross count after addition of the isotope pro­ vided that the gross count rate is high enough above background. In practice, the gross count rate has been made at least as high as the maximum rate during the flow measurement. This rate may range as high as 1,000 cps (counts per second) compared to a measured background count of about 15 cps. On top of the tank there is a 2-inch pipe cap. The cap is removed and the water level in the tank carefully adjusted to a water level mark for calibrations. When the cap is removed a large funnel can be attached over the opening, Figure 17. This funnel is used when adding and mixing isotope in the tank to prevent spills of radioactive material on the outer surface of the tank and to catch bubbles erupting during air mixing. The tracer is mixed by using a tire pump to bubble air through the tank. The pump is attached to a valve stem on top of the tank. Air is pumped gently into the tank to rise and escape through the funnel. Vigorous operation of the pump causes air and water to erupt through the funnel and result in loss of water and tracer from the tank. A loss of tracer results in inaccurate calibration and in contamination of the outer tank surface and the surrounding area with radioactivity. Tests have shown that the tracer is rapidly dispersed by the bubbling air. By recording the counting rate during mixing the results show that the greatest dispersion occurs in the first minute of mixing-and that nothing can be gained by mixing for more than 5 minutes, Fig­ ure 19. Once the count rate in the tank has stabilized during mixing it must be assumed that the tracer is well dispersed. To obtain the final counting yield of the system after the tracer is thoroughly mixed, the funnel is removed and the cap is replaced on the tank. Since the entire r ray spectrum is to be counted, care must be exercised to place the counting system at the location of the actual flow measurement. Any change in the location or position of the system may change the extent of r ray scatter and thus change the counting yield. The location of the counting system should also be the same when measuring the background rate.

39 The exact time of the final counting yield must be noted in order to correct the added activity for decay losses. In using materials with a short half-life, this is very important. With Gold-198 as the tracer, the activity is reduced 0. 78 percent per hour. When calibrating the system to an accuracy within 1 percent, small inaccuracies in data collection cannot be tolerated. Following the above procedures the necessary data are obtained to compute a calibration factor for the system. The net count rate of the detector and the concentration of radioactivity in the tank are now known. For the total count method of discharge measurement, the calibration factor, F, is the ratio of the net count rate to the concen­ tration {F = R/C = count · ft3 /µc • sec), {count x cubic feet/micro­ curie s x second). Test Results. Procedures to be used in the field were duplicated as nearly as possible in a series of laboratory tests. Results of the tests are given in the following table. In reviewing the values obtained for the "F" factors, it is noted that the first four tests showed the maximum deviation (6F) from the average. Tests No. 5, 6, and 7 gave values very near the average value for the entire series of seven tests. Calibration Factor "F" Measurements Test Percent No. "F" factor 6F error 1 175.70 -3.72 2.1 2 181. 46 +2.02 1. 1 3 182.62 +3.20 1. 8 4 177.99 -1. 43 0.8 5 179.01 -0.41 0.44 6 179.49 +0.07 0.02 7 179.70 +0.28 0.64

Average= 179. 42 Examination of the number of counts scaled in each of the tests shows that the statistical accuracy of the counting was plus or minus 0. 2%. The mixing times on the early tests were the longest of the series, as long as 11. 5 minutes for Test No. 1, indicating that the error was not due to lack of mixing. The temperature of the system remained con­ stant throughout the series, being controlled by the water supply tem­ perature which stayed between about 43° and 44° F. The only remain­ ing variable is the amount of activity added.

40 The addition of activity to the calibration tank was made using a 1. 1113-ml gravimetrically calibrated, constant delivery pipet. The large error at the beginning of the test series was caused by the lack of proficiency in using the pipet. The later tests showed that greater precision occurred with greater experience. A series of tests have been made that show with proper care in operating the constant deliv­ ery pipet, a maximum error of 0. 07 percent need not be exceeded. Tracer Handling Procedures The radioactive material used in our tests is received in a concen­ trated solution. The amount of activity required in a series of field tests is usually in excess of one curie, The accurate preparation and measurement of each injected amount of radioactivity has been a signif­ icant part of our research activity. Due to the presence of a high radiation field around the source, all fluid transfer must be done using remote handling tools. The most convenient method for transfer and measurement of solutions in the field is the use of a remotely operated pipet. However, a remote pipet is not accurate enough for our goals. To provide better accuracy an apparatus was developed to transfer measured amounts of radioactivity from the original quantity to a separate container for injection. This apparatus, Figure 20, is made up using an automatic buret. The buret is filled and emptied using small pressure bulbs and a long handle to remotely operate the stop­ cock. The buret is completely emptied each time, disregarding the graduations on the glass. The true volume of the buret has been measured gravimetric ally. The concentrated radioactive solution, when received at the field site, is diluted to convenient volume (usually 1 liter). This solution, Ao, is kept in a shielded compartment while a known fraction of its volume is forced through tubing to the automatic buret. The buret each time is filled to the overflow tip. Any overflow is trapped in a waste con­ tainer. Each injection, (A 1), is made up of a predetermined number of volumes from the buret. The size of the buret and the volume of A0 can be adjusted to fit the needs of each individual test series. Tests of this method of liquid transfer in our laboratory showed that the operation can be carried out with an accuracy of plus or minus 0. 1 percent. Error Analysis In evaluating the total error involved in making flow measurements with radioisotopes, the error of each operation or function must be considered. In order to make the measurement of flow rate with radioisotopes as useful as possible, the error of each operation is reduced to a minimum.

41 The assessment of accuracy of the radioisotope flow measurement must consider the following errors which contribute to the total error: (1) measurement of injected tracer (automatic buret), (2) transfer operations by self-adjusting pipet, (3) calibration of the counting system, ( 4) counting error due to the random nature of the decay process. The maximum error of these factors is based on results of prelim­ inary tests. The probable maximum errors are as follows:

Error, Error 6, nercent percent 1. Injection measurement ±0.1 0.01 2. Pipet transfer ± .05 . 0025 3. Calibration ± .20 . 04 4. Counting ± .7 . 49 r. = ±1.05 L.= o. 5325 .J-o.-5-32-5 = "t o. 7 3

Assuming all errors are additive, the maximum error should not exceed plus or minus 1. 05 percent. Since the errors are all random, the root-mean-square value of plus or minus 0. 73percent isa better estimate of the probable maximum error. Radio-release Technique for Turbine Discharge Measurement A proposal to develop the radio-release technique for practical use in measuring discharges in high-head turbines was received from the Research Triangle Institute, Durham, North Carolina, by the Bureau of Reclamation. This relatively new analytical technique appeared to be suitable for investigation as part of the overall research pro­ gram. The technique is a modification of the salt-dilution method and measures concentration of a stable ion (or compound) in the collected sample by means of a radioactive isotope. The radio­ release technique has most of the advantages of the use of radio­ activity in discharge measuring, but does not have the disadvan­ tages usually associated with the use of radioactive isotopes in field measurements. Radio-release analysis is a specially developed technique whereby stable ions (or compounds) are detected because of their ability to release radioactive species from a second physical or chemical phase. A chemical reaction between the nonradioactive tracer-water sample and a radioactive isotope produces the radioactive ions which are counted. The concentration of the nonradioactive solution can then be determined by counting the resulting radioactive ions and

42 comparing the results with those from a standard solution. Use of the radio-release technique could produce almost the sensitivity of in-place-radioactivity procedures without introducing radioisotopes into the public waters being measured. The method appears to be potentially valuable to the Bureau and AEC in the measurement of discharge rates. Therefore, a contract agree­ ment, based on the information in Appendix 3, was made with the Research Triangle Institute. No results of the work have been obtained as yet; the contract was signed late in fiscal year 1966.

43

FLAJY.lIN'G GORGE POWERPLANT FIELD TESTS Preparations One of the three penstocks at Flaming Gorge Dam located near Vernal, Utah, was used to develop radioisotope handling and test- ing techniques and to provide information on the diffusion charac­ teristics of a radioisotope-water mixture in a short conduit. The primary purpose of the field experiment was to aid in the evalua- tion of radioisotope injection and sampling equipment and to establish procedures of radioisotope discharge measurement. The experiment was scheduled in conjunction with an acceptance test of Turbine No. 3 during January 1966. However, approval of the Utah State Depart­ ment of Health for use of radioactive tracers in the water passing through Flaming Gorge Powerplant was not given in time to perform the isotope experiment at the time of the turbine test. Therefore, the isotope test was scheduled for a later date. Approval of the Utah State Department of Health for injection of radioactive Gold-198 into the water passing through Flamy:ig Gorge Powerplant, in con­ centrations of not more than 5 x io- µc/ml of flowing water, was received in July 1966. The field test was performed in August. A differential pressure-type meter constructed as part of the spiral case of Turbine No. 3 was calibrated by the pressure-momentum method (Gibson) during the January 1966 acceptance test. This spiral case flowmeter calibration provided a means of measuring the turbine discharge independently of the isotope measurements. Test Facilities and Equipment Figure 21 shows the relative location of equipment and facilities used for the isotope experimental measurements. Pressure injec­ tion of the isotope tracer, Gold-198, was made through a nylon tube installed through the manhole cover of Penstock No. 3 located in an adit of the dam filling line gallery at elevation 5865, Figure 22A. The nylon injection tube was extended from an adjustable flow-rate pump, down a 30-inch-diameter manway into the penstock flow. The injection tube was anchored to ladder rungs in the manway and to a piece of pipe that was attached near the lower end of the man­ way. The outlet end of the injection tube was held about 1. 5 feet below the crown of the 10-foot-diameter penstock. Continuous-flow water samples were withdrawn from two points in the turbine waterway; one point was upstream of the turbine runner and one point was downstream of the runner. The sample taken upstream of the runner was obtained through the turbine net-head piezometers located in the penstock wall at the spiral case inlet. These four 1/4-inch-diameter piezometer openings were manifolded by 3/4-inch pipe. A like size pipe was extended to the isotope

45 sample tank located on the next floor level above the turbine. The sample taken downstream from the turbine runner was withdrawn from the draft tube at a location about 18 inches below the bottom of the draft tube man-door where a 2-inch blowdown air pipe was connected to the draft tube, Figure 22B. A small centrifugal pump was connected to a rubber hose and to the air blowdown pipe. The sample water was pumped up to a flow-through counting tank located on the same level as the upstream counting tank, Figure 23A. The two counting tanks were placed on opposite sides of a 30-inch square concrete column to prevent isotope emission interference between counters. Scintillation detectors were installed in the tanks and the electrical conductors were extended up to the instrument truck located on the transformer deck between the powerplant building and the downstream face of the dam, Figure 23B. This equipment provided a means for determination of discharge rates by use of the isotope "Total Count" method. Discharge measurements were made from samples taken both upstream and downstream from the turbine. Performance of Radioisotope Discharge Measurements Steady flow through Turbine No. 3 was necessary for the isotope discharge measurement tests. To coordinate the acquisition of data at six test stations, both permanent and temporary telephone facilities were used to provide the necessary communications. A test procedure was written, distributed to all persons concerned, and discussed with test personnel to insure that the following step­ by-step procedure would be followed for test runs at six different turbine gate openings: 1. Establish the desired constant turbine gate opening by use of limit blocks on the governor servomotor opening stroke. (The blocks that were used in the January turbine acceptance tests were used in these measurements. ) Record the servo­ motor stroke and the percent gate opening. 2. Monitor the tailwater elevation with an electric contact tape gage in a test stilling well until the water surface elevation was stabilized within 0. 05 of a foot. 3. Determine that the isotope injection equipment was ready for operation and that the isotope activity recording equipment in the instrument truck was operating. 4. Signal for isotope injections. 5. While the isotope injections were being made and isotope activity in the sample tanks is being recorded for each test, the following data were also observed and recorded by test personnel.

46 a. Reservoir water surface elevation at beginning and end of each test. b. Tailwater elevation at 5-minute intervals throughout the test period. c. Differential head of the manometer on the turbine spiral case flowmeter at 5-minute intervals. These data verified that constant gate opening of the turbine, con­ stant gross head on the turbine, and constant turbine discharge occurred while the isotope discharge measurements were being made. The turbine gate openings tabulated below were used in the tests because they provided the greatest practical range of discharges for evaluation of isotope diffusion in the penstock. The number of isotope injections made with each gate opening are also shown in the table. Gate No. of Run opening isotope No. (percent) injections 1 20 2 2 30 3 3 40 2 4 50 . 3 5 60 2 6 80 2 The total isotope activity used for the measurements was 717 me. This activity was divided into 14 parts proportional to the approx­ imate rate of flow through the turbine. The rate of injection of isotope was controlled to a concentration not to exceed 5 x 10-5 microcuries per milliliter of water or 1. 5 microcuries per cubic foot at the turbine outlet. This concentration was 1/10 the maximum permissible value established by the National Bureau of Standards. The activity that passed through Turbine No. 3 was further diluted by water from at least one other generating unit before the mixture flowed down the Green River. Discussion of Results The planned objectives of the Flaming Gorge Dam turbine discharge measurements were achieved. Much was learned about the injec­ tion, sampling, and general procedures necessary for making radio­ isotope discharge measurements in a high-head installation. Good

47 agreement was not obtained between the radioisotope and spiral case flowmeter discharge measurements, Table 5. The discharges measured by the radioisotope method exceeded the flowmeter by 150% to 431% at the turbine inlet and by 150% to 319% at the draft tube. A thorough diffusion of the radioisotope in the flowing water is necessary for accurate discharge measurement. These tests showed that good mixing does not occur for a single jet of isotope introduced at 0. 3 of the radius from the wall in a short pipe. The flow, between the injection and sampling locations, Figure 19, does not have turbulence of sufficient quality or quantity to produce good mixing in a length of about 30 pipe diameters. Support of this reasoning is shown in Table 5. The discharges measured by the radioisotope method downstream of the turbine are nearer to the flowmeter valves than those measured upstream. There was definite indication that the mixing was improved as the flow passed through the turbine. The influence of the two bends could not be determined from these tests. Another test condition, possibly affecting the discharge measure­ ment results, was the sample withdrawal at the wall of the pipe. The laminar flow layer at the wall, that could provide a predomi­ nant part of the water withdrawn through the 1/4-inch piezometer holes, may be deficient in isotope. A sampler, projecting 2 to 6 inches into the pipe and well beyond the laminar layer, possibly would extract a more representative mixture of the radioisotope and water. The larger opening used to extract the downstream sample in the draft tube may have produced a better sample and therefore a better indication of discharge. Another area for study in interpreting the test results is the use of the flow through sample tanks. Additional studies will be made of the circulation characteristics of the tanks. Refinement of the counting techniques requires a knowledge that the isotope is not recirculated at anytime in the tank. The following favorable features of radioisotope methods of dis­ charge measurements were revealed by the test: 1. After the isotope is divided and diluted into single injection quantities, discharge measurements can be perfarmed rapidly. 2. The four net-head piezometers, each with a 1/4-inch­ diameter opening into the flow passage at the inlet of the turbine spiral case, furnish more than enough flow of water for isotope sampling with approximately 400 feet of head on the turbine.

48 The same arrangement of piezometer openings would furnish sufficient sample water under considerably less head" 3. For a positive pressure on the withdrawal connection, at the draft tube there were no significant problems involved in pumping isotope sample water from the draft tube thr ough an isotope counting tank. At turbine gate openings at 20% and 30% the pressure was subatmospheric at the draft tube connec­ tion and water could not be withdrawn with a pump. At gate openings of 40%, 50%, 60%, and 80% there was positive pres­ sure at the draft tube connection and sufficient water for iso­ tope sampling. Satisfactory conditions for withdrawal of water from a turbine draft tube will vary from unit to unit and will not necessarily be a function of the gate opening. No con­ venient connections to the downstream end of the draft tube were available to determine the amount of additional mixing that occurred in the draft tube. 4. The isotope, Gold-198, with a half-life of 65 hours, is a satisfactory radioisotope for discharge measurements. A delay of 24 hours or so in receiving or using the isotope does not seriously diminish the total activity. A 24-hour delay in deliv­ ery of the isotope because of the labor strike of commercial airlines was encountered before the test at Flaming Gorge Powerplant. The following problems with test procedures and equipment were revealed by the experimental use of radioisotopes for high-head discharge measurements at Flaming Gorge Powerplant: · 1. Division of the concentrated isotope activity into samples and dilution of the samples is time consuming and relatively difficult. The difficulty is caused by the extension-type tools that must be used to maintain a safe distance between a person and the radioactive source" 2. The nylon injection tube and the stainless steel injection pump both retained a significant amount of radioactivity even though the pump and tube were flushed with clean water after each isotope injection. 3. Thorough servicing and operational checks of isotope activity indicating and recording equipment is necessary to insure proper operation of the equipment. Electronic equipment purchased as part of the truck-mounted mobile laboratory was used for the test. A digital printer, to be used to record the incremental and accumulative radioactivity of the water samples withdrawn from the turbine flow, failed to operate. Time was not available

49 nor was it practicable to repair the instrument at that time. Instead the radioactivity data were recorded on a magnetic tape. The tape system was a part of the mobile laboratory equipment. The magnetic tape data was then transferred to a digital printer upon return to Denver. Specific problems in the use of radioisotopes for high-head turbine discharge measurements were found during the experiments at Flaming Gorge Dam Powerplant. The problems are not major and can be solved. The Flaming Gorge tests yielded information on a major problem associated with isotope discharge measure­ ments; that is, the length of flow passage needed for thorough mix­ ing of the isotope with .the flowing water is longer than that available at Flaming Gorge for the Bureau test conditions. A significant result of these measurements showed the rapidity at which meas­ urements can be made and that necessary sampling of the injected isotope probably can be done with facilities normally installed on all large turbines. Future Tests The continuation of the program for fiscal year 1967 calls for field tests of the prototype tracer injection and measurement systems. Long penstocks (4, 000 and 5, 600 feet) are available in the 78- and 84-inch pipes of the Estes Park and Flatiron Powerplants of the Colorado-Big Thompson Project. To obtain information on the mixing characteristics of these long pipes, a series of field meas­ urements will be made at one of the plants. Utilizing the knowledge of the radial diffusion of the tracers, a series of measurements will be made over a computed minimum length and an expected satisfactory length of pipe. Field conditions such as mixing length, hydraulic head, discharge rate, radiation measurement procedures, injection techniques, and tracer concentrations will be varied in defining the most accurate and rapid procedures for making flow measurements at high-head turbine installations. Concurrently, in-house research will continue on pipeline mixing lengths and their relation to injection and sampling methods. Im­ provements will be made as necessary to increase the reliability of the radioisotope counting and in the calibration of the equipment. As the compatibility of the equipment is determined, designs will be developed for a radioisotope discharge measuring system. A series of investigations will be made on radioactive tracers other than Gold-198 such as Sodium 24 and 82 to compare the advantages and disadvantages of each.

