In research, resilience refers to “the ability of most people, when exposed even to extraordinary levels of and trauma, to maintain normal psychological and physical functioning and avoid serious mental illness (Russo, Murroughl et al. 2012)”. Psychological resilience theory has developed in four major waves(Wright, Masten et al. 2012). These four waves demonstrate a shift in interpretation of resilience as an individual personality trait to resilience as a dynamic and systemic process that unfolds in space and time.

Table 2. The evolutionary waves of psychological resilience and their key findings.

Wave Focus of the illustrative wave Key message

1 Identifying individual resilience and factors Resilience does not necessarily mean that one is unaffected or that make a difference. untouched by the trauma one has endured nor does it mean that one always functions well.

2 Studying resilience as a process. Finding Resilience viewed from a complexity perspective. similar patterns between developmental and ecological systems(Masten and Obradovic Resilience is dynamic. It is possible to show resilience at one 2008). point in life and not at another, or in one domain and not in another.

Human judgment plays a critical role in defining desirable or undesirable adaptation regimes or outcomes.

3 Developing intervention strategies to foster Research shows that a resilient adaptation rests on good family or resilience surrogate family relationships (i.e., early relationship with caregivers provide the foundation for developing secure attachments to others(Wright, Masten et al. 2012)).

Protective factors were discovered to moderate the impact of adversity on adaptation. Examples of protective factors include the individual, social circles, mentors, the community, and the government.

4 Looking for the link between epigenetic Adaptation is inherently multilevel. processes and neurobiological factors in shaping individuals’ resilience (Russo, Adaptation involves many processes of dynamic interaction Murroughl et al. 2012). across multiple levels of function, with gene-environment interplay and co-action playing key roles(Wright, Masten et al. 2012).

Masten et al. demonstrate that people can cultivate their resilience (Ann S. Masten 2009) by developing protective factors, such as having access to caring individuals (Hughes 2012).

Bonnano (2008) also noticed that personality traits and individuals’ styles in stressful situations have significant roles in their ability to avoid post-traumatic disorders, bounce back to their normal life, and even achieve post-traumatic growth, a significant alteration of one’s philosophy of life after being exposed to a psychological seismic wave such as spousal loss, physical disabilities, and other life crises (Jirek 2011).

Cyrulnik’s (2009) interpretation of psychological resilience in his study of Second World War (WWII) survivors resonates with the findings of Masten (2001) and Bonnano (2008); these authors all agree that the dynamic and complex nature of resilience depends on two pillars.

The first one is the ability of individuals to regulate the impact of stressors on their inner guiding voice. The second pillar is the degree to which individuals are supported by externally resourceful and resilient people such as mentors, coaches, or teachers (Fig. 3).

External Fluid State of Shocks Cause Damage and Irritation to Individuals Systems

Personality Traits, History and Current Conditions of Person or Subsystem Inclusive of Risk Factors, Previous Response Disordered Life Outcomes, Thinking Style, Cultural Interpretations of Stressors, Degree, and Availability of Resources Individuals Collectively Create a Set of Constraints that Tax Person’s Question the Resourcefulness and Endanger His or Her Well-being Damage with Whys

1. Depression 2. Adaptation and evolution Maladaptation Ego Seeks to Take Control Gives Rise to Feeling of Selfhood Then, Positive Adaptations Is Enabled By

Sense of Hope Calling on Gives Rise to Value Systems, Goals Developmental If Selfhood is Reshaped and Reworked Guidelines

Self-Reorganization Such as

Resilience happens as one of the families Empowering the ability of ego to preserve its Representation of defence mechanism that can be integrity by exploiting its protective factors controlled and can bring us happiness. including intellectual and emotional Commitment resources and enabling bouncing back and Actions knitting process. Narratives

In “Man’s Search for Meaning”, Viktor Frankl narrates a true story of resilience and concludes that humans have an enormous capacity to adapt to even the most extreme conditions (Frankl 1992). He states that “the only way to bounce back from extremes is to harness the natural tendency of the mind to give meaning to the waves of shocks. It is through transcending our previous limitations, striving toward a worthwhile goal, encountering other human beings that we find meaning and fulfilment in our lives (Frankl 1992)”.

This understanding sets the following foundations for his theory of Logotheraphy (i.e. therapy through meaning making)(Frankl 1992). 1) Life has meaning under all circumstances.

2) People have a will to meaning.

3) People have freedom under all circumstances to activate the will to meaning and to find meaning(Frankl 1992).

