A Look at the Destruction and Decline of a Minoan Town: Palaikastro

TOTEM 5

A Look at the Decline and Destruction of a Minoan Town: Palaikastro

Amanda Hardman

Palaikastro, located on the appearance of open communication across northeastern coast of Crete, had already communities indicate the culture was become an important Minoan city by the end flourishing. For him, the destruction at of the Early Minoan Period (EM).1 Some Palaikastro and other Minoan sites came as a scholars believe it to have been on par with total surprise (Warren 1991:29). However, some of the smaller palatial centers like scholars who share this view have ignored Gournia and Zakros, and that future evidence of previous destructions dating to excavation will reveal a palace structure like the LMIA period (Driessen & MacDonald those at Knossos, Phaistos, and Malia 1997:104), as well as those in the MMII and (Driessen & MacDonald 1997:228). MMIII periods (Warren 1991:35-36). A However, at the end of the Late Minoan IB look at the archaeological remains from (LMIB) period it, along with most of the Palaikastro suggests a much different picture other Minoan sites, suffered a major than the one Warren paints. destruction (Demand 2006:46; Warren This article will argue – in agreement 1991:29), resulting in its temporary with Driessen and MacDonald (1997) - that abandonment (Page 1971:371). Although an earthquake and the subsequent Theran one of the very few Minoan sites to be re- volcanic eruption in the LMIA period led to inhabited in the Late Minoan II (LMII) a suffering and gradual decline at period by squatters, Palaikastro would never Palaikastro (and the Minoan culture in again regain the prominence or splendor it general), culminating in the LMIB had achieved in the early LMIA period destruction and temporary abandonment of (Driessen & MacDonald 1997:109, 111). the site. To do so, evidence for the LMIA Many scholars (including Warren destruction at Palaikastro will be examined, 1991; Soles and Davaras 1990) believe that including a survey of both the immediate “at the moment of destruction...the [Minoan] and more long-term effects and the decline civilization not only shows no signs of of the city. This will then be followed by a impending collapse but was in fact at its discussion of the cause of the LMIB highest level” (Warren 1991:29). More destruction and how it is related to the specifically, Warren (1991) argues that earlier destruction. Minoan Crete's economic interactions, the unfortified nature of the sites, and the The LMIA Destruction and Its Immediate Effects Both recent and older excavations at 1 Please note that after the introduction abbreviations will be used for the periods discussed in the article, Palaikastro have revealed that it suffered a i.e. MMIII = Middle Minoan III period, LMIA = Late major earthquake during the LMIA period, Minoan IA period, LMIB = Late Minoan IB period as indicated by the LMIA pottery found etc. Chronological dates for these periods have not within the destruction layer (Driessen & been included or discussed as there is still so much MacDonald 1997:15). House B, Blocks debate within the discipline. Relative chronology will suffice for this discussion. However, it may be Beta ( ), Delta ( ), Gamma ( ) and Pi ( ), helpful to note that the LMIB destruction is thought Building 2, Building 3, Building 4, and to have occurred around 1450 B.C. and the LMIA Building 7 all show unmistakable signs of anytime between 1640 and 1550 B.C.

