GEOSCIENCE CANADA Volume 34 Numbers 3/4 September/December 2007 113

SERIES

through persistence and belief in the construction and management provid- project (a common theme in modern ed by Granby. The operation closed exploration), it was explored and permanently when the copper market brought into production in 1914 by was decimated by the Great Depres- Granby Consolidated Mining, Smelting sion, and whatever was salvageable was and Power Co., Ltd. A large, modern dismantled and shipped out. and self-sufficient town was built Since then, the area has seen around the mine to accommodate, and episodic exploration activities and care for, a large work force and their received scientific studies that have led families, which reached a population of to a modern understanding of the geo- over 2500. Two electrical generating logical setting and origin of the Anyox Great Mining Camps of powerhouses were built, one coal fired copper deposits. The mafic volcanic and the other hydroelectric, to operate and sedimentary host rocks at Anyox Canada 2. the mine, mill and smelter complex are assigned to the Upper Triassic to The History and Geology of that produced blister copper (~99% Upper Jurassic Hazelton and Bowser purity). Over 21.73 million tonnes of Lake groups, respectively. The massive the Anyox Copper Camp, copper ore, at an average recovered sulfide lenses are volcanogenic massive grade of 1.68% Cu, 10.8 g/t Ag and sulfide (VMS) deposits that originally British Columbia 0.20 g/t Au, were treated and smelted formed at, or near the palaeo seafloor, between 1914 and 1935 to produce by hydrothermal processes. The 1 2 Ross Sherlock and Julie Domvile 321 546 tonnes of copper, 206 309 kg hydrothermal system was long-lived (6.6 million oz) of silver, and 3773 kg and precipitated sulfides mainly at the SUMMARY (121 300 oz) of gold. Considering the stratigraphic contact between the mafic The Anyox copper mining camp remoteness of the mine and the tech- volcanic and sedimentary host rocks, played a key role in the early develop- nologies available at the time, this was although some sulfides also occur in ment of northwestern British Colum- a remarkable achievement and an indi- the immediate footwall and hanging- bia. It was discovered in 1889 and cation of the quality of engineering, wall of this contact. An interval of

1Ross Sherlock* Ross Sherlock completed his Ph.D. in 1993 at the University of Waterloo studying the McLaughlin gold mine in California. This was fol- lowed by a post-doctoral fellowship at the Mineral Deposit Research Unit at the University of British Columbia working on volcanogenic massive sulfide deposits in the Canadian Cordillera, including the Anyox deposits. Following this, Ross has worked in the exploration, consulting and government geoscience sectors nationally and internationally. Ross is a director of the Mineral Deposits Division of the Geological Association of Canada, a Councillor for Industry with the Society of Economic Geologists and a member of the editorial board for the Journal of Economic Geologists. In 2003 he was awarded the William Harvey Gross award, by the Mineral Deposits Divi- sion of the Geological Association of Canada, for contributions to the field of economic geology in a Canadian context.

*Current address Gold Field Exploration [email protected]

2Julie Domvile Julie Domvile is a freelance writer who has been writing articles for the mineral exploration and mining sector for many years. She is a regular contributor to Mineral Exploration, the quarterly publication of the Association for Mineral Exploration BC (AME BC). Julie is currently working on a book to commemorate the first 100 years of AME BC’s history. [email protected] 114 cherty sedimentary rocks marks the la Grande Dépression, alors que le prix steamships operating along the stormy contact and serves as an important du marché du cuivre s'est effondré, ce BC coast; it produced copper concen- stratigraphic marker for further explo- complexe minier a été fermé et tout ce trates for 22 years, from 1914 until ration. The stratigraphic setting, qui en valait la peine a été démantelé et 1935, from two of four known hydrothermal alteration, style of min- transporté ailleurs. deposits. In spite of its isolation, the eralization and geochemistry of the Depuis lors, la région a été quality of life at the mine was surpris- mafic volcanic rocks are all consistent l'objet d'activité d'exploration et de ingly high; in fact, it was probably with the deposit having formed in a recherches scientifiques épisodiques, ce much better than that experienced by sediment-covered, spreading-ridge set- qui a permis d'en tirer une compréhen- most of the employees before they ting, such as Middle Valley on the sion moderne de son cadre géologique arrived, or later during the Great northern Juan de Fuca Ridge, off the et de l'origine des gisements de cuivre Depression. coast of British Columbia. It is note- d'Anyox. Les roches hôtes d'Anyox worthy that the Hazelton Group also des Groupes de Hazelton et du lac Location and Access hosts the famous Eskay Creek gold Bowser sont des volcaniques mafiques Anyox is situated at sea level, 145 km deposit, which is about 200 km north et sédimentaires datant respectivement north of Prince Rupert near the head of Anyox. Eskay Creek is a precious du Triassique supérieur et du Juras- of Observatory Inlet, an arm of Port- metal-rich variant of the VMS family sique supérieur. Les gisements de land Canal, which is the most northerly and correlations between Anyox and lentilles de sulfures massifs sont des fiord on the British Columbia coast Eskay Creek may stimulate additional sulfures massifs volcanogéniques (Figs. 1, 2). The Portland Canal, which phases of exploration and possibly fur- (SMV) qui se sont formés à l'origine is located 17 km west of the mine, ther chapters in the history of Anyox. près ou sur le fond océanique par des forms the International Boundary processus hydrothermaux. Ce système between BC and the Alaska Panhandle SOMMAIRE hydrothermal qui a fonctionné (Fig. 2). The mine site is situated at Le camp minier cuprifère d'Anyox a longtemps a précipité des sulfures prin- 55° 26’ N and 129° 49’ W, within NTS joué un rôle clé dans le développement cipalement au contact stratigraphique map-sheet 103P/05W. Prior to the du Nord-Ouest de la Colombie-Britan- des roches volcaniques avec les roches introduction of float-equipped aircraft nique. Découvert en 1889, il a été mis sédimentaires hôtes, mais on trouve on the northern coast, it was accessible en production en 1914 par la Granby aussi des sulfures à proximité immédi- only by boat. Consolidated Mining, Smelting and ate du toit et du plancher de ce con- The district lies within a tem- Power Co. Ltd., après qu'on y eut tact. Un intervalle de roches sédimen- perate rainforest and snow is rare at investi une bonne dose de foi et de taire siliceuses constitue un important sea level, but accumulates at higher ele- persistance (thème très actuel de l'ex- marqueur stratigraphique. Le contexte vations where the mine is located. The ploration contemporaine). Une grande stratigraphique, l'altération hydrother- area is within the Boundary Range of ville moderne et autosuffisante a été male, le style de la minéralisation et la the Coast mountains that are character- construite autour de la mine permet- géochimie des roches volcaniques ized by craggy ridges and broad U- tant d'y accueillir et de répondre aux mafiques sont autant de facteurs sou- shaped glaciated valleys. The highest besoins d'une main-d'œuvre consid- tenant l'hypothèse d'un gisement ayant point in the area is Mount Clashmore érable et de leurs familles, une popula- été formé en milieu de crête de fond at 5509 ft (1675 m) which is approxi- tion qui a atteint 2 500 personnes. océanique migrante recouverte de sédi- mately 10 km northwest of Anyox. Deux centrales électriques y ont été ments, comme celle de Middle Valley The tree line is at ~3000 ft (~900 m) construites, l'une au charbon et l'autre de la portion nord de la crête de Juan having mainly pine and alder growth hydraulique. Ces deux centrales per- de Fuca, au large de la côte de Colom- following a devastating fire in 1942. mettaient d'alimenter la mine, l'usine de bie-Britannique. On notera avec traitement et la fonderie, un complexe intérêt que les roches du Groupe de Sources of Information permettant de produire du cuivre à Hazelton sont aussi les roches hôtes du Much of the geological information soufflures d'une pureté de 99 % envi- fameux gisement d'or d'Eskay Creek, has been taken from government-fund- ron. Plus de 21,73 millions de tonnes situé à environ 200 km au nord d'Any- ed geoscience publications, both de minerai de cuivre - à des teneurs ox. Le gisement d'Eskay Creek est une provincial (Carter and Grove 1972; moyennes de 1,68 % de Cu, 10,8 g/t variante riche en métaux précieux de la Grove 1986; Alldrick 1986, 2000) and d'Ag et 0,20 g/t d'Au - y ont été famille de la famille des SMV, et toutes federal (Evenchick and Holm 1997; traitées entre 1914 et 1935, ce qui a corrélations établies entre Anyox et Evenchick et al. 1997; Evenchick and donné 321 546 tonnes de cuivre, 206 Eskay Creek pourraient relancer McNicoll 2001). Three graduate theses 309 kg (6,6 millions d'onces) d'argent, d'autres épisodes d'exploration, et have been completed on the deposit et 3 773 kg (121 000 onces) d'or. Con- ajouter d'autres chapitres à l'histoire and surrounding area by Macdonald sidérant l'éloignement de la mine et les d'Anyox. (1999), Smith (1986) and Sharp (1980). technologies disponibles alors, les Most recently, between 1993 and 1995, résultats obtenus sont tout à fait INTRODUCTION the area was the subject of a research remarquable et l'indication de la qualité Anyox is a quintessential example of a program by the Mineral Deposit de l'ingénierie, de la construction et de remote mine and company town, one Research Unit of the University of la gestion de Granby. Au moment de that was serviced entirely by coastal British Columbia, which supported the GEOSCIENCE CANADA Volume 34 Numbers 3/4 September/December 2007 115 research of Rob Macdonald (Macdon- ald et al. 1996). The area has under- gone episodic phases of exploration and development since 1900 with numerous prospectors, geologists and miners contributing observations to the geology and mineral deposits.