50 REFERENCES

1) Rouse, H., Elementary Mechanics of Fluids, Wiley, 1946 2) Rouse, H., (ed.), Engineering Hydraulics, Wiley, 1950 3) Bird, R. B. , et al, Transport Phenomena, Wiley, 1960 4) Crank, J., The Mathematics of Diffusion. Oxford University Press, 1956

5) Bischoff, K. B. and Levenspiel, 0., "Fluid dispersion - generalization and comparison of mathematical models--!. Generalization of models, 11 Chemical Engineering Science, Vol. 17, 1962, pp 245-255 6) Schlichting, H., Boundary Layer Theory, McGraw-Hill, fourth ed., 1960 7) Fischer, H. B., "Longitudinal dispersion in laboratory and natural streams, 11 Keck Laboratory Report KH-R-12, Caltech, June 1966, 250 p

8) Seymour, E. V., "Tracing flow patterns in air using a radioactive gas, " Engineer, Vol. 218, No. 5670, Sept. 25, 1964, pp 496-8

9) Towle, W. L. and Sherwood, T. K., "Eddy diffusion, 11 Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, Vol. 31, No. 4, April 1939, pp 457-462

10) Flint, D. L., et al, "Point source turbulent diffusion in a pipe, n AIChE Journal, Vol. 6, No. 2, June 1960, pp 325-331 11) Baldwin, L. V. and Walsh, T. J., "Turbulent diffusion in the core of fully developed pipe flow, 11 AIChE Journal, Vol. 7, No. 1, March 1961, pp 53-60 12) Lee, Jon and Brodkey, R. S., "Turbulent motion and mixing in a pipe, 11 AIChE Journal, Vol. 10, No. 2, March 1964, pp 187-193

13) Mickelsen, W. R., 11 An experimental comparison of the Lagrangian and Eulerian correlation coefficients in homogeneous isotropic turbulence, 11 NACA Technical Note 3570, October 1955, 42 p

14) Roley, G. and Fahien, R. W., 11 Gaseous diffusion at moderate flow rates in circular conduits, 11 AEC Report IS-330, July 1960, 157 p

51 15) Frandolig, J. E. and Fahien, R. W., "Mass transfer in low velocity gas streams," AEC Report ISC-908, June 1957, 66 p 16) Seagrave, R. C. and Fahien, R. W., "Turbulent mass transfer in liquid streams," AEC Report IS-419, August 1961, 135 p

17) Martin, G. Q. and Johanson, L. N., 11 Turbulence characteristics of liquids in pipe flow, " AIChE Journal, Vol. 11, No. 1, January 1965, pp 29-33

18) Dryden, H. L., "Turbulence and diffusion, 11 Industrial and Engineer­ ing Chemistry, Vol. 31, No. 4, April 1939, pp 416-425 19) Lynn, Scott, et al, "Material transport in turbulent gas streams: Radial diffusion in a circular conduit, 11 AIChE Journal, Vol. 3, No. 1, March 1957, pp 11-15 20) "A Literature Survey of Radioisotopes Suitable as Tracers for Measur­ ing Flow Rates of Water in High-Head Turbines and Pumps," Report DRI No. 2315, Denver Research Institute, University of Denver 21) Hull, D. E., "The Total-Count Technique: A New Principle in Flow Measurement, " International Journal of Applied Radiation and Isotopes, 1958, Vol. 4, pp 1-15 22) Hull, D. E. and Keirns, G. H., "Calibrated Bench Used for Gamma Standardizing, " Nuclonics, August 1956, Vol. 14, No. 8, pp 95-96 (See the Appendices for further references}

52 Table 1

RANGE OF PARAMETERS FOR DISPERSION MEASUREMENTS IN 8-INCII PIPE

Injector location and orientation

Horiz distance from t Centerline o.s radius 0.9 radius

Left or right of£ Rt Lt Rt Lt Directional orientation D/S U/S D/S D/S Injection to sampling dist Pipe velocities Pipe dia Feet fps

12.S 8.0 1,2,3,S,6 1,2,3,S,6

22.s 14.4 1,2,3,S 1,2,3,S

32.S 20.8 1,2,3,S 1,2,3

ss.o 35.3 1,2,3,S 1,2,3,5

70.0 44.9 1,2,3,5 1,2,3,5

80.0 51.3 1,2 2 2 2

90.0 57.7 2 2 2 2 2

100.0 64.1 2 2 2 2 2 2

110.0 70.5 2 2 2 2 2 2 TA8LE 2Ae• SALT DISP£~sf0N TEST STATISTICAL DATA. CONCENTRATIONS AT ALL SAMPLING POINTS ON HORIZONTAL DIAMETER USED IN COMPUTATIONS. RUN DIST V INJECTOR NR MEAN STD DEV COEFF VAR PCT MIXING NR DIA FPS ORIENT PTS CONC

E02A 110 2 CIL DIS 11 19.405 o.oes 0.440 PCT. 99.651 PCTe E02B 110 2 eS•RT DIS 11 19.506 le319 6.762 PCT. 93.841 PCTe E02C no 2 e9•RT DIS 11 19.826 1.802 9.088 PCT, 9le653 PCTe E020 110 2 .5-LT DIS 11 20.162 1.101 s.459 PCT. 94.978 PCTe E02E 110 2 ,9 ... LT DIS 11 19,886 2.oee 10,500 PCT. 90,484 PCTe E02F 110 2 CIL UIS 11 19,414 Oe 116 0,598 PCTe 99.-468 PCT• E03A 100 2 CIL DIS 11 20,048 0.132 o.658 PCT. 99,453 PCTe E03B 100 2 eS•RT DIS 11 19,685 1.869 9.496 PCT, 91.-407 PCTe E03C 100 2 ,9•RT DIS 11 20.201 2.937 14,537 PCT. 86.818 PCT. E03D 100 2 ,S•LT D/S 11 21,681 2.145 9,895 PCT, 91,040 PCT• E03E 100 2 e9•LT 0/S 11 22.028 3.221 14.622 PCT. 86,811 PCTe E03F 100 2 CIL UIS 11 21.861 0,078 o.Jss Per·. 99,729 PCT. E04A 90 2 CIL DIS 11 18.902 o.1so 0.193 PCT, 99.353 PCT. E04B 90 2 ,S•RT D/S 11 19.013 2,091 10.997 PCT. 89,972 PCT.

E04C 90 2 ,9•RT D/S 11 19,750 3,650 18.480 PCT. 83.199 PCTe

E040 90 2 .S•LT DIS 11 19,552 2,240 11.454 PCT. 89,556 PCT•

E04E 90 2 CIL UIS 11 19.929 o.o8s 0,427 PCT. 99.622 PCT•

EOSA 80 2 CIL DIS 11 Zl.474 0,663 3.089 PCT. 97,179 PCTe

EOSB 80 2 CIL UIS 11 19,680 0.274 1.392 PCT. 98,799 PCTe EOSC 80 2 ,S•RT DIS 11 20.568 2,971 14.445 PCT. 86,732 PCTe

EOSD 80 2 .9 .. RT DIS 11 21.as4 4,091 18.718 PCT. 82,885 PCTe E06A 70 2 CIL DIS 11 20.22s Oel96 o.969 PCT. 99.162 PCTe

54 RUN DIST V INJECTOR NR MEAN STD DEV COEff VAR PCT MIXING NR DIA fPS ORIENT PTS CONC

E06B 70 2 CIL UIS 11 2le014 Oe315 1.497 PCT. 98.623 PCT• E07A 55 2 CIL DIS 11 27.439 Oe200 0.730 PCT. 99e367 PCT• E07B 55 2 CIL UIS __ l_l _19.S61 ._0.519 2.61J_p_(:J_L _ 97!!?7_0__ PCT•

E08A 32 2 CIL 0/5 11 20,620 1.115 e.316 PCT. 92.505 PCT, E08B 32 2 CIL UIS 11 20.~52 2.214 10.722 PCT. 90.341 PCT•

ElOA 22 2 CIL DIS 11 20,737 4e622 22.291 PCT, 79.954 PCT, ElOB 22 2 CIL UIS 11 20,343 4,725 23,227 PCT, 78,892 PCTe EllA 12 2 CIL DIS _11 __ 21,825_ 13,~72 ___ 59__.895KT__.__ .6,676 PCT,

El2A 12 3 CIL DIS 11 25.433 13.123 51,597 PCT. 52,984 PCT.

El2B 12 3 CIL UIS 11 23,2~1 15,240 65.518 PCT. 40.262 PCT,

El3A 22 3 CIL DI_$ 11 21 ! 948 4,942 U..~_PCL_.8_0__,__4~l__e.cr. El3B 22 3 CIL UIS 11 20e4~5 6,231 30.447 PCT, 73,358 PCT• El4A 32 3 CIL DIS 11 20,537 1,596 7,769 PCT, 93,313 PCT,

3 El4B 32 CIL UIS 11 20,557~~~ 2,534 __ 12,326 _PCT,_ 89.377_pCT,

El5A 55 3 CIL DIS 11 20,588 0,481 2.335 PCT, 97,906 PCT, El5B 55 3 CIL UIS 11 20,464 0,533 2.607 PCT, 97e650 PCT,

El6A 70 3 CIL OIS _ll _ 20,069 _ Oel41 _ 0,700 PCJ, _ ~

El6B 70 3 C/L UIS 11 ?0,425 0,402 1,967 PCT, 98,231 PCT,

El7A 70 5 CIL DIS 11 16,386 0,156 0,951 PCT, 99,366 PCT. El7B 70 5 CIL U/S 11 19.!41_5 ___0 _,483_ 2,488 _PCT, 97,708 PCT, -- ·---··- - - - El8A 55 5 C/L D/S ll 20,216 2,330 PCT, 97,903 PCT,

55 TABLE 2A.•(CONT,>

RUN DIST V INJECTOR NR MEAN STD DEV COEFF VAR PCT MIXING NR DIA FPS ORIENT PTS CONC

El8B 55 5 C/L U/S 11 18,705 0,476 2.544 PCT, 97,616 PCT, El9A 32 5 CIL DIS 11 19,879 1,755 8,828 PCT, 92.268 PCT,

E20A 22 5 CIL DIS 11 21.447 4,63~ ~l,617 PCT, - 8Q ,_700 PCT• E20B 22 5 CIL U/S 11 18.632 5,614 30,134 PCT, 73.349 PCT, E21A 12 5 CIL DIS 11 18.817 9,695 51,524 PCT, 52,613 PCT, E21B 12 5 CIL U/S 11 20.221 12,709 62,851 PCT, 42,818 PCT, E22A 12 l C/L DIS 11 18,871 8,326 44, ll 9 PCT, 61,166 PCT, E22B 12 l C/L UIS 11 21,182 3,440 16,239 PCT, 84.901 PCT. E23A 2 1 CIL DIS 11 17,850 0,868 4.860 PCT, 96.109 PCT. E23B 22 1 CIL UIS 11 20.565 1,307 6,357 PCT, 94.733 PCT, E24A 32 1 C/L D/S 11 19.575 0,494 2,526 PCT, 97,829 PCT. E24B 32 l CIL UIS 11 19.144 0,724 3.780 PCT, 96,630 PCT, E25A 55 1 CIL DIS 11 19.536 0,171 0.873 PCT, 99.211 PCT, E25B 55 1 CIL UIS 11 19,385 0,318 1,641 PCT. 98,557 PCT, E26A 70 1 CIL D_IS 11 _18, 3_10 O,U9 _0___,6~0 PCT_._ _9'h_454 PCT, E26B 70 1 CIL UIS 11 17,505 0.111 0,633 PCT, 99,410 PCT, E27A 90 1 C/L D/S 11 17,626 0,124 0,705 PCT, 99,383 PCT, E28A 12 6 CIL 0/S 11 19,662 10,908 55.477 PCT, 49,380 PCT, .( ~; I E28B 12 6 CIL UIS 11 18,954 11,637 61,395 PCT, 44.351 PCT, ,,

56 TABLE 2Be• SALT DISPERSION TEST STATISTICAL DATA. AVERAGE OF CONCENTRATIONS AT CORRESPONDING POINTS ON LEFT AND RIGHT RADII US~D IN COMPUTATIONS. RUN DIST V INJECTOR NR MEAN STD DEV COEFF VAR PCT MIXING NH DIA FPS ORIENT PTS CONC

E02A 110 2 CIL DIS 11 19.405 o.050 0.259 PCT. 99.777 PCT.

E02B 110 2 e5•RT DIS 11 19.506 Oe065 o.336 PCT, 9.9. 719 PCT, E02C 110 2 ,9•RT DIS 11 19,826 0, 110 0,556 PCT, 99,571 PCT. E02D 110 2 ,5•LT DIS 11 20!1~2 0.092 0,454 PCT, 99.663 PCT. E02E 110 2 ,9•LT DIS 11 19,886 0,076 0,383 PCT. 99,667 PCT. E02F 110 2 C/L UIS 11 19,414 0.017 0,089 PCT. 99,923 PCT, E03A 100 2 CIL DIS 11 20,048 0,041 0.206 PCT. 99,823 PCT, E03B 100 2 e5•RT DIS 11 19.685 0.056 0.285 PCT. 99.725 PCT. E03C 100 2 ,9•RT DIS 11 20,201 0,044 0,215 PCT, 99,841 PCT.

E03D 100 2 ,S•LT DIS 11 21.681 0.131 0,602 PCT, 99,544 PCT, E03E 100 2 !9•LT DIS 11 22,028 0.118 0,534 PCT, 99,540 PCT, E03F 100 2 CIL U/S 11 21!8~1 0.03a 0,174 PCT, 99,845 PCT, E04A 90 2 CIL DIS 11 18,902 0,070 0,369 PCT, 99.703 PCT. E04B 90 2 .S-RT DIS 11 19,013 0.064 0,335 PCT. 99 • 714 PCT, E04C 90 2 ,9•RT DIS 11 19,750 0.083 0,418 PCT. 99.669 PCT. E04D 90 2 ,5•LT DIS 11 19.552 0,078 0,398 Per. 99.653 PCT, E04E 90 2 CIL UIS 11 19,929 0,035 0,178 PCT, 99,858 PCT, E05A 80 2 CIL DIS 11 21.474 0,081 0,378 PCT, 99,671 PCT,

E05B 80 2 CIL UIS 11 19,680 0,058 0.295 PCT, 99.760 PCT, E05C 80 2 ,S•RT DIS 11 20.568 0,072 0,349 PCT, 99,675 PCT, E050 80 2 .9-RT DIS 11 21,854 Oel53 0,699 PCT, 99,502 PCT, E06A 70 2 CIL DIS 11 20,225 0,162 0.799 PCT. 99,314 PCT,

57 TABLE 2B.•(CONTel

RUN UIST V INJECTOR NR MEAN STD DEV COEff VAR PCT MIXING NH DIA FPS ORIENT PTS CONC

E06B 70 2 CIL UIS 11 21.014 0,039 o.1e1 PCT, 99,840 PCT, E07A 55 2 CIL DIS 11 27,439 0,172 0,627 PCT, 99,501 PCT,

E07B 55 2 CIL UIS 11 19,861 0,125 0,629 PCT, 99,427 PCT, E08A 32 2 CIL DIS 11 20,620 1.559 7,563 PCT, 93,263 PCT, E088 32 2 CIL UIS 11 20,652 2,179 10,553 PCT, 90,341 PCT, E09B 12 2 CIL UIS 11 22,640 10,939 48,317 PCT, 55,533 PCT, ElOA 22 2 CIL DIS 11 20,737 4,570 22,038 PCT, 79,954 PCT, El0B 22 2 CIL UIS 11 20.343 4,705 23,131 PCT, 78,892 PCT, EllA 12 2 CIL DIS 11 21.849 12,761 58.407 PCT, 46,614 PCT,

El2A 12 3 CIL DIS 11 25,433 13,090 51,470 PCT, 52,984 PCT, El2B 12 3 CIL UIS 11 23.261 15,235 65,495 PCT, 40,262 PCT, El3A 22 3 CIL DIS 11 21,948 4,900 22,326 PCT, 80,451 PCT, El38 22 3 CIL UIS 11 20,465 6,148 30,040 PCT, 73,358 PCT, El4A 32 3 CIL DIS 11 20,537 1,537 7,483 PCT, 93,578 PCT, El48 32 3 CIL UIS 11 20,557 2,449 11,915 PCT, 89,481 PCT, El5A 55 3 CIL DIS 11 20,588 0,143 0,693 PCT, 99,474 PCT, El5B 55 3 CIL UIS 11 20,464 0,231 1,126 PCT, 99,125 PCT, El6A 70 3 CIL DIS 11 20,069 0,124 0,619 PCT, 99,425 pCT,

El6~ 70 3 CIL UIS 11 20,425 0,063 0,307 PCT, 991731 PCT•

El7A 10 5 CIL DIS 11 16.386 0,099 0,605 PCT, 99,542 PCT, El7B 70 5 CIL UIS 11 19,415 0,076 0,390 PCT, 99,709 PCT, El8A 55 5 CIL DIS 11 20,216 0,123 0,606 PCT, 99,491 PCT,

58 TABLE 2B.•(CONT.l

RUN DIST V INJECTOR NR MEAN STD DEV COEFF VAR PCT MIXING NR DIA FPS ORIENT PTS CONC

El8B 55 5 C/L UIS 11 18.705 0.161 0.860 PCT. 99.274 PCT•

El9A 32 5 C/L DIS 11 19,879 1.636 a.221 PCT. 92.459 PCT, E20A 22 5 C/L DIS 11 21.447 4.499 20,978 PCT, 80,990 PCT, E20B 22 5 C/L UIS 11 18.632 s.s21 29.634 PCT. 73,349 PCT• E21A 12 5 CIL DIS 11 18.817 9,643 51,243 PCT. 52,613 PCT• E21B 12 5 C/L UIS 11 20.221 12,693 62, 771 PCT, 42,818 PCT, E22A 12 1 C/L DIS 11 18.871 B.147 43.173 PCT, 61,166 PCT, E22B 12 l CIL UIS 11 21.102 3,342 15.780 PCT. 84,901 PCT, E23A 22 l CIL DIS 11 17,850 0,623 3,493 PCT, 96,812 pCT, E23B 22 l CIL U/S 11 20,565 1,199 5.830 PCT, 95,073 PCT, E24A 32 1 CIL D/S 11 19,575 0,290 1,482 PCT, 98,739 PCT, E24B 32 1 C/L UIS 11 19,144 0,666 3,477 PCT, 96,940 per.