TOTEM: vol.17 2008-2009 Copyright © 2009 TOTEM: The U.W.O. Journal of Anthropology TOTEM 6 earthquake destruction dating to the LMIA cm (Bruins et al. 2008:205; Driessen & period (Driessen & MacDonald 1997:228). MacDonald 1997:93). Fortunately at It appears that following this earthquake an Palaikastro the evidence is more clear. A effort was made to rebuild the site, as had layer eight centimetres deep of Theran been done following all the previous volcanic ash was found outside Building 7, volcanic activity in the area (Driessen & near and inside Building 6 as well as along MacDonald 1997:33). However, this the coast cliff, mixed with other sediments rebuilding was put on hold following the and ceramic sherds (Bruins et al. 2008:196; eruption of the volcano on Thera. The Driessen & MacDonald 1997:234). What eruption was devastating to the island of effect did this amount of ash have? Most Thera, although there is still much debate as scholars have argued that there is no way to to how much of an effect it had on Crete tell what the effect of poisonous gases, acid especially when it comes to the severity of rain or scorching winds may have been on the ash-fall on eastern Crete and its effects. the people or animals of Crete (Driessen & Over the next four sections, evidence for the MacDonald 1997:90). However, it is destruction of Palaikastro by the Theran possible that the volcanic ash could have eruption related ash-fall, depletion of ground seriously affected the fresh water supply. water, and tsunamis will be analyzed, Wells would have been easily muddied and including an outline of the immediate effects would have needed to be replaced. At these would have had on the city. Palaikastro there is such evidence: wells going out of use and new ones being built Ash-Fall (Driessen & MacDonald 1997:100). Studies done by Vitaliano & Another possible result of the ash- Vitaliano (1974:20) in the 1970s on the fall on Crete was climate change (Driessen tephra (volcanic ash) found in the LMIA & Macdonald 1997:92; Gorokhovich destruction layers on Crete revealed it to 2005:218). Decline in precipitation, change have the same refractive index (~1.509) as in water quality, reduced sun radiation, a the ash on Thera, indicating that the ash on cooler climate, length of the growing season, Crete was in fact from the same volcanic and the nature of the crops harvested are all eruption as the one on Thera. These factors which can be expected to have findings were reinforced in 2002 when affected the agricultural output of the Bruins examined separate tephra deposits Minoans at Palaikastro and other areas. In (also found in LMIA destruction layers) addition, the Theran ash was found to using geochemical and elemental analysis contain high silicate and fluoride which (Bruins et al. 2005:197). However, many would have changed the soils with a high differing opinions and estimates have been magnesium content to iron-poor, silica rich given for the amount of ash that fell on the soils (Driessen & Macdonald 1997:100). If islands and many excavations uncovered the Theran eruption happened in the early little or no evidence of volcanic ash (Blong summer as suggested by prevailing wind 1978:224; Driessen & MacDonald 1997; directions and by the fact that the pithoi in Hood 1978:684; Schiering 1978:699). Akrotiri were almost empty (the harvest had Those estimates based on the position of not yet been done), the harmful effects on Crete suggest 30-50 cm (Page 1978:693), the agriculture of Crete should not be while more conservative estimates based on underestimated (Driessen & Macdonald geographical extrapolation from deep sea 1997:100). Excavators noted a large sediments places the estimate closer to 5-10 increase in the conversion of previous living

TOTEM: vol.17 2008-2009 Copyright © 2009 TOTEM: The U.W.O. Journal of Anthropology TOTEM 7 space into storage space during the months, which could have slowed rebuilding of Palaikastro following the agriculture and as Gorokhovich (2005:219) LMIA eruption, suggesting that food argues “be interpreted as 'God's Wrath'”, production and its storage had become of with both acting as a stimulus for fundamental importance during this period emigration. At Palaikastro, the population (Driessen & Macdonald 1997:102). appears to have dropped significantly as Low rainfall during this time could indicated by the abandonment of House B, have allowed ash to cling to vegetation for Area 6, and Building 2 in LMIA after the long periods of time resulting in the eruption, in addition to the decrease in the destruction of grape, olive, and cereal crops level of occupation in the houses still (Driessen & Macdonald 1997:100). Such inhabited (Driessen & MacDonald devastation could have caused a famine in a 1997:233). subsistence agriculture system such as that of the Minoans; however, as already stated Tsunamis above, there are those who feel that the ash Marinatos (1939:435) was the first to from the volcano would have made very suggest that tsunamis caused by the Theran little difference on Crete, or that at this time eruption were the cause of the LMIA there is not sufficient evidence to make a destruction of eastern coastal Minoan towns, definite statement (See Blong 1978:224; including Palaikastro. However, there was Hood 1978:684; Schiering 1978:699) little or no evidence to support his claim However, while future finds may force until the publication by Bruins et al.(2008). reconsiderations, based on the current Bruins et al. (2008) present undeniable evidence, the conclusions being present here proof that the city of Palaikastro was struck are the most likely to have occurred. by a tsunami in the LMIA period. Finds of imbrication (overlapping) of ceramic sherds, Depletion of Ground Water Supply other archaeological and natural components Gorokhovich (2005:217) argues that (including cattle bone radiocarbon dated to both the earthquake activity before the the LMIA period), chaotic multi-modal eruption of Thera as well as continuing geographical deposits, and coralline algae seismic activity throughout and after it may and foraminifera are each definite signs of have caused a depletion of ground water tsunamis, and could not have been caused by supply at Minoan sites. Seismic motions any other water source (i.e. springs, storms, and the resulting stress have been shown to flooding, etc.). Furthermore, storm flooding be responsible for the increase in the is a natural process involving multiple permeability of rock beds, which can lead to waves that would have resulted in numerous the disappearance of streams and a major discrete layers, instead of the single multi- decline in the water levels of wells component layer that was uncovered at (Gorokhovich 2005:219). Evidence of this Palaikastro (Bruins et al. 2008:198). The occurrence may be seen in the closing and effects of such an event could have been relocation of wells in Palaikastro (Driessen devastating, not only to architecture but also & MacDonald 1997:48). It seems possible to the water supply. that following a drop in water levels in the As discussed above, the first well, the people of Palaikastro went in abandonment of one well and building of search of a different source. However, the another could be the result of either ash depletion of ground water can last for an pollution or depletion of ground water. uncertain period of time, from days to However, it is also possible that sea water