HISTORY OF EXPLORATION AND DEVELOPMENT Anyox is now a ghost town, one of many that reflect the boom-and-bust scenario of British Columbia’s early mining history. These were remote, single economy company towns or public boom-towns that sprang up with the development of a mine and faded into obscurity when the ore was gone. In the case of remote mines, the mine owner was generally forced to provide most of the services to the community. Anyox is a classic example of a company town. For a quarter of a century (1911-1936), it existed as a world unto itself. It grew, it thrived and it died in relative obscurity despite the fact, that at its heyday, it had a popula- tion of approximately 2500 people. Observatory Inlet (Fig. 2) was the traditional hunting and trapping Figure 1. Location of the Anyox area in British Columbia. Shown for reference are grounds of the Nisga’a Indians of the Vancouver, Prince Rupert, Stewart and Juneau, Alaska. Also shown are some other Nass Valley. Their lore included refer- VMS deposits, namely Granduc, Eskay Creek, Tulsequah Chief, and Windy Craggy. ence to a golden mountain adjacent to the inlet, just the sort of lure to draw E. Donohue and an Indian named Estates. Development work ensued gold-hungry prospectors. In late May, Albert Allen, I ascended Bonanza that summer but the options were 1889, John Flewin, Resident Mining Creek, Goose Bay, where I had found dropped after a visit by the Daly Estate Recorder for BC’s north coast, and the piece of float in 1889, and on the geologist. Flewin had trouble raising Charles Todd, an Indian Agent for 19th of the month discovered and more capital, but he was able to form a Northern BC, ventured into Goose located the large body of ore on the company, Hidden Creek Copper Co., Bay (now known as Granby Bay). “Bonanza” mineral claim at the junc- in June 1905, which raised $50 000. Flewin discovered a piece of promising tion of Bonanza and Mineral Creeks” Unfortunately, the company was forced looking chalcopyrite float, a possible (Flewin 1924). The news of a possible to put the property up for sale by indicator that a copper deposit was not copper discovery caught the attention 1908. Rodgers, who had remained far away. In his words, “Subsequently I of copper baron Marcus Daly, from steadfast in his belief in the merits of grub-staked two or three prospectors Butte, Montana, one of the founders Hidden Creek, and T. Hodgins, a min- to prospect the Observatory Inlet of the giant Anaconda Copper Mining ing financier who was also from Butte, country, not only Goose Bay but also Company. Daly died in 1900 but his purchased the property for $135 000. Hastings Arm, and Maple Bay on Port- scout, M.K. Rodgers visited the prop- Rodgers and Hodgins “continued land Canal (Fig. 2). Mr. Todd declined erty with Flewin in 1901 and negotiat- development work on a large scale to go into the venture with me as he ed an 18-month option with Flewin on until 1910” (Flewin 1924). Initial devel- said, “even if we discovered a large behalf of Daly Estates for $45 000. opment work generated enough excite- body of ore it would be impossible to Rodgers was later the guiding force ment to interest the Granby Consoli- do anything with it for years to come, behind the early development of the dated Mining, Smelting and Power Co., unless it was a gold proposition” Nickel Plate Mine in the Hedley, B.C. which purchased Hodgins’ 80% inter- (Flewin 1924). Flewin and Todd did mining camp. est in the property for $600 000, in not find the source of the float on that Flewin returned to the area in spite its remoteness; Rodgers retained trip but Flewin was sufficiently 1901 with some experienced prospec- his 20%. intrigued to plan a return trip. tors and discovered the Hidden Creek Granby was the largest pro- “In May 1900, in company group of ore bodies (Fig. 3, # 8), ducer of copper in the province. Its with my eldest son, H.C. Flewin, and which were also bonded to Daly smelter at Grand Forks, fed by the 116

between 190 and 275 m above sea level. “The mine was opened by six tunnels and fifty thousand feet of dia- mond drilling was done prior to and contemporaneously with the first tun- nel work” (Dunn 1924). It was heavy, dark and dangerous work. “Initially, the miners used candles for light as they manoeuvred their heavy drills to tunnel into the ore bodies. In 1914, the min- ers switched to carbide lamps that they purchased themselves, while the com- pany supplied the fuel. In 1916, lighter and more versatile drills were put into operation” (Griffin 2002). By 1918, 11 300 m of drifting and raising, and over 29 200 m of diamond drilling (surface and underground) had been completed (Bancroft 1918; Fig. 5). The hub of the town was a broad wooden dock about 15-m wide and 400-m long that stretched around the waterfront like a giant veranda (Fig. 4). A 1923 newspaper clipping indicat- ed that the Union Steamship Co. of B.C. Ltd. had a weekly sailing from Vancouver to Ocean Falls, Swanson Bay, Prince Rupert, Anyox, and Alice Figure 2. Generalized geology of the Observatory Inlet area (after Carter and Arm, departing from the Union Dock Grove 1972). Inset shows location of Figure 3. at the foot of Carrall Street, Vancou- ver, every Friday at 9 pm. These ships, Phoenix Mine, was one of the most ideal for accommodating deep-sea carrying passengers and freight, efficient processors of low-grade cop- freighters. brought the outside world to the isolat- per ore in the world. With that mine During the development of ed souls of Anyox. The mine and nearing the end of its life, Granby Anyox, Lady Luck did not just smile docks were linked by 32 tonne steam needed to find a replacement. After on the company, she beamed. Every- and electric locomotives operating on searching throughout BC, Washington thing the company touched seemed to three kilometres of railway. Up to 5400 State and Western Canada, the compa- have a hidden bonus and in one case, tonnes of ore were hauled from the ny concluded that the Hidden Creek literally turned into a pot of gold. Dur- mine to the concentrator near the deposit was its best bet. In 1911, ing the removal of a small island to waterfront each day, in 75 ore cars, Granby christened the new community widen and deepen the harbour, blasting powered by the energy provided from Anyox, an anglicized version of the exposed a quartz vein that contained the hydro dam and coal fired genera- Nisga’a word Anyoose, meaning “hid- enough gold to yield a profit of $3 tors. “The docks were fitted with over- den water”. million, enough to pay for the entire head travelling cranes and huge der- If a mining company had to cost of building the town and process- ricks as well as three travelling ore face the challenge of building an ing facilities. This vein and several sim- bunkers. They ran around the harbour entirely self-sufficient mine, concentra- ilar quartz veins nearby proved to be wall to the coke plant where coal was tor, smelter and town in a remote site perfect flux, an essential ingredient in turned into hot fuel for the smelter on the northern coast of British the smelting process. Later, a layer of and the production lit the skies red Columbia, the physical setting of bluish clay, encountered while digging each night as the coke came out of the Observatory Inlet was close to perfec- sewers for the town, was recognized as furnaces” (Loudon 1973). The docks tion. Beyond the quiet waters of the the rare type suitable for lining retorts were large enough to berth three or inlet was a wide square valley ringed by and furnaces in the smelter. Until that four deep-sea freighters and coastal thickly forested hills, which in turn moment, Granby had been forced to passenger vessels simultaneously were surrounded by mountains. The import this clay from the eastern Unit- (Fig. 6). combination of the rugged mountains ed States at great expense. The need for power at any and the region’s robust rainfall provid- Development work began in mine is great and a lack of affordable ed excellent potential for hydroelectric 1911 on the orebodies, which cropped power has high-centred more than one power generation and the harbour, out about 2.5 km north of the wharf mighty deposit in this vast country. which had exceptionally high tides, was on Granby Bay (Figs. 3, 4), and Anyox was blessed with the natural GEOSCIENCE CANADA Volume 34 Numbers 3/4 September/December 2007 117

Figure 3. Generalized geology of the eastern part of the Anyox Pendant, after Alldrick (2000). Inset shows loca- tion of Figure 14. Numbered deposits are as follows: 1, Arcadia, Si, Ag, Au showing; 2, XLR8, Si, Ag, Au showing; 3, Emma, Cu showing; 4, Deadwood, Cu showing; 5, Quartz, Cu, Ag, Au, Pb, Zn, prospect; 6, North Hidden Creek, Cu, Ag, Au, Pb, Zn, past pro- ducer; 7, Hillside, Cu, showing; 8, Hid- den Creek, Cu, Ag, Au, Pb, Zn, past producer; 9, Cedar, Si, Ag, Au, show- ing; 10, Cd, Si, Fe; 11, Double Ed, Cu, Zn, deposit; 12, Rambler, Si, Ag, Au past producer; 13, Homestake, Si, Ag, Au showing; 14, Bonanza, Cu, Ag, Au, Zn, past producer; 15, Redwing, Cu, Ag, Au, Zn, deposit; 16, Quartz mountain, Si, Au, showing; 17, Black Bear, Cu, Mo, showing; 18, May-Beat- rice, Si, Au, Ag, Zn, Pb, Cu past pro- ducer; 19, Groundhog, Si, Au, Ag, Pb, past producer; 20, Goldleaf, Au, Ag, Zn, Pb, prospect; 21, Nabob, Si, Ag, Au, showing; 22, Reserve, Si, Au, Ag, Pb, Zn, Cu, past producer; 23, Granby Point, Si, Au, Ag, Pb, Zn, Cu, past producer; 24, Goldkeish, Si, Au, Ag, Zn, Pb, past producer; 25, Aplite, Cu, Au, Ag, Zn, Pb, showing; 26, Rainy Cu, Au, Ag, Zn, Pb, showing; 27, Lookout, Si, Fe, showing; 28, Moly Mack Mo showing.