E25A 55 1 CIL DIS 11 19,536 0,104 0,531 PCT. 99,548 PCT, E25B 55 1 C/L UIS 11 19,385 0,103 0,529 PCT. 99,534 PCT,

E26A 10 l CIL DIS 11 18,310 0,059 0,321 PCT, 99,702 PCT,

E26B 10 l CIL UIS 11 17,505 0,055 0,313 PCT, 99,743 PCT, E27A 90 1 CIL DIS 11 17,626 0,013 0,011 Per. 99,944 PCT• E28A 12 6 CIL DIS 11 19,662 10.905 55,464 PCT. 49,380 PCT, E28B 12 6 C/L UIS 11 18,954 11,634 61,384 PCT, 44,351 PCT,

59 Table 3 SUMMARY OF DIFFUSION COEFFICIENTS

Pipe Notes Reference Fluid Tracer dia Pipe K K/v :Re X 10-4 ;./f Re Hf°~ Klv 2 er and in. material £t2/sec ./fTe l, symbols

air : -85: 3 : Smooth* o. 081 477 35 41.4 0.0115 o. 27 0

9 air :COz & Hz 6 : Galv o. 0300 176 12 17. 8 0 . 0101 o. 96 X : o. 00785 46 2 . 5 4.1 0.0112 1. 0 0 . 00451 27 1. 2 2.1 0.0128 1.0 0 . 0150 88 5. 7 8.8 0.0100 0 . 99 12 o. 0392 231 18 25.8 o. 0093 0 . 64 D 0 . 0236 139 9 . 1 13.2 o. 0105 0.69 0. 0219 128 9.1 13.2 o. 0097 0.67 0.0128 75 4.4 6.7 o. 0112 0. 73 0 . 0273 160 9.1 13 . 2 0, 0121 0 . 74 0.0241 142 9 . 1 13. 2 0.0108 o. 70 10 air :COz & l-lz 3.15 : 0 . 00291 17 .1 0. 97 1. 71 0.0100 0.18 3 0 : (smooth) 0. 00462 27. 2 1. 95 3 .14 0.0087 0.16 0. 00592 34. 8 3 . 26 4 .89 0. 0071 0.14 0 . 00740 43.6 4. 5 6.53 o. 0067 0.14 0. 00850 so.a 5. 3 7 .68 o. 0065 0 . 14 0.01025 60.3 6.3 8 . 88 o. 0068 0.14 0. 01142 67. 2 7. 2 10. 08 o. 0067 0.13 o. 01402 82. 5 8. 7 11. 78 o. 0070 0 . 13 water : KCl 3 :Glass o. 000284: 28.4 2. 03 3 . 20 o. 0089 0.27 + : (smooth) 0. 000287: 28. 7 2 . 03 3. 20 o. 0089 o. 27 o. 000480: 48.0 5. 06 7 . 33 o. 0066 0.15

11 air :Heat 8 :Smooth* 0.054 318 28 34 o. 0093 0.33 4 V 0.072 423 42 50 o. 0085 0.31 0.088 518 54 62 o. 0084 o. 30 0.12 705 64 72 o. 0099 0. 33

12 water :Dye 3 :Plastic 0 . 00048 51.3 41 6 . 0 o. 0086 o. 61 5 t::. : (smooth)

13 air :He 8 :Smooth* o. 0175 103 17 21 o. 0049 0.132 6 0 . 0244 144 17 21 o. 0068 0.176 • o. 0295 174 17 21 0. 0083 o. 234 o. 0304 179 25 31 o. 0058 0.147 o. 0396 233 25 31 o. 0076 0.192 o. 0498 293 25 31 o. 0095 0. 245 0.0345 203 33 39 0. 0052 0.140

14 air : COz 4 : Galv 0.00193 11.1 0,5 1.0 o. 0113 1. 0 7 0. 00337 19. 8 1.0 1.8 o. 0112 1. 0 • 15 air :CO2 4 : Galv o . 0018 10.6 0.45 0.9 o. 0118 1. 0 7 .. o. 0024 14 .1 o. 76 1.5 o. 0095 1. 0

USBR water :NaCl 8 : Plastic o. 00240 228 13 17 0 . 0134 1. 0 ~ : (smooth) o. 00331 315 20 25 0.0127 1.0 o. 00559 532 33 39 0.0136 1.0

*assumed

Notes:

1. Kand <1' obtained from C vs r data.which was taken near entrance (20 to 43 dia) of pipe and probably was affected by entrance condition . Temperature of 75° F assumed. 2. K given in paper; <:5 estimated from flow rate and average value of x using Eqns 1 and 7 . Roughness of O. 0005 foot assumed . 3. K/2bUc and

60 TABLE 4.- SALT CONCENTRATION (MG/L) - 20 SEC. SAMPLE HORIZONTAL RADIAL POSIT I ON FACING DOWNSTREAM

RUN NR LT .8 .6 .4 .2 C/L .2 .4 ·6 .8 RT E02A 19.29 19.23 19.42 19.34 19.40 19.42 19.49 19.53 19.47 19.39 19.47

E02B 17.71 17.90 17.94 18.47 18.96 19.45 20.22 20.59 20.85 21.20 21.28

E02C 17.38 17.40 1 7~ 97 18.13 19.15 20.11 20.67 21.38 21.10 22.14 22.06

.. E02D 21.39 -21. 61 21.46 21.01 20.81 2Ue26 19. 60 19.33 18.91 18.84 18.56

E02E 22.67 22.12 22.11 21.64 20.10 19.78 18.89 18.28 17.62 11.21 11.01

E02F 19.58 19.53 19.55 19.52 19.43 19.44 19~38 19.25 19.27 19.33 19.27

E:03A . 20.25 20.09 · 20.14 20. 12 20.19 20.10 20.05 19 • 9,3 19.94 19.95 19.77

i:: ·o 3B 11.00 11.22 17. 72 18.2~ 18.88 19.78 20.57 21.05 21.77 22.04 22.20

E03C 16.21 16.62 16.92 17.72 rs-; a9 2,.i-~20 21. 51 22.62 i3·~-so--z3. 94 24·;01r

E03D 24.66 24.4·9 24.10 23.44· 22.39 ··2i.69 20.45 19.90 19~38 19.05 18.94

. . E03E 26.60 25.86 25.75 24.62 23.29 22.u2 20.57 19.39 18.50 17.89 17.82

E03F 21.79 21.83 21.73 21.86 21.95 21.82 21.86 21. 81 21.9G 21.89 22.03

-~-~ ,...· ·---·- -..---- ·,•. ~ E04A 18.87 19.15 19.13 19.01 18.89 18.76 18.99 18.83 18.87 18.63 18.79

. ------E04B 16.22 16~49 16~75 17.27 T7.89 18.97 19.97 20.75 21.19 21.63 22.01

E04C 14.90 15.15 15.61 16.59 18.25 19.96 21.29 22.74 23.82 24.46 24.48

"Eb4b' - .22.65 22~48 21.89 21.43 20.54 19.53 18.34 17.61 11.15 16.86 16.59

E04E 19.92 ·· 20. 05 19.91 20.02 19.95 19.86 19.83 19.84 20.03 l9e8U 20.01

E05A 22.34 22.36 22.11 21.93 21.96 21.47 21.19 20.9u 20.57 20.11 20.67

E05B- - 19~ 34··19 ~ 21 · 19. 31r-T9·~7f-T9~5(S T9~E7 i9.83 19~85 19.92 19.99 20.08

E05C -- 16.59 16.98 17.35 17.98 is. 9·5 -20.55 22.04 23.36 23 • 72 24e32 24.41

E05D 16 • 5-6· -16. 46 17.43 18.13· 2·0. i 7 .21.80 24~10 2?e45 26e3U · 26~83 27.16

EU6A 20.36 19.99 20.54 20.09 20 • 3"6 20.26 20.31 20.24 20.42 19.99 19.90

Data from 8-inch pipeline--Hydraulics Branch,U!S.B.R.

61 TABLE 4. (CONT.)

HORIZONTAL RADIAL POSITION FACING DOWNSTREAM

RUN NR LT .8 .6 .4 .2 C/L .2 .4 ·6 .8 RT E06B 21.43 21. 26 21.35 21.34 21.28 21.01 20-. 8 7 20.53 20.74 20.71 20~58

E07A 27.54 27.60 27.48 27.15 27.40 27.78 27.30 21.21 27.34 21.22 27.75

E07B 20.44 20.42 20.19 20.47 20.23 2u.01 19.71 19.45 19.17 19. il 19.il

E08A 19.38 19.63 21.13 22. ua 23.25 23.14 22.00 20.27 19.20 18.33 18.41

E08B 18.65 18.55 20.54 21.63 23.39 24.48 22.11 22.02 19 • i5 l7e69 18.36

E09B 10.33 12.55 17.34 27.69 36.99 40.43 35.38 28.08 18.65 ll e65 9.95

ElOA 15.79 11.10 19.70 23.29 26.79 28.34 26.66 21.47 17.17 l6el9 15.61

ElOB 15.36 15.60 19.17 22.83 26.57 28.40 25.42 22.11 17.73 l5e62 14.96

EllA 8.40 11.32 20.50 31.19 40.91 42.68 35.15 23e2U 12.14 8e8l 5.77

El2A 9~84 13.95 21.91 33.38 42.46 45.80 40.67 30.62 20.23 ll e83 9.07

El2B 6.18 8.81 16.25 28.43 42.65 48.97 42.47 30.21 16.00 9-11 6.79

El3A 16.22 17.92 21.89 23.98 28.87 29.84 27.42 23.23 19.97 16.31 15.78

E:138 13.69--15.67 19.87 23.63 29.23 3U.85 27.43 21.11 16•65 14.30 12.62

El4A 18.84 19.91 20.58 2i.46 22.68 23.17 22.35 20.28 l9e46 18.95 18.23

El4B 17.25 19.42 20.35 22.05 24.26 24.81 23.12 2v.44 18.52 18-11 17.80

El5A 21.09 21.06 20 .-90 21.04 20.96 20.85 20.55 20.10 20.21 19.99 19.66

El5B 20.67 20.83 21.19- -2-0.90 20.94 20.77 20.59 20.05 19.79 19.86 19.51

El6A 19.87 19.85 19.99 20.18 20.22 2u.14 20.16 2u.28 20.03 20.13 19.91

El6B 21.15 20.61 20.84 20~67 zG.78 20.42 20.15 20.1u 19.92 20.05 19.92

El7A 15.9b 16.29 16.33 16.38 J.6.40 16.43 16.48 16.46 16.48 16.64 16.38

El7B 19.98 20.06 19.81 19.89 19.73 19.47 19.19 19.06 18.71 18.81 18.86

El8A 20.77 20.75 20.68 20.51 20.46 20.46 20.18 19.66 19.84 19.38 19.69

62 TABLE 4. (CONT.) HORIZONTAL RADIAL POSITION FACING DOWNSTREAM

RUN NR LT .8 .6 .4 .2 C/L .2 .4 .6 .8 RT

El8B 19.19 19.0l 19.14 19.07 19.22 19.05 18.59 18.28 17.97 18.23 18.00

El9A 18e44 19.21 l9e78 Zle45 22e2l 22e78 2le53 l9e67 l8e09 l7e89 17062

E20A 16091 17.72 Zlo79 24.79 27.98 28.3b 26.65 21.94 18.16 l5e98 15.70

E20B 13.02 14.07 18.08 21.72 26.55 28oll 24.43 19.66 l4e84 13.00 11.47

E21A 7o54 10.06 17.01 25.30 3i.19 33.88 29.76 23.0U 13.39 8.68 7.18

E21B 5o82 8.78 15.25 26.24 37.o_I . 4f.74 35.21 24~·:;u 13•60 8e47 5e8l

E22A 12008 12.09 18.05 23.45 30.64 32.45 27.87 20.25 13061 9.55 7o54

E 2 2 B l 5 o 8 6 1 7 e3 4 18 o 8 3 2 :f; lE> -.z 4 ;·6 0 2 '5 • 3 8 -2 6 • 17 2 4 • 1 9 1 9 • 7 9 f9 • 7 0 1 7 • 9 8

E 2 3 A 1 9 o 8 8 1 7 • 7 6 16 o 7 8 1 7 • 4 2 1 8 • 2 7 iB • 6 O 1 1-~9 1 16 • 8 4 1 7 • 2 3 ·1 s •41 1 7 • 2 5 E23B ··18071 19.79 20~95 260-73 -ii~-=rs i3ol2 21.26 21.51 19-78 18.47 2uo12

E24A 20051 20.30 19.85 19.j4 19.11 19.84 19.27 18.79 19.13 19~30 19028

E24B 19.47 18.72 18.57 19.25 20.30 2U.09 19.98 19.32 18030 18.3U 18.28

E25A 19055 l~.36 l~.77 l9~1j 19;74 19074 )9o39 19051 19.36 19.44 19031

E25B ~9o62 19.53 19~83 19.60 19.67 19057 19.41 19.07 18.76 19.14 19e03

E26A 18.37 18.56 18.25 18024 18038 1s.35 ·· 1s.3z 18.19 18.43 l8el8 l8el4

E26B 17;65 17.63 17.40 17.63 17.68 11.4r· 17.47 17.38 17.46 17.44 17.41

E27A 17.72 17.82 17.71 17.82 17.66 17.6U 17.58 17.48 17.54 17.44 17•52

E28A 6.62 9.16 15.07 24.28 33.32 37.49 33.15 24.81 15.46 9.97 6095

E-28B 5~54 - 8el9 l4el9 23.03 33.74 38eU7 33;97 23e97 f4.15 7e86 5e78

63 Table 5 RESULTS OF ISOTOPE DISCHARGE MEASUREMENTS Flaming Gorge Powerplant--Turbine No. 3 August 1966 (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) Turbine Discharge from Discharge from Discharge from Reynolds gate spiral case isotope sample at isotope sample number opening diff. head turbine inlet at draft tube Rex 10-6 (percent) (cfs) (cfs) (cfs) 20 314 469 * 4. 09 20 314 504 * 30 402 1,110 * 5.22 30 402 1,183 * 30 402 1,071 * 40 581 2, 500 1,850 7.55 40 581 1,338 (incomplete data) 50 846 1,730 1, 412 11. 00 50 846 1,748 1,420 50 846 1,450 1, 294 60 1,044 2,330 1,660 13.46 60 1,044 1,969 1,870 80 1, 418 2,875 2,280 18.42 80 1, 418 3,412 2, 535

*Negative pressure in the draft tube at the sampling point prevented measurement.

64 a= injector radius x = longitudinal coordinate b = pipe radius C = tracer concentration r = radial coordinate measured from centerline L = mixing distance y = coordinate measured from pipe wall · = b - r

~,Nominal limit of tracer I

/injector a ( Flow I I •• -·· ---> (J) $:q-···~·-··· ---+- C)l I I :··...... >----~ 'f' I ••••• r y 1---> X ~ I

I I I ~------Region 1------¥------Region 2 ------::,..1<- - - Region J- - - -> I I I l<------L ------>j

Note: Longitudinal distance is greatly compressed.

TRACER PATTERN DOWNsrREAM FROM CENTERLINE INJECTION RADIOISOfOPES DISCHARGE ME.ASUlIDAENl'S HIGH HEAD TURBINES AND PUMPS FIGURE 2

A. Ten-inch vertical turbine pump and calming section.

B. Eight-inch aluminum and plastic flow sections.

C. Sampling location at downstream end of pipeline.

LABORATORY PIPELINE RADIOISOTOPES DISCHARGE MEASUREMENTS HIGH HEAD TURBINES AND PUMPS 66 FIGURE 3

A. Cylindrical pitot tube and manometer for velocity distribution measurements.

B. Packing glands used for velocity, tracer injection, and tracer sampling probes.

DETAILS OF 8-INCH PIPELINE . RADIOISOTOPES DISCHARGE MEASUREMENTS HIGH HEAD TURBINES AND PUMPS

67 FIGURE 4

- Pump

Baffle Flow straightener---,..------I Injection I points I I t I i I I - --120 D I t I ' I I ---110 D I I t I ' I 49.8 ft. Aluminum t ---100 D .659 ft. I.D. I 2 ,341 ft. Area t --- 90 D t --- 80 D --- 70 D

I I t ' i------55 D I

~

I 32.4 D 35 .8 ft. Plastic t ,643 ft. I.D. --- 22.5 D .325 ft. 2 Area t

I --- 12.5 D I I To Lab. Reservoir -1--,, t I j_ __ _ To Waste

INJECTICN AND SAMPLING LCCATIONS 8-INCH PIPE MODEL RADIOIS01'0PES DISCHARGE MEASURE)AENl'S HIGH HEAD TURBINES AND PUMPS

68 FIGURE 5

PX- 0-556231 , ,

A. Tracer injection system--upper left center, mariotte bottle; immediately below, gear pump; right center, injection pressure manometer and injection probe.