Tracking the co-evolution of social-ecological resilience, psychological resilience(Wright, Masten et al. 2012), infrastructure resilience and interdependency (Rinaldi, Peerenboom et al. 2001), and resilience in the engineering domain(Bruneau, Chang et al. 2003), shows that resilience theory in infrastructure systems is still in its infancy and lags behind theories in social- ecological and psychological resilience.

Social-ecological resilience was characterised as combination of latitude (i.e. the maximum amount the system can be changed before losing its ability to recover, resistance (i.e. the ease or difficulty of changing the system, precariousness (i.e. the current trajectory of the system, and how close it currently is to a limit or “threshold” which, if breached, makes recovery difficult or impossible, and panarchy (i.e. how the above three attributes are influenced by the states and dynamics of the (sub) systems at scales above and below the scale of interest)(Walker, Holling et al. 2004).

In the infrastructure sector, resilience was mostly discussed in the background with a major focus on the physical resilience of assets and their services(Haimes, Matalas et al. 1998). However, the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001 have shifted this focus by highlighting the interdependent nature of social and infrastructure systems (Rinaldi, Peerenboom et al. 2001, Little 2004). At this point, infrastructure resilience came to the forefront attention of the US Homeland Security.

After Hurricane Katrina in 2005, infrastructure resilience gained further prominence in 2007 when the Multidisciplinary Centre for Earthquake Engineering Research introduced the first qualitative framework for earthquake resilient systems (Bruneau, Chang et al. 2003). This framework focused on two factors in building earthquake-resilient societies. First technical, organisational, social and economic systems (TOSE) are closely interrelated. Second, resilience as a systemic property of TOSE consists of four other characteristics, namely robustness (strength, or the ability of elements, systems, and other units of analysis to withstand a given level of stress or demand without suffering degradation or loss of function), redundancy (the extent to which elements, systems, or other units of analysis exist that are substitutable, i.e. capable of satisfying functional requirements in the event of disruption, degradation, or loss of function of other elements), rapidity (the capacity to meet priorities and achieve goals in a timely manner in order to contain losses and avoid future disruption) and resourcefulness (the capacity to identify problems, establish priorities, and mobilize resources when conditions exist that threaten to disrupt some element, system, or other unit of analysis). (Resourcefulness can be further conceptualized as consisting of the ability to supply material - i.e., monetary, physical, technological, and human resources to meet established priorities and achieve goals).

This systemic view on the resilience of TOSE played a significant role in shaping the direction of resilience research in the engineering community, with the majority of publications in the engineering and disaster management domain collectively realising that resilience is a systemic property, which is more than just robustness of physical assets (Liao 2012, Tierney 2014).

The MCEER 4-R framework also moved the framing of resilience in the engineering community closer to the latest updates of resilience in the social-ecological community. This includes both specified resilience (i.e. the resilience of a particular aspect of a social-ecological system to a particular kind of disturbance) (Carpenter, Arrow et al. 2012), and general resilience (i.e. the capacity of social-ecological systems to adapt or transform in response to unfamiliar, unexpected, and extreme shocks). Conditions that enable general resilience include diversity, modularity, openness, reserves, feedbacks, nested-ness, monitoring, leadership, and trust. This resulted in defining resilience as a combination of three major capacities: (1) absorptive capacity (i.e. the ability of a system to absorb system perturbations), (2) adaptive capacity (i.e. the ability of a system to adjust to undesirable situations by undergoing changes) and (3) restorative capacity (i.e. the rapidity of return to normal or improved operations and system reliability) (Francis and Bekera 2014).

With the 2007 earthquake in Haiti highlighting the link between resilience and social capital, the 2011 Thai flooding showing the interconnection of global supply chains, the 11 of March 2011 earthquake in the East Coast of Japan, the subsequent destruction of the Fukushima nuclear power plant showing the global concern over the future of nuclear energy, and the 2012 Hurricane Sandy in New York demonstrating the tight dependence of urban communities on energy networks, the focus on infrastructure resilience is gaining momentum from two standpoints. First, infrastructure systems are complex, adaptive, critical (Security 2013) and interdependent system of systems. Second, in developing management strategies, infrastructure systems should be considered as lifeline systems(Kendra and Wachtendorf 2003),which means that their resilience supports both the economy and people’s social and psychological resilience (O’Rourke 2007).