TOTEM: vol.17 2008-2009 Copyright © 2009 TOTEM: The U.W.O. Journal of Anthropology TOTEM 8 from the tsunami and the resulting flooding before the volcanic destruction were may have polluted the well water. The converted into food storage areas (Driessen construction of the enclosure around the & MacDonald 1997:52). Moreover, many well, thought by some to have been erected houses, like X4 (with its olive press) and as protection from human destructions houses E, B, 2, and 6, (equipped with clay (Driessen & MacDonald 1997:48) may have tubes for wine making) became local also served as increased protection against production centers (Driessen & MacDonald flooding and pollution. In terms of 1997:51). This would suggest that the architectural destruction, the tsunami inhabitants of Palaikastro were in a period of appears to have been what caused the most stress and were forced to take subsistence damage to the houses at Palaikastro, into their own hands. Moreover, it implies especially Building 2, which appears to have that the palatial centers which had once been leveled (Bruins et al. 2008:193; controlled production and food storage were Driessen & MacDonald 1997:90). Flooding no longer capable and that this “economic may have also led to the temporary aspect of Crete had ceased to be organized abandonment of the site. However, for solely by the central palatial authorities” some, the emigration would be permanent, (Driessen & MacDonald 1997:101). as indicated by both the decreased number The structures that were rebuilt were of houses as well and rooms within these a pale imitation of their previous selves. houses in the following period. Little ashlar masonry was used and stone was scavenged from ruins of neighbouring Long-Term Effects and the Decline of buildings (Driessen & MacDonald 1997:42- Palaikastro 43). Moreover, instead of cleaning up the Although much work still needs to destruction, doorways were often blocked to be done testing the arguments set out above, hide the ruins. It is clear that at this time Driessen and MacDonald (1997) are correct few had the means to reproduce the in asserting that it is clear from the monumental architecture which had archaeological remains that the city of characterized the proceeding period Palaikastro could never fully recover from (Driessen & MacDonald 1997:42). In the LMIA destruction and consequently addition, previously monumental halls were underwent a period of decline and stress. subdivided into smaller dwellings, which This decline is clearly shown in the suggests the presence of more than one rebuilding of the city after the LMIA family dwelling together or squatters, which destruction. After the destruction a number is usually seen in times of stress and poverty of houses were abandoned including House (Driessen & MacDonald 1997:43). This B, Building 2, and Area 6. The level of pattern of rather sloppy rebuilding suggests occupation within the re-inhabited houses that the city had undergone some negative also decreased. Both these observations economic and political changes (Driessen & indicate that there was a significant decrease MacDonald 1997:44), which resulted from in the population size at Palaikastro during the LMIA earthquake and eruption, and that time (Driessen & MacDonald 1997:42). which led to the continuing decline of the The houses that were re-occupied underwent city until the LMIB destruction. some very significant changes in their If the results from Palaikastro are structure and function after their destruction any indication, there seems to have been a (Driessen & MacDonald 1997:39). Many trend toward decentralization and areas, which once held a domestic function regionalism across the entire Minoan