B. Plastic tube injection probe for tracer--"Y" branch connection for symmetrical flow.

TRACER INJECTION SYSTEM 8-INCH PIPEIJNE RADIOISOTOPES DISCHARGE MEASUREMENTS IDGH HEAD TURBINES AND PUMPS 69 FIGU 6

A. Seven pair conductance probe system. 1/8" Dia. hole - .... ' \__ (Inner electrode-, , .... ~ ',, \ / r-----_-_-__--;..L-.~~~=fq~iF ~-:f-=-1 y .:f I , ,~ ' 7r . ~ electrode-,,, 1 ', __ _, , , ... ----/ Shielded leads-/ outer ,, / I '--.._ I / Sample ,;---~... Plastic guides with

1/4'' O.D., J/16 1' I.D. / flow,, \ modified "0" rings Stainless steel tube+-, _,.--,--_ \ I \ .,,,,.,.,,. I / ', I )/ ,,>-"' ', \ I '\ I / I ,~ I / I 11 , // \ I I' I I plug - guide I

,_ - Watertight steel sealant cement \ \ I ' ' '>"-I Rubber "0" ring (modified) ' ' ,, / ,,.... ______,,,, B. Single pair conductance probe. SAMPLING PROBES RADIOISarOPES DISCHARGE MEASUREMENTS HIGH HEAD TURBINES AND PUMPS

70 FIGURE 7

A. Conductance probe in pipe and connected to a vernier-gage traversing mechanism.

B. Recording and signal conditioning system for conductance probe--analog and printed tape recorders, left center.

CONDUCTANCE PROBE INSTALLATION AND DATA RECORDING INSTRUMENTS FOR 8-INCH PIPELINE RADIOISOTOPES DISCHARGE MEASUREMENTS HIGH HEAD TURBINES AND PUMPS 71 FIGURE 8 100 ...... _,, COEFFICIENT OF VARIANCE OF -...... "'' CONCENTRATION DISTRIBUTION AS

50 ""' \. A FUNCTION OF DISTANCE ~ ""''\ \\ BETWEEN INJECTION AND ' SAMPLING STATIONS ' '\ \ \ \\, RADIOISOTOPES DISCHARGE MEASUREME NTS 0 ' \ \ HIGH HEAD TURBINES AND PUMPS 0- i ,, \ \ \ X 20 \ \ \\ I I I I N , Velocity in fps ---- '' \ -0 \ 5 20 - I , \ I \ C: 10 \ ~ \\ \ \ \ Veloc . Reyn. Nr. . J \ (.) \ V (fps) (T=22°C) ei \ \ \ I 6 .20x 10 4 v.:.J 1 \ \ \ 0 2 I .24x 10 5 ...... ___ ;\ \ \ -I::,,. 3 1.86xl0 5 5 I 5 II X 5 3.10xl0 ' As marked; \ \ ~\ \ -- I- \ theoretical curves base d z \ on equations I and 13, w \ \ I (.) \ "smooth" pipe "f'' coeff a:: \ w ' \, Pipe I.D. = 0.643 ft. a.. \ Injector located at pipe , oriented downstream. 2 \ II w \ (.) \ z \ I -<( ' \ a:: \ \ <( \ > \ , \ LL.. \ 0 I\ I- \ ' • z \ . I I w ' ... :L \ - ~~ L 'I (.)- \ \ \ \ LL.. 0.5 , LL.. ' I w d 0 (.) ) \ I~ \ \ \ , 0 ') 0 .2 \ I \ \ \ \ \ .077 ', \ \ 0.1 I r .., \ 10 20 50 100 200 500 DISTANCE FROM INJECTOR IN PIPE DIAMETERS

72 FIGURE 9

1.5

- - - 1.0 - 0 .9 0 .8 0 .7 0 .6 Sta.1100

z 0 f- z I. 5 0

I I I I I I I ,-'t. injection s" Pipe flow velocity = 2 fps I I I 1.5 I I I I I ,,Injector ,------~ \ locations- _,. ' ~ _' '{ I 1.0 - -- 0.9 ~ ~ -- ~ 0.8 -- - 0 .7 0 .6 Sta. 900 I Left 1.0 0.8 0 .6 0.4 0 .2 iJ 0 .2 0.4 0.6 0 .8 1.0 Right RADIAL POSITION

CONCENTRATION DISTRIBUTION AT SAMPLING STATION FOR VARIOUS INJECTOR POSITIONS ALONG THE HORIZONTAL DIAMETER AT STATIONS 900, 1000 AND 1100

RADIOISOTOPES DISCHARGE MEASUREMENTS HIGH HEAD TURBINES AND PUMPS

73 FIGURE 10

J 0 (.A r /b) = 1 j, ---,- .-,- 0 \ . --.-- r-4• \\.. - 0 \\- N 0 • \ \\ Re= 2•105 \ \ ""0 • \ \

\_ ..:t \ • -\ 0 \ \ \ \ -x/d= 12.5 \ \ I\ x/d = ~ \ • - - '°0 J n (.,:\ r/b) = ~ r- - \- - -

r,.. \ \ I \ I\ 0 \ co - ~ • -\ -\ 0 ~ \ \ . I \ I \ 0 co r­ -- ..:t I"'\ - N rl • °'• • • • 0 r-4 0 0 0 '°0 0• 0 • 0• 0

RADIAL CONCENTRATION DISTRIBUTIONS (USBR TESTS)

RADIOISOTOPES DISCHARGE MEASUREMENTS HIGH HEAD TURBINES AND PUMPS 74 FIGURE 11

See Table 3 10 00 II -

K V , 17 / . / "' ,Equ at ion I- 00

,,

/ I/ ~ 10 3 10 2 3 4 5 6 8 10 4 2 3 4 5 6 .ff Re

RADIAL DIFFUSION COEFFICIENTS FOR PIPE FLOW RADIOISOI'OPES DISCHARGE MEASUREMENTS HIGH HEAD TURBINES AND PUMPS

75 FIGURE 12

See Tobie 3 0.015

I • ' 0.013 i ' 1-, Equation C ------JJ_' ------..I D ii 0.011 ~ -~ -~ x~ . V D ·• V C • 0.009 ~ +¥ - ~ • • 0.007 ·" ~• • V

4 • • 0.2 0.4 26 0.6 0.8 1.0 b

VARIATION OF DIMENSIONLESS DIFFUSION COEFFICIEm' WITH SPREAD OF TRACER RADIOISGrOPES DISCHARGE MEASUREMENTS HIGH HEAD TURBINES AND PUMPS

76

Figure 13 Outside view of the Mobile Nuclear Laboratory showing the drill hole scintillation counter and telescoping boom at the rear of the truck. Steps extending beneath each door will fold out of the way when the vehicle is in motion. A 5KVA, a. c. generator and an air compressor are located between the cab of the truck and the laboratory housing.

RADIOISOTOPE DISCHARGE MEASUREMENTS HIGH-HEAD TURBINES AND PUMPS

78

Figure 14 The arrangement of the electronic, rack-mounted instruments within the Mobile Nuclear Laboratory. The components shown are, top to bottom, left panel: dual channel rate meter, dual pen potentiometric recorder, drill hole logging reel control; center panel: 4 channel tape recorder, automatic dual scaler/ timer, dual window pulse-height analysers (2), ventilating fan, 12-digit parallel printer, dual high voltage power supply; right panel: crystal-controlled frequency counter, oscilloscope, patch panel for interconnection of the instruments in any desired combination.

RADIOISOTOPE DISCHARGE MEASUREMENTS HIGH-HEAD TURBINES AND PUMPS

80 I

llfl]flllll-·--~--- • ~ ~ 1----~ --.t '~

J'>X·D-55953 FIGURE 15

PX·D-55951

Components of radiation detection probe.

RADIOISOTOPES DISCHARGE MEASUREMENTS BIGH HEAD TURBINES AND PUMPS

82 FIGURE 16

Sample tank assembled for discharge measurements.

RADIOISOTOPES DISCHARGE MEASUREMENTS HIGH HEAD TURBINES AND PUMPS

83 FIGURE 17

).."~.. ~ . -~~

Sample tank assembled for system calibration.

RADIOISOTOPES DISCHARGE MEASUREMENTS HIGH HEAD WRBINES AND PUMPS

84 1.8800 ...... r---...... __ 1.8790 • • --...... VOLUME OF H20 VS TEMPERATURE ...... SAMPLE TANK # I 1.8780 ...... • 1.8770 ...... -......

~ ...... ,,, 1.8760 • ...... i-: ~ LL " ...... t 1.8750 -... w ~ ~ 1.8740 • • O'.) ::) ~· C.Jl _J 0 " > 1.8730 1.8720 ' "' ' ~ 1.8710 ' "", 1.8700

1.8690 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 TEMPERATURE (°F)

RADIOSOTOPE DISCHARGE MEASUREMENTS ::J HIGH HEAD TURBINES AND PUMPS g ~ ------():)I-' 200

190

180 J \ ( ,--- - MEASUREMENT A _CC U RACY + 4 CPS - / -~ (/) 170 \ ' a.. / ' g \ / ___.- ~ 160 I - w ~

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 MIXING TIME (SECONDS)

RADIOSOTOPE DISCHARGE MEASUREMENTS HIGH HEAD TURBINES AND PUMPS FIGURE 20

1- w a: :::::, FoQ. ID PRESSURE u BULB ~

REMOTE Ao STOPCOCK ~,, ~y-fI OPERATOR ;!------~

AUTOMATIC BUR ET APPARATUS FOR ACCURATE DIVISION OF RADIOACTIVE SOLUTIONS. (NOT DRAWN TO SCALE)

RADIOISOTOPES DISCHARGE MEASUREMENTS HIGH HEAD TURBINES AND PUMPS

87 FIGURE 21

NWS El. 6040__=) ___

Test WS El-~~~

• , ' ·. ·...... · ..· .. . ·.· ...... , • :.· .. ·.·.·.: .·: ...... ::. · .. . .· . · . .· ·.· . El. 5850 .... , /·>,·._-. ·.- ·_. ·j_ - Radioisotopes injection _ y /r7'.~\.}. ;-10' Dia. penstock :-: <: :·: -..:: ·:~ .·. . ... :. ·.· .·.

,, Instrument truck I I I 1 136, 000 kw generator I 1, I 50,000 hp turbine I I ' I 1

5578.5

FLAMING GORGE DAM AND POWER PLANT SECTION RADIOISarOPES DISCHARGE MEASUREMENTS HIGH HEAD TURBINES AND PUMPS

88 FIGURE 22

A. Radioisotope injection equipment in filling line gallery adit el eva­ tion 5865. In upper left of photo are isotope and flushing water burets; center, packing gland and injection tubing in manway cover; lower right, positive displacement diaphragm pump for isotope.

Uf 1---

B. Connection for sampling downstream from the turbine runner in drait tube;_ rubber hose leads to 4u gpm centrifugal pump.

RADIOISOTOPE INJECTION AND SAMPI.JNG PUMPS FLAMING GORGE DAM RADIOISOTOPES DISCHARGE MEASUREMENTS · HIGH HEAD TURBINES AND PUMPS

89 FIGURE 23

P591-0~55592

A, Radioisotope sample tanks and scintillation probes-­ tank on left connected upstream of turbine; right tank to draft tube below turbine.

P591-D-55593

B. Mobile laboratory truck and counting instruments on transformer deck,

RADIOISOTOPE SAMPLlNG TANKS AND MOBILE LABORATORY FLAMING GORGE DAM RADIOISOTOPES DISCHARGE MEASUREMENTS HIGH HEAD TURBINES AND PUMPS 90 Appendix 1 to Report

DISCHARGE MEASUREMENTS USING RADIOISOTOPES IN HIGH-HEAD TURBINES AND PUMPS

International Atomic Energy Agency Isotope Techniques in Hydrology Working Group Meeting

Grenoble, France , 25-28 October 1965 I . ISOTOPE TECHNIQUES IN HYDROLOGY Working Group Meeting Grenoble, France 25-28 October 1965 The working group meeting was held at CENG (Center for Nuclear Studies at Grenoble), which is one of the French centers for studies in nuclear energy. At the previous meeting of the panel on Isotope Techniques in Hydrology held April 1964 by IAEA at their central office in Vienna, it was decided that it would be valuable to hold future panel meetings at the laboratory of one of the participants. CENG was selected for the first such meeting. The Agency had arranged for the panel to be included as part of the UNESCO International Hydrologic Decade Program. The program for the IHD is a comprehensive international program pointed toward increasing knowledge of water resources of a given country, a group of countries, and the world as a whole. The meeting was attended by some 50 participants representing lJ countries and 4 international organizations. There were 3 repre­ sentatives from the United States; Hensaw from U.S. Geological Survey, McHenry from the Department of Agriculture, and L. 0. Timblin, Jr., USBR. Enclosed is a copy of the revised agenda. It is to be noted that the agenda called for discussions on the basis of subject matter rather than on work being performed at certain laboratories, or in a par­ ticular country, or specific technical papers. The program also included a group tour of the CENG laboratories, a visit to the SOGREAH hydraulic laboratories, a field demonstration of methods developed by CENG for streamflow measurements with radioisotopes, and a field demonstration of streamflow measurements by chemical dilution methods by Electricite• de France. Although a few presentations in the form of formal technical papers were given, these were, in general, not the desired kind of discus­ sion and were almost universally unpopular. The more accepted manner of presentation was a very brief statement of the program, a summary of the results to date, and a description of some of the more important findings and serious problems which were encoun­ tered. This then led to an open discussion from the floor which constituted the main work of the panel. In their opening remarks, Pier Balligand, Assistant Director of CENG, and Bryan Payne of the IAEA emphasized the informality of the meetings and importance of such detailed discussions. Rather than attempt to account in detail the discussions on each item of the agenda, a few comments concerning the subjects of prime inter­ est to the Bureau follow: 1. Open-channel Flow Measurement There continues to be a great deal of interest in the use of radio­ active tracers and chemical tracers for measurements of flow in streams and canals by the dilution method. The Bureau's experi­ ences in flow measurements were described. Apparently, the Bureau has done more work in canals than any of the others. Out­ side of the United States, the major part of the developmental work is currently being done in France, Germany, and India. There is still no universally accepted rational procedure for esti­ mating the minimum mixing distance either in canals or streams. Several formulas are presently under study and evaluation. The concept of estimating the mixing distance on the basis of the work described in Mr. R. E. Glover's paper, "Dispersion of Dissolved or Suspended Materials in Flowing Streams" was introduced. The concept of injecting a tracer in quantities proportional to the dis­ charge across the flow cross section was suggested as a technique to reduce the required mixing distance. Although this could pre­ sent considerable operational difficulty, combining the idea with the use of a perforated tube might be advantageous. It was reported that in a canal, carrying an estimated 200 cfs, the use of a perfo­ rated tube for injecting the tracer gave good results with a reduced mixing length. There was a great deal of discussion on the use of averaging meas­ urements at several points in the cross section in order to account for incomplete mixing. This was generally discounted during the discussion on the basis that an unknown weighting factor would be re­ quired. However, in cases where nearly complete mixing was accom­ plished the technique could be used to improve the measurement. Techniques for tracer enrichment and the use of nonradioactive tracers in the stream through chemical procedures indicate the ultimate development of flow measurements may require much less radioactive material in the stream than is presently required. In examining the use of fluorescent dyes, commonly suggested as a substitute for radioactive materials, it was reported that because of various sources of absorption, flow measurements with Rhoda­ mine B could be in error by 5 percent or more. A new dye, Sul­ forhodamine G extra related to Pontacyl Pink B, shows much better stability.

