STUDIESSTUDIES ININ MEDITERRANEAN MEDITERRANEAN ARCHAEOLOGYARCHAEOLOGY VOL.VOL. XCxc

BRONZEBRONZE AGEAGE TRADETRADE ININ THE MEDITERRANEANMEDITERRANEAN

PapersPapers PresentedPresented at the ConferenceConference heldheld atat Rewley Rewley House, House, Oxford, Oxford, in in DecemberDecember 1989

EditedEdited byby N.H.N.H. GaleGale

JONSEREDJONSERED 19911991 PAULPAUL ASTROMSASTROMS FORLAGFORLAG CONTENTS

Preface iv H.W. Catling:Catling: BronzeBronze AgeAge Trade in thethe Mediterranean: a View 11 A.M. Snodgrass:Snodgrass: BronzeBronze Age Exchange: a Minimalist PositionPosition 1515 A.B. Knapp:Knapp: Spice,Spice, Drugs,Drugs, GrainGrain andand Grog:Grog: OrganicOrganic GoodsGoods inin BronzeBronze Age East 21 Mediterranean TradeTrade G.F. Bass:Bass: EvidenceEvidence of Trade from Bronze Age ShipwrecksShipwrecks 69 S.S. McGrail: BronzeBronze AgeAge SeafaringSeafaring inin thethe Mediterranean:Mediterranean: a ViewView fromfrom N.W. EuropeEurope 8383 J.F. CherryCherry && A.B.A.B. Knapp: Knapp: Quantitative Quantitative Provenance Provenance StudiesStudies and Bronze Age 9292 Trade inin thethe Mediterranean: Mediterranean: SomeSome PreliminaryPreliminary ReflectionsReflections E.B. French:French: TracingTracing ExportsExports of MycenaeanMycenaean Pottery: the Manchester ContributionContribution 121121 R.E.R.E. JonesJones && L.L. Vagnetti: Vagnetti: TradersTraders and and CraftsmenCraftsmen inin thethe CentralCentral Mediterranean:Mediterranean: 127127 ArchaeologicalArchaeological EvidenceEvidence andand ArchaeometricArchaeometric Research Research P.P. Astrgm:Astrom: CanaaniteCanaanite JarsJars fromfrom HalaHala SultanSultan TekkeTekke 149149 P.M.P.M. Fischer:Fischer: Canaanite Pottery from Hala SultanSultan Tekke: AnalysisAnalysis with Secondary 152152 IonIon Mass Spectrometry E.E. Peltenburg: Greeting Gifts and Luxury Faience:Faience: aa ContextContext forfor OrientalisingOrientalising 162162 TrendsTrends in LateLate MycenaeanMycenaean GreeceGreece J.D.J.D. Muhly:Muhly: TheThe DevelopmentDevelopment of Copper Metallurgy inin LateLate BronzeBronze AgeAge Cyprus Cyprus 180180 N.H.N.H. Gale:Gale: Copper Oxhide Ingots:Ingots: theirtheir OriginOrigin andand theirtheir PlacePlace inin thethe Bronze Age 197197 MetalsMetals Trade inin thethe MediterraneanMediterranean Th.Th. Rehren: Selenium and TelluriumTellurium inin MediterraneanMediterranean Copper Copper Ingots Ingots 240240 Z.A.Z.A. Stos-Gale & C.F.C.F. Macdonald:Macdonald: Sources Sources of of Metals Metals and and TradeTrade in in thethe Bronze Bronze 249249 AgeAge Aegean J.J. Evans: Organic Traces andand their Contribution toto thethe UnderstandingUnderstanding of of Trade Trade 289289 P.M.P.M. Warren: A MerchantMerchant Class in Bronze AgeAge Crete?Crete? TheThe EvidenceEvidence of of Egyptian Egyptian 295295 StoneStone Vases from thethe CityCity of of Knossos Knossos J.J. Weingarten: Lateiate BronzeBronze Age Trade within Crete: the Evidence ofof SealsSeals andand 303303 SealingsSealings [email protected]. WWiener: iener: TheThe NatureNature andand ControlControl ofof MinoanMinoan Foreign Trade z*325 A.A. & S.S. Sherratt:Sherratt: FromFrom LuxuriesLuxuries toto Commodities:Commodities: thethe NatureNature of MediterraneanMediterranean 351351 BronzeBronze AgeAge TradingTrading SystemsSystems M.M. Melas: MediterraneanMediterranean TradeTrade inin thethe BronzeBronze Age:Age: a Theoretical Perspective 387387

. . . iii111 THETHE NATURE ANDAND CONTROL CONTROL OF OF MINOAN MINOAN FOREIGN FOREIGN TRADE TRADE

MalcolmMalcolm H.H. Wiener

ForFor Sinclair andand Rachel HoodHood THE PREPALATIAL BACKGROUND fromfrom the prepalatialprepalatial period provideprovide supportsupport TradeTrade (along withwith manymany otherother activities) activities) has has forfor thethe minimalist view of trade advocated at beenbeen called thethe worldworld's ’s secondsecond oldestoldest pro- thisthis Symposium byby Snodgrass andand Catling? fession,fession, and indeed thethe eagernesseagerness with whichwhich OrOr doesdoes the evidence cited merely hint at thethe fivefive-year-olds-year-olds trade objectsobjects mightmight suggest suggest truetrue extent of trade,trade, givengiven thethe accidents accidents ofof thatthat tradetrade isis the oldest. InIn archaeological timetime recoveryrecovery andand thethe possibility possibility of oftrade trade in in also,also, trade cancan claimclaim greatgreat antiquityantiquity asas sugg- sugg- perishablesperishables leavingleaving nono trace?trace? OfOf coursecourse eveneven estedested byby the appearance ofof MelianMelian obsidian at occasionaloccasional cross-cultural exchangesexchanges betweenbetween variousvarious places,places, including inlandinland sitessites onon thethe rulersrulers could havehave hadhad majormajor consequences,consequences, GreekGreek mainlandmainland beginningbeginning withwith thethe Paleo-Paleo- suchsuch asas thethe acquisition acquisition of ofknowledge knowledge of of lithiclithic periodperiod (Perles(Per& 1989;c.f.Torrence1989;c.J:Torrence 1986).1986). metallurgymetallurgy andand writingwriting (particularly(particularly ifif thethe exchangeexchange involvedinvolved gifts gifts of of artisans, artisans, a a practicepractice OnOn Crete EM11EMII witnesseswitnesses aa greatgreat expansionexpansion wellwell-attested-attested inin NearNear Eastern texts).texts). ButBut waswas ofof tradetrade horizons,horizons, withwith the the appearance appearance of of BronzeBronze Age long-distance trade as limitedlimited inin importsimports including gold, aa silversilver seal, seal, faie-faie- extentextent and naturenature asas thethe minimalists minimalists suggest? suggest? nce,rice, ivory,ivory, andand EgyptianEgyptian stonestone vasesvases onon thethe islands.islands. TheThe contemporaneous contemporaneous burials burials at at ThreeThree contrary argumentsarguments inin particularparticular seemseem MochlosMochlos givegive evidence forfor the firstfirst timetime ofof worthworth noting. First,First, trade trade would would alwaysalways havehave significantsignificant socialsocial stratification (Soles 1988, consistedconsisted in large partpart ofof goods goods which which leave leave 49-61).49-61). FromFrom aa tombtomb at atMochlos Mochlos with with nono trace.trace. TheThe taletale of of the the mid-l mid -11th1 th centurycentury EMIIAEMIIA to EM111EMIII materialmaterial comescomes a abronze bronze B.C.B.C. voyagevoyage ofof Wenamun, Wenamun, who who travelled travelled daggerdagger ofof Cretan type (Branigan(Branigan 1967,1967, 214-214- fromfrom Egypt toto Byblos toto purchase timbertimber inin 215,215, NoteNote 44), withwith aa tin tin content content of of 4.8% 4.8% exchangeexchange for significantsignificant quantities of linenlinen (Herakleion(Herakleion Museum, HMHM 1560), 1560), suggestingsuggesting garments,garments, papyrus, oxox hides,hides, ropes,ropes, lentils lentils thethe importationimportation ofof tin tin to supplyto supply Cretan Cretan andand fish, plusplus goldgold andand silver,silver, isis an an excellent excellent metalsmiths at at thisthis period.period. TheThe firstfirst ostrichostrich example ofof trade without aa tracetrace (Pemigotti(Pernigotti egg knownknown in inCrete, Crete, from from a tomb a attomb at 1988,1988, 267-268;267-268; DothanDothan 1981,1981, 4-5;4-5; Van Van Palaikastro, alsoalso comescomes fromfrom this this horizon horizon SetersSeters 1979, 37;37; LichtheimLichtheim 1976,1976, 224-230;224-230; (Dawkins(Dawkins 1903-1904, 192-231). TradeTrade linkslinks GardinerGardiner 1961,1961, 306-313). WhenWhen thethe naturenature toto the north at thisthis timetime areare indicatedindicated by the ofof trade goodsgoods cancan bebe determined determined fromfrom their their probable Kythnian origin of the copper fromfrom containers the resultresult isis sometimessometimes aa surprise,surprise, which MinoanMinoan figurines figurines and and daggersdaggers foundfound as inin thethe early early Chalcolithic Chalcolithic period period in thein the in Mesara tholoitholoi areare mademade (Stos-Gale(Stos-Gale 1989,1989, western MediterraneanMediterranean where, inin thethe first first 279-292), andand by by sherds sherds from from EH/ECII EH/ECII half of thethe thirdthird millennium,millennium, MaltaMalta importedimported L sauceboatssauceboats fromfrom good good EM11EMII contextscontexts significantsignificant quantitiesquantities ofof ochreochre fromfrom Sicily for (Wilson,(Wilson, D. E.E. 1985,1985, 358-359). 358-359). use in funeraryfunerary andand otherother ritualsrituals (Maniscalco(Maniscalco 1989,1989, 541). THETHB M~nmmrMINIMALIST VVIEWIEW OF0~ TRADET RADE AND THE PROBLEMSPROBLEMS OF OF INFERENCEINFERENCE FROMER~M Second, harbourharbour sitessites areare particularlyparticularly subjectsubject EVIDENCEEVIDENCI~ to lossloss through through change change of shorelineof shoreline or or Does the limited evidence of overseas contactcontact reoccupation. MuchMuch ofof our our knowledge knowledge of of