TOTEM: vol.17 2008-2009 Copyright © 2009 TOTEM: The U.W.O. Journal of Anthropology TOTEM 9 civilization. Administrative functions, as his argument came to be refuted when it was well as food production and storage moved discovered that Marine style pottery away from the palace centers and into the connected with the LMIB period on Crete hands of a new elite, whose presence is had not made an appearance on Thera at the indicated by the few isolated attempts to time of the eruption, which suggested that replicate the architectural grandeur of the the volcano had erupted prior to the Cretan former period (Driessen & MacDonald LMIB destruction (Schiering 1978:699). 1997:82). However, this does not mean an Page (1971:273), still believing that the increase of wealth or importance for the Theran eruption was to blame for the LMIB common Minoan. Of the 40 houses destructions, proposed that there must have excavated at Palaikastro, only eight had any been two eruptions on Thera, one which sort of valuables in them (Driessen & deposited the pumice layer and destroyed MacDonald 1997:228-233). This apparent Thera, and a second eruption which caused shift in power appears to have caused the the later devastations on Crete. However, disintegration of the Neopalatial system, and the archaeological evidence indicates that as Driessen and MacDonald (1997:102) the eruption on Thera was of short duration argue probably resulted in social strife. It is and that the LMIB destruction came later clear from the archaeological and (Hood 1978:683). In recent discourse, architectural remains that the Minoan earthquake (Schiering 1978:699), outside Neopalatial town of Palaikastro did suffer a invasion (Demand 2006; Hood 1971:381; decline following the LMIA earthquake and Hood 1978:683), and internal strife volcano related destructions from which it (Driessen & MacDonald 1997) have become could not recover. In an effort to discover the three most widely argued causes for the what caused it and how it was related to the LMIB destruction horizon with no previous period of decline, focus will now consensus. be shifted to a discussion of the LMIB The first of the hypotheses, that an destruction. earthquake caused the fire destruction at Palaikastro and elsewhere, seems unlikely. The LMIB Destruction Natural disaster cannot be expected to have “This event or events... marks the caused the level nor the wide distribution of ruin of a high civilization based on large damage experienced across eastern Crete central buildings (conveniently called (Driessen & MacDonald 1997:108). palaces), thriving coastal towns and complex Instead, human destructive agency remains a rural estates” (Warren 1991:29). Fire more viable alternative. Perhaps the biggest appears to have been the main agent in the indicator of this at Palaikastro is the LMIB destruction - traditionally dated to evidence that its inhabitants sensed an 1450 B.C. (Hood 1978:681), which affected approaching danger. In the period between most of the Bronze Age Minoan sites, the LMIA and LMIB destructions, some especially those in eastern Crete, including areas of the site were rebuilt to restrict Palaikastro (Driessen & MacDonald access (Driessen & MacDonald 1997:33). 1997:106, 108). Marinatos (1939:430) Moreover, an enclosure was built around the argued that the volcanic eruption was to main fresh water supply (a well), in addition blame for the LMIB eruptions, citing to others perhaps constructed for the tsunamis as the cause of the fire.2 However, the volcanic ash), when lamps, etc., would have been 2 Marinatos (1939:435) suggests that the waves must burning, which being disturbed by the water would have hit the town at night (or a darkness induced by have cause fire damage.

TOTEM: vol.17 2008-2009 Copyright © 2009 TOTEM: The U.W.O. Journal of Anthropology TOTEM 10 protection of livestock (Driessen & in later, during the aftermath of the MacDonald 1997:48). There is also an destruction, taking advantage of the severely indication that prior to the LMIB weakened Minoan state. Warren (1991:36) destructions, people were hoarding and indicates that it was not until after the final hiding valuables. For example, excavations fall of Knossos in the LMIIA2 period that in House C at Palaikastro revealed a niche the Mycenaeans gained significant control containing a small hoard of bronze objects, of the island. At first glance the material and in rooms 16 and 41 of House X (Chi) remains found within the houses at small bronze figurines were recovered Palaikastro may appear to indicate that a (Driessen & MacDonald 1997:228). It also battle did cause the damage. In House X 51- appears that only some buildings were 66, a sword and two bronze daggers were targeted for destruction while others left found and another bronze dagger or sword alone. At Palaikastro, while House B was in House X-17 (Driessen & MacDonald destroyed by fire, a house to the north was 1997:228)5. However, this number seems spared (Driessen & MacDonald 1997:228). too few and isolated to indicate that a major Finally, there is some evidence that the site destructive battle was fought here. was plundered at this time, with the looters Moreover, the absence of human victims is evidently smashing and then scattering also puzzling and does not support this valuables left behind by the previous conclusion. It would appear then that inhabitants. Examples of this include the internal strife is the most likely candidate for pithoi3 in House N (Driessen & MacDonald the cause of the LMIB destructions at 1997:109) and the famous Palaikastro Palaikastro and elsewhere in eastern Crete. chryselephantine kouros4, which was As argued above, the LMIA earthquake and smashed, snapped and, then “flung” by its subsequent Theran eruption led to a cultural destroyer (Bretschneider et al. 2007:35). decline and breakdown. It is not difficult to The question now remains; were think that this unraveling may have led to Palaikastro and its neighbours destroyed by internal stress, resulting in the anarchistic foreign invaders or internal strife? Demand destruction of Cretan towns, cities and (2006:42) suggests that the LMIB palatial centers. It would appear then that it destruction was the result of the was the period of decline following the Mycenaeans. Both Demand (2006) and LMIA destruction which resulted in social Hood (1978) see the presence of strife (in turn caused by the decentralization Mycenaeans at Knossos (the introduction of of the political system and emergence of a Linear B, Mycenaean style burials and grave new elite), which led to this LMIB goods, etc.) as “in harmony with the view destruction. that the horizon of fire-destruction in Crete in the Late Minoan IB reflects a war of Conclusion conquest” (Hood 1978:683). However, it The destruction and temporary could be argued that the Mycenaeans came abandonment of Palaikastro during the LMIB period marked the culmination of a 3 Pithoi: (singular pithos) comes from the ancient Greek s, . The term is used to by archaeologists for the large storage jars which have 5 Driessen and MacDonald (1997) also list findings been uncovered throughout the Mediterranean. of bronze double-headed axes, however they are 4 Kouros: (plural kouroi) comes from the ancient associated with Minoan religious cult rather than Greek s . It is the term used by warfare and have therefore not been included in the archaeologists/art historians etc., for statuary discussion of the appearance of weapons in the representations of male youths. remains at Palaikastro.