ond larger dam of reinforced concrete to increase the capacity of the reser- voir by about 28 100 acre-feet. This enabled the installation of an extra power unit consisting of a 5000 HP Pelton water wheel that was directly coupled to a 4300 KW generator. The dam was an Eastwood multiple-arched type (27 arches) with a length of 208 m and a maximum height of 42 m, which was built upon rock foundations (Fig. 7). The installation of four siphonic spillways to ensure rapid dis- attributes that made power generation initially, Granby engineers built a rock- charge of water during a flood was a relatively easy. Anyox Creek drains a filled wooden structure 52-m long and notable feature. The powerhouse was catchment area of approximately 125 40-m wide about 4.5 km upstream built at the mouth of Anyox Creek on square kilometres and is fed by a com- from the mouth of Anyox Creek (Fig. Granby Bay (Fig. 8). A steam plant, bination of glacial meltwater and 3). The reservoir was capable of stor- with a capacity of about 6000 HP, was runoff from the mountains that rim ing sufficient water to operate about also installed to supplement hydropow- the catchment basin. For its final few 10 000 HP of water wheels, which er shortages due to low-water condi- kilometres, the creek flows through a drove various air compressors, blowers, tions during winter months. It was winding canyon that contains several electrical generators and sundry fired by coal gas generated at the cok- rapids and waterfalls. To provide power pumps. Granby later constructed a sec- ing plant, together with tar from the 118

Figure 4. Anyox from the sea. a) Survey plan of Anyox townsite, circa 1920 (BC Archives photo C-09036); b) Panorama of Anyox looking northwest in 1917, with the wharves on the right and the smelter on the left, identified by the smoke (Leonard Frank photo, Vancouver Public Library VPL 14382). same source (Dunn 1924). After the centrator was built. They earned of 35 machinists and helpers” (Loudon mine was closed in 1935, the concrete between $3.25 and $6.40 per day. 1973). The calibre of the craftsmen arch storage dam was breached in sev- The high side of town (Figs. employed at Anyox was extremely high eral places to allow water to flow 4a, 9a) was where the white-collar and, in terms of apprentice training, through and prevent the dam being workers lived. The top brass had the the machine shop was considered one overtopped. largest homes, while those involved in of the finest industrial schools on the There were two distinct parts running the business aspect of the west coast. “Certainly the machine to the town: the flats adjacent to Hid- mine, the shop keepers, and plant shop was huge even by today’s stan- den Creek and the slope to the west workers, lived with their families in row dards. It had 13 lathes and two planers, (Fig. 4a). Most of the mine workers, upon row of two-story houses, all vir- an 18 tonne overhead crane, a shaper primarily single men, lived in two very tually identical (Fig. 9d). The lack of and a milling machine. The shop man- large bunkhouses, located on the flats individuality was made up for by the ufactured 90 % of the parts required between the smelter, machine shop fact that the level of accommodation by the whole Anyox operation. The complex and the mine. These provided by Granby was far superior tradesmen who ran it were drawn from bunkhouses were “home” to 300 men. to anything that the workers could the industrial complexes of England, There was a separate bunkhouse for have afforded to buy in a major centre Scotland and continental Europe main- the Chinese workers who cleaned the such as Vancouver. ly and they knew themselves to be bunkhouses, ran the laundry and The crusher, concentrator, masters of their craft” (Loudon 1973). worked in the mess hall. There were smelter and their auxiliary repair shops In 1914, the blast furnace of also three, five-family apartments, occupied the south side of the valley, the 2000 tonne per day smelter was twenty small one-story houses and 12 along with the hydro and steam power ‘blown-in’, signalling the start of pro- two-story, five-room houses. Accord- plants (Figs. 4a, 10a). “The blacksmith duction. The smelter, with its 50 m tall ing to Dolmage (1922), the payroll shop had a crew of 10 while the stack, dominated the landscape (Fig. included 284 labourers from over 15 machine shop, reputed to be the most 9a, top left). Because of the rich grade nationalities in 1922, before the con- up-to-date on the BC coast, had a crew of the ore, the metallurgical process GEOSCIENCE CANADA Volume 34 Numbers 3/4 September/December 2007 119

Figure 5. Drilling and mining. a) Surface diamond drill site using a timber tripod, circa 1920 (Tremaine Collection, courtesy of Sylvia McLean); b) Underground diamond drill set-up, probably in the 1930s. Note the electric lights, the minimal safety equipment, and the foreman’s attire (Tremaine Collection, courtesy of Sylvia McLean); c) Miners underground at the Anyox mine in 1917 (Leonard Frank photo, Vancouver Public Library VPL 14392). consisted of partial pyritic smelting tom ore from other deposits on the grey skeletons of the trees are still visi- without previous roasting or concen- coast of British Columbia and south- ble today above the verdant green of trating (Dolmage 1922). Blister copper eastern Alaska. the returning forest. Seeing the effect (copper in the range of 99% purity) The coking coal required for the fumes had on the vegetation, just was produced by blasting air through Granby’s smelters at Grand Forks and imagine what they did to the lungs and the molten copper to remove impuri- Anyox was shipped in from Fernie, in cardiovascular systems of the workers ties and drive off most of the sulfur as the southeast corner of BC, and from in, and the residents around, the sulfur dioxide. The richest ore near the Union Bay on Vancouver Island. In smelter. The men who worked in the surface was mined first and as the aver- 1919, an extended strike by union smelter were dubbed “gas-eaters”, a age grade gradually dropped, Granby workers at the Fernie coal mines halted term heavy with implication as to the built a concentrator (mill) in 1924 to coking coal shipments to the Phoenix severity of their working conditions. At remove some of the gangue minerals smelters. This interruption to produc- times, the gas was so intense, that the prior to sending the remainder to the tion at the Anyox smelter was the men who operated the loading cranes smelter. In the early years, another impetus behind Granby’s decision to were unable to work more than two product called ‘pyrite ore’ was also expand into coal mining. In 1917, hours at a stretch. At the end of their shipped to market. Granby acquired the Cassidy Coal shifts, they emerged covered in dust, The blister copper was initially Company, south of Nanaimo on Van- spitting and coughing up yellow sulfur. barged to Seattle and then transported couver Island, and operated the Gran- A temperature inversion in by rail to the Nichols Chemical Com- by No.1 Colliery until 1932. Peak pro- 1926 created a fortnight-long fog that pany in New York for refining (Dol- duction was in the early 1920s. trapped the gas at ground level. An mage 1922). Later, Granby production The smelter produced sul- epidemic of nosebleeds was attributed was shipped to a new smelter/refinery furous fumes that literally killed all veg- to the trapped gas. Many residents complex built at Tacoma, Washington. etation in the inlet as far away as Alice stuffed newspaper around the doors The Anyox smelter also processed cus- Arm (Fig. 2). The tips of the silver and windows in an attempt to keep the 120

Figure 6. Anyox wharf. a) View looking west from the east end of the No.1 wharf in 1917 (Leonard Frank photo, Vancouver Public Library VPL 13567); b) View looking northeast from the No. 2 wharf, date unknown (Tracy family collection); c) Crowd waiting at the wharf in 1919 while freight and luggage are loaded from a flatcar for the departure of a Union SS ship to Prince Rupert and Vancouver (Leonard Frank photo, Vancouver Public Library VPL 35576); d) Residents gather at the wharf to meet an incoming passenger ship, date unknown (Tracy family collection). toxic fog from filtering into their measuring stick by which to judge how people fleeing to the harbour. The homes. The furnace discharge was very far the industry has come in terms of town was rebuilt quickly with little visible in the winter after a fresh snow- minimizing its impact on the environ- interruption to production. However, fall. A favourite winter thrill for the ment. Mining operations today should the next big fire drew the curtain on town’s youngsters was to light the not be judged on the practices of a Anyox in 1942 - but more on that later. snow on fire. The housewives planned previous era. Despite its remoteness, Anyox their washdays based on the direction Everyone in Anyox lived with was a fully equipped town with all the of the wind and remained vigilant in a constant dread of fire. The combina- modern amenities available at that monitoring it, in case it shifted and tion of the dead forest that embraced time. It had two hospitals – a small drenched the clean clothes with black the inlet, the wooden plank road sys- emergency hospital near the mine and soot. There was no such thing as a gar- tem that was necessary to traverse the a much larger one in town that was the den, nor was there any wildlife in the spongy muskeg, and the muskeg itself, best equipped and most modern on vicinity as there was neither sustenance which was prone to spontaneous com- the coast north of Vancouver, includ- nor cover. bustion in the summer, created a real, ing three doctors, eighteen beds and As shocking as it is today to and twice-realized, fire hazard. Fire modern x-ray equipment (Fig. 9b). conceive that such environmental buckets, which had round bottoms to Medicare was provided through Gran- destruction took place unchecked, it prevent them from being stolen for by. Medical and surgical care cost must be remembered that environmen- home use, were hung beside 200 litre $1/month for single men and tal regulation was not a consideration water drums along all roads and paths. $2/month for a family. in those days. If one good positive The first fire, in 1923, caused heavy The spiritual needs of the comment can be made regarding the damage, including the loss of the pow- community were also met. There were environmental legacy of mines such as der magazine, which blew up in a spec- Anglican and Catholic churches (Fig. Anyox, it is that it provides a good tacular explosion that had the towns- 4a) as well as another that served both GEOSCIENCE CANADA Volume 34 Numbers 3/4 September/December 2007 121