325 prepalatial Minoan contacts with Egypt or the ingots from another shipwreck off prepalatial Minoan contacts with Egypt or the ingots from another shipwreck off Haifa),Haifa), Near East comes from the island of Mochlos, and an enormous number of copper ingots Nearwhich East in comes Minoan from times the islandis thought of Mochlos, to have and an enormous number of copper ingots which in Minoan times is thought to have (Bass(Bass 1986). 1986). NearNear Eastern Eastern archives archives from from been part of a peninsula. Detachment as an Ebla, been part of a peninsula. Detachment as an Ebla, ManMari and and the the Assyrian Assyrian trading trading colony colony island here acted as a partial deterrent to at Ktiltepe island here acted as a partial deterrent to at Kiiltepe listlist grhtgrAt amounts amounts of metal,of metal, post-Roman reoccupation or cultivation, thus practically none of which was found in the post-Roman reoccupation or cultivation, thus practically none of which was found in the protecting the tombs from discovery and excavations. protecting the tombs from discovery and excavations. TheThe paucity paucity of of bronze bronze in inLH- LH- looting. (Our other major source of evidence LMIIIB habitation sites and tombs led some looting. (Our other major source of evidence LMIIIB habitation sites and tombs led some for overseas contact in the prepalatial period scholars to suspect a IIIB bronze shortage, for overseas contact in the prepalatial period scholars to suspect a MB bronze shortage, is Knossos, where &he levelling of the hill, but the Pylos tablets suggest a total of about is Knossos, where the levelling of the hill, but the Pylos tablets suggest a total of about first perhaps before the construction of the 400 bronzesmiths (Chadwick 1976, 141). first perhaps before the construction of the 400 bronzesmiths (Chadwick 1976, 141). Old Palace and again after the MMIIA The existence of this number of bronzesmiths Old Palace and again after the MMIIA The existence of this number of bronzesmiths destruction, scattered much of the evidence in the territory of Pylos is surely of some destruction, scattered much of the evidence in the territory of Pylos is surely of some of earlier occupation.) significance, even if most receive only a of earlier occupation.) significance, even if most receive only a smallsmall allotment allotment of of bronze bronze and and some some none none on on Third, the archaeological record tends in thethe tablets tablets in in question. questi0n.l1 Third,particular the toarchaeological preserve a deceptively record tends small in particularproportion to ofpreserve the metal a indeceptively use at any time,small On balance, it would appear that the risk of proportionsince metal of isthe always metal subjectin use toat meltingany time, and On balance, it would appear that the risk of underestimation of the amount and societal sincereuse. metalAn is illustration always subject of the tophenomenon melting and is underestimation of the amount and societal impact of long-distance trade in the Bronze reuse.the contrast An illustration between ofthe the evidence phenomenon for the is impact of long-distance trade in the Bronze Age is at least as great as the risk of over- theexistence contrast of betweenarmour inthe the evidence1 lth century for A.D.the Age is at least as great as the risk of over- existenceprovided of by armour the Bayeux in the tapestry11th century on the A.D. one estimation.estimation. providedhand, and by by the the Bayeux archaeological tapestry recordon the on one the hand,other. andIn by the the tapestry, archaeological senior recordranks onon boththe other. In the tapestry, senior ranks on both SnodgrassSnodgrass in in his his paper paper argues argues that that trade trade by by sides weaf iron-link tunics, but no Norman one definition - “movement of goods without sidesand onlywear oneiron Anglo-Saxon-link tunics, butpiece no of Norman the one definition - "movement of goods without knowledge ofba further purchaser ” - did not andperiod only survives one Anglo-Saxon (Wilson, D. M.piece 1985, of 221).the knowledge of, a further purchaser" - did not period survives (Wilson, D. M. 1985, 221). existexist to to any extentextent inin the the Aegean Aegean Bronze Bronze In the 17th century A.D., a silver brazier, or Age. Markets, he believes, were marginal In the 17th century A.D., a silver brazier, or Age. Markets, he believes, were marginal brusero, was a frequent item of equipment in and the concept of profit absent. Snodgrass brasero,upper class was housesa frequent in Spain item ofand equipment France, butin and the concept of profit absent. Snodgrass upper class houses in Spain and France, but envisages,envisages, instead, instead, a a processprocess ofof ceremonial due probably to the large amount of silver gift exchange between rulers involving high due probably to the large amount of silver gift exchange between rulers involving high these objects contained practically none have value, low bulk prestige items, accompanied thesesurvived objects (Gruber contained 1982, practically 232). Similarly, none have value, low bulk prestige items, accompanied survived (Gruber 1982, 232). Similarly, byby negotiatednegotiated exchangeexchange of highof highbulk bulk Egyptian New Kingdom tomb paintings and necessities and the systematic redistribution Egyptian New Kingdom tomb paintings and necessities and the systematic redistribution temple reliefs depict a great number of of these within Aegean communities. To this temple reliefs depict a great number of of these within Aegean communities. To this copper ingots, but only one has ever been view certain objections may be raised. First, copper ingots, but only one has ever been view certain objections may be raised. First, found in Egypt. The Annals of Tuthmosis III as Snodgrass notes, trade by any definition found in Egypt. The Annals of Tuthmosis III as Snodgrass notes, trade by any definition carved on his temple at Kamak record as clearly flourished in the Near East in the carved on his temple at Karnak record as clearly flourished in the Near East in the booty 52 silver jars of Canaanite shape Bronze Age. The principal function of the booty 52 silver jars of Canaanite shape Bronze Age. The principal function of the (Wrezinski 1923, Plates 33A and B, Item Assyrian trading colonies in Anatolia was the (Wrezinski 1923, Plates 33A and B, Item Assyrian trading colonies in Anatolia was the lOO), but who has ever seen a Canaanite jar generation of profits for state institutions and 100), but who has ever seen a Canaanite jar generation of profits for state institutions and in silver? Few of the gold vessels depicted in private investors in Assyria. (See, e.g., the in silver? Few of the gold vessels depicted in private investors in Assyria. (See, e.g., the the annals or in Egyptian tombs survive papers by Garelli, Larsen and Veenhof in the annals or in Egyptian tombs survive papers by Garelli, Larsen and Veenhof in either (Lilyquist 1988, 39). The Kas ship- Hawkins (ed.), Trade in the Ancient Near eitherwreck (Lilyquist disclosed 1988,ingots 39).of tin Theand glass,Kas ship- Hawkins (ed.), Trade in the Ancient Near wreck disclosed ingots of tin and glass, EastEast 1977;1977; Adams Adams 1974; 1974; and and Veenhof Vcenhof 1972.) 1972.) - otherwise unknown (except for some tin And otherwise unknown (except for some tin And thethe injunctioninjunction containedcontained in in one one letterletter --