2 It was suggested that the use of a controlled amount of a surface active material would be valuable in helping to spread the tracers across the surface of the water to aid in obtaining uniform mix­ ing in the minimum distance. This appears to be a very worth­ while idea and will be studied further. The importance of achieving a simplified and practical level in developing techniques for flow measurements was stressed. For a method to be of any widespread utility, complex equipment and procedures must be eliminated. There was general agreement on this point. In the future, investigations of other workers will be pointed toward field and theoretical methods of determining the minimum mixing length, techniques of reducing the mixing length, and the measure­ ment of very large flows. During the field demonstration on the !sere River at Veurey-Vorize near Grenoble, the CENG workers demonstrated their procedures for streamflow measurements. They have developed an interesting technique of using a floating pontoon carrying the injecting equipment or a submerged counter by means of a submerged keel. By employ­ ing the force of the flowing water, the equipment can be easily posi­ tioned at any point across the stream, working from only one side. (Figure 1.) It appears this technique holds considerable merit in USER canal flow measurement work. It could eliminate the need for cable, bridge, or other support of the detector or pump intake. 2. Reservoir Leakage and Ground-water Tracing A description of USER work in ground-water measurements and reservoir leakage studies was given. These were the only pro­ grams reported where the use of a perforated drill hole liner, or filter tube, is not employed. The French have used a technique in which a radioactive tracer is injected near the bottom of a reservoir. The dispersion and movement of the tracer near the floor of the reservoir was fol­ lowed to the point where a large leak was located and repaired. Other techniques for finding the particular location of seepage from reservoirs were discussed. The use of tracers including the natural mineral radioactivity, the ambient fluctuation of sur­ face water tritium content, and tagging the surface water were discussed as means of studying ground-water movement from springs and reservoirs. A progress report on the absorption of 51 EDTA, as compared with HTO ( tritiated water) shows that in most cases the chromium complex would perform well as a ground-water tracer without undue absorption. The HTO showed no absorption in the

3 minerals and soils tested, as expected, except for montmorillonite clays. It appeared to be the consensus that the absorption in mont­ morillonite was a concentration effect. Also the point was made that the magnitude which was reported could have been an anomalous test result. In any event, the use of HTO in montmorillonite-type clays should be performed with careful control until this point is further clarified. The study of ground-water flow with a single drill hole by the point dilution method has been investigated extensively in Germany, France, and Poland. There was a very thorough discussion of the influence of the size, shape, and condition of the drill hole; the use of perforated liner, referred to as a filter tube; and whether or not the tracer should be mixed within the test volume of the drill hole during the measurement. The basic concept assumes the strata under study should be isolated from the rest of the drill hole. In unlined holes, similar to those which will be used by the Bureau, the use of balloon-type packers was suggested. These discussions will all be of value to assist in the interpretation of field studies at Anchor Reservoir. Apparently there is a great deal of interest in determining the direction of flow in a drill hole but little specific accomplishment has been made in this area. There was a great deal of interest expressed in a method developed in Israel for determining the velocity of ground water in a well by measuring the loss of tracer from a well after it has been subject to back flushing. Although the technique is not yet completed in the technical literature, it apparently has been used successfully in a few instances. The method simply consists of four steps: a. A tracer is introduced and the concentration in a well determined. b. A known quantity of water is pumped into the well forcing the tracer out into the formation. c. After a period of time in which the flowing ground water has swept part of the tracer away, the test well is pumped out and the remaining concentration of the tracer determined. d. The velocity of the ground water is determined on the basis of the water pumped and the differences in the concentrations. 3. Soil and Sediment Density and Moisture Measurements Mr. Roger McHenry of the ARS reported upon the two devices which they have been testing for the measurement for suspended sediments by gamma ray absorption methods. These devices are apparently

4 performing satisfactorily. It was reported that the changes in soil moisture could be more accurately determined by the method of gamma ray absorption than the neutron scattering. In discussing the Bureau's work in soil density and moisture and sediment density, the question of the influence of the chemistry of soils upon neutron measurement of moisture content was brought out. Most investigators either consider the influence negligible and it is ignored or calibration is made for each location. Olgaard in a Risoe report has published a computer program for estimating the necessary correction factors. A search is being made for this paper. 4. Meteorology The use of stable isotopes to investigate the proposed trajectory and life history of hail was described. The relationship between altitude and deuterium, ratio was assumed. Then by determining the deuterium, hydrogen ratio of 6-centimeter­ diameter hailstones, the change of altitude as a function of the growth of the hail particle could be computed. During the tour at the close of the conference, an Electricite' de France station for evaluating experimental meteorological equip­ ment was visited. Among the devices under evaluation is a gamma ray transmission snow gage. Four curies of 60 are located 5 meters above the ground. A buried Geiger counter detects the absorption of the gamma rays by the water in the snow gage. The station transmits on call a pulse at the beginning and the end of a fixed number of counts. The system has been in operation for 2 years and operated satisfactorily during this time. The reported sensitivity is 1 millimeter of water. 5. Technical Information Dissemination, Storage, and Retrieval After first discussing the matter with Bryan Payne, Head, Hydrology Section, IA.EA, it was proposed that the panel recommend that the Agency initiate a program for adoption of unified criteria for the preparation of abstracts and the addition of key words proposed by the Agency. The program could investigate the coordination with existing formal selective dissemination systems such as now exist in the United States and explore the possibility of similar programs elsewhere. In this connection, a description was given of the Bureau's SDI program and an example of the cards which are supplied to engi­ neers serviced by the program. It was suggested that the panel at the close of the meeting prepare a list of areas for future study under each item of the agenda and indi­ cate which organization plans to pursue such studies. This would

5 assist in the rapid exchange of ideas, information, and reports. This supported Mr. Payne's suggested revision of the agenda, and such a list was prepared and will be part of the summary of this panel meeting to be published by the Agency.

VISITS IN FRANCE AND ENGLAND At the completion of the program for the working group for Isotope Techniques in Hydrology a series of visits, as mentioned previously, were made to select laboratories and organizations primarily to dis­ cuss the use of radioisotopes for precise turbine flow measurements. The selection of the visit was carefully made to cover: (a) isotope technology laboratories--CENG and United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority Wantage Research Laboratory, (b) consumer laboratories-­ Electricite' de France at Chatou and Grenoble, and (c) large turbine manufacturers--Neyrpic at Grenoble. Arrangements for some of the visits were made prior to the meetings, others were made during the panel meeting at Grenoble. A secondary purpose of each visit was to discuss other engineering applications of radioisotopes. The results of the visits are summarized as follows: 1. -Neyrpic--Grenoble, France The morning of October 26 was spent with Mr. George Thibessard who is personally responsible for performing acceptance tests for the company. In cases where the customer performs his own tests or has them performed by a referee, he serves as the company's expert technical representative. The procedure frequently follows a pattern that Neyrpic performs the test and prepares a report which is submitted to a consultant, who then recommends accept­ ance or rejection of the machine to the consumer. He is also responsible for carrying out research and development of new methods for flow measurements in connection with acceptance tests. This work is done by Neyrpic rather than by SOGREAH, the sister organization which performs most of the hydraulics research. Neyrpic uses exclusively the thermodynamic method for heads above 150 meters and the current meter methods at lower heads. They feel that the thermodynamic method, which gives efficiency directly, is highly reliable and universally accepted throughout Europe. They are now selling a full set of equipment used for this type of measurement. The mechanics of this equipment embody basic ideas which may be useful in the radioisotope program. It was learned that Mr. Thibessard is preparing a summary paper covering all methods of turbine flow measurements being used or studied on the continent. The paper will be given at the 50th Anni­ versary meeting of the ASME Research Committee on Fluid Meters

6 to be held in Pittsburgh, September 1966. A similar paper cover­ ing the work in the United Kingdom apparently will be presented by Mr. E. A. Spencer from the National Engineering Laboratories. 2. Electricite' de France, General Technical Division--Grenoble, France The afternoon of October 26 a visit was made to Hydroelectric Power Service, EDF, the major producer of electricity in France. They have also adopted the thermodynamic method exclusively for heads above 100 meters and the current meter method at lower heads. Before making this decision, they performed 47 comparative tests at 34 plants running complete efficiency measurements for each test. Maximum rated discharge was about 1, 000 cfs. Examination of the results of these tests and in nearly every case revealed that the difference between the curves for the thermodynamic method, and the current meter method was less than 1 percent. The con­ sistency of the data for both methods was excellent. On a few tests, a third method was also included. These included a chemical dilu­ tion method using sodium dichromate (Na Cr2 0, ), weir measure­ ments, ultrasonic measurement by Voith, and piezometric control. The dilution method measurements showed about a ! 1 percent scatter of points. Mr. Willm has promised to explore the possibility of send­ ing us a copy of these curves. Since returning, Mr. Willm has sent a copy of the curves which has been forwarded to interested persons in the Bureau. Figure 2 shows the curve for the test with the dilution method. EDF at Grenoble is concentrating on developing the thermodynamic method, leaving the studies with radioisotopes to their laboratories at Chatou, which were later visited. After discussion, an opportu­ nity to see their equipment for the thermodynamic method was given, which was not too different from that used by Neyrpic. Again gen­ eral ideas were obtained in sampling the stream of water in the pen­ stock which may be of value in our own tracer program. A meeting was arranged with Mr. H. Andre on their use of the chem­ ical method for streamflow measurements. Presently, they are work­ ing on a routine basis making 150 streamflow measurements per month. The field procedure is developed to the point where the equipment is highly portable, carried in a pack by one man. They have made some 6,000 measurements in streams with flows ranging up to about 20, 000 cfs. The accuracy, as checked by current meter measurements, is within the range of about 2 to 3 percent. At the present time, they are using a constant dilution method with the injection of sodium dichromate. The procedure consists of mixing the tracer with river water in a collapsible tank. By gravity flow and through a constant head device, the tracer is introduced into the stream. The samples are collected by a small battery operated pump at an appropriate

7 distance determined primarily by experience. The samples are put in plastic bottles for transportation to the laboratories. Four samples are collected at each of three different points across the stream. Samples are carried to one of several laboratories throughout France where standardized analysis is performed. Approximately 1 hour is needed for analysis, including computations. A copy was furnished of the 88-page manual which EDF has issued fully describing the standardized procedure, including the fieldwork. Mr. Andre reported they are looking toward the development of radioisotope tracers for use particularly in the large flows. He reported they have worked in some canals with reasonable success. Mr. Andre reported a measurement by the dilution method using sodium dichromate in a 6-meter-diameter pipe carrying 30 cubic meters per second (1, 058 cfs). In these tests, 50 kilograms (110 pounds) of salt were used; however, in their present methods in streamflow measurements, the technique has been refined where only 1/10 of that would now be required. The mixing length was 1 kilometer (3, 281 feet). With the guidelines presently used in Bureau research, a flow of 1, 000 cfs would call for 100 millicuries of Gold 198 which would be contained in 0. 0000009 pound. 3. Electricite' de France. Research and Testing Center--Chatou, France The entire day, November 2, was spent at the EDF laboratories at Chatou near Paris. In a rather extensive conversation with M. Hermant, Chief, Department of Tests, regarding our interest in turbine flow measurements, it was learned that he had had expe­ rience in dilution method for flow measurement in pipes with low heads, in canals, and streams. He referred to one of his papers on mixing in canals. They are presently investigating the applica­ tion of dilution methods for smaller thermal plants where the flow of circulating water is of interest. Their program, which is being carried forward by Mr. R. Wolf, is the Allan or velocity method. They have performed approxi­ mately 100 carefully controlled measurements in 30-centimeter­ diameter pipe (11. 8 inches) and are proposing to expand their tests to 1-meter-diameter pipe (3. 28 feet). They estimate the accuracy of their measurements to be within 1 percent as determined by a weight measurement. They are injecting Br-82 gas under pressure and feel that the pressure injection substantially reduces the mixing distance. They have developed an electronic computer for field use which automatically gives the discharge. The detectors for the velocity method are placed on the outside of the pipe. Mr. Wolf feels they have done sufficient mathematical analysis to provide a theoretical justification for this method. He indicated that a paper or report is to be written around the first of the year. The visit to

8 Chatou was one of the most valuable of the trip. The work by Mr. Wolf and his colleagues is very similar to that which is being done in Denver, and many of his ideas and techniques may prove of great value in the Bureau program. 4. United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority, Wantage Research Laboratory--Wantage, England Another extremely valuable visit was on November 3 with Mr. D. B. Smith, Mr. C. B. Clayton, and coworkers at the Wantage Labora­ tory. They have been cooperating with the National Engineering Laboratories at East Kilbride on an extensive series of studies on the use of radioisotopes for precise measurement of flows in closed conduits. The Electric Generating Board of Great Britain is now in the pro­ cess of having a team trained by the Wantage group in performing these measurements. They have been working in this fiel9- since 1955 and have performed several measurements at about six power stations with discharges up to about 120, 000 gallons a minute ( 267 cfs} and they are committed to another measurement with flows up to 240, 000 gallons per minute ( 535 cfs). They have rigorously tested and investigated the accuracy of their methods in a 4-inch­ diameter pipeline at Wantage and achieved a 0. 4 percent accuracy. In a 20-inch-diameter, 250-foot line at NEL an accuracy of 0. 25 percent was achieved. In each case, the actual flow in the pipe was determined by weight measurements. The group at Wantage was most free with their time and information, and the Bureau was able to work with their entire team of about five people for most of the day. Their present program is emphasizing the identification and elimination of all sources of error. Although some of the procedures which are tailored toward steam-generating plants would not be practical for the Bureau, the discussions were very beneficial. The basic procedure they use is to perform first a flow measure­ ment by a dilution method by which the discharge is obtained. Sub­ sequent measurements are obtained by the velocity method using an effective area based upon the dilution measurement of discharge. Of particular interest to the Bureau was their extensive investigation of tracer mixing which we feel is one of the most important aspects of the program. Mr. Evans, a new man with the organization, had performed a study before coming with the team at Wantage on the effective mixing length as a function of the point of injection in the pipe cross section. He showed some curves which indicated that the muting length was highly sensitive to the point of injection. Similar work performed independently by the group at Wantage is in agreement with Mr. Evans' findings. Both the earlier work by

g Mr. Evans and the studies at Wantage Research Laboratory show the mixing length for an injection at a radius of 0. 63R (where R is the pipe radius) is about 30 percent that for an injection in the center. This threefold decrease in mixing length is significant. Figure 3 shows the experimental setup at Wantage used for the flow measurements. One of the more recent efforts has been to investigate the use of injecting the tracer by the pumping of large quantities of water into the penstock with jets set at particular locations in the stream and with a rate proportional to the cross section elemental dis­ charge. They feel that this technique can substantially reduce the required mixing length. A patent application has been filed in Great Britain for this method. While in Wantage, an opportunity was presented to discuss other applications of radioisotopes. They have been doing quite a lot of work in tracing sediments in reservoirs and estuaries. The infor­ mation provided may help solve some of the drill hole probe equip­ ment problems experienced last summer at Anchor Reservoir. They have been pursuing the use of tritium as a tracer in ground­ water movements in a peat bog where large peat bogs have been investigated for underground storage. It was interesting to note that their measurements of tracer quantities of tritium are per­ formed along side their other normal radioactive work; however, in working on natural concentration of tritium, a separate labora­ tory with a group of approximately four people has been established. This indicated that the complexity and difficulty in measuring natural quantities of tritium is certainly beyond the scope of the present radioisotope program in Reclamation. The International Standards Organization's draft of a code for open­ channel flow measurements for radioisotopes, which was reviewed by the laboratory some months ago, is now in the hands of the staff at Wantage for rewriting. 5. Hydraulic Research Station--Wallingford, England The next day, November 4, through arrangements made by Mr. George Lean during the panel meeting at Grenoble, a visit was made with Mr. M. J. Crickmore to discuss their work at Wallingford with radioisotopes in sediment tracing. They are basically interested in developing improved techniques for determining the bedload both in hydraulic laboratory studies and in field investigations. They have used both fluorescent tracers and radioisotope sediment tracers. The radioisotope equipment has been purchased from Denmark and appears to be some of the most reliable available anywhere in the

10 world. The design is basically the same as that used by the Wantage group. They have generally felt that for laboratory study a radio­ active sediment tracer can be easily made by treating sand first with chloride and then gold chloride; where the gold will be absorbed permanently on the surface of the sand particles, the gradation has been adjusted so that the count rate is proportional to the proper gradation. In field studies, special glass is prepared with and irradiated making the scandium radioactive. They have been very much impressed with the performance of an ultrasonic device for measuring the heights of sediment waves. This equipment, produced by Automation Industries in Boulder, Colorado, has been incorporated with equipment developed by the British for putting the output in computer form. 6. Imperial College--London, England On November 8, a meeting was arranged with Mr. Peter Wolfe, Hydraulics Laboratory; Mr. M. J. Kenn, Senior Lecturer in fluid mechanics, responsible for their studies on pump tests; and Mr. F. L. D. Cloete, Professor in the Department of Chemical Engineer­ ing and Chemical Technology. The people at Imperial College are very familiar with the work being done jointly by UKAE, Wantage and NEL, East Kilbride, and believe that the work is basically sound and reliable. At the present time the Hydraulics Laboratory at Imperial College is not planning on doing development work in methods of flow measurements with radioisotopes; however, they are looking to the work from UKAE and NEL for techniques which can be useful in studies at the college. The Department of Chemical Engineering and Chemical Technology is now using dilution methods for studying the simultaneous flow of two phases, sediment and water.

CONCLUSIONS The meeting of the IAEA working group Isotope Techniques in Hydrology was extremely worthwhile, providing an excellent opportunity to discuss many important and difficult problems with outstanding experts from many countries. The working group employs the informal discussion technique most effectively. The emphasis on discussions, with minimum presentation of formal papers with a great deal of background informa­ tion eliminated, concentrated the effort on the most immediate and cur­ rent developments and problems. Much information, ideas, and back­ ground which will be of direct value to our current activities was gained. Such information would be nearly impossible to obtain through corres­ pondence or review of technical publications. It was clear that a great deal more can be done in this country with the use of radioisotopes in hydrology.

11 The visits to other laboratories and with other workers turned out to be equally as valuable as the discussions in Grenoble. As mentioned previously, of special value with respect to turbine flow measurements were the trips to the EDF laboratories at Chatou and the UKAE Labora­ tory at Wantage. It is apparent that great strides are being made and through the personal visits to these laboratories we can expect our research program to be substantially accelerated. It was interesting to note that the thermodynamic technique method has achieved such acceptance in Europe for high-head turbine acceptance testing. In the enclosed list of references are several papers which those con­ cerned with turbine acceptance tests may find of interest.

SUMMARY In connection with research programs jointly sponsored by the AEC and the Bureau, a Bureau representative traveled to Grenoble to par­ ticipate in a 4-day working group meeting on the isotope techniques in hydrology. The discussions were of an informal type emphasizing recent developments and current problems, and covered such appli­ cations as radioisotopes flow measurement in streams and canals, reservoir leakage, ground-water tracing, sedimentation studies1 soil density and moisture measurements, and meteorology. Subsequent to the panel meeting, selected visits to organizations con­ cerned with, or performing, flow measurements in high-head turbines and the general engineering applications of radioisotopes were mad~ These visits proved most valuable and a great deal was learned_of work being done in flow measurements of radioisotopes at the EDF fa.bora:~ tories at Chatou and the Wantage Laboratory in Great Britain. In order to make the most effective use of the knowledge gained during this trip, informal discussions with those directly concerned have been held.