Figure 7. Hydro dam. a) View from the top of the hydro dam that was constructed circa 1924 (Helen Suarez collection, cour- tesy of Anyox Hydro Electric Company); b) View from the bottom of the hydro dam (Helen Suarez collection, courtesy of Anyox Hydro Electric Company); c) Aerial view looking north over the top of the hydro dam in September, 1978 (courtesy of North Pacific Seaplanes Picture Gallery, Northern Area Pictures [http://northpacificseaplanes.com/]); d) Aerial view looking north at the base of the hydro dam in September, 1978 (courtesy of Tom Schroeter). the Methodist and Presbyterian con- ings had electricity and the streets of graph office, post office, a three-story gregations. The community also had a Anyox were brightly lit on dark winter general store, butcher shop, liquor rather large cemetery, its white crosses nights. The residents of Anyox used a store, and 45-room hotel (Fig. 9c) with brightening one section of the other- unique style of light bulbs in their a three-room library annexed to it. The wise bleak hillside. When there was a homes. In an effort to prevent pilfering schools attracted good teachers and funeral, the coffin was carried through of light bulbs by workers, Granby had offered classes from Grades 1 to 11, the town by pallbearers or on the the word “Stolen” stencilled on the which was the matriculation year in town’s one flatbed truck. The mourn- glass bottoms of all the light bulbs those days. The residents enjoyed a ers walked behind the coffin to the purchased for company use. Some wide choice of sports (Fig. 11) includ- cemetery - a reflection of the Euro- households blatantly displayed the ing ice hockey, tennis and a nine-hole pean heritage of much of the popula- bulbs with the incriminating word golf course that was laid out on the tion. while others went to some effort to smelter slag (which had not a single Graves of veterans were dis- sand the evidence from the glass. blade of grass). In 1934, there was also tinguished by cement helmets, which The quality of life, apart from a taxi service, a government agent who were commissioned by the company. the fumes from the smelter, was quite served as a mining recorder, a branch When the call came for men to fight in high in comparison to the outside of the Bank of Commerce, a Customs WWI, Granby sent 400 workers. Many world. Granby paid the taxes for its office, a drug store, a cafe, a pool hall, of those who survived returned to employees so residents enjoyed a tax- two insurance agents, a dentist and an Anyox and their former jobs; those free life, something most of us just optometrist, a barber shop, two who had lost limbs were given light dream about. The houses all had bath- Masonic Lodges, two Oddfellows duty jobs. rooms and indoor running water, luxu- Lodges, and an Elks Hall (Sun Directo- All the homes, shops, ries at the time. The town boasted its ries 1935). bunkhouses and administration build- own movie theatre, newspaper, tele- Yes, Anyox had it all, including 122

Figure 8. Powerhouse No. 2. a) LLooking west across Falls Creek, with the smelter behind, circa 1920. Note the poor air quality. (Helen Suarez collection, courtesy of Anyox Hydro Electric Company); b) Looking southeast across Granby Bay, with the smelter to the right, circa 1920s. (Helen Suarez collection, courtesy of Anyox Hydro Electric Company); c) Interior view of powerhouse No. 2 in the mid-1920s (BC Archives photo I-52572); d) Looking west across Falls Creek in 1978, with the remains of the smelter stacks behind (courtesy of Tom Schroeter). labour disputes. The first, in 1916 was They were wearing their hard hats and they were confronted by the armed relatively minor but the second, in the walking purposefully in a tight body. police. After some pushing and shov- winter of 1933, marked the beginning They weren’t talking but you could ing the police gave way and the march of the end for Anyox. When the price hear their feet pounding the boards. proceeded. The police arrested those of copper plummeted, along with You could smell their determination as men thought to be involved in the everything else, during the Great they headed past us toward the beach. fight as well as an additional group of Depression, the company insisted on a None of us had seen anything like it. It men suspected of being troublemakers. wage reduction. The miners responded was so ominous that some of the kids These men, upward of 300, were with a strike. This shook the town to verged on tears, scared without know- ordered to leave town but others also its roots. As told by Peter Loudon ing why. At that very moment every- left in a show of support. (1973), a student in Anyox at the time, thing changed for us in Anyox.” Shortly after the dispute, “We were all milling about in the The town had two policemen, Granby posted notices that headquar- schoolyard waiting the bell which a BC provincial police constable and a ters had ordered the mine closed but would line us up to march into classes. company security officer. These two made it known that should a sufficient Suddenly all the fooling around likely felt quite vulnerable so, after that number of men return to work, the stopped and there was a strange first peaceful yet ominous march of mine would continue production. Most silence. All the kids were looking up men, they requested assistance from of the remaining workers chose to the plank road to the mine. All our Prince Rupert. A police launch with a return to work. Hungry men, idled by lives previously that road had been bar- staff sergeant and seven constables the Depression, began arriving in the ren of anything or anyone because arrived, followed by an additional ten town, having heard that jobs were only the jitneys appeared to use it and officers and an inspector. Again the available. It came as a complete shock that was later in the day. But the road miners, unarmed, marched down the to the townspeople, who had been rel- was filled with men, hundreds of men. plank road to the docks but this time atively insulated from the harsh eco- GEOSCIENCE CANADA Volume 34 Numbers 3/4 September/December 2007 123

Figure 9. Anyox townsite circa 1920. a) Looking west toward the smelter (top left), with powerhouse No. 2 below it, and the Granby Hotel and administration buildings in the foreground (bottom right). Two rail lines from the mine are visible, one lead- ing to the smelter and the other to the wharves. Note the dead trees on the hills (Tremaine Collection, courtesy of Sylvia McLean); b) Anyox hospital in 1919 (Tremaine collection, courtesy of Sylvia McLean); c) Close up of the Granby Hotel, which was built in 1917 for visitors and business guests, as seen from the west. Note the absence of the second set of steps that appear on the right in Fig. 9a (Leonard Frank photo, Vancouver Public Library VPL 14393); d) Typical Anyox home (Tremaine collection, courtesy of Sylvia McLean). nomic reality, to see men, hardened by was novel in 1934. heard the boom roll down the valley, a life on the road, arriving to take the Preparations for this explosion disappointing boom really. There was place of the deported miners. began several months in advance. no apparent surface damage” (Loudon The curtain call for the mine Those who lived near the mine were 1973). The much anticipated explosion came in the form of a massive explo- instructed to prepare their homes for was considered anticlimactic in light of sion, reputed to be the largest man- the impending shake, rattle and roll. the build-up to the event. Classes made mining explosion in history at Homes within a 2.5 km radius were resumed and the people went back to the time. Faced with shrinking reserves, evacuated, the classes at the school their houses, but, “At about 3 o’clock Granby conceived a plan whereby sev- were cancelled for the morning, the that afternoon, those of us who were eral separate, large masses of low- hospital was evacuated and the patients day-dreaming in class while gazing out grade ore would be blasted into the moved to nearby homes. The hospital the window, saw a terrible thing. To existing stopes beneath what was was not within the danger zone but it our eyes it appeared as if the whole known locally as the ‘glory hole’ (Fig. was situated beneath a steep rocky hill- side of the mountain suddenly fell in 12). This was a large opening at sur- side and there were concerns that it on itself. Actually, as we learned later, face that was created as early as 1918 would be swept away if a landslide was one intention of the blast was to join after the original outcrop of the No. 2 triggered. two open-pit mines or glory holes, as orebody was mined (Bancroft 1918). At 10 am on November 27, we called them. The overhang around The blasted ore would be hauled to 1934, the whistles blew and the citizens the top edge of the glory hole closest surface through a series of new drifts of Anyox collectively held their breath. to the school caved into the hole. The driven at the deepest level of the mine. “… A cloud of black smoke shot into air filled with dust and small debris While this is common practice today, it the air above the mountain and we where the cave-in took place and it was 124

Figure 10. Other infrastructure. a) Interior view of the coal-fired powerhouse (No.1) in 1917, showing the size of the boilers (Leonard Frank photo, Vancouver Public Library VPL 14391); b) Interior view of the smelter converters (B.C. Archives photo H-04272); c) Group photo of the blast furnace crew at the smelter in 1917 (Leonard Frank photo, Vancouver Public Library VPL 12534); d) Seven steam and electric locomotives at the roundhouse or maintenance shop in 1917 (Leonard Frank photo, Vancouver Public Library VPL 14408). a far more satisfactory sight than the the death knell for both. from the mine, mill, machine shop, explosion had been. It looked finally as Outside Observatory Inlet, the powerhouses, and town, including kilo- if a giant had carved a huge wedge out world was being strangled by the Great metres of rails and the steam and elec- of the mountainside” (Loudon 1973, p. Depression. The bottom fell out of tric locomotives that for years had 98-99). the copper price and Anyox, being a trundled back and forth to feed the The quantity of explosives single economy town, was bereft of a mines. A skeleton crew of about 15 needed for the blast had been estimat- buffer. Forces beyond Granby gov- men and a few family members stayed ed but this was a new experimental erned the future of the town. The behind, while everyone else departed technique. As it turned out, the miners company kept the operation going but with what furniture and keepsakes they had seriously overestimated the finally succumbed to the influences of could carry. For the children who knew amount of powder that was required. the depressed global economy. By early only the security and safety of Anyox, The resulting blast not only shattered 1935, close to 50 million kilograms of it must have been terrifying – even the intended mineralization, but also unsold copper, the equivalent of three more so for their parents as they set the newly constructed tunnels and year’s worth of production, sat in a forth into a future that would remain crackled the surrounding rock to the huge, coffin shaped stack near the har- bleak, harsh and desperate until the point that it would never again support bour. Mining operations ceased on July economy began to recover with the new tunnels. The resulting huge pit, 31, 1935. One thousand people were onset of World War II. which is commonly referred to as the laid off and 2500 people became virtu- The town of Anyox went out ‘glory hole’, is actually the surface ally homeless overnight in one of the in a blaze – perhaps not a blaze of expression of the caved underground most desperate periods of modern his- glory, but it was definitely an impres- mine (Fig. 12). The blast, which was tory. sive, all consuming blaze. In early July intended to prolong the life of the Granby dismantled and 1942, after a particularly heavy thun- mine and community, ironically, was shipped out most of the machinery derstorm, a lightning strike about six GEOSCIENCE CANADA Volume 34 Numbers 3/4 September/December 2007 125