326326 "Sell“Sell atat any priceprice" ” -- surelysurely speaksspeaks the the thethe question ofof thethe role role of theof statethe statein in languagelanguage of of markets markets (Veenhof (Veenhof 1972,1972, 88).88). comparisoncomparison with with the the role role of of other other entities entities and and ofof individualsindividuals in in long-distance,long-distance, cross-culturalcross-cultural trade appears of criticalcritical importanceimportance forfor ourour InIn anyany event,event, it is thethe effecteffect ofof long-distance,long-distance, trade appears of understanding of the governancegovernance andand econ-econ- cross-culturalcross-cultural trade trade that that matters,matters, ratherrather thanthan understanding of the omy of Crete and the developmentdevelopment ofof Minoan Minoan thethe purportedpurported intent.intent. If,If, pursuantpursuant to to aa care-care- omy of Crete and the civilization. 2 fullyfully negotiatednegotiated agreement agreement the the PharaohPharaoh sendssends civilization. 2 aa gift ofof a athousand thousand Egyptian Egyptian stone stone vases vases MINOAN VERSEAS RADE IN THE LD filledfilled withwith unguentsunguents to to thethe KingKing ofof Babylon MINOAN OOVERSEAS TRADET IN TIE OOLD inin exchangeexchange forfor otherother goodsgoods (Moran(Moran 1987,1987, PALACEPALACEPERIOD PERIOD 99-100;99-100; Knudtzon 1915, 118),118), and some of What,What, then,then, waswas the nature andand structure ofof thethe vasesvases areare distributed distributed within within Babylon Babylon MinoanMinoan overseasoverseas trade inin thethe Old Old Palace Palace whilewhile othersothers areare exchanged elsewhere,elsewhere, thenthen period?period? InIn a a1984 1984 symposium symposium Alexiou Alexiou thethe result inin factfact is is trade. trade. Conversely, Conversely, a a (1987),(1987), KopckeKopcke (1987)(1987) andand WienerWiener (1987)(1987) ceremonialceremonial giftgift exchangeexchange relationshiprelationship bet-bet- arguedargued forfor aa strongstrong palatialpalatial rolerole inin this trade, weenween rulers, eveneven oneone maintainedmaintained despitedespite thethe lastlast namednamed emphasizingemphasizing the the need need of of thethe thethe availabilityavailability ofof equivalent equivalent supplies supplies at at palacespalaces to to insureinsure accessaccess toto suppliessupplies ofof coppercopper lowerlower cost elsewhere,elsewhere, needneed notnot necessarilynecessarily andand tin,tin, or bronze.bronze. ThisThis paper paper expands expands on on constituteconstitute “archaic”"archaic" nonnon-profit-maximizing-profit-maximizing thatthat discussion, then considersconsiders thethe currentcurrent behaviour,behaviour, when when viewed viewed in in the the long long run. run. AAt, statestate of of thethe evidenceevidence regardingregarding thethe controlcontrol ofof rationalrational purchaserpurchaser may elect toto maintainmaintain aa CreteCrete inin generalgeneral (including(including overseasoverseas trade)trade) inin long-termlong-term relationshiprelationship withwith a ahigher-cost higher-cost thethe OldOld PalacePalace period, and endsends withwith aa briefbrief suppliersupplier inin orderorder to insure access to a criticalcritical postscriptpostscript onon thethe controlcontrol ofof foreign foreign trade trade resourceresource (such(such asas metal in the BronzeBronze Age) duringduring thethe New Palace period.period. whilewhile satisfyingsatisfying anyany increaseincrease inin demanddemand fromfrom aa lowerlower-cost-cost source.source. ItIt isis appropriateappropriate at this Bronze,Bronze, ofof course,course, was of critical importance pointpoint toto recallrecall the the adage: adage: "Markets “Markets [i.e.,[i.e., forfor weapons, forfor tools to buildbuild palacespalaces andand prices]prices] areare made atat the marginmargin". ”. It wouldwould bebe ships,ships, andand forfor prestigeprestige objectsobjects - - that isis to say, surprisingsurprising if Minoan trading ventures did not bronzebronze was ofof critical critical importance importance to tothe the seekseek outout the lowest cost source of metalsmetals and security,security, economyeconomy andand prestigeprestige of theof the otherother goods from time toto time.time. Moreover,Moreover, palaces.palaces. AboveAbove all, thethe palacespalaces wouldwould havehave royalroyal emissaries/merchantsemissaries/merchants throughout his-his- wishedwished toto insure and controlcontrol thethe supplysupply ofof torytory have tradedtraded onon theirtheir ownown accountaccount inin the the weaponsweapons inin troubledtroubled times.times. (A(A discussion discussion ofof coursecourse ofof their missions,missions, as inin thethe casecase ofof thethe evidenceevidence forfor warfare inin protopalatialprotopalatial CreteCrete merchantmerchant ambassadorsambassadors ofof Zimri-Lim of MariMari appearsappears below.)below.) Accordingly it seemsseems incon- inin thethe 18th18th centurycentury B.C., B.C., some some of whomof whom ceivableceivable that MinoanMinoan rulersrulers wouldwould simply simply usedused thethe occasion occasion of.of royalroyal journeysjourneys toto makemake havehave waited passively,passively, hopinghoping forfor a aNear Near privateprivate purchasespurchases forfor futurefuture sales sales (Sasson(Sasson EasternEastern merchantmanmerchantman to to arrivearrive with copper 1984,1984, 248).248). AsAs Adams Adams observes, observes, “The"The andand tin. Rather,Rather, itit seemsseems likelylikely thatthat coppercopper analyticalanalytical separationseparation betweenbetween ‘administered’'administered' andand tintin wouldwould have have been been the objectthe object of of ,. andand 'market'‘market’ trade trade may, in other words,words, lacklack intensiveintensive search,search, planning and investment by aa cognitivecognitive oror behaviouralbehavioural equivalent equivalent" ” thethe controlling elite. (Adams(Adams 1974, 239). Middle BronzeBronze IBIB toto II wasH was a time a oftime of While distinctionsdistinctions betweenbetween “market”"market" and intensiveintensive trade,trade, includingincluding trade in metals,metals, inin "administered"“administered” trade,trade, or between “trade”"trade" and the Near East.East. From thethe approximatelyapproximately 5%5% "exchange",“exchange”, do not seem particularly fruitful,fruitful, of thethe KarumKarum Kanesh tablets publishedpublished to