12 List of Technical Publications

Andre, H., "Jaugeages Par la Methode de Dilution" Hydrometrie Pratigue des Cours d'Eau, Division Technique Generale de la Produc­ tion Hydraulique d 'Electricite de France--ENSEHRMA section hydraulique Faculte des Sciences Certiflcat de Potamologie, Grenoble, France, Tome 1, 1964, pp 1-88 Andre, Henri, "Methode Chlmique de Dilution Precede Par Integra­ tion, " La Houllle Blanche, France, No. Special B-1960, pp 833-843 Caillot, A., "Marquage Radfoactif des Sediments ou de Leurs Slmulateurs, "* Panel Hydrologie AIEA, Grenoble, France, 1965, pp 1-7 Dietl, H., Moser, H., Neumaier, F., andRauert, W., "Observa­ tions on the Utilization of the Scattering of Gamma Rays and Neutrons to Investigate Underground Aquifers, "* pp 1-11 Clayton, C. G. , Clark, W. E. , and Ball, Anne M., "The Accurate Measurement of Turbulent Flow in Pipe Using the Isotope Velocity Method and the Effect of Some Restrictions on Optimum Operation," Symposium on Flow Measurement In Closed Conduits,** United Kingdom, January 1964, Paper E-4, pp 51-70 Clayton, C. G., "Accurate Measurement of Turbulent Flow in Pipes, Using Radioactive Isotopes," Atom, Reprint by United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority, Public Relations Branch, London, SW 1, England, UK, December 1960, pp 1-15 Clayton, C. G., Fenton, K., and Young, L., "Site Testing of Large Cooling Water Pumps, " Symposium on Pump Design, Testinq and Operation,** Glasgow, Scotland, UK, April 1965, Paper Df:3, pp 17-32 Clayton, C. G., Smith, D. B., "A Comparison of Radioisotope Methods for River Flow Measurement," Internetional Atomic Energy Agency Conference On the Use of Radioactive Isotopes in Hydrology,** Wantage Research Laboratory, (AERE), Wantage, Berkshire, UK *IAEA Working Group on Isotope Technique in Hydrology, Grenoble, France, October 1965 **Available from Her Majesty's Stationery Office, York House, Kingsway, London W. C. 2

13 Clayton, C. G., "The Use of a Pump to Reduce Mixing Length In the Dilution Method of Flow Measurement, 11 United Kingdom Atomic · Ener Authorit Research Grou Re or ** Wantage Research Lab­ oratory, AERE , Wantage, Berkshire, UK, pp 1-22 Clayton, C. G., Webb, J. W., and Whittaker, J. B., "The Dispersion of Gas During Turbulent Flow in a Pipe; n British Journal of Applied Physics, Vol 14, November 1963, pp 790-795 Clayton, C. G. , and Webb, J. W. , "The Use of Turbulent Dispersion to Study the Movement of Underground Streams, "International Jour­ nal of Applied Radiation and Isotopes, Pergamon Press Ltd. , Northern Ireland, Vol 16, 1965, pp 171-176 Clayton, C. G. and Webb, J. W., "The Measurement of Mass Flow and Linear Velocity of a Gas by Continuous Ionization, "International Journal of Applied Radiation and Isotof:3es, Pergamon Press Ltd., Northern Ireland, Vol 15, 1964, pp 60 -610 Clayton, C. G., "The Measurement of Flow of Liquids and Gases Using Radioactive Isotopes, 11 Journal of the British Nuclear Energy Society London, England, UK, January 1965, pp 252-268 Guiserix, J,, "Etudes en Cours au Groupe des Applications des Radioelements en Hydrologie et dans l 'Industrie, "* October 1965, Grenoble, France, pp 1-4 Harremoes, Poul, "Tracer Studies on Jet Diffusion and Stratified Dispersion,"* Department of Radiohydrometry, The Danish Isotope Centre, preprint of paper, Denmark, pp 1-12 Hermant, C. "Application of Flow Measurement by the Comparative Salt-Dilution Method to the Determination of Turbine Efficiency, "* Paper E-2, Grenoble, France, pp 521-532 Hours, R., Guiserix, J., Grandclement, G., Andre, H., Wolf, R., and Perez, R., "Les Mesures de Debits Effectuees en France a l 'Aide de Traceurs Radioactifs Par la Methode d 'Integration, 11 La Houille Blanche, reprint by Electricite de France, No. 4, 196S:­ pp 93-107

*IAEA Working Group on Isotope Technique in Hydrology, Grenoble, France, October 1965 **Available from Her Majesty's Stationery Office, York House, Kingsway, London W. C. 2

14 Jolas, C. Mme., "Determination du Debit d'Une Turbine de Basse Chute en Regime Transitoire a l 'Aide de Mesures de Difference de Hauteur Piezometrique Effectuees dans une Section Transversale de la Bache," Bulletin du Centre de Recherches et d'Essais de Chatou, No. 11, April 1965, pp 23-36 Knutsson, Gert, "Laboratory Evaulation of Gamma-Emitting Tracers for Ground W~ter with. Special Regard to cr5l_EDT A, "* (Agency Contract No. 176/RI/RBJ, pp 1-3 Lean, G. H. , "Note on Mixing Distance in the Total Count Method, "* October 1965, pp 1-2 Magin, Jr., George B. and Bizzell, Oscar M., "Some Applications of Radioisotope Technology to Water Resources Investigations and Utilization, " Isotope Technology Development, AEC, Washington, D. C., Section II, Isotopes and Radiation Technology, Paper, pp 124-133 Mairhofer, J. and Co-Workers, "Observations of Groundwater Flow Parameters and Development of Suitable Equipment,"* October 1965, Grenoble, France, pp 1:..7 Richter, H. G., "A Radiometric Method for Determination of Iodide In Natural Waters, 11 Commissariat A l 'Energie Atomique, Centre d 'Etudes Nucleaires de Grenoble, Department des Radioelements, Grenoble, France, pp 1-18 Vogel, J. C., "Age Distribution of Groundwater in an Open Aquifer, " Groningen, pp 1-3 Wlllm, G. and Campmas, P .• "Efficiency Measurements for Hydraulic Turbines by the Poirson Thermometric Method, " La Houille Blanche, France, No. 4, pp 449-460, No. 5, pp 590-607, 1954 Wolf, R. and Perez, R., "Quelques Applications de la Methode de Dilution a des Mesures de Debit en Usines Hydroelectriques, " La Houille Blanche, reprint by Electricite de France, France, No. Special A-July 1961, pp 72-77 Zuber, A., "Groundwater Flow Measurements, Determination of Aquifer Parameters and Other Isotope Applications to Hydrology in Poland, "* pp 1-4 *IAEA Working Group on Isotope Technique in Hydrology, Grenoble, France, October 1965

15 Resume des Recherches Effectuees au Service des Isotopes Stables, Centre d'Etudes Nucleaires de Saclay, "Mesures des Teneurs de l 'Eau en Deuterium et Oxygene 18, "* January 1964, pp 1-4, and "Etudes Hydrologiq1,+es du Service des Isotopes Stables Relatives aux Points de l 'Ordre du J·our, "* September 1965, p 1 "Report on Proposals for the Improvement of the Approaches to King's Lynn, " Hydraulics Research Station,*** Crown Copyright, Wallingford, Berkshire, England, UK, Report No. EX 254, Octo­ ber 1964, pp 1-34 "An Investigation of Sand Movements in the Ribble Estuary Using Radioactive Tracers, " Hydraulics Research Station,*** Crown Copyright, Wallingford, Berkshire, England, UK, Report No. Ex 280, July 1965, pp 1-16 "Enrichment and Assay of Tritium in Natural Water," Current IAEA Research/Technical Contracts,* France, October 1965, pp 1-9 "The Applications of Radioisotopes in Hydrology, "*, **** Research Centre for Radiohydrometry, Germany, October 1965, pp 1-15 "Final Report, International Hydrological Decade, " United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, UNESCO, Paris, France, August 1965, 00 1-67 "Measurement of C. W. Flow at Sizewell Nuclear Power Station, " Wantage Research Laborator? (AERE), Wantage, Berkshire, England, UK, Report No. 14 E/CGC, June 1965, pp 1-19

*IAEA Working Group on Isotope Technique in Hydrology, Grenoble, France, October 1965 ***This is a confidential report supplied by the Hydraulic Research Station, Wallingford, England, for use by the Bureau of Reclamation only. It is not to be referred to or distributed outside the Bureau of Reclamation ****8 Munich 2, Luisenstrasse 37, Federal Republic of Germany

16

Demonstration of equipment for dispensing radioisotopes and meas­ uring river radioactivity for stream.flow measurement by CENG. The demonstration was held near Grenoble at Veurey-Voraize on the !sere River October 28, 1g55, Each piece of equipment is fitted with a submersed keel so that it can be positioned at any location across the river with a line from only one bank. In this demonstration fluoresceril dye was used for display purposes.

18 FIGURE lA

0

Radioisotope dispensing equipment consisting of a tank to hold tracer, a battery-operated pump, a solenoid valve controlled from the bank, and a constant flow feed device. 19 Single pontoon float with a submersed scintillation counter set in the keel. FIGURE lC

Double pontoon float removed from water to show keel and location of the scintillation counter.

21 Shown are turbine efficiency curves for tests of Electricite' de France turbine at Chevril where the measurements included determination of flow by the chemical dilution method. This method, which is basically the same as a radioisotopes method, requires much greater quantity of the tracer and lacks the flexibility for field measurement inherent with radioisotopes. The following information about the tests was supplied by EDF: Date of Tests : 19 57 Type of Turbine: Pelton, 2 wheels, 2 jets per wheel Manufacturer : Neyrpic Q : 5. 7 m3/s, 202 cfs Head : 338 mi 1, 110 feet Power: 13, OOu kw + Current meter data 0 Thermodynamic data 0 : Chemical dilution data

22 Scfs, rAud~;;;:r : . .. -: . l_

----;-.·+-; ... .. ' ~- ···-·/-- -:-··-· .;· ...... :-·,. - : -;-· • ...... _. .... -· ...... "7f' ,~·+ .. :: -:-\ .; . · l . . ··: + : . : ·. . : ! ' I ' :· ·: • ' • ;. • • ,. ' -· ... • . • ·'- -~ •• , 1 1 J • I . / , , ! - i . :- ., ... 1 . i 1 -- -··· · ·-- • _ _ --··.--···.--- --· · -- :. --·---·~----- .- • _ -'_:_~_-·=_· ,i j ~ • '. t ... 1 .. • .-...... ;.-· ..· ·-·:-·-:-··:·'"·;··, ...... -,--··-··-··.. -· ' ., • ' ,. • . I i_ 11> :... ! :_ : .._ J_~--->··r'· · - .' :, · : ,- • •.• ; .. • •• • Hn.:=. 388 rn .. .. ,...... ;. __ .... :..... ; . :· · . : . : ·.:; I 1 1 , • , 1 , • • · :. 1 ····:1

!· ]-·· \.~r-; --'-·+--.. ··-:---· -! ·· ___ ;_ ! . --: .. :- _--:··'" ··-.:_.·: :---:··· ;_ ->J .; ... i:. :: .. ·i ·.··-.·-:_··i·-·t ·... - I ; • ·. _; ~-· • ! . ~ _:_: _· _... _ .. ~ ',~ ---:..~ :'..· __ _.:. !_::.~ ... ·:::/_~!. .... i. ~----·.. - ... : • __ -,'... .l .: : : ...... - ...... - ...... ' -- VJ ' -- -- -·----·1-··· : ' . - --·: ·-·-----'-·----·------· :,·-~ ! I . ' I • ·- I . • ·, •. . - . . . l-J --· ·· ··-···+ ---· :· --:···'-· . ··: · ...... _; _J._ __ .... : · : . +-...i_--+ . Ncu//net~ (Neyrpi"c) . . -· .... . ·- --···-·-- · ___ i· .J ...... 1. I . i . ! . : ; : ! ' ; ' .. i . : : .. j O O Methode thern?O ( J n.imicrue {~TG) . : ·. - ...... ·-···

--:--~-- .L ____ 1--- ;- • r- '. -:--:--: -1j!····-'. --- ~.. , .Me-~hode . de .. di"luti'o11 /Si'.R) ·- · ·-;··-· .. ,-- .- - . _____ l_ __: 1 li ·· -----: ---~ .. -~- ·r- ,-- .1 -J· ·: __: 1 . .. . I . . ' I ' I . I . 1 I . ' . ' I ' . . • I . • I .) 1 ... : i ...4 ··: J.. • · 1 ··; ' : ·· i- .:·: ·i.. .. : · 1 ·--:··.c~·--i ·;·-·:---: :·-:···i· .. 1 · . : : ·: ·1·-- ·· --T ·-: :-~-:.-.---·i-<·- r--~~~ ·:- ·1--~· ---· I - . . - -·--· i ·-: .. ;-···· ·1·---·1 -~·-r···-,--!-- :·-·1----1- -·-·:-·-·-r-T·-L -~· --!· ··-· ·; .. ... r.. - ·1· ·- ··-;·-·-:-··-i ··:-·:·-·:·-·:·- - --- :-,---.. ; __ ;_ .. _.;_!_: .1 ; !·' , : I . i -! 11 _ '···, .: ./. :· ·, i· . 1 . ! : : :.·. I ·· ·- ! .. r ·- · · !...... +-:---:-- ,... ;.. : ··i· ···i I • I : : I ; . I : ' t : • • I • 1 · : • I • ! . i • ' ,, -:-r:i:~·:;··:·1 ·-,· ·-1... ,.. r: :·-·T· : . ( : .. i. - ·- .T ... I ·--r t: ... _. T·-:"' l" . · ·i .. ···r---- .. ; ·-- ;-· i - ·:·- ... ,.... ---~j-···-- ··-·- ·- ·· _:. · 1·· . _..: I :: iL ! ~+-l-) -, ! ;_ H ; :- t ' : _: I- , ; •,, : , ' , ," ' ' ' _L_ - - L -- +-, --. [ " : · . , . ;·: · I . i . ! . . ... I . I ... I. I .. ; -·· ·-··1' ~

1 I~rj ' i , ,,,,.,,, ,. , r , i ' • 1, .. :·; P~1~sance ~ur·:·;~~-b-r a ~n kW. ... -.:.~: ;_:~ § I . • • • I ' I u.l ! ~ I- 10.000 I 15.000 ... 2.0.000 : . .c.i..l ; tx:J I . : I I I. . . I . . I ...... j .. - __ J __. I l\:l Shown are facilities and specialized equipment used by the UKAEA, Wantage Research Laboratory for their study of flow measurements with radioisotopes and in particular required mixing distances. The effect of different location in the pipe cross section of the tracer injection upon the required mixing distance was investi­ gated. Photographs courtesy of WRL.

24 FIGURE 3A

Flow was to the bend in the pipe at the left of the figure and returned to a calibrated weighing tank contained in the small shed on the right. Injection of the radioisotope was made at the upstream end and samples collected at 10 points in the cross section at several points along the pipeline.

25 FIGURE 3B

\ .. \

PX-D-52884 ------"

Injection device for introduction of the radioisotope.

26 FIGURE 3C

Method of collecting samples of the stream at 10 different points. The rotating feature of the equipment permits collection of 3 sets of samples.

27 FIGURE 3D

Apparatus for collection of samples at 10 locations in the pipeline.

28 Appendix 2 to Report

DISCHARGE MEASUREMENTS USING RADIOISOTOPES IN HIGH-HEAD TURBINES AND PUMPS

A Literature Survey of Radioisotopes Suitable as Tracers for Measuring Flow Rates of Water in High-head Turbines and Pumps

University of Denver Denver Research Institute

Report No. DRI 2315

Denver Research Institute

Chemistry and Chemical Engineering Division University of Denver, Denver, Colorado 80210

Final Summary Report

A Literature Survey of Radioisotopes

Suitable as Tracers for Measuring Flow

Rates of Water in High-Head Turbines and Pumps

prepared for

U. S. Department of Interior

Bureau of Reclamation

Denver, Colorado

Contract 14-06-D-5798

March 1966

Approved by: Prepared by:

Charles H. Prien, Head G. H. McCormick Chemistry and Chemical Project Supervisor Engineering Division

G. E. Bohner Research Chemist

DENVER RESEARCH INSTITUTE - UNIVERSITY OF DENVER

ii

Abstract

A survey of the literature was conducted to determine which radioisotopes may be suitable for water flow measurements in turbines and pumps. The isotopes desired should be gamma emitters and have half-lives in the range of one to nine days. Sufficient biological data should be available to permit their safe use.

A total of ninety-one gamma emitting isotopes were found that have half-lives in the desired range. Of these isotopes there are sixteen with biological data recorded and eleven of these are commer­ cially available.

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iii

Table of Contents

Page

I. Introduction . 1

II. Results of Survey 2

III. Summary. 4

IV. Bibliography. 11

DENVER RESEARCH INSTITUTE - UNIVERSITY OF DENVER iv

List of Tables

Page

I. Gamma Energy of Commercially Availal,le Isotopes Having Half-Lives in the One to Nine Day Range 5 II. Biological Data of Selected Isotopes . 6 III. Costs, Form and Concentration Properties of Commercially Available Isotopes, 8

IV. Gamma Energy of Isotopes Having Half-Lives In the One to Nine Day Range for which Biological Data are Available (Not Commercially Available). 9

V. Biological Data of Isotopes not Available Commercially 10

DENVER RESEARCH INSTITUTE - UNIVERSITY OF DENVER 1

I. Introduction

This report summarizes the results of a literature search con­ ducted to provide information on radioisotopes for use as possible tracers in the measurement of the flow of water through high-head turbines, pumps and associated equipment. The properties such an isotope must possess to be functional in such a system are, (a) it must be compatible with the water, (b) it must be readily and easily dis­ persed, (c) it must be easily and accurately detectable with available monitoring equipment, (d) it must be stable and not deactivated by the water or any of the materials in the system and (e) it must not be prohibitively expensive. It must be assumed that the water in a sys­ tem where an "isotope-flow measuring" technique is being used will ultimately be used in such a manner that the biological effects of the isotope must be considered. This imposes the necessity of surveying other properties of the isotope such as, (a) its radiological half-life, (b) its biological half-life, (c) its maximum permissible concentration and (d) other biological effects such as its capability of becoming con­ centrated in a particular organ if ingested.

The above mentioned properties received prime consideration in this survey. In addition the following limiting parameters were im­ posed for the initial isotope screening:

(a) The radioiogical half-life should be in the range of 1 to 9 ± 10% days.

(b) The isotope should be a gamma emitter.