Although in contrast to the social-ecological and psychological domains, the theory of resilience in the social-technical sector is still under-developed, a shift of perspective toward a holistic view of resilience and an appreciation of community learning is widely evident(Hudson, Cormie et al. 2012). The co-evolution of resilience thinking in multiple disciplines has transformed its early metaphoric nature (Carpenter, Walker et al. 2001) to a new way of perceiving the world (Folke 2006, Walker and Cooper 2011).

We call this phase of the resilience timeline the Operationalisation Phase. The operationalisation of resilience is focused on guiding the trajectory of human development in the Anthropocene so as to remain in the safe zone of planetary boundaries (Rockstrom, Steffen et al. 2009), on developing resilient individuals, and on designing resilient urban ecosystems. In the last 5 years, resilience is also increasingly investigated in the context of urban systems. The Rockefeller Foundation programme on 100 Resilient Cities(Foundation 2013) and the Asian Cities Climate Change Resilience Network ((ACCCRN) 2014) are just two potential examples of the pervasive influence of the concept of resilience on various subjects.

Toward a common definition of resilience

Although the literature on the resilience concept is growing from multiple strands, the majority of key research themes are organised around three underlying approaches: a) dynamical systems theory, b) complexity science and systemic thinking; and b) sustainable development and disaster management. These three approaches create what we call the ‘iceberg of resilience’ (Fig. 3).

Resilience

Sustainable Development and Disaster Management

Complexity Science and System Thinking

Dynamical Systems Theory

2

Table 2. The Underlying forces contributing to the emergence of resilience.

Resilience Iceberg

Core Concepts

Dynamical Systems Theory Complexity Science Sustainable Development System Thinking Disaster Management

Attractors and basins of attractions General Systems Theory (GST) Management of natural resources and in dynamical systems (Vonbertalanffy 1950) tackling the tragedy of the Senge’s Learning organisations (Senge 1990) and Theory U (Scharmer and commons(Ostrom 1990). Katrine Kaufer 2009) Thinking in systems and leverage points (Meadows and Wright 2008)

Influence on Resilience A new perspective on the stability of Moving from flat nature mentality (cause Emphasis on community learning. ecological systems(Lewontin 1969). and effect thinking) to the evolving nature Introducing the adaptive governance Defining resilience based on the mental model(Lance H. Gunderson and model. properties of a basin of attraction as Holling 2002). Moving from top-down approach to resistance, latitude, precariousness Introducing resilience thinking(Walker polycentric management (Cole 2015). and cross-scale dynamics(Walker, and Salt 2006). Rethinking disaster planning to focus on Holling et al. 2004). Defining psychological resilience as an community resilience (Tompkins and Introducing the concept of tipping interactive complex process that unfolds in Adger 2004, Norris, Stevens et al. 2008). points, critical transitions(Scheffer, time and space(Gladstone 2012). Carpenter et al. 2012) and regime Defining technical systems based on the shifts(Scheffer 2009). system of systems perspective. The need for early warning systems in designing and planning for resilience (Scheffer, Bascompte et al. 2009, Thomalla and Larsen 2010).

A general definition of resilience

There is a need for a general way of defining resilience that maps across various systems because without a consensus about a common ground(Fisher 2015) it is very challenging to systematically operationalise resilience (Allenby 2005, Linkov, Bridges et al. 2014). We demonstrate that these seemingly different definitions fit into a general template with a collective emphasis on the volatile, uncertain, complex and ambiguous nature of life in the 21st century (Taleb 2012) and the need to learn to embrace change (Table. 4). Resilience is “a natural, malleable, and system-level property that during stressful conditions facilitates optimal performance of complex adaptive systems in the space between stimuli and response”. It is in the space between stimuli and response that we can embrace change. Embracing change in the context of resilience covers four key pillars: (1) accepting change as an integral part of life that is necessary to evolution, (2) appreciating the complexity and interconnectivity of the system of life, (3) making a cognitive shift or adopting a flexible mindset, (4) investing in continuous learning and resourcefulness. Table 3. Similarities in different domains of resilience.

Domains Focus The Common Driving Desired Outcomes Question

Moving from fixed rules for achieving constant To remove stressors by yield to embracing complexity and absorption of shocks. surprise(Holling 1973), from the assumption of nature flat and constant toward nature Social-Ecological evolving(Lance H. Gunderson and Holling To regain control, 2002). predictability, and outlet and resource(Sapolsky 1990).