327 date,date, we we know know already already of of 110 110 donkey donkey loads loads multiplemultiple sealingssealings andand seals whichwhich are are carryingcarrying 13,500 13,500 kilos, kilos, or or almost almost 15 15 tons, tons, of of extremelyextremely similar similar but but not not identical, identical, asas well as tintin into into Anatolia, Anatolia, enough enough to to produce produce (assum- (assum- a afew few specific specific design design motifs motifs previously previously noted noted inging a a5%-7% 5%-7% tin tin content) content) 200 200 to to 300 300 tons tons of of byby Levi. Levi. WeingartenWeingarten notes notes that that Near Near Eastern Eastern bronze.bronze. AdamsAdams in in hishis analysisanalysis of of Near Near specialistsspecialists have have only only recently recently begun begun to to study study EasternEastern tradetrade observesobserves thatthat the the amount amount sealingssealings with with respectrespect to theirtheir functionfunction in in involvedinvolved seems seems considerablyconsiderably in in excessexcess ofof administrativeadministrative systems, systems, but believesbelieves on on locallocal needs, needs, and and accordingly accordingly suggests suggests that that the the presentpresent evidence evidence that that the the Minoan Minoan system system was was tin was alloyed with copper in Anatolia and tin was alloyed with copper in Anatolia and importedimported in in its entiretyentirety fromfrom somewhere somewhere thethe resultingresulting bronzebronze shipped shipped elsewhere elsewhere abroad,abroad, probablyprobably coincidentcoincident withwith the the (Adams(Adams 1974, 1974, 239). 239). OneOne tablet tablet fromfrom thethe foundationfoundation of of the firstfirst palaces palaces in inCrete Crete palacepalace at at Mari Mari on on thethe EuphratesEuphrates records records overover (Weingarten(Weingarten 1990, 1990, 105-106).105-106). 500500 kgkg of tintin in in the the palace palace inventory, inventory, or or enoughenough for for 8 8 toto 10.5 tonstons ofof bronze.bronze. TheThe Ports along the coasts of Anatolia and Syria tablet shows that the tin came to Ports along the coasts of Anatolia and Syria tablet shows that the tin came to MariMari from from werewere obvious obvious destinations destinations forfor MiddleMiddle Minoan the direction of Iran and went to many places Minoan the direction of Iran and went to many places voyagersvoyagers seeking seeking tin tin or or bronze. bronze. Accordingly including Aleppo, Hazor and Ugarit, where including Aleppo, Hazor and Ugarit, where itit is notnot surprising surprising that that Middle Middle Minoan Minoan two resident and probably Mariote tin two resident and probably Mariote tin potterypottery (including (including openopen shapes whichwhich couldcould merchantsmerchants are are mentioned. mentioned. If If "Kaptara"“Kaptara” was was not have served as containers for Minoan indeed Crete, as is generally believed, then not have served as containers for Minoan indeed Crete, as is generally believed, then exports), much of it said to be MM11 in date, the connection of Crete to this tin route is exports), much of it said to be MMII in date, the connection of Crete to this tin route is hashas been.been foundfound alongalong an anisland island chain chain establishedestablished by by a a reference reference in in the the samesame texttext toto including Kasos, Karpathos, Rhodes, Kos, tin destined for a man from Kaptara and an including Kasos, Karpathos, Rhodes, Kos, tin destined for a man from Kaptara and an Chalki, Kalymnos, Telos, Nisyros, Asty- interpreter resident in Ugarit (who is to be Chalki, Kalymnos, Telos, Nisyros, Asty- interpreter resident in Ugarit (who is to be palaeapalaea and and Samos, Samos, and and that that Middle Middle Minoan Minoan paidpaid inin tin forfor hishis services). services). Other Other MariMari stone bowls have been found on Samos and tablets refer to a Kaptarite inlaid metal stone bowls have been found on Samos and tablets refer to a Kaptarite inlaid metal Rhodes,Rhodes, with with the the latter latter producing producing evidence evidence of of weapon,weapon, and and toto Zimri-LimZimri-Lim of of MariMari sending local manufacture of stone bowls of Minoan goods from Kaptara to Hammurabi of local manufacture of stone bowls of Minoan goods from Kaptara to Hammurabi of typetype as as well.well. MMIIMM11 sherdssherds areare alsoalso knownknown Babylon - an example, perhaps, of “down the Babylon - an example, perhaps, of "down the fromfrom the the AnatolianAnatolian coastal coastal sites sites of of Miletus, Miletus, lineline palatialpalatial gift exchangeexchange" ” (Villard(Villard 1984,1984, Iasos and Knidos (Wiener 1984, 17-25 and 528-529, number 556; Kupper 1973, 8-22; Iasos and Knidos (Wiener 1984, 17-25 and 528-529, number 556; Kupper 1973, 8-22; forthcoming).forthcoming). Conversely, Conversely, pieces pieces of of obsid- Malamat 1971, 31; Dossin 1952, 3, 37 Malamat 1971, 31; Dossin 1952, 3, 37 ian,ian, linkedlinked throughthrough tracetrace element analysis toto [Letter 201 and 1970, 97). [Letter 20] and 1970, 97). thethe CiftlikCiftlik sourcesource inin southern AnatoliaAnatolia (near(near minesmines identifiedidentified byby Yener Yener as potentialas potential sources of silver and other metals in the The existence of an interpreter suggestssuggests sources of silver and other metals in the The existence of an interpreter Bronze Age), have been found at Knossos regularregular contact,contact, trade beyond thethe scopescope ofof Bronze Age), have been found at Knossos (Renfrew, Cann & Dixon 1965, 225-247; signsign languagelanguage or or aa touristtourist shopping shopping (Renfrew, Cann & Dixon 1965, 225-247; vocabulary, and an increased likelihood of Yener,Yener, Ozbal,Gzbal, Minzoni-DerocheMinzoni-Deroche && AksoyAksoy vocabulary, and an increased likelihood of 1989, 477-494; Yener, Sayer, exchangeexchange ofof significantsignificant knowledge knowl-edge and and 1989, 477-494; Yener, Sayer, Ozbal,Gzbal, Joel, stimuli between Crete and the Near East BarnesBarnes && Brill,Brill, forthcoming). forthcoming). CypribtCypriot stimuli between Crete and the Near East sherds have been recovered from a MMIB duringduring thethe Old Old Palace Palace period. period. JudithJudith sherds have been recovered from a MMIB Weingarten has recently argued that the first contextcontext at at Kommos Kommos (Watrous (Watrous 1985, 1985, 12), 12), and and Weingarten has recently argued that the first Minoan pottery from the beginning of the complexcomplex administrativeadministrative system system of of Crete Crete forfor Minoan pottery from the beginning of the which we have evidence, that of the palace at OldOld PalacePalace periodperiod has has been been foundfound atat LapithosLapithos which we have evidence, that of the palace at and Karmi on the north coast of Cyprus. PhaistosPhaistos in MMII,MMII, shares shares certain certain specific specific and Karmi on the north coast of Cyprus. characteristicscharacteristics with thethe systemsystem in in use use at at KarahoyilkKarahoyiik inin Anatolia,Anatolia, suchsuch asas the the use use of of InIn thethe foregoingforegoing discussiondiscussion emphasis emphasis is is