DENVER RESEARCH INSTITUTE - UNIVERSITY OF DENVER 2

II. Results of Survey

A search of various radioisotope lists showed that ninety-one gamma emitting radioisotopes have half-lives in the desired range 1' 2' 3 • This entire list of isotopes was published in the January 24, 1966 letter report (Table I) from the Denver Research Institute to the U. S. Bureau of Reclamation4 • Further searching of the literature revealed that biological data regarding many of these isotopes is not available. Table I lists the half-life and gamma energy of the isotopes for which biological data are available and are produced commercially.

The isotopes of Table I when listed in order of increasing half­ life have the following sequence: Wo 187, Br82, La 1 40 , Sm 153 , Au 198 , Mo99 , Ru97, Au 199 , Sc4 7 , Ca4 7 , I 131 • With all other properties being similar, the longer half-life isotopes should be selected for use because shipping delays and experimental delays can be rather costly in loss of activity with the shorter life isotopes5 •

Table II lists the biological properties of the isotopes listed in Table I. References 6-12 were surveyed for these data. The cost and available chemical form data of these isotopes are listed in Table III and were taken from the latest available catalogs 13 ' 14 •

Tables IV and V list the properties of isotopes having half-lives in the desired range but are not available from commercial sources.

The literature surveyed contains very little information that is directly related to isotope absorption on penstock or pipe lining mate - rials. Most of the available information on absorption regards isotope use in ground water studies. It would be expected these are extreme conditions and that an isotopes' use in measuring flows in turbines and pumps would show much less absorption than it does in ground water flow measurements.

There seem to be a few general rules that are observed when using isotopes for flow measurements. If cationic isotopes are to be used the water should contain inactive cations of the same type in order to reduce loss of the isotope 15 • In general anions are absorbed less than the cations. Some elements tend to become inactivated by the formation of hydroxide and this could be the case if an isotope like La 140 were used lSa.

DENVER RESEARCH INSTITUTE - UNIVERSITY OF DENVER 3

There are several statements in the literature where Br82 in­ 82 jected in the form~£ NH4 Br has been successfully used in flow measurements 15a' Also I 131 has been used in similar instances. Although Br82 and I 131 have relatively low losses due to absorption they, unfortunately, are biologically more hazardous than most of the other isotopes considered.

Another method of stabilizing metal cations in solution is the formation of chelates. Unfortunately one cannot reliably predict the stability of a particular chelate without knowing several factors such as: (a) the ionization potential of the ion of interest relative to that of other ions in solution, (b) the pH of the solution and (c) relative con­ 16 17 18 centrations of all ions ' ' • When the above parameters are known for a particular system, the preceeding references should provide adequate information whereby a reasonable prediction regarding the behavior of a particular chelated cation in the system can be made.

The isotopes of gold have been used in flow measurements how­ ever gold is strongly absorbed from dilute neutral solutions by sand, 1sa 1 a clays and presumably concrete sur f aces ' 8 .

There are some cases where complex ion formation may stabilize an otherwise unstable ion. As an example, the formation of 3 2 the P04 - , so.- , Ru04 ions.

DENVER RESEARCH INSTITUTE - UNIVERSITY OF DENVER 4

III. Summary

The preceeding tables and discussion summarizes the informa­ tion obtained on gamma emitting isotopes with half-lives in the range of one to nine days. The data in the tables seems quite complete re­ garding the radiological and bioradiological properties of the isotopes. It is regrettable that more specific information concerning absorption and stability is not apparently available. In an attempt to find this data most of the Nuclear Science Abstracts from 1958 to current issues were surveyed and also Chemical Abstracts from 1960 to current issues.

In order to obtain the needed information, certain laboratory and pilot scale experiments will have to be performed after the desired isotope has been selected.

DENVER RESEARCH INSTITUTE - UNIVERSITY OF DENVER 5

Table I

Gamma Energy of Commercially Available Isotopes Having Half-lives in the One to Nine Day Range

Isotope Half-life Gamma Energy (Mev)

Calcium Ca 47 4. 7 d 1. 31 (65%). 0. 83 (5%), 0. 48 (5%) • Scandium Sc 47 3. 4 d 0. 16

Bromine Br 82. 35. 3 h 0.547, 0. 608, 0.692, 0. 766, 0.823, 1. 031, 1. 312

Ruthenium Ru 97 2. 9 d 0. 109, 0. 216, 0.325

Molybdenum Mo 99 67 h 0. 041, 0. 140,:,, 0. 142,:,, 0.181, 0.372, 0. 74, 0. 78

Iodine 1131 8. 05 d 0. 08 (2. 2%), 0. 163 (0. 7%). 0.248 (5. 3%), 0.364 (80%). 0. 637 (9%), 0. 722 (3%)

Lanthanium La 140 40. 2 h 0.093, 0. 329, 0.487, 0.815, 1. 6' 2. 5, 3. 0

Samarium Sm 153 47 h 0.069, 0. 102, 0.548

Tungsten Wo 187 24 h 0. 072,:<>:,, 0. 134,:<>:,, 0.480, 0.552, 0.686, 0. 78

Gold Au 198 65 h 0.41 (100%), 0.68(1%). 1. 09 (0. 2%) 2. 7 d

Gold Au 199 3. 15 d 0.05, 0. 159, 0.209

..,,. . Gamma from 6. 05 h Tc 99 m daughter -7 187 ,:,,:, Gamma from 5. 3 X 10 S Re m daughter

DENVER RESEARCH INSTITUTE - UNIVERSITY OF DENVER 6

Table II

Biological Data of Selected Isotopes

Capability of becoming concentrated in a particular organ in the human body if ingested Biological Maximum Permitte d half-life Critical Fraction Organ of Total Water , Air , Isotope (days) Organ Concent. Reference Body µc µc / cc µc / cc • Soluble : Bone 0 . 54 Bone 5 10-3 2 X 10- 7 ca•1 l . 8 x l04 GI, LL! -- 2 X 10-3 -- Total body 10 4 X 10-3 5 X 10-7 Insoluble : GI, LL! -- l 0- 3 2 X 10-7 Lung -- -- 2 X 10-7 Soluble: GI, LL! -- 3 X 10-3 6 X 10-7 Sc47 33 Bone 0.05 Liver 50 100 6 X 10-6 Kidney 60 200 8 X l 0-6 Bone 60 200 8 X 10-6 Total body 80 200 10-5 Insoluble: GI, LL! -- 3 X 10- 3 5 X 10-7 Lung -- -- 10-6 Soluble: Braz 8 Total l. 0 Total body 10 8 X 10- 3 10-6 Body GI,SI -- 8 X 10-3 2 X 10-6 Insoluble: GI, LL! -- 10- 3 2 X 10-7 Lungs -- -- 6 X 10-7 Soluble: Ru97 16 Bone 2 . 4 X l0- 3 GI, LL! -- 0.01 2 X 10-6 Kidney 30 0.4 5 X 10-6 Total body 100 2.0 3 X 10-5 Bone 900 10.0 2 X 10-4 Insoluble : GI, LL! -- 0. 01 2 X 10-6 Lung -- -- 2 X 10-6 Soluble: Kidney 8 5 X 10-3 7 X 10-7 GI, LL! -- 7 X 10- 3 2 X 10-6 Mo99 150 d Bone 2 X l 0-5 Liver 20 0.01 2 X 10-6 Total body 40 0.02 3 X 10-6 Ins oluble: Gl, LL! -- 10·3 2 X 10-7 Lung -- -- 5 X 10-7 Soluble: Thyroid 0.70 6 X 10- 5 9 X 10-9 1131 180 Thyr oid 0 . 02 Total body 50.0 5 X 10- 3 8 X 10-7 GI, LL! -- 0. 03 7 X l 0- 6 Insoluble: GI, LLI -- 2 X 10- 3 3 X 10- 7 Lungs -- -- 3 X 10-7

DENVER RESEARCH INSTITUTE - UNIVERSITY OF DENVER 7

Table II (Cont)

Capability of becoming concentrated in a particular organ in the human body if ingested Biological Maximum Permitted half-life Critical Fraction Organ of Total Water, Air, Isotope (days) Organ Concent. Reference Body µc µc/cc µc / cc Soluble: GI, LLI -- 7 X 1 o-• 2 X 10-7 Lal4o 35 Bone 1.2 x 10-3 Liver 9 50 2 X 10-6 Bone 10 60 2 X 10-6 Total body 10 60 2 X 10-6 Insoluble: GI, LLI -- 7 X 10-• 10-7 Lungs -- -- 4 X 10-7 Soluble: GI,LLI -- 2 X 10-3 5 X 10-7 Sa 153 1500 Bone 3 X 10-5 Liver 20 70 3 X l 0-6 Bone 30 100 6 X 10-6 Kidney 50 200 10 -· Total body 70 300 10-5 Insoluble: GI, LLI -- 2 X 10-3 4 X 10-7 Lung -- -- 10-6 Soluble : GI, LLI -- 2 X 10-3 4 X 10-7 Wo1a1 9 Bone 7 X 10-3 Total body 30 0.5 2 X 10-5 Liver 30 0.6 2 X 10-s Bone 30 1. 0 4 X l 0-s Insoluble: GI, LLI -- 2 X 10-3 3 X 10-7 Lung -- -- 2 X 10-6 Soluble: GI, LLI -- 2 X 10-3 3 X 10-7 Au19a 50 Kidney 0. 06 Kidney 20 o. 07 3 X 10-6 Total body 30 o. 1 4 X 10-6 Spleen 60 0. 2 8 X 10-6 Liver 80 0.3 10-5 Insoluble: GI, LLI -- 10-3 2 X 10-7 Lungs -- -- 6 X 10-7 Soluble: GI, LLI -- 5 X l 0- 3 1 o- 6 Au199 50 Kidney 0.02 Kidney 70 0.2 8 X 10-6 Total body 100 0. 3 10-5 Spleen 200 0.6 2 X 10-5 Liver 300 0.8 3 X 10-5 Insoluble: GI, LLI -- 4 X 10-3 8 X 10-7 Lung -- -- 2 X 10-6

GI - Gastro Intestinal Tract LLI - Lower Large Intestine SI - Small Intestine

DENVER RESEARCH INSTITUTE - UNIVERSITY OF DENVER 8

Table Ill

Costs, Form, and Concentration Properties of Commercially Available Isotopes

Specific Concen- Solubility Cost Available Activity tration of form in cold Isotope $/me form mc/g me/ml water, gm/100 ml ca•1 2.50.00 CaClz 50-100 -- 60 sc•1 2..80a ScCl3 CF - - v. s. Braz 3.75 KBr in HzO > 1, 000 > o. 5 53

Ru97 50.00 RuC13 in HCl > 2. > 0. 01 insol. Mo99 2.. 2. 5 (NH4)z Mo 04 > 10 > 0. 1 decomp. in NH40H 1131 0.45 Na! in Na2S03 CF > 1 159 140 La 3.00 LaC13 in HCl > 2., 000 > o. 2 v. s. 153 Sm 3.75 SmC13 in HCl > 10, 000 > 0. 1 92 1s1 w0 9.00 K 2W04 in KOH > 3, 000 > o. 1 51 Aul9s 0.20 AuC13 in >15,000 > 10 68 HCl + HN03

Au199 7.50 AuC13 in CF > 0. 5 68 HCl + HN03

a - Available from The Radiochemical Centre, Amersham, Buckinghamshire, England. All other isotopes available from Union Carbide Nuclear Co., Oak Ridge National Laboratory.

CF - Carrier-free

V.S. - Very Soluble

DENVER RESEARCH INSTITUTE - UNIVERSITY OF DENVER 9

Table IV

Gamma Energy of Isotopes Having Half-lives in the One to Nine Day Range for Which Biological Data are Available (Not Commercially Available)

Isotope Half-life Gamma Energy (Mev)

Scandium Sc48 44 h 1. 31, 1. 04, 0.99

C er1um. C e 143 33 h 0. 58, 0. 29, 0.66 149 Pm 53 h 0. 28, 0.85

D yspros1um. D y 166 80 h 0. 083, (0.03 - 0.43) 183 Ta 5 d 0. 046, 0. 053, 0. 108, 0. 246 (O. 041- 0. 41)

DENVER RESEARCH INSTITUTE - UNIVERSITY OF DENVER 10

Table V

Biological Data of Isotopes not Available Commercially

Capability of becoming concentrated in a particular organ in the human body if ingested Biological Maximum Permitted half-life Critical Fraction Organ of Total Water, Air, Isotope (days) Organ Concent. Reference Body µc µc/cc µc/cc Soluble; GI, LL! -- 8 X 10-4 2 X 10-7 sc•s 33 Bone 0.50 Total body 9 50 2 X 10-6 Liver 9 50 2 X 10-6 Kidney 10 80 3 X 10-6 Bone 30 200 8 X 10-6 Insoluble: GI, LL! -- 8 X 10-4 10-7 Lungs -- -- 4 X 10 - 7 Soluble : GI, LL! -- 1 o- 3 3 X 10-7 Cel43 1500 Bone 3 X 10-5 Liver 7 50 2 X 10-6 Bone 10 70 3 X 10-6 Kidney 20 100 5 X 10- 6 Total body 20 100 6 X 10-6 Insoluble: GI, LL! -- 10-3 2 X 10-7 Lung -- -- 6 X 10- 7 Soluble: GI, LL! -- l 0-3 3 X 10-7 Pm149 1500 Bone 3 X 10 - 5 Bone 20 70 3 X l 0-6 Kidney 30 100 6 X 1 o·6 Total body 40 200 7 X 10-6 Liver 50 200 10·5 Insoluble: GI, LL! -- 10-3 2 X 10. 7 Lung -- -- 7 X 10•7 Soluble: GI, LL! -- 10·3 2 X 10-7 Dy166 1000 Bone 6 X 10-5 Bone 5 10 6 X 10-7 Total body 30 70 3 X 10-6 Liver 30 80 4 X 10-6 Insoluble: GI, LL! -- 10-3 2 X 10-7 Lung -- -- 10-6 Soluble: Tal83 300 Bone 2 X 10-5 GI, LL! -- 10-3 3 X l 0-7 Liver 7 0.9 4 X 10-8 Kidney 20 2 8 X 10-8 Total body 20 2 9 X 10-3 Spleen 30 4 10-7 Bone 50 6 3 X 10-7 Insoluble: Lung -- -- 2 X 10-8 GI, LLI -- I 0-3 2 X 10-7

GI - Gastro Intestinal Tract LLI • Lower Large Intestine SI - Small.Intestine

DENVER RESEARCH INSTITUTE - UNIVERSITY OF DENVER 11

IV. Bibliography

1. Ford, K. W., Fuller, Gladys H., et. al., "U.S. Atomic Energy Commission 1960 Nuclear Data Tables, 11 Part 4, Short Tables. National Academy of Science-National Research Council, Washington 25, D. C., December 1961.

2. 11 Radiological Health Handbook, 11 U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Washington 25, D. C., September 1960.

3. Goldman, David P., Knolls Atomic Power Laboratory, Chart of the Nuclides, General Electric Company, Schenectady, N. Y. 12305, 1964.

4. January 24, 1966 Letter Report from the Denver Research Institute to the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation.

5. Goodman, E. I., Ind. and Eng. Chem. 50,210, (1958).

6. Maximum Permissible Body Burdens and Maximum Permissible Concentrations of in Air and in Water for Occupa­ tional Exposure, U.S. Department of Commerce, National Bureau of Standards, Handbook No. 69, August 1963.

7. Maximum Permissible Amount of Radioisotopes in the Human Body and Maximum Permissible Concentrations in Air and Water, U.S. Department of Commerce, National Bureau of Standards, Handbook No. 52, March 1953.

8. Report of Com. II on Permissible Dose for Internal Radiation, Pergamon Press, 1959.

9. Standards for Protection Against Radiation-Registrar, U.S. Atomic Energy Commission Rules and Regulations, Title 10, Part 20, 1965.

10. Private Correspondence. Eubank, W. B. Nuclear Data Project, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee.

11. Hollander, Jack M. Lawrence Radiation Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94 720.

12. Radiological Health, U.S. Department of Health and Welfare, PB 121784R, 1960 edition.

13. Radio and Stable Isotopes, Catalog. Isotope Development Center, Oak Ridge National Laboratory 1963 Supplement May 1, 1965

DENVER RESEARCH INSTITUTE - UNIVERSITY OF DENVER 12

14. The Radiochemical Centre, Catalog, United Kingdom A E. C. Amersham, Buckinghamshire, England, October 1965. 15. Radioisotopes in Hydrology, International Atomic Energy Agency, Tokyo Proceedings March 1963, p. 8, 15a p. 58, 156 p. 321-46.

.16. Organic Sequestering Agents, S. Chaberek and A. E . Martell, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York 1959.

17. Lacey, W. J. and DeLaguna, W. Science, 124, 402, ( 1956).

18. Freely, Herbert W. , Walton, Alan. , Barnett, Charles R . , Bazan, Fernando, The Potential Applications of Radioisotope Techniques to Water Resource Investigations and Utilization, NY0-9040, AEC Research and Development Report. Isotopes, Inc., Westwood, New Jersey April 3, 1961, Chapter 13, 18a Chapter 14.

DENVER RESEARCH INSTITUTE - UNIVERSITY OF DENVER Appendix 3 to Report

DISCHARGE MEASUREMENTS USING RADIOISOTOPES IN HIGH-HEAD TURBINES AND PUMPS

Development of Radio-release Technique for Measurement of Turbine Discharge • RTI Proposal No. N-66-3 January 25, 1966

Development of a Radio-Release Technique for Measurement of Turbine Discharge

Submitted to:

United States Department of the Interior Bureau of Reclamation Office of Chief Engineer Denver, Colorado 80225

Attention Mr. B. P. Bellport

Approved by: Mu4--- n C. Orcutt, Director Measurement and Controls' Laboratory Measurement and Controls Laboratory

Georgi: Herbert President

L~ RESEARCH TRIANGLE INSTITUTE DURHAM, NORTH CAROLINA ~T-~ I , DEVELOPMENT OF A RADIO-RELEASE TECHNIQUE FOR MEASUREMENT OF TURBINE DISCHARGE

I. Introduction and Objectives One of the factors entering into a calculation of hydraulic turbine efficiency is a knowledge of water flow through the turbine. However, the accuracy of the efficiency calculation is limited by errors in the flow measurements. Since the knowledge of turbine efficiency is important to hydraulic engineers, it is therefore desirable to improve the accuracy of the flow measurements. The objective of this proposed work is to develop a new analytical technique which will allow the attain­ ment of the required accuracy.