TOTEM: vol.17 2008-2009 Copyright © 2009 TOTEM: The U.W.O. Journal of Anthropology TOTEM 11 period of decline and increased stress at the (Second Edition). Cornwall-on-Hudson, site, and was not as some scholars would New York: Sloan Publishers. suggest, a surprising downfall at the time when Minoan civilization had “reached its Driessen, Jan and Colin F. MacDonald. zenith” (Soles & Davaras 1990:94). The 1997. The Troubled Island: Minoan Crete earthquake, tsunami and tephra ash-fall each Before and After the Santorini Eruption. affected the site of Palaikastro (and its Austin, Texas: University of Texas Press. surrounding neighbours) in a negative way, leading to the decline of both the site and the Gorokhovich, Yuri. 2005. Abandonment of Minoan civilization as a whole. The decline Minoan Palaces on Crete in Relation to the and the stress of the proceeding period Earthquake Induced Changes in appears to have played a key role in the Groundwater Supply. Journal of LMIB destruction at Palaikastro. Archaeological Science. 32(2):217-222.

References Cited Hood, S. 1971. Late Bronze Age Destruction at Knossos. In Thera and the Blong, J. R. 1978. The Possible Effects of Aegean World I, ed. Doumas, 378-383. Santorini Tephra Fall on Minoan Crete. In London: Thera Foundation. Thera and the Aegean World II, ed. Doumas, 217-226. London: Thera . 1978. Traces of the Eruption Foundation. Outside Thera. In Thera and the Aegean World II, ed. Doumas, 681-690. London: Bretschneider, J., Driessen, J and K. van Thera Foundation. Lerberghe. 2007. Power and Architecture: Monumental Public Architecture in the Marinatos, S. 1939. The Volcanic Bronze Age Near East and Aegean. Destruction of Minoan Crete. Antiquity. Leuven, Belgium: Peeters Publishers. 13:425-439.

Bruins, H. J., MacGillivray, J. A., Synolakis, Page, D. 1971. The Volcano at Santorini and C. E., Benjamini, C., Keller, J., Kisch, H. the Devastation of Minoan Crete: An J., Klügel, A., and Johanes vas der Plicht. Introduction to the Historical and 2008. Geoarchaeological Tsunami Archaeological Problem. In Thera and the Deposits at Palaikastro (Crete) and the Aegean World I, ed. Doumas, 371-376. Late Minoan IA Eruption of Santorini. London: Thera Foundation. Journal of Archaeological Science. 35(1):191-212. . 1978. On the Relation Between the Thera Eruption and the Destruction of Castleden, Rodney. 1990. Minoans: Life in Eastern Crete, c. 1450 B.C. In Thera and Bronze Age Crete. New York, New York: the Aegean World II, ed. Doumas, 691- Routledge. 698. London: Thera Foundation.

. 2005. Mycenaeans. New York, New Schiering, W. 1978. The Eruption of the York: Routledge. Volcano on Thera and the Destruction of Crete. In Thera and the Aegean World II, Demand, Nancy. 2006. A History of Ancient ed. Doumas, 699-701. London: Thera Greece In Its Mediterranean Context Foundation.

Soles, J.S., and C. Davaras. 1990. Theran Ash in Minoan Crete: New Excavations of Mochlos. In Thera and the Aegean World III, ed. Doumas, 89-98. London: Thera Foundation.

Vitaliano, Charles J., and Dorothy B. Vitaliano. 1974. Volcanic Tephra on Crete. American Journal of Archaeology. 78(1):19-24.

Warren, P. M. 1991. The Minoan Civilization of Crete and the Volcano at Thera. Journal of the Ancient Chronology Forum, 4:29-39.