328 placed on thethe necessitynecessity ofof obtainingobtaining bronzebronze proximity to forestsforests maymay accountaccount inin part part for for because of thethe activeactive MinoanMinoan maritimemaritime rolerole the locationlocation andand significance significance of of the the Old Old which suchsuch aa need implies. MinoanMinoan importsimports Palace site ofof Monastiraki,Monastiraki, considered considered below, below, were ofof course not limited toto bronze.bronze. Gold,Gold, and the New Palace site of Zominthos.Zominthos. AnAn silver,silver, ivoryivory and and various various types types of stoneof stone Egyptian tombtomb ofof thethe 18th18th DynastyDynasty depictsdepicts arrived, thethe lastlast in inthe the form form of Egyptianof Egyptian Keftiu bearing foldedfolded clothcloth (Kantor 1947,1947, vases which were thenthen reworkedreworked into MinoanMinoan 58). Linear A tabletstablets fromfrom AyiaAyia Triadha forms (Platon(Platon 1971,1971, 137-138) 137-138) and and in thein the indicateindicate thatthat it waswas aa centrecentre ofof wool wool prod- prod- formform ofof rawraw material. material. Yule Yule (1981, (1981, 199) 199) uction inin LMIBLMIB (Palaima(Palaima 1990,1990, 94-95). 94-95). cataloguedcatalogued 135 seals mademade fromfrom sixsix differentdifferent From the Knossian LinearLinear BB tablets wewe know Near EasternEastern stonesstones found found in Cretein Crete and and thatthat wool production was aa major element of belonging to thethe MMII-IIIMMII-III horizon;horizon; BraniganBranigan thethe Minoan economy at thatthat timetime (Killen(Killen (forthcoming)(forthcoming) calculates that at leastleast 15%15% ofof 1964,1964, l-15).1-15). A A MariMari tablettablet (ARMT (ARMT 21 21 allall known Cretan Old Palace seals were made 342:4-12)342:4-12) recordsrecords clothingclothing andand a paira pair of of fromfrom Near EasternEastern stones.stones. Lead,Lead, probably probably leatherleather shoes fromfrom KaptaraKaptara (Sasson(Sasson 1985,1985, fromfrom Laurion, waswas importedimported forfor rivetsrivets and and 451).451). EgyptianEgyptian texts ofof thethe early early 18th 18th plugsplugs and forfor liningslinings suchsuch asas thosethose usedused toto dynastydynasty referrefer to the importationimportation of medicinalmedicinal waterproofwaterproof the cists inin thethe West Magazines ofof herbsherbs and ofof lichenslichens for for embalming embalming fluid fluid thethe Palace ofof Knossos.Knossos. It Itis isreasonable reasonable to to fromfrom Keftiu,Keftiu, thethe EgyptianEgyptian term term generally generally assumeassume a palatialpalatial interestinterest andand rolerole in in such such thoughtthought toto meanmean CreteCrete (Sakellarakis(Sakellarakis 1984,1984, imports.imports. 197-203).197-203). EgyptEgypt was nono doubtdoubt a readya ready marketmarket forfor wood,wood, oliveolive oiloil andand wine, all of whichwhich itit lacked.lacked. (In(In thethe 18th18th centurycentury A.D.A.D. MinoanMinoan exports,exports, in addition to Kamares ware CreteCrete exportedexported wood,wood, oliveolive oil, oil, woollenwoollen pottery,pottery, maymay have have included included wood, wood, oil oil cloth,cloth, wine, herbsherbs andand currantscurrants to to Europe Europe (possibly(possibly perfumed),perfumed), woollenwoollen clothcloth andand [Cadogan[Cadogan 1976, 1976, 16]). 161). agriculturalagricultural productsproducts (including(including winewine and and medicinalmedicinal herbs). TheThe annals of TuthmosisTuthmosis IIIIII speak of ships of thethe Keftiu in Levantine Long-distanceLong-distance trade trade with with the the easterneastern Medi- portsports laden withwith poles,poles, mastsmasts andand greatgreat trees trees terraneanterranean andand EgyptEgypt wouldwould havehave requiredrequired thethe destineddestined forfor Egypt (Breasted 1962,1962, 206).206). AnAn following:following: first,first, shipiships suitablesuitable forfor longlong voy-voy- AkkadianAkkadian typetype ofof wood (thought to be poplar ages,ages, which couldcould havehave servedserved asas well well for for oror willow) is calledcalled “Kaptura”,"Kaptura", aa termterm bel-bel- attackingattacking pirate pirate lairs, lairs, togethertogether withwith shipsships' ’ ievedieved toto meanmean “Crete”"Crete" or “Cretan”"Cretan" (Astour(Astour crewscrews and provisions,provisions, plusplus shipyards shipyards and and 1973,1973, 22).22). BothBoth elmelm andand willow willow are are shipwrights;shipwrights; second, second, goodsgoods forfor exchange,exchange, inin recordedrecorded laterlater in thethe LinearLinear BB tablets tablets from from somesome casescases of aa kindkind sufficient sufficient to to interest interest KnossosKnossos (assuming (assuming no no shift shift in in thethe namesnames ofof foreignforeign rulers;rulers; third,third, establishment of rel-rel- variousvarious woodswoods betweenbetween Linear Linear B and B and ationsations with foreignforeign courtscourts andand ports; ports; and and ClassicalClassical Greek)Greek) withwith willow willow mentioned mentioned fourth,fourth, a chainchain ofof safe safe harbours, harbours, such such as as frequentlyfrequently asas the materialmaterial ofof whichwhich chariotchariot thosethose noted,noted, onon thethe route route to theto metalthe metal c wheelswheels areare mademade (Ventris && Chadwick 1973, sources.sources. While While there there may havehave beenbeen per-per- 370-373;370-373; II am grateful toto T.T. PalaimaPalaima forfor thisthis iodsiods ofof maritime security and partialpart+ supp-supp- reference.).reference.). InIn the 5th centurycentury B.C.B.C. CreteCrete ressionression ofof piracypiracy inin thethe eastern eastern Mediterr- Mediterr- exportedexported cypresscypress wood;wood; inin the 16th16th centurycentury anean,anean, stemmingstemming perhaps perhaps from from ententeenrente am- A.D.A.D. travellers reportedreported thethe SamariaSamaria Gorge ongong thethe greatgreat powers during which maritimemaritime inin western CreteCrete was was the the chief chief source source of of rightsrights were respectedrespected (Sasson(Sasson 1966,1966, 138;138; cypresscypress inin thethe Venetian Venetian EmpireEmpire (Nixon, RevereRevere 1957, 38-63),38-63), when a singlesingle privateprivate MoodyMoody && RackhamRackham 1988, 168-169).168-169). TheThe merchantmanmerchantman carryingcarrying goods goods ofof high valuevalue