Figure 11. Recreation. a) Outdoor skating rink (Helen Suarez collection, courtesy of Anyox Hydro Electric Corp); b) One of several wooden tennis courts built near the mine and the harbour, date unknown (Tremaine collection, courtesy of Sylvia McLean); c) Lady members of the Anyox Golf and Country Club, date unknown (Helen Suarez collection, courtesy of Anyox Hydro Electric Corp); d) Dominion Day (July 1) Parade, date unknown (Tracy family collection). miles west of town ignited the tinder lives lived there, although every year, Double Ed and Eden prospects in dry forest of dead trees. Another light- spring bulbs burst forth, their vibrant 1952, with much of the follow up con- ening strike hit three miles northwest colours, a tribute to the tenacity of ducted around the Double Ed (Fig. 3, of the town and the two fires raced nature. #11). down the valley. The forest burned, the In 1973, Cominco began to muskeg burned, the wooden plank Post-GGranby History examine the potential for large, low- roads burned, the houses burned – the The Anyox property was purchased by grade bulk mining of the copper min- inferno devoured the town. The skele- Consolidated Mining and Smelting eralization near Hidden Creek using ton crew of men was simply not up to Company of Canada (now Teck Com- geophysical surveys. That was followed the task of fighting a fire of this mag- inco Ltd.) soon after Granby closed by drilling in 1981 to 1983, which out- nitude and they and their families were the mine in 1936. Granby had directed lined a “potential mineralized ore forced to flee to a waiting barge and almost its entire effort towards devel- reserve” of 50.8 million tonnes grading watch helplessly from the sanctuary of opment of the sulfide lenses exposed 0.6% copper equivalent, of which the inlet waters. When it was all over, at surface and had conducted only lim- about one third was accessible by open the town of Anyox had been wiped ited exploration in the surrounding pit. Several additional phases of geo- from the face of the earth. area. In hopes of discovering a new physics and drilling were conducted, Today, the inlet has healed deposit, Cominco carried out a series until 1990, by Cominco and a partner, from its former stature as an environ- of exploration programs in 1937 and Prospector Airways. In a 1990 eco- mental wasteland. The hills are once 1938, including surface diamond nomic assessment of the property, again clad in thick forest, the waters drilling and underground exploration. Cominco calculated a resource of 10.8 abound with seals and salmon and Cominco resumed its exploration in to 13.6 million tonnes grading 0.7 to wildlife has returned and is thriving in 1950 and conducted detailed programs 0.75% Cu (Davis et al. 1993). Cominco the undergrowth. There is little evi- annually for the next decade. The high- then sold the project to Moss Manage- dence of the town, the mine and the lights included the discovery of the ment and Boston Financial Corp. 126

Figure 12. The mine site in September 1989. a) Aerial view looking west-southwest at the former smelter site (stack and slag dump) and the trace of the former railroad line (middle distance) that ran north to the mine site; b) Aerial view of the former mine showing the extent of the caving; c) View to the west across the caved area above the #1 and #5 orebodies, showing the contact between bleached and altered mafic volcanic rocks forming the cliff on the left and banded, turbiditic sedimentary rocks on the right. Note the old mine drifts and stopes in and under the cliff and the helicopter for scale (all three photos courtesy of Tom Schroeter)

(Davis and Aussant 1994). indicated resource of 1 850 000 tonnes could produce between 30 and 40 In 1992, Beacon Hill Consul- grading 1.6% Cu, 1.0% Zn and 15.1g/t megawatts of power, which would be tants conducted an evaluation of the Ag was defined (Harrison and McKin- transmitted to BC Hydro’s Kitsault Hidden Creek deposit, calculated that ley 2007). Sub-station via an underwater cable. an indicated mineable “reserve” of There are currently two proj- AHEC has an economic agreement 26.7 million tonnes grading 1.08% ects underway at Anyox, neither of with the Gincolx Village Government. copper, 0.005 oz/ton gold and 0.3 oz/ which involves mineral exploration. The company is working through the ton silver was present, and concluded One of these consists of studies of various levels of the permitting that it could be mined with an open pit the feasibility of installing a new process and has autumn 2010 as the and conventional mill. Following this hydroelectric generating facility. The target for commercial operation. report, in 1992, TVI Copper Inc. car- concrete dam that provided electricity The old slag pile that sits on ried out an exploration program to the smelter and community is being the beach at Anyox is also the scene of around the Hidden Creek deposit with restored by Anyox Hydro Electric a modern recycling program by True- inconclusive results (Davis and Aussant Corp. (AHEC). The Anyox townsite Grit Abrasives, which has operated a 1994). and dam were purchased from Comin- quarry there since 1990. The slag, In 2006, Kenrich-Eskay co in 1984 by Moss Management with which was the waste product of the Mining Corp., conducted an airborne the idea of reviving the mine. Howev- smelting operation after the ore was geophysical survey followed by geo- er, increasing power demands from the melted and most of the copper was chemical surveys, geologic mapping US and progressive deregulation in BC removed, consists of sheeted layers of and over 14 000 m of diamond shifted their focus to rehabilitation and silica glass. Weathering over the past drilling, mainly at the Double Ed revitalization of both the Anyox dam 70 years has partially devitrified the prospect. As a result of this work, an and the Kitsault dams. The two dams glass, resulting in fragments that are GEOSCIENCE CANADA Volume 34 Numbers 3/4 September/December 2007 127