Moving from just-in-time management strategies to built-in adaptability, flexibility How to live in an To decrease the uncertain and globally probability and frequency Supply Chains (Sheffi 2005) and emergence(Choi, Dooley et al. 2001). networked world of failures(Bruneau, (Helbing 2013)? Chang et al. 2003), and the impact of cascading failures(Little Moving from technology-centric to 2004). community-centric (Bruneau and Reinhorn

2004, Andrew 2012), from artefact -oriented to

service-oriented approach, from ownership to To avoid losses from sharing and accessibility, and from protection Black Swan events Infrastructure Systems to evolution and adaptation to natural and man- (Viitanen and Kingston made hazards (Wilby and Keenan 2012). 2014) that have the potential to lead to irreversible changes(Scheffer 2009).

Moving from external crisis response to building community internal strength Disaster Management (Manyena 2006, Comfort, Boin et al. 2010).

Moving from better prediction to more Risk and Safety resilience(Wildavsky 1988).

Moving from good organizations to great Organizations organizations(Collins 2001).

Moving from seeing resilience as an individual Psychology trait toward a systemic view of resilience.

Future directions

The timeline of resilience shows a systemic convergence of the concept toward becoming increasingly linked to human agency (Hans-Georg Bohle, Benjamin Etzold et al. 2009, Rodin 2014) and the ability to regulate the fight-flight response (Russo, Murroughl et al. 2012). In a world full of complex adaptive systems (Liu, Dietz et al. 2007), being challenged by stress is an integral part of life. Thus, aiming for future-proofing our systems is not a way forward. Instead, a universal cognitive shift has to take place(Michel-Kerjan 2015). A shift of attitude to change is possible if research on resilience is also linked to the cognitive capacities of social systems in response to global challenges (Lutz, Muttarak et al. 2014).

Resilience is a verb We treat the concept of resilience as a verb ‘to resilience’. Since resilience can only be enhanced before shocks or stresses hit our systems, we propose the notion of ‘Resiliencing’(Beigi 2014) as the process of preparing for such eventualities. Resiliencing refers to the continuous and dynamic nature of building our portfolio of resourcefulness. Resilience in a single system (e.g., an individual, an organisation, an infrastructure, a supply chain, an ecosystem or a nation) can only manifest itself if certain steps or processes are put into place. Since we are living in an interconnected world, to become resilient all the involved systems need to mutually adapt (Liu, Mooney et al. 2015) and co-evolve.

Education on Stress

Sapolsky (1994) argues that exposure to stress is an inevitable result of functioning in the complex modern world. However, “despite the deleterious consequences of stress, humans have abundant capacity to become more resilient in the face of stress. The sublet and complex human correlates of the physiological stress response can be extraordinarily plastic. In short, we have a heartening capacity to change (Sapolsky 1994)”.

There is an urgent need to revisit and redefine resilience based on the role of human well-being (Tanner, Lewis et al. 2015). This however is applicable if we understand what stress actually is (Selye 1973), what stress is not (Selye 1984) and how it affects us. According to Selye (1973), stress is “the nonspecific response of the body to any demand made upon it (Selye 1973)”. The notion of non-specific is used to demonstrate that in theory it is possible to manipulate the state of disease by following the exact three steps the body experiences when facing a demanding input. These three steps are closely interdependent and together they can form a definite syndrome depending on the intensity of stressors. These stages are components of the general adaptation syndrome (GAS) system of biological beings. Learning about them has a crucial implication in finding out the limits and thresholds of biological systems.

Toward Becoming Resilient Agents

Resilient people have the ability to ‘decompose’ stress into pieces of information. Through this process of decomposition, stress bifurcates into two branches of ‘distresses’ and ‘eustresses’. Distress means negative stressors, whereas eustress refers to positive stressors. Resilient individuals are highly capable of drawing in resources from the external environment. Erwin Schrodinger Schrödinger defined this process of drawing order from the external environment into one’s inner ‘Negative Entropy (Shrodinger 1944)’. This ability is also defined as Bricolage or the ability to remain creative under pressure (Weick 1993). Through Bricolage and Negative Entropy, the person’s psychological and biological dimensions become ordered. After drawing resources into one’s body, the survival mechanism gradually turns off and the person can take a reflective view on the recently experienced stressor and refine his/her adaptation skills for future. While individuals’ agency over their resilience has limits and depends on other factors such as the strength of their supportive network, learning to distinguish between the positive stresses (eustress) and negative stresses (distress) is a necessary condition for successful adaptation in response to life challenges.

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