329329 could have embarked on a long voyage, Mesara could have embarked on a long voyage, Mesara tombs !ombs are are not not generally generally thought thought to beto be numerous Late Bronze Age Near Eastern and the burial places of the palatial elite, unlike numerous Late Bronze Age Near Eastern and the burial places of the palatial elite, unlike Egyptian texts indicate that naval attacks and Tholos B at Arkhanes which may well have Egyptian texts indicate that naval attacks and Tholos B at Arkhanes which may well have piracy were endemic at times (Portugali & held the remains of a palatial elite. What piracy were endemic at times (Portugali & held the remains of a palatial elite. What Knapp 1985, 66 and sources cited therein). may be a royal burial enclosure at Knapp 1985, 66 and sources cited therein). may be a royal burial enclosure at Chryso-Chryso- There are numerous references also to fleets lakkos was thoroughly looted, so we have no There are numerous references also to fleets lakkos was thoroughly looted, so we have no of ships in Egyptian and Near Eastern palatial analogue to the of ships in Egyptian and Near Eastern palatial analogue to the MesaraMesara tholoi tholoi to to records.3 While there is no reason to assume indicate how many seals a royal tomb indicate how many seals a royal tomb records.that long-distance3 While there overseas is no reason trade to wasassume the contained. contained. (3) (3)Three Three of of the the five SyrianSyrian thatexclusive long-distance prerogative overseas and domaintrade was of thethe daggers with tangs also come from daggers with tangs also come from MesaraMesara exclusivepalaces inprerogative Middle Minoan and domain Crete, itof seems the tholoi as does one Syrian dagger of another tholoi as does one Syrian dagger of another palaceshighly in probable Middle that Minoan the palaces Crete, provided it seems the type (Koumasa tholos); the other two come type (Koumasa tholos); the other two come highlycritical probable incentive, that theinvestment palaces provided and infra- the from sacred caves in the Lasithi Plain, where investment and infra- from sacred caves in the Lasithi Plain, where criticalstructure incentive, required. the rich deposits may have included palatial the rich deposits may have included palatial structure required. offerings. Finally, the tang from what may offerings. Finally, the tang from what may be a Syrian dagger was found at Knossos This view, however, has been challenged by be a Syrian dagger was found at Knossos This view, however, has been challenged by (Branigan 1970, 182 and personal comm- Branigan, who argues that the frequent (Branigan 1970, 182 and personal comm- Branigan, who argues that the frequent unication. I am most grateful to K. Branigan appearance in Cretan non-palatial contexts of unication. I am most grateful to K. Branigan appearance in Cretan non-palatial contexts of for his comments and assistance, given Egyptian scarabs, Near Eastern cylinder for his comments and assistance, given Egyptian scarabs, Near Eastern cylinder generously notwithstanding our differing seals, Syrian daggers, Egyptian stone bowls, generously notwithstanding our differing seals, Syrian daggers, Egyptian stone bowls, views on the question at issue.). (4) As to and objects made of bronze strongly suggests views on the question at issue.). (4) As to and objects made of bronze strongly suggests the Egyptian stone vases, of the twelve a limited palatial role in the overseas trade of the Egyptian stone vases, of the twelve a limited palatial role in the overseas trade of prepalatial examples six come from palatial the Old Palace period (Branigan 1989, 65-71 prepalatial examples six come from palatial the Old Palace period (Branigan 1989, 65-71 contexts and five of the remaining six, listed and forthcoming).4 The argument appears contexts and five of the remaining six, listed and forthcoming).4 The argument appears as non-palatial by Branigan, come (as he unpersuasive for the following reasons. (1) as non-palatial by Branigan, come (as he unpersuasive for the following reasons. (1) notes) from a deposit immediately adjacent to The scarabs may simply have been the tourist notes) from a deposit immediately adjacent to The scarabs may simply have been the tourist the NW comer of the Palace at Knossos, an trinkets and trading tokens of mariners; the the NW corner of the Palace at Knossos, an trinkets and trading tokens of mariners; the area within the outer enceinte wall of the Old scarabs from the Kas shipwreck off the coast area within the outer enceinte wall of the Old scarabs from the Kas shipwreck off the coast Palace. (5) Branigan also notes 92 bronze of Anatolia of about 1300 B.C. seem to be Palace. (5) Branigan also notes 92 bronze of Anatolia of about 1300 B.C. seem to be objects appearing outside the palaces versus mostly bric-a-brac or heirlooms covering a objects appearing outside the palaces versus mostly bric-a-brac or heirlooms covering a 14 within during period of over 200 years, and Phoenician and 14 within during MMI-II,MM&II, but but observes observes that that period of over 200 years, and Phoenician and these figures are difficult to assess accurately Classical scarabs have been found as far these figures are difficult to assess accurately Classical scarabs have been found as far because of incomplete publication, variation afield as Britain and Scandinavia. (2) Cyl- because of incomplete publication, variation afield as Britain and Scandinavia. (2) Cyl- in quantity of raw material used for inder seals travel in a similar manner; in quantity of raw material used for inder seals travel in a similar manner; individual objects, and other reasons. In specimens of Collon’s Green Jasper Group individual objects, and other reasons. In specimens of Collon's Green Jasper Group addition to these caveats, we should note that have been found in a MMIII-LMI tomb in addition to these caveats, we should note that have been found in a MMIII-LMI tomb in different parties Crete, in a much later context at Kition, and different parties maymay bebe responsibleresponsible forfor Crete, in a much later context at Kition, and importing metals on the one hand and even at Carthage (1986, 62-63). Moreover, importing metals on the one hand and even at Carthage (1986, 62-63). Moreover, production of implements on the other; a there is no evidence that Near Eastern production of implements on the other; a there is no evidence that Near Eastern smith in a town, for example, may receive cylinders were ever used as seals in Crete. smith in a town, for example, may receive cylinders were ever used as seals in Crete. copper and tin from a palace and manufacture In any event, only three of the seven cylinder copper and tin from a palace and manufacture In any event, only three of the seven cylinder implements for his locality and local cult as seals cited by Branigan come from non- implements for his locality and local cult as seals cited by Branigan come from non- well as status objects for the palace and palatial contexts, and those three come from well as status objects for the palace and ’ palatial contexts, and those three come from palatial shrines. tholos tombs in the Mesara. While it is palatial shrines. SuchSuch extraextra-palatial-palatial issuance tholos tombs in the Mesara. While it is of metal is documented at the end of the conceivable that some members of the of metal is documented at the end of the conceivable that some members of the Bronze Age in the Pylos tablets. Moreover, palatial elite may have elected to be buried in Bronze Age in the Pylos tablets. Moreover, palatial elite may have elected to be buried in the comparison once again is between long-established family or clan tholoi, these the comparison once again is between nonnon-- long-established family or clan tholoi, these

330330 palatial tombstombs andand palatialpalatial habitationhabitation sites;sites; palatial interest in foreignforeign trade.trade. FromFrom an an bronze from the latter was of course usually area at the northwestnorthwest fringe ofof the palace ofof recovered and reused.reused. The The frequent frequent dis- dis- Malia camecame carvedcarved steatitesteatite moldsmolds forfor casting casting appearance of metalmetal fromfrom thethe archae-ologicalarchae-ological axes andand blades,blades, associated associated with with a rede-a rede- record waswas notednoted above. above. Our Our fortuitous fortuitous posited fillfill ofof MMIMM1 to IIII material. material. A A knowledge ofof thethe greatgreat amountsamounts ofof bronze bronze metallurgical installationinstallation of of the OldOld PalacePalace present inin CreteCrete in in the the neopalatialneopalatial periodperiod period waswas discovereddiscovered inin the the same same area, area, comescomes from (1) thethe LMIBLMIB destructionsdestructions andand adjacentadjacent to thethe northernnorthern wallwall of of the the later later (in(in somesome cases)cases) abandonments,abandonments, (2)(2) thethe bronzebronze palacepalace (Pelon 1987a,1987a, 269-271). 269-271).55 AA cont- cont- hoardshoards buried in evidentevident anticipationanticipation of themthem rollingrolling palatial rolerole inin metallurgy, metallurgy, and and in in (Georgiou(Georgiou 1979),1979), (3)(3) thethe Arkalochori Arkalochori CaveCave swordsword production in particular,particular, seemsseems likely likely deposit,deposit, discovered as itit waswas being being looted, looted, inin viewview ofof the the foregoing foregoing considerations, considerations. andand (4) the MinoanMinoan bronzebronze swordsswords andand vasesvases Indeed,Indeed, thethe numbernumber ofof destructions destructions (discussed (discussed preservedpreserved inin thethe ShaftShaft GravesGraves ofof Mycenae. Mycenae. below)below) probably attributable toto warfarewarfare inin EquivalentEquivalent informationinformation isis lacking for the OldOld MMII-IIIAMMII-IIIA suggestssuggests thethe possibilitypossibility that anan PalacePalace period.period. ThusThus we are at risk of under- "arms“arms race"race” maymay havehave been partly responsibleresponsible estimatingestimating the amountamount ofof bronze bronze available available forfor an intensive effort toto acquireacquire coppercopper andand then,then, althoughalthough thethe totaltotal amount amount was was obv- obv- tin,tin, oror bronze. iouslyiously less thanthan inin thethe New New Palace Palace period period whenwhen CreteCrete appears to have been extremely InIn addition toto ships,ships, shipyardsshipyards and and armed armed richrich inin bronze.bronze. menmen atat times to battle pirates, long-distancelong-distance tradetrade voyages toto obtainobtain metalmetal and and luxury luxury items required that goods desired abroad be IfIf we examine itemsitems of tradetrade oror trade-relatedtrade-related items required that goods desired abroad be giftgift exchange likely toto havehave beenbeen ofof great great providedprovided forfor exchange.exchange. IfIf one one accepts accepts the the equation of Kaptara and Crete, then the Mari interestinterest toto the palatial elite, includingincluding objectsobjects equation of Kaptara and Crete, then the Mari texts concen; I: inlaid metal objects from dependentdependent uponupon importsimports of of metal,metal, aa patspattc.~! ,1 :I ofof texts concert inlaid metal objects from Kaptara, ant: Ihe Kaptarite (as well as distributiondistribution different different from from that that suggestc,1 suggesu‘i by Kaptara, ant ihe Kaptarite (as well as BraniganBranigan maymay be be observed. observed. For example,example, the!the] Egyptian)Egyptian) origin origin sometimessometimes ascribed ascribed to to the Mari, suggest the palatial palacepalace atat MaliaMalia containedcontained greatgreat swordsswords oft,of\, godgod ofof craftscrafts atat Mari, suggest the palatial likelylikely MMII MM11 date.date. SandarsSandars has described theFtheA\ naturenature of somesome ofof the the goods goods exchanged. exchanged. largestlargest ofof thethe swords swords as “aas weapon"a weapon of ofj 1 (That(That rulersrulers may have exchanged luxurious and prestige objects as gifts, and unsurpassedunsurpassed sizesize andand considerableconsiderable magni-magni- ’ cere-monialcere-menial and prestige objects as gifts, and such exchanges facilitated trade ficence",ficence” , andand noted that “the"the armourersarmourers ofof thatthat such exchanges facilitated trade EgyptEgypt andand the LevantLevant couldcould produceproduce nothingnothing relationshipsrelationships betweenbetween states,states, does does not not toto compare compare withwith them"them” (Sandars (Sandars 1961,1961, 17-2917-29 necessarilynecessarily imply,imply, however,however, that that trade trade andand 1963,1963, 117).117). WhileWhile these these swordsswords werewere ofof consistedconsisted solelysolely or largelylargely ofof such such exch- exch- coursecourse ceremonial,ceremonial, surelysurely theirtheir manufacture anges.)anges.) waswas based uponupon a atradition tradition of offunctional functional swordsword production. production. SuchSuch swordsswords constitutedconstituted a TheThe creation creation of of thethe firstfirst palacespalaces inin CreteCrete seessees , majormajor advance advance in in military military technology, technology, at at least least thethe concentrationconcentration of of craft production,production, withwith inin theirtheir inin terroremterrorem aspect, andand hencehence wouldwould palatialpalatial workshopsworkshops combiningcombining various craftscrafts havehave beenbeen of vitalvital interestinterest toto the the palaces. palaces. (MacGillivray(MacGillivray 1987,1987, 277).277). OtherOther workshopsworkshops BraniganBranigan observesobserves that thethe luxurious luxurious and, and locatedlocated nearnear the palacespalaces butbut outside outside their their exoticexotic nature nature of of thethe goldgold pommel ofof oneone of j wallswalls may alsoalso havehave been been under under palatial palatial thethe Malia Malia swords,swords, which depicts a backward-backward- ’ control.control. TheThe concentrationconcentration ofof agricultural bendingbending acrobatacrobat with what BraniganBranigan describesdescribes surplusessurpluses in in the the Old Old PalacesPalaces is is indicatedindicated by by asas African hair,hair, isis indicative indicative of of a stronga strong thethe textualtextual evidenceevidence (Palaima(Palaima -1990,1990, 91-92)