Figure 13. Rock pictures. a) Hanging wall sedimentary rocks, mainly turbiditic in origin, just upstream from Powerhouse No. 2; b) Footwall pillow lavas (mafic rocks) near the mine site (lens cap is approximately 15 cm in diameter); c) Bedded chert marking the stratigraphic contact between the footwall mafic volcanic and hangingwall sedimentary rocks (divisions on scale are centime- tres); d) Hydrothermally altered mafic volcanic rocks with biotite–chlorite–sulfide banding (large divisions on scale are centime- tres); e) Andalusite porphyroblasts (dark spots) reflecting a metamorphosed highly aluminous, hydrothermal alteration assem- blage. not as hard as pure quartz (Minfile eastern part, which hosts the massive this paper. 103P 257). This material is screened sulfide deposits, consists of well-pre- In the eastern part of the pen- and sorted onsite and then shipped by served volcanic strata of the Upper dant, mudrocks and sandstone tur- barge to the United States for use as Triassic to Lower Jurassic Hazelton bidites (Fig. 13a) of the Bowser Lake abrasive slurry for sandblasting and as Group and is overlain by the sedimen- Group stratigraphically overlie mafic an aggregate for roofing shingles. tary rocks of the Upper to Middle volcanic rocks of the Hazelton Group, Jurassic Bowser Lake Group (Alldrick comprising massive to pillowed flows GEOLOGY OF THE ANYOX PENDANT 2000; Figs. 2, 3). These rocks collec- and volcanic breccias, massive flows tively have recognizable primary tex- and subvolcanic intrusions (Fig. 13b). Regional Setting tures and clear stratigraphic relation- In the Hidden Creek area, turbidite The Anyox Pendant (particularly the ships. In contrast, the western part of beds range from one to tens of cen- area between Anyox and Maple Bay, the pendant comprises interleaved timetres in thickness, are massive and Fig. 2) is a Paleozoic to Mesozoic vol- intrusive and metamorphic rocks in unsorted, and have rare grading. Near canic and sedimentary succession pre- which primary stratigraphic relation- the stratigraphic lower contact with the served as a roof pendant within the ships are obscured and structural com- mafic volcanic rocks, the amount of Tertiary Coast Plutonic Complex plexity is the norm. This western part mudrocks increases and the turbidite (Grove 1986). The pendant hosts four is represented by “hornfelsed sedimen- beds are thinner (Macdonald et al. volcanogenic massive sulphide tary rocks” in Figure 2 and by the 1996). The turbidites consist mainly of deposits, of which the Hidden Creek “Clashmore metamorphic complex” silt- to sand-sized quartz and feldspar deposit is or was, by far, the largest. (Evenchick et al. 1997; Evenchick and grains and contain black to brown The pendant is divided rough- McNicoll 2001) in Figure 3; these argillaceous material (Macdonald et al. ly into eastern and western parts. The rocks will not be discussed further in 1996). Impure limestone beds contain- 128 ing up to 30% clastic material are rec- contact between the mafic volcanic and the generally low metamorphic grade, ognized and are also considered to be sedimentary rocks but may be entirely suggesting that they represent meta- turbiditic in origin. within the mafic volcanic rocks, at the morphism of a highly aluminous An interval of cherty rocks contact, or entirely within the sedimen- hydrothermal alteration assemblage. having alternating silica-rich and silica- tary rocks, suggesting a long-lived Mass flux calculations for the poor layers, situated at the stratigraphic hydrothermal system. The stratigraphic volcanic and sedimentary rocks indi- contact between the footwall mafic setting, alteration, mineralization, geo- cate a progressive loss of CaO + Na2O volcanic and hangingwall sedimentary chemistry of the mafic volcanic rocks, and gain in MgO + FeO, reflecting the successions, likely reflects a chemical as well as the temperature and compo- breakdown of plagioclase and the for- precipitate deposited during a hiatus in sition of fluid inclusions are consistent mation of chlorite (Macdonald et al. volcanic activity prior to the onset of with the deposit forming in a sedi- 1996). Potassium has been added to turbidite sedimentation (Fig. 13c). mented spreading axis such as the Mid- the volcanic rocks, which is expressed These rocks form an important strati- dle Valley on the northern Juan de as biotite. Immobile element ratios for graphic marker and indicate the inter- Fuca Ridge, off the coast of British the sedimentary rocks suggests that the val that is most prospective for vol- Columbia (Macdonald et al. 1996; detrital component is not derived from canogenic massive sulfide deposits. Goodfellow and Peter 1994). the underlying mafic volcanic rocks but Both the footwall and hang- Although the mineral deposits must have come from a felsic, possibly ingwall successions are metamor- have not been dated directly, recent cratonic, source (Macdonald et al. phosed. The sedimentary rocks are geochronology on rocks of the eastern 1996). biotite grade and the mafic volcanic part of the Anyox Pendant have been rocks have a chlorite–amphibole (acti- able to constrain the age of sulfide VOLCANOGENIC MASSIVE SULFIDE nolite–hornblende)–epidote, upper- deposition and provide regional geo- DEPOSITS greenschist metamorphic mineral logic correlations (Evenchick and The mineralization at Anyox belongs assemblage. A contact metamorphic McNicoll 2001). Tuffaceous interflow to a class of ore deposits called vol- assemblage is developed locally with sediment in the mafic volcanic rocks canogenic massive sulfide (VMS) randomly oriented biotite, andalusite, west of Anyox yielded a detrital zircon deposits. These deposits are formed by muscovite and rare cordierite. age of ca. 186 Ma, providing a maxi- submarine hydrothermal activity that The hangingwall sedimentary mum age of the mafic volcanic rocks. precipitates sulfide minerals at or near succession shows coherent mappable Evenchick and McNicoll (2001) also the seafloor, mainly as sedimentary lay- folds. Both the Bonanza and Hidden report well preserved late Bathonian ers. Volcanogenic massive sulfide Creek deposits are situated in regional ammonites from the upper sedimenta- deposits are actively forming today in anticlines. Evenchick et al. (2001) ry succession about 2 km stratigraphi- modern oceans from vents that are reported that the structural complexity cally above the mafic volcanic rocks. generally called “black smokers” increases to the west and down section Collectively, these ages constrain the because of the darkly coloured sulfide towards the basal units within the tur- transition from mafic volcanism to particles entrained in the discharging bidites, where folds become tighter and clastic sedimentation, roughly the age hydrothermal fluids. Volcanogenic have shorter wavelengths near the con- of mineralization at Anyox, to latest massive sulfide deposits are found tact with the mafic volcanic rocks. A Early Jurassic to earliest Middle Juras- throughout the rock record and are strong penetrative fabric defined by an sic. valuable sources of copper, lead, zinc, alignment of biotite and muscovite is gold, and silver. preserved around the Hidden Creek Hydrothermal Alteration As a deposit type, these ore deposit; crenulation cleavage is devel- Alteration of the mafic rocks is gener- bodies have been tremendously impor- oped locally near the granite contacts. ally expressed as biotite–chlorite–epi- tant in the economic development of dote–quartz-sulfide banding in the Canada with important mines and min- Geologic Setting of the Anyox footwall proximal to the massive sul- ing districts in Bathurst, New Deposits fide lenses at Hidden Creek (Fig. 13d). Brunswick; Noranda, Québec; Kidd Mineralization at Anyox is localized This banding is interpreted to reflect Creek, Ontario; Flin Flon, Manitoba; within tens of metres of the strati- transposition of a metamorphosed and Brittania and Anyox in British graphic contact between mafic volcanic chlorite–sericite alteration zone. In the Columbia, to name a few. Although and sedimentary rocks. The composi- hangingwall sedimentary succession, this deposit type has been mined for tions of the mafic volcanic rocks, hydrothermally altered rocks are gener- decades in Canada and world-wide for which have been described by Smith ally zoned from a core of quartz–chlo- centuries, the progression of scientific (1993) and Macdonald et al. (1996), are rite to a distal quartz–sericite–pyrite thought on how VMS deposits formed consistent with their formation in a alteration assemblage (Macdonald et al. is relatively new, having been strongly spreading-ridge setting (normal mid- 1996). Andalusite, and rarely cordierite, influenced by the discovery of active ocean ridge basalt or N-MORB for porphyroblasts (Fig. 13e) have been seafloor hydrothermal systems in the short) with a smaller subset related to recognized in the sedimentary rocks late 1970s using submersibles. Reviews melting of a relatively enriched source proximal to the massive sulfide lenses by Sangster (1972), Solomon (1976) area (E-MORB). Mineralization and around Hidden Creek. These meta- and Franklin et al. (1981, 2005), hydrothermal alteration occur near the morphic minerals are common despite amongst others, discuss VMS deposits GEOSCIENCE CANADA Volume 34 Numbers 3/4 September/December 2007 129

Figure 15. Geologic cross sections through Hidden creek, after Nelson (1948). The sections are referenced to the plan map in Figure 14. The yellow halo around the sulfides depicts the extent of hydrothermal alteration.