II. Description of Proposed Technique There are several methods for measuring turbine discharge, all based on diff­ erent principles: pressure-time method(l) a) ' 2 b) salt-velocity method( ) ' c) current meter measurements(J), and 4 d) salt-dilution method( ). None of these methods is completely satisfactory for one or more reasons. In the salt-dilution method a quantity of salt solution is injected into the stream and the concentration subsequently measured downstream when the salt has become uniformly dispersed throughout the cross-section of the stream. One of the limitations of this method is the quantity of salt which must be used if conventional analytical techniques are used for analyzing the collected samples. A rule of thumb states that one kilogram of tracer must be used for each cubic meter of water flow per second (about 30 cu ft/sec) if the injection period is about 15 minutes and the concentration of tracer desired in the collected sample is about 1 part per million (ppm). For example, a flow rate of 3,000 cu ft/sec would require 100 kilograms of tracer if the detection sensitivity were only 1 ppm. And at an injection rate of 200 ml/sec (for the fifteen minute period) the solubility of the tracer must be at least 500 grams/liter. Although radioisotopes have been used in the salt-dilution method for pipe and 5 6 open-channel flow( , ), they have only recently been used to measure turbine dis­ charge(l). There are certain advantages in using radioisotopes for these measure­ ments, such as speed, sensitivity, and cost, but there are also disadvantages inherent in the very nature of radioactivity itself. The principle proposed herein, radio-release analysis, has most of the advantages of radioactivity, but does not have the disadvantages associated with use of radioactive isotopes in field experi­ ments. Radio-release analysis is a technique of analysis which detects stable ions (or compounds) by their ability to release radioactive species from a second physical or chemical phase. For the problem under discussion the principle of radio-release analysis can be illustrated by reference to work carried out for measuring traces of dichromate ion in open streams(8). The collected sample containing (non-radio­ active) dichromate ion is made pH 1-2 with H2so4 and then reacted with radioactive metal. The dichromate ion oxidizes silver according to the following equation:

Radioactive silver ions are released into solution in stoichiometric proportion to the initial concentration of dichromate ions. By counting the resulting radioactive solution and comparing it with a standard solution it is possible to compute the original dichromate concentration. Using the radio-release technique one can attain almost the sensitivity of in situ radioactivity procedures without introducing radioactivity into the experimental stream. One of the disadvantages of most radio-release procedures developed to date is that they are single sample procedures--that is, they have not been designed for continuous stream analysis. (The one continuous measurement radio-release method-­ for dissolved (9) __ cannot be used here.) As the salt dilution technique is presently used for turbine rating studies, continuous analysis is not a necessity, but it would be very convenient and would add to the accuraty of the measurement. The choice of tracer to be injected into the penstocks is critical. From a listing of the properties of the tracer, it must be concluded that the choice is limited. The major properties are as follows: The tracer must be 1. a stable oxidizing agent, 2. relatively nontoxic, 3. harmless to the turbine machinery, 4. inexpensive, and 5. very soluble in cold water. If the detection sensitivity is 1 ppm, then the tracer, for the above-listed properties, is limited to nitrate, dichromate, and chlorate, with fluoride included because of its special properties in reacting with tantalum, (to be discussed below).

- 2 - The radio-release technique of analysis can be much more sensitive than this--at least 10 fold--so that other oxidizing agents, such as iodate, permanganate, and peroxydisulfate may then be considered. Again the advantage of the radio-release method of analysis over conventional radiometric methods should be emphasized--radioactivity is not added as tracer to the stream flow being measured. Only after samples of the stream have been collected is radioactivity used in the analysis. And since radioactivity is so easy to detect, the sensitivity of the technique surpasses that of conventional methods. However, although there may seem to be only a few tracers to choose from, there are several radioactive metals which may react with each of these, with the result that there may be many possible systems to use. The first reaction which will be investigated will be that between fluoride ion and tantalum metal. Tantalum is inert to almost all concentrated acids and dilute bases . The best solvent for the metal is a mixture of nitric, sulfuric, and hydro­ fluoric acids . Whereas other acids can be used, a necessary component of all acidic mixtures for dissolving tantalum is the fluoride ion. Therefore, a possible radio­ release procedure is the one using sodium fluoride as the tracer and radioactive tantalum as the "detector." The equation for the reaction is probably as follows:

The fluotantalate ion is very soluble, and Ta 182 which would be used can be obtained in very high specific activity. Its half life of 115 days and its gamma emissions of up to 1.2 Mev energy make it very convenient to use. A continuous procedure is conceivable by metering the sample stream and acid through a Ta 182 column measuring the radioactivity in the effluent. This activity will be directly proportional to the fluoride ion concentration of the sample stream. Another reaction which may be adapted to a continuous technique is that previously described, the dichromate-silver metal system. The reaction takes place only in acid solution, but the sample and acid can be metered simultaneously and continuously. The possible complication of chloride interference can be minimized by use of thiourea or its derivatives(lO). The same tracer may be used with other radioactive species. , , , , and , all have desirable nuclear properties, but their chemical properties for application to the radio-release system must be investigated. These can all react with the tracers discussed previously, chlorate, iodate, etc., so that there is a good possibility for development of a continuous radio-release procedure.

3 III. Proposed Work The work to be performed in this project will be confined to a study of the chemical procedure and analytical measurements only. Tracer injection and sampling problems are being investigated by the Government and are not part of the proposed program. 1. The following systems will be examined first to determine their suitability as radio-release systems for turbine ratings: a) Fluoride ion-tantalum b) Dichromate ion-silver c) Dichromate ion-7irconium, hafnium. A further examination of one or more of the following systems will be made if those in a) through c) do not prove satisfactory. d) Dichromate ion-?inc, cadmium e) Chlorate ion-silver, zirconium, hafnium, zinc, cadmium, indium f) Peroxydisulfate ion--all metals as in e) above g) Iodate ion--all metals in e) above 2. Depending upon the results of 1 above, the best technique will be incorporated into an experimental radio-release analytical system. 3. A suitable field test of the prototype system will be carried out at a site to be mutually determined by the Bureau of Reclamation and the Institute. The Bureau of Reclamation will be responsible for injection and sampling operations of the tracer; RTI will be responsible for analyses.

IV. Project Leader and Personnel Dr. H. G. Richter will be project leader for the program, and will be assisted by Mr. A. s. Gillespie, Jr. Resumes are included. These personnel responsible for the project are well qualified since they have pioneered the radio-release technique of analysis. In addition, the facilities in the Measurement and Controls Laboratory at RT! include all the anticipated instrumentation with exception of the metering pumps.

V. RT! Qualifications General Research Triangle Institute is a contract research organization serving government, industry, and foundations. It was created in 1958 as a non-profit, public service corporation by academic, governmental, and industrial leaders throughout the state of North Carolina.

4 The Institute has developed active programs in physics, chemistry, statistics and mathematics, engineering, operations analysis, and economics; organized into eight multi-disciplinary groups: Measurement and Controls Operations Research and Laboratory Economics Division Natural Products Laboratory Radiation Systems Laboratory Statistics Research Division Geophysics Laboratory Solid State Laboratory Camille Dreyfus Laboratory ( (for polymer research) The Research Triangle is a geographic feature of central North Carolina formed by three of the nation's leading universities; Duke University in Durham, North Carolina State University at Raleigh, and The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. These schools have 22,000 students, over 3,000 of them in graduate work. The faculties include about a thousand active research people, with interests that cover nearly every active research subject in engineering, mathematics, and the physical, biological, and social sciences. Their libraries, cross-catalogued and shared for over thirty years, hold more than two and one-half million volumes. Their facilities include nuclear reactors, particle accelerators, wind tunnels, high-speed computers, low- and high-temperature laboratories, and an impressive array of general purpose and specialized equipment. Two-thirds of the Institute's staff is professionally trained, an unusually high percentage. About half of the professional staff members hold the Ph.D. degree. Total staff, including support personnel, is now at the 260-man level. University Affiliation Half of the seats on the Institute's Board of Governors are held by officials of the universities. Extensive liaison between the universities and the Institute has resulted in close coordination of research programs. This liaison, with whole­ hearted participation by faculty members, has made RTI a uniquely university-oriented organization. The Institute operates completely independently with its own full-time research and administrative staff, but draws on the talents of the university faculties, particularly in the planning aspects of research. A number of Institute programs are oriented toward applications, as compared with the more basic studies of the universities. University physicists, engineers, and mathematicians make fundamental contributions serving as consultants to the Institute. Facilities Four permanent buildings have been erected by the Institute on its 200-acre campus in the Research Triangle Park, providing 83,500 square feet for laboratories and offices. In addition, the Institute owns a 13,000 square foot laboratory near the Park.

5 RTI's capital investment in buildings and equipment is approximately $2.5 million. RTI has an excellent complement of standard laboratory equipment and will continue to make further capital investments to accommodate the needs of clients. Cognizant Agencies The Institute's cognizant administrative contracl{ng office is the Defense Contract Administration Services Office, c/o Western Electric Company, Inc., 204 Graham-Hopedale Road, Burlington, North Carolina 27216. Accounting and purchasing practices are audited by the Branch Manager, Atlanta Branch, Defense Contract Audit Agency, Atlanta Region, 3100 Maple Drive, N. E., Atlanta, Georgia 30305. RTI has held a top secret facility clearance since July 5, 1961. Its clearance may be verified through Atlanta Contract Management District, Atlanta Industrial Security Branch Office, 3100 Maple Drive, N. E., Atlanta, Georgia 30305.

VI. Estimated Time and Costs The project is estimated to require one calendar year of work. The estimated cost is $26,202, as detailed on the attached sheet.

6 Estimate of Costs

I. Direct. La b or -l/

Professional Staff $7,779 Technicians 3,474 Support (Secretarial and Drafting) 329

TOTAL DIRECT LABOR $11,582

II. Overhead (90% of I) ll $10,424

III. Direct Charges

Consumable Supplies and Services Chemicals and glassware $ 400 Radioisotopes 400 Pumps 400 Jigs and fixture 300 Report Reproduction 162 Communication and Shipping 50 Travel and Subsistence 1,009

TOTAL DIRECT CHARGES $ 2,721

IV. Fixed Fee $1,475

V. Estimated Contract Price $26,202

]) Included in direct labor are all salary-based costs such as Social Security taxes, contributions to all employee benefit plans, and vacation and sick pay. The rate of 13.5 per cent of salaries has been provisionally set through September 30, 1966, and is subject to audit and negotiation.

( Overhead (including all departmental and general and administrative costs, use charge in lieu of depreciation, depreciation and amortization) has been provisionally set at 90 per cent of direct labor through September 30, 1966, and is subject to audit and negotiation (Federal Procurement Regulations 1-15.2).

7 References

1. N, R. Gibson, "The Gibson Method and Apparatus for Measuring the Flow of Water in Closed Conduits," Trans. Am. Soc. Mech. Engineers 45, 343 (1923).

2. C. M. Allen and E. A. Taylor, "The Salt Velocity Method of Water Measurement," Ibid 45, 285 (1923) •

3. 0. M. Corbett et al., "Stream Gaging Procedures," U. S. Geol. Surv. Paper No. 888 (1945).

4. E. A. Spencer and J, S. Tudhope, "A Literature Survey of the Salt-Dilution Method of Flow-Measurement," J. Inst. Water Engineers 11., (2), 127 (1958).

5. C, G. Clayton et al., "The Accurate Measurement of Turbulent Flow in Pipes Using Radioisotopes," Procedures of the Symposium on Flow Measurement in Closed Conduits, Glasgow, Scotland, H. M. Stationery Office, 1960.

6. D. E. Hull, "A New Principle in Flow Measurements," Int. J. App. Rad. and Isotopes!, 1 (1958).

7, B. J, Frederick, ''Measurement of Turbine Discharge with Radioisotopes," U.S. Geol. Survey, Report TEl-855 (1964).

8. H. G. Richter and A. S. Gillespie, Jr., "Radio Release Determination of Dichromate Ion in Natural Water,"Anal. Chem. 37, 1146 (1965).

9. H. G. Richter and A. S. Gillespie, Jr. 1 "Radiometric Determination of Dissolved .,. Oxygen in Water," Anal, Chem. 34, 1116 (1962) •

10, A. S. Gillespie, Jr. and H. G. Richter, "Radio Release Determination of in Water," Anal. Chem. 36, 2473 (1964).

8 HAROLD G. RIClITER, Senior Radiochemist, Measurement and Controls Laboratory

Degrees

B. A., Chemistry, Franklin College, 1947 M.Sc., Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1950 Ph.D., Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1952

Technical Expe.rience

1959 - date. Research Triangle Institute. Directing research in chemical analytical techniques, radioactivity counting techniques and applications

V of nuclear techniques to industrial and research problems.

1955 - 1959. Nuclear Science and Engineering Corporation, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. He helped develop new methods of radiochemical analysis, gained experience in low-level radioactivity techniques, and helped in the detailed planning of technical programs.

1954 - 1955. U. S. Naval Radiological Defense Laboratory, San Francisco, California. All of the work here is classified. It was concerned principally with radiochemical analyses and weapons tests.

1952 - 1954. University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon. Instructor, Department of Chemistry. He gave courses in advanced inorganic chemistry, in instru­ mental analysis, and special readings for graduate students.

1948 - 1952. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts. The Ph.D. degree required a detailed knowledge of radiochemical analytical techniques. At the same time, it afforded an opportunity to work with the high-energy accelerators then available at MIT (linear accelerator, synchrotron and cyclotron).

1947 - 1948. Junior Physicist, Argonne National Laboratory. Working with Dr. N. Sugarman, several short-lived fission products of , , and cesium were discovered and characterized.

Professional and Honorary Societies

American Chemical Society, .American Association for the Ac·vancement of Science, American Nuclear Society, Sigma Xi

· Publications

Note on the "Natural Radioactivity of " Physical Review 73, 1411 (1948). "Short-Lived Fission Products II cs13 9 and cs140n, Journal of Chemical Physics .!.§, 174 (1950) . 235 "Low-Energy Photofission Yields for U ", Physical Review 95, 1550 (1954). "Yields of Photonuclear Reactions with 320 Mev X-rays I Experimental Results." Physical Review 2]_, 1325 (1955). "Yields of Photonuclear Reactions with 320 Mev X-rays II Interpretation of Results . " Physical Review 21., 1327 (1955). "Construction and Operating Characteristics of Flexible Geiger Counters," Nuclear Electronics I, p. 339, International Atomic Energy Agency, 1962. "Thallium-204 Radiometric Determination of Dissolved Oxygen in Water", Anal. Chem. 34, 1116 (1962). "Flexible GeigerCounter." U.S. Patent 3, llO, 835, November 12, 1963. "Radio Release Determination of Vanadium in Water," Anal. Chem. 36, no. 13, 2473 (1964). "Radio Release Determination of Dichromate Ion in Natural Water," Anal. Chem. ]]._, 1146 (1965). ARTHURS. GILLESPIE, JR., Chemist

Degrees B. S., Chemistry, Wake Forest College, 1953 M.A., Physical Chemistry, Duke University, 1955 Additional Special Training, Oak Ridge Institute of Nuclear Studies, the University of New Mexico, and the University of Pittsburgh. Technical Experience 1961 to date. Research Triangle Institute. Chemist in the Radiochemical section of Measurement and Controls Laboratory. Research has included development in radiochemical techniques in analytical chemistry. 1956 to 1961. Alcoa Research Laboratories, New Kensington, Pennsylvania. Research Engineer, Radiochemical Laboratory, Physical Chemistry Division. Was project leader in a fundamental study of hydrogen behavior in aluminum using tritium as a tracer. 1955 to 1956. Sandia Corporation, Albuquerque, New Mexico. Staff member (Electrochemist), Battery Development Division. Helped develop and physically test batteries. 1953 to 1955. Duke University. M.A. thesis research was a study of the moving electrolyte potentials associated with the high temperature oxygen electrode and the development of a stable, reversible electrode for measuring free energies of formation for metal oxides (corrosion potentials) in molten salts. Held research and teaching assistantships. 1951 to 1953 . Wake Forest College. Held teaching assistantships in the chemistry and physics departments. Professional Societies American Chemical Society American Electrochemical Society Publications "Electrochemical Measurement of Oxide Formation," J. Electrochem. Soc. 105, No. 7, 408 (1958). "Use of Tritium Tracer for the Determination of Hydrogen in Aluminum," Anal. Chern. 11_, 1624 (1960). "Sensitivities for Activation Analysis with 14-MEV Neutrons," Nucleonics 12., No. 11, 170 (1961). "Thalliurn-204 Radiometric Analysis of Dissolved Oxygen in Water," Anal. Chem. 34, 1116 (1962). "Techniques for the Tritium Autoradiographic Study of Hydrogen in Aluminum," Nucleonics, 11, No. 4, 53-5 (1963). "Flexible Geiger Counter," U.S. Patent No. 3, 110, 835, November 12, 1963. "A Single Crystal Converter Covering Three Bands," QST 44, No. 6, 34 (1960). "A Radio Release Technique for Tracing Surface Water," Trans. Am. Nuclear Soc., 2_, No. 2, 273 (1962). "Radio Release Determination of Vanadium in Water," Anal. Chem. 36, No. 13, 2473 (1964). "Radio Release Determination of Dichromate Ion in Natural Water," Anal. Chern. 37, No. 9, 1146 (1965). "A Radio Release Instrument for Dissolved Oxygen Analysis," Proc. Anal. Instru­ mentation Div., Instrument Soc. of America Meeting, Montreal, May 1965.

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