331331 and by the significant storage capacity of the sites along the coast of mainland Greece, the and by the significant storage capacity of the sites along the coast of mainland Greece, the koulouras (underground storage silos). At Cyclades, the Near East (where it is copied koulouras (underground storage silos). At Cyclades, the Near East (where it is copied Knossos the three koulouras in the West in Ugarit and appears as far inland as Qatna Knossos the three koulouras in the West in Ugarit and appears as far inland as Qatna Court alone could hold sufficient grain to in Syria) and in Egypt as far up the Nile as Court alone could hold sufficient grain to in Syria) and in Egypt as far up the Nile as feed 800 people for a year, and at Phaistos Abydos feed 800 people for a year, and at Phaistos Abydos (Schaeffer(Schaeffer 1939, 1939, 22, 22, 54-5654-56 andand the West Court koulouras could feed 300 1949, 51, Figure the West Court koulouras could feed 300 1949, 51, Figure 109A109A and and Plate Plate 38; 38; Saltz Saltz people for a year. 6 The concentration of 1977, 51-70; Kantor concentration of 1977, 51-70; Kantor 1947, 1947, 19; 19; BetancourtBetancourt peopleadministration for a year. in6 theThe early palaces is shown 1984, 90-92; Cadogan 1983, 512-518; Kemp 1984, 90-92; Cadogan 1983, 512-518; Kemp administrationby the more inthan the 6,500 early nodulespalaces oris sealshown & Merrillees & Merrillees 1980, 1980, 1-3,l-3, PlatePlate 1,1, 200-201, 200-201, by impressions,the more plusthan tablets6,500 andnodules other inscribedor seal Figures Figures 59-60,59-60, Colour Colour Plate Plate opposite opposite 176; 176; impressions,items, from plus one tablets room and at theother palace inscribed at Wiener 1984, 18 and 1987, 262, Note 9). items,Phaistos. from The one recording room atof goodsthe palace in and at out Wiener 1984, 18 and 1987, 262, Note 9). Phaistos.was obviously The recording of great interestof goods to in the and palace. out ’ Perhaps the metal prototypes on which wasIt obviouslywould be surprisingof great interest in this to context the palace.? if the Perhaps the metal prototypes on which Kamares ware appears based (Evans 1921, It palaceswould bedid surprising not also play in thisa predominant context if rolethe Kamares ware appears based (Evans 1921, 242-245; Walberg 1976, palacesin the didorganization not also play of long-distance a predominant trading role 242-245; Walberg 1976, 34-39),34-39), and and which which may have been made in the same palatial in ventures.*the organization of long-distance trading may have been made in the same palatial workshops (MacGillivray 1987, ventures.8 workshops (MacGillivray 1987, 277),277), were were prized in the East. prized in the East. TabletsTablets from from Mari Mari refer refer The non-textual archaeological evidence for to bronze vessels and pincers from Kaptaru. The non-textual archaeological evidence for to bronze vessels and pincers from Kaptaru. Minoan exports in the Old Palace period In Quartier Mu at Minoan exports in the Old Palace period In Quartier Mu at MaliaMalia a aclay clay mould mould which which consists principally of stone bowls and had been formed over a metal bowl generally consists principally of stone bowls and had been formed over a metal bowl generally Kamares ware vessels. There is evidence for similar to the silver bowls from the Kamares ware vessels. There is evidence for similar to the silver bowls from the TMTad stoneworking in basement rooms LI-LV of Treasure has been recovered (Detournay, stoneworking in basement rooms LI-LV of Treasure has been recovered (Detournay, the Old Palace at Phaistos (Branigan, Poursat the Old Palace at Phaistos (Branigan, Poursat & & VandenabeeleVandenabeele 1980, 1980, 89;89; PoursatPoursat forthcoming). Fine palatial Kamares in Crete 1984, 87). Of course if the silver bowls in forthcoming). Fine palatial Kamares in Crete 1984, 87). Of course if the silver bowls in is found almost exclusively in the palaces and the T&l is found almost exclusively in the palaces and the Tod Treasure withwith theirtheir affinities affinities in in in peak sanctuaries and caves connected with decoration to Kamares ware (Bisson de la in peak sanctuaries and caves connected with decoration to Kamares ware (Bisson de la the palaces, and it is largely this Kamares Roque 1950; Warren the palaces, and it is largely this Kamares Roque 1950; Warren & &Hankey Hankey 1989, 1989, 131-131- ware which appears abroad. The exception 135, 170, Notes 9 ware which appears abroad. The exception 135, 170, Notes 9 && 10, 10, PlatesPlates 5-11)5-11) comecome to this rule is the east Cretan ware which from Crete, they are likely to have come to this rule is the east Cretan ware which from Crete, they are likely to have come appears occasionally in Egypt, and whose from a palace, and the bronze boxes bearing appears occasionally in Egypt, and whose from a palace, and the bronze boxes bearing presence abroad may be due to the role of the cartouche of Amenemhet II in which they presence abroad may be due to the role of the cartouche of Amenemhet II in which they Palaikastro as a port (MacGillivray & Drie- were found in a temple in Egypt suggest that Palaikastro as a port (MacGillivray & Drie- were found in a temple in Egypt suggest that ssen, forthcoming), as well as one jug found they may have been a gift to the temple from ssen, forthcoming), as well as one jug found they may have been a gift to the temple from at Aswan which, if not from Palaikastro, the pharaoh, again suggesting that palatial at Aswan which, if not from Palaikastro, the pharaoh, again suggesting that palatial may come from Malia (Cadogan 1983, 516). gift exchange played a prominent role in may come from Malia (Cadogan 1983, 516). gift exchange played a prominent role in Of course the total number of Kamares ware Middle Minoan overseas trade. Some of the Of course the total number of Kamares ware Middle Minoan overseas trade. Some of the sherds now known from the Near East and palatial Kamares ware, on the other hand, sherds now known from the Near East and palatial Kamares ware, on the other hand, Egypt may represent no more than 50 vases, was found in workmen ’s houses at Kahun. Egypt may represent no more than 50 vases, was found in workmen's houses at Kahun. but other such sherds may await publication, Poursat but other such sherds may await publication, Poursat and S.S. ImmerwahrImmerwahr havehave concludedconcluded as in the case noted. More significant in on the basis of examination of the as in the case noted. More significant in on the basis of examination of the Egyptian-Egyptian- terms of control of foreign trade is the fact ising motifs of moulded clay reliefs from terms of control of foreign trade is the fact ising motifs of moulded clay reliefs from that palatial Kamares ware has not been Malia that palatial Kamares ware has not been Malia and fragmentsfragments of thethe earliestearliest MinoanMinoan found or imitated in the hinterlands of the wall painting that Minoan artists travelled to found or imitated in the hinterlands of the wall painting that Minoan artists travelled to Minoan palaces (Walberg 1987, 284) but Egypt in the Old Palace period Minoan palaces (Walberg 1987, 284) but Egypt in the Old Palace period (Poursat(Poursat appears frequently and is sufficiently known 1984, 86-87; Immerwahr 1984, 87). If so, it appears frequently and is sufficiently known 1984, 86-87; Immerwahr 1984, 87). If so, it to be imitated locally at ports in east Crete, seems likely that they would have to be imitated locally at ports in east Crete, seems likely that they would have