Figure 14. Generalized geology of the Hidden Creek mine area showing the distri- over 95% of the mine production, are bution of the major rock units and the main sulfide lenses, projected to surface. labelled Nos. 1 through 5 (Figs. 14, 15). Geology after Davis et al. (1993); Nelson (1935). The Nos. 1, 4 and 5 lenses are hosted within sedimentary rocks, whereas the and the evolution of ideas on how Mineralization Nos. 2 and 3 lenses are hosted by these deposits form, and the current mafic volcanic rocks, described by Dol- thinking on genesis. Hidden Creek mage (1922) as “heavily mineralized When Anyox was in produc- The bulk of the Anyox production green schist”. The No. 6 lens occurs at tion, VMS type deposits were came from large massive sulfide lenses the contact between the mafic and sed- unknown. They were generally consid- within the Hidden Creek deposit (Fig. imentary successions. Mineralization ered to be in large structurally con- 3). Over 21.73 million tonnes of cop- occurs both stratigraphically above and trolled shear zones or a replacement of per ore at an average recovered grade below the mafic volcanic–sedimentary a favourable host rock, and genetically of 1.68% Cu, 10.8 g/t Ag and 0.20 g/t rock contact, generally within tens of related to granitic rocks. As a result, Au, were concentrated and smelted metres of the contact. the bulk of the historic work at Anyox between 1914 and 1935 to produce The Hidden Creek deposit is was done without a modern under- 321 546 tonnes of copper, 206 309 kg composed mainly of pyrite, pyrrhotite standing on how these deposits (6.6 million oz) of silver, and 3773 kg and chalcopyrite. There is a strong formed, which naturally influenced (121 300 oz) of gold (Minfile 103P association between chalcopyrite and how exploration and development pro- 021). Although the deposits also con- pyrrhotite, whereas the massive pyrite ceeded. However, from the perspective tained Zn and Pb, these metals were intervals are barren or only weakly of the mine geologist and engineer, not recovered in the smelting process. cupriferous. The orebodies are zoned these questions were academic as their The original Imperial units have been with almost pure sulfides in the upper job was to mine sulfides and produce retained in the following descriptions parts and highly siliceous, lower grade copper. How and where these deposits of the gold and silver grades as well as pyritic material in the lower parts (Nel- formed were questions that could not the mine levels, which were designated son 1948). In addition to pyrite, be answered until better analytical in feet above sea level (asl). pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite, and sphalerite, methods and submersibles became The Hidden Creek deposit Dolmage (1922) noted the presence of available, many decades later. consists of a number of sheet-like magnetite, arsenopyrite, native silver, massive sulfide lenses and associated and possible argentite, and mentioned stockwork mineralization, all of which that Bancroft had found small amounts have been complexly folded. The main of galena. The gangue mineralogy of lenses or orebodies, which represent the massive sulfides tends to be 130 sucrosic silica. Massive intervals of commonly contained ribbon-like bands from 8 to 12 % Cu. Lens No. 6 had a coarse-grained calcite, with interstitially or large irregular masses of argillite length of about 150 m and a maximum disseminated pyrite and pyrrhotite, (mudrock), which had been silicified width of about 35 m, and dipped near- were intersected locally in exploration and mineralized. Although the Anyox ly vertically. He concluded that lens drilling. mineralization contained little zinc on No. 6 had “developed at the immediate At the Hidden Creek deposit, average, sphalerite (an ore of zinc) was contact (volcanic-sediment) and the sediment-hosted Nos. 1 and 5 lens- locally abundant. The highest copper involved the replacement of both es show a zoned alteration pattern grades were typically in the siliceous schistose greenstone and argillite”. from a quartz–chlorite–pyrrhotite core zones, whereas the lowest concentra- Dolmage (1922) concluded to a margin of quartz–sericite–pyrite tions of copper were in the large ton- that variations in the average composi- (Macdonald et al. 1996). Chalcopyrite nages of massive pyrite. Dolmage tions of the different orebodies were is associated with pyrrhotite in the (1922) noted that some massive sul- dependant upon whether they had core, whereas sphalerite is associated fides in lenses Nos. 1, 4 and 5 (thought developed through the replacement of with pyrite on the margins. Massive to have formed by replacement) gener- argillites or of green schists. Although calcite lenses are associated with mas- ally display fine banding “which repre- not in agreement with modern con- sive sulfides and calcite is present sents the original banding of the cepts, he recognized the strong strati- throughout the sedimentary succes- argillites”. The cherty, siliceous zone at graphic control on mineralization and sion. Biotite in the alteration assem- the contact between the mafic volcanic the broad district zoning in the sulfide blage at Hidden Creek is probably the and turbiditic sedimentary rocks was lenses. result of regional metamorphism of called “silicified green schist”. K- and Mg-rich alteration minerals Dolmage (1922) reported that Bonanza, Redwing and Double Ed such as sericite and chlorite. lens No. 2 cropped out at about 800 ft Deposits The detailed mine geology is asl and plunged gently to the north The Bonanza, Redwing and Double complicated by numerous igneous (Figs. 14, 15). Both the length and Ed deposits are situated south of Hid- dikes. Bancroft (1918) reported that 56 width of the sulfide lens decreased den Creek and also within the Anyox dikes of variable compositions were quite rapidly with depth. On the 630 Pendant (Fig. 3). All three deposits are mapped on the 385 level of the Hid- level, the high-grade portion measured hosted by volcanic rocks near the con- den Creek Mine. Most dikes are con- 160 by 80 m. On the 385 level, the tact between the volcanic and sedimen- formable in strike and dip and are less corresponding dimensions decreased tary rocks (Grove 1986; Minfile 103P than a metre wide, although a consid- to 85 and 45 m, respectively. High 023, 024 and 025, respectively). erable number are 1 to 8 m wide, and a grade ore was followed with drilling The Bonanza deposit occurs few are 8 to 12 m wide. Some extend down to the 290 level. Dolmage (1922) in mafic volcanic rocks, comprising for hundreds of metres and maintain a interpreted No. 3 lens to be the faulted basaltic tuffs and minor intercalated constant strike and uniform width but offset of the No. 2 lens and concluded mudrocks that have been altered to an many are extremely irregular. Fifty-six that they “have developed through assemblage of chlorite–sericite and dikes, of a variety of compositions, mineralization and silicification of have a strong penetrative fabric. The were mapped on the 385 level of the schistose zones in the altered por- mineralized lenses are composed of Hidden Creek mine. None of the dikes phyrite or greenstone near its contact massive to disseminated pyrite– is foliated and all are post-ore and with the argillites”. pyrrhotite with lesser amounts of chal- post-faulting. This complex igneous The No. 4 lens (the pyrite copyrite and sphalerite. Gangue min- geology likely reflects the fact that the body) was triangular in shape with a erals consist of quartz, sericite, chlo- deposits are hosted by a roof pendant length on the 760 level of about 180 rite, actinolite, tremolite, hornblende in the Coast Plutonic Complex, which m. A considerable portion of this lens and calcite (Minfile 103P 023). Produc- was subjected to many episodes of was solid pyrite with low copper val- tion from the Bonanza deposit igneous activity from the Late Triassic ues. between 1928 and 1935 totalled 0.66 to Tertiary. Dolmage (1922) reported that million tonnes at an average recovered The dimensions of the sulfide lens No. 5 plunged to the north (Figs. grade of 2.18% Cu, 13.3 g/t (0.47 lenses (Figs. 14, 15) are impressive. 14, 15). On the 385 level, the practical- oz/ton) Ag, and 0.13 g/t (0.005 Dolmage (1922) reported that lens No. ly solid sulfide portion had a length of oz/ton) Au. 1 cropped out for a length of 1000 ft nearly 150 m and an average width of Redwing and Double Ed at an average elevation of 700 ft asl about 33 m. Below the 150 level, the deposits are undeveloped prospects. and was localized at the contact volume of massive sulfide decreased Both have similar grades to the Hidden between the mafic volcanic and sedi- rapidly as it passed into siliceous ore Creek and Bonanza deposits, are local- mentary rocks. Underground the lens containing disseminated sulfides at ized on the west limb of the Rambler was about 450 m long and 30 to 40 m depth, especially toward its northern (Hidden Creek) syncline and are hosted in width, and was followed down to 40 end. This orebody was richer in copper by mafic volcanic rocks (Grove 1986). m below sea level by diamond drilling. and carried somewhat higher values in At depth, there is little, if any, decrease precious metals and zinc than the oth- Other Mineral Deposits in the in the copper content, which averaged ers. Where it was intersected on the Anyox Pendant about 2%. The massive sulfide lenses 285 level, much of the lens assayed A number of quartz veins occur within GEOSCIENCE CANADA Volume 34 Numbers 3/4 September/December 2007 131 the Anyox Pendant. Sharp (1980) and per ore from its original Phoenix Mine to apply economies of scale to its Alldrick (1986) recognized two distinct was exhausted. This company played a Phoenix operations, enabled Granby to styles of quartz veins, both of which very significant role in shaping not just lower operating costs from $4.77 per are hosted in the sedimentary succes- the growth of the province, but also ton to $2.39 between 1901 and 1913. sion. Type 1 veins consist of white the practice of mining. Granby’s contributions to the bull-quartz that may contain base- modernization of mining include the metal sulfides and gold. Type 2 veins Granby Mining Company Limited introduction of open pit mining meth- are localized in the lower intervals of Mining companies come and mining ods. In 1903, the Old Ironsides Mine the sedimentary succession along fold companies go – some leave legacies became one of the first open pit mines axes. Alldrick (1986) speculated that whilst others just leave. Granby Con- in Canada. The self-dumping Granby these veins represent remobilized silica solidated Mining, Smelting and Power car was developed at Phoenix and from the chert marker unit, and that Company Ltd. left a legacy. This com- introduced in 1905. Another time- and the distribution and mineralogy of pany developed some of the largest cost-saving invention was the drill these veins may indicate proximity to mines in the province and its smelter at sharpening machine, which reduced massive sulfide lenses. Grand Forks was, at one time, the the number of blacksmiths and forges During mining at Anyox, large largest non-ferrous smelter in the required. The Grand Forks smelter was quartz vein networks were mined for British Empire, and the second largest designed and built by A.B.W. Hodges, silica smelter flux. These include the in the world. Low copper prices and who also invented the automatic fur- Granby Point, Golskeish, Gold Leaf, low reserves twice pushed Granby to nace charger that reduced the time and and Rambler quartz vein deposits the brink of liquidation, and twice the manpower formerly required for this (Minfile 103P 022, 027, 028, 226, company battled back to solvency, task. respectively). These veins are mainly regaining its stature as a major contrib- The company’s input to the hosted within the turbidite succession utor to the economy of British Colum- development of B.C. is recognized in in the hangingwall of the massive sul- bia. perpetuity by the number of significant fides and are Type 1 of Alldrick (1986). The deposit that launched geographical features that bear its The use of the auriferous quartz veins Granby was the Phoenix Mine near name. Besides Granby Bay in Observa- as a smelter flux added gold to the Greenwood in south-central British tory Inlet, there is Granby River, which recovered metals from the smelter. As Columbia. The first claims at Phoenix flows south for 100 km between the a result the published recovered gold were staked on July 15, 1891 by Henry Midway and Christina mountain ranges grades for Hidden Creek and Bonanza White (Knob Hill Mine) and Matthew before reaching Grand Forks and may not accurately reflect the gold Hatter (Old Ironsides Mine). Initially, merging with the Kettle River, and content of the massive sulfide lenses the claims did not generate much Granby Provincial Park, a 40 845 ha because there is an unknown contribu- excitement because the copper grade park that surrounds the upper Granby tion from the silica flux. Dolmage was relatively low for the times, two River, which was opened in 1995. (1922) gave crude average gold grades other booms at Rossland and Slocan In the early 1970s, when of between 0.002 and 0.13 oz/ ton were drawing attention, and the nearest Granby was in its heyday shipping iron (0.07 - 4.5 g/t Au) for high-grade sul- railroad was 120 km miles away. How- and copper concentrates to Japan from fide lenses and 0.002 and 0.004 (0.07 - ever, once the copper ore was discov- the Jedway Mine on Moresby Island 0.14 g/t Au) for low-grade lenses. ered to be self-fluxing, meaning it and copper–gold–silver concentrates Porphyry molybdenum occur- could be treated in an affordable man- from the Phoenix Mine and the rences have been found locally within ner, the level of interest soared. In Granisle Mine, a controlling interest in the Eocene intrusive rocks The Moly 1896, J.F.C. Miner, President of the its shares was acquired by Rene Wol- Mack and Black Bear prospects (Min- Granby Rubber Company, of Granby, cott, President of the Pacific Clay and file 103P 228 and 031) are associated Quebec, together with mining promot- Pipe Company of Los Angeles. Wol- with quartz monzonite stocks that have er Jay P. Graves and A.L. Little from cott was eventually forced to sell, been intruded into supracrustal rocks Spokane, Washington, formed the which opened the door for Zapata of the Anyox Pendant. These rocks are Miner-Graves Syndicate and began Corporation of Houston, Texas to variably altered to kaolin and sericite purchasing claims. In 1901, they con- acquire 90% of Granby. When the and host quartz stockwork style miner- solidated all of the Syndicate’s compa- Canadian Foreign Investment Review alization (Minfile 103P 228). nies and properties under a new com- Act prevented Zapata from purchasing pany, Granby Consolidated Mining, the other 10%, and it was unable to IMPORTANCE OF ANYOX Smelting and Power Company, Limit- acquire Noranda Inc.’s Bell Copper ed. The corporate title was shortened Mine near the Granisle Mine or the Socio-eeconomic Significance to Granby Mining Company Limited in Equity Silver Mine near Houston, B.C., Anyox played an important role in the 1963. it sold Granby to Noranda in 1979, development of northwestern British The company was extremely marking the end of the Granby story. Columbia. It also enabled the Granby fortunate in, and supportive of, the Consolidated Mining, Smelting and mechanical and electrical aptitude and Geological Significance Power Company Ltd. to remain a ingenuity of its employees. This scope In the past, regional geologic correla- viable producer after 1914, when cop- of creativity, combined with the ability tions of the Anyox Pendant have been 132 problematic due to a lack of bly further chapters in the history of District Kitimat-Stikine, BC, for his geochronology and modern regional Anyox. assistance in arranging the use of the mapping. Various correlations have Although not directly correlat- Tracy family images. been proposed although most of these able, in terms of terrane affiliations, had little scientific basis; however, the Anyox deposits are similar in many REFERENCES recent geologic investigations by the respects to the Windy Craggy deposit Alldrick, D.J., 1986, Stratigraphy and struc- Geological Survey of Canada seems to that occurs within the Alexander Ter- ture in the Anyox area (103P/5): have solved this problem. Evenchick et rane of the Insular Belt (Peter and British Columbia Ministry of Energy, al. (1997) correlated the hangingwall Scott 1999), in northern British Mines and Petroleum Resources. Geo- sedimentary succession with the Bows- Columbia. This deposit is a major logical Fieldwork 1985, paper 1986-1, p. 211-216. er Lake Group, based on lithologic accumulation of massive sulfides in an Alldrick, D.J., 2000, Geology of the Anyox similarities of the eastern Anyox Pen- Upper Triassic succession of fine to Mining Camp, British Columbia dant with turbidites of the contiguous medium grained clastic sedimentary (103P): British Columbia Ministry of Bowser Lake Group 8 km farther east, rocks and associated mafic volcanic Energy, Mines and Petroleum which is supported by recent rocks and mafic sills (Peter and Scott Resources Geoscience. Map 2000-28, geochronology work (Evenchick and 1999). At Windy Craggy, sediment- scale 1:20,000. McNicoll 2001). Collectively, these hosted massive sulfides lenses and Bancroft, J. A., 1918, Preliminary report on lines of evidence suggest that the stockwork veins crosscut volcanic and the geology of the Anyox map-area, mafic rocks are either correlative with sedimentary strata. A chert–calcite which includes the Hidden Creek and the Hazelton Group, which is part of interval that overlies the massive sul- Bonanza copper deposits: unpublished the Stikine (Stikinia) Terrane of the fides is interpreted by Peter and Scott report, 59 p. Carter, N.C., and Grove, E.W., 1972, Geo- Intermontane Belt (Struik and MacIn- (1999) as a chemical sediment largely logic compilation of the Stewart, tyre 2001), or coeval strata of another derived from hydrothermal fluids. Anyox, Alice Arm and Terrace areas: terrane. However, the similar age and Windy Craggy has a similar mineralogi- British Columbia Department of nature of magmatism and sedimentary cal zoning to Anyox with a core area Mines and Petroleum Resources. Pre- rocks strongly support the correlation containing pyrrhotite–chalcopyrite and liminary Map, No. 8. of the eastern part of the Anyox Pen- peripheral areas with sphalerite–pyrite. Childe, F.C., Barrett, T.J., and McGuigan, dant with the Hazelton Group. P., 1994, The Granduc VMS deposit Stikinia is well endowed with ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS northwestern British Columbia: U-Pb VMS deposits (Sherlock et al. 1996; The authors wish to acknowledge the ages and Pb isotope relations: Geolog- Fig. 1). At the northwestern end of generous assistance of those who ical Society of America, Program with this terrane, the Tulsequah Chief and reviewed and contributed their time abstracts p. A-381. Childe, F.C., 1996, U-Pb geochronology nearby Big Bull VMS deposits are and expertise to the development of and Nd and Pb isotope characteristics hosted by Lower Mississippian felsic this article. In particular, we wish to of the Au-Ag rich Eskay Creek vol- volcanic rocks, in a dominantly mafic thank reviewers Scott Swinden and canogenic massive sulphide deposit, volcanic succession. In the Iskut River Dani Alldrick as well as GMCC series British Columbia: Economic Geology, area the past producing Granduc VMS editors Bob Cathro and Steve v. 91, p. 1209-1224. deposit is hosted in complexly McCutcheon for constructive com- Davis, J.W., and Aussant, C.H., 1994, Geo- deformed mafic volcanic and sedimen- ments on earlier versions of this arti- logical, geochemical and geophysical tary rocks, similar in style to Anyox, cle. In addition, Dani Alldrick was report on the Anyox property, Skeena but correlated with the older Triassic invaluable in his assistance in providing Mining Division: Unpublished Report Stuhini Group (Childe et al. 1994). The archival excerpts from the Canadian for TVI Copper Inc. British Columbia Eskay Creek deposit in the Iskut River Mining Journal and background infor- Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petro- area consists of precious metal-rich mation from his personal experience leum Resources, Assessment Report 23582, 83 p. sulfide-sulfosalt lenses in argillite and with the Anyox site. We also thank Davis, J.W., Aussant, C.H., and Chisholm, veins in a footwall rhyolite. It is hosted Bob Cathro for soliciting the article in R.E., 1993, Diamond drilling, geo- in the upper part of the Hazelton the first place; John Jewitt, former chemical and geophysical report on Group, where fossil evidence from the President, Granby Mining Company, the Anyox property, Skeena Mining hangingwall rocks and U-Pb for sharing his memories and providing Division, Latitude 55°25’ North, Lon- geochronology of the footwall rhyo- material from his private library; Diane gitude 129°50’ West, NTS 1030-P/5 lites suggest a middle Jurassic age for Thompson, Head Librarian, Natural W, British Columbia: Unpublished the mineralization (Childe 1996). Resources Canada for providing leads Report for TVI Copper Inc. 103 p. Although much different in style of to literature on Anyox; and Moss Man- Dolmage, V., 1922, Coast and islands of mineralization and host rocks, Anyox agement and Anyox Hydro Electric British Columbia between Douglas and Eskay Creek appear to have Corp. for providing information on Channel and the Alaskan boundary: Geological Survey of Canada, Sum- formed at a similar stratigraphic posi- and photographs of the Anyox Dam. mary Report, Part A, p. 9-23. tions near the top of the Hazelton Finally, the authors wish to thank Dunn, R., 1924, Granby Consolidated: Group. Correlations between Anyox Sylvia McLean and Judy Tracy for Canadian Mining Journal, Business and Eskay Creek may stimulate addi- kindly sharing images from their family Information Group, Toronto, Ontario, tional phases of exploration and possi- albums and Andrew Webber, Regional p. 200-209. GEOSCIENCE CANADA Volume 34 Numbers 3/4 September/December 2007 133

Evenchick, C.A., and McNicoll, V.J., 2001, massive sulphide deposit, Anyox, west Minfile 103P 228; Moly May, BC Ministry Recent advances in geological frame- central British Columbia: Unpublished of Energy and Mines, Minfile digital work and correlations in the Anyox M.Sc. thesis, The University of British data, posted Jan 31, 1989. Pendant and Georgie River area, Columbia, Vancouver, B.C., 173 p. 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Amsterdam v. 2, p. 21-54. Struik, L.C., and MacIntyre, D.G., 2001, Introduction to the special issue: The Nechako NATMAP Project of the Central Canadian Cordillera: Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, v. 38, p. 485-494. Sun Directories 1935, The British Colum- bia and Yukon Directory, 1935 edi- tion: Sun Directories Limited, Van- couver. CORPORATE MEMBERS Submitted January 2008 Accepted as revised, May 2008 PATRONS Alberta Energy and Utilities Board Memorial University of Newfoundland Ministére des Ressources naturelles et de la Faune - Québec Natural Resources, Government of Newfoundland and Labrador Northwest Territories Geoscience Office Yukon Dept. of Energy Mines & Resources

SPONSORS Geological Survey of Canada (Calgary) Husky Energy Royal Tyrrell Museum of Palaeontology Saskatchewan Industry & Resources Virginia Mines Inc.

MEMBERS Acadia University Aur Resources Inc. Geoscience BC IBK Capital Corp. Institut National de la Recherché Scientifique (INRS) McGill University Pele Mountain Resources Inc. Silver Spruce Resources Inc. SRK Consulting Suncor Energy Universal Uranium Ltd. Université du Québec à Montréal University of Calgary University of New Brunswick University of Toronto University of Victoria: Centre of Earth and Ocean Research Utah State University Voisey’s Bay Nickel Company Limited