332 332 accompaniedaccompanied aa MinoanMinoan ambassadorialambassadorial knowknow them. InIn thethe absenceabsence ofof texts,texts, we we voyage.voyage. cannotcannot hopehope toto know know the the nature nature of theof the relationshiprelationship betweenbetween the OldOld PalacesPalaces and and TheThe discovery at thethe PalacePalace ofof Knossos Knossos of of MinoanMinoan ship ship captains.captains. TheThe remunerationremuneration ofof partpart ofof aa diorite statue of anan EgyptianEgyptian MiddleMiddle captainscaptains andand crews may havehave takentaken thethe formform KingdomKingdom officialofficial namednamed User User may maybe be ofof authorityauthority andand licenselicense toto trade trade on on their their relevantrelevant toto the question of thethe palatialpalatial rolerole inin own,own, asas longlong as asthe palatialthe palatial mission, mission, MinoanMinoan-Egyptian-Egyptian tradetrade in thethe MiddleMiddle BronzeBronze includingincluding inin particularparticular thethe procurementprocurement ofof Age.Age. FoundFound inin anan unstratifiedunstratified context 7070 cm metal,metal, waswas accomplished. AA specialistspecialist groupgroup belowbelow thethe pre-excavationpre-excavation surface surface of theof the ofof traders couldcould havehave emergedemerged as as a a resultresult of of palace,palace, thethe objectobject couldcould havehave arrived arrived as as a a suchsuch voyages.voyages. AA classclass ofof atat least least semi- semi- piecepiece ofof blackblack dioritediorite raw material rather than privateprivate merchants, oftenoften connected inin somesome asas aa statue.statue. (The (The excavation of Myrtos-Myrtos- wayway to palacepalace oror temple,temple, developeddeveloped inin thethe PyrgosPyrgos produced a piecepiece ofof EgyptianEgyptian stonestone NearNear East9East9 where,where, however, however, long-distance long-distance possiblypossibly reworkedreworked asas a afoot foot amulet amulet [V. [V. overlandoverland tradetrade is likelylikely toto havehave beenbeen moremore HankeyHankey 1976,1976, 213,213, Note Note 9]).91). TheThe User User extensiveextensive thanthan the seasea tradetrade betweenbetween CreteCrete fragmentfragment could alsoalso havehave come, come, however, however, andand thethe NearNear East, as shownshown by the data on fromfrom an EgyptianEgyptian statuestatue of of a typea type known known NearNear Eastern metalmetal tradetrade cited cited earlier. earlier. fromfrom the MiddleMiddle EastEast andand thought thought to to have have beenbeen deposited in locallocal shrinesshrines byby EgyptianEgyptian InIn Crete, however,however, itit was was surely surely the the palaces palaces emissariesemissaries while abroadabroad (Uphill(Uphill 1984,1984, 213). 213). whichwhich provided the basicbasic infrastructureinfrastructure for UphillUphill notesnotes thatthat these these statues, statues, which which in in long-distancelong-distance trade,trade, includingincluding (1)(1) shipsships inin EgyptEgypt were depositeddeposited in templestemples toto receivereceive strength,strength, (2) relationsrelations with with foreign foreign courts courts and and offerings,offerings, have been found in the NearNear EastEast ports,ports, and (3)(3) capital,capital, includingincluding luxuryluxury and inin cult placesplaces eithereither inin or or near near ports ports or orin in otherother productsproducts usedused in inexchange. exchange. ForFor importantimportant towns onon main trade routes. WhileWhile example,example, the manufacturemanufacture of thethe inlaidinlaid metalmetal thethe unstratifiedunstratified andand incompleteincomplete UserUser statuestatue weaponweapon fromfrom KaptaraKaptara to towhich which a a Mari cancan hardly be consideredconsidered persuasivepersuasive evidenceevidence documentdocument refers wouldwould havehave requiredrequired accessaccess ofof the presence of an EgyptianEgyptian ambassador or toto precious andand otherother metalsmetals and and experience experience residentresident agentagent at Knossos,Knossos, itit wouldwould alsoalso bebe withwith aa sophisticatedsophisticated pyrotechnology pyrotechnology gained gained unwise to ignore this possibility. overover time, whichwhich stronglystrongly suggestssuggests that thethe objectobject was fashionedfashioned inin aa palatial palatial workshop. workshop. CouldCould persons not directlydirectly connectedconnected to thethe palaces have amassedamassed enoughenough capitalcapital toto play play aa significantsignificant rolerole inin long-distance long-distance overseas overseas A trading expedition carrying valuable goodsgoods trade, perhapsperhaps byby followingfollowing inin thethe wake wake of of would havehave requiredrequired eithereither protection protection by by palacepalace-directed-directed trade? ‘TheThe OldOld PalacePalace periodperiod naval militarymilitary strengthstrength (as(as inin the the case case of of appears toto lacklack the the number number of luxurious,of luxurious, Viking trading expeditions), respectrespect forfor the extraextra-palatial-palatial dwellingsdwellings nearnear thethe palaces palaces and and power behindbehind the theventure, venture, previously previously , the numbernumber ofof prosperousprosperous townstowns andand villas villas established friendlyfriendly relations with bothboth thethe that are soso markedmarked a afeature feature of of neopalatial neopalatial arrival area and any way stations enen route, or Crete, butbut wewe cannotcannot excludeexclude thethe possibilitypossibility some combinationcombination ofof thesethese elements. elements. Kopcke of an independent merchantmerchant class. class. AfterAfter all, has put thethe propositionproposition asas follows:follows: “The"The far- gold, tin,tin, ivory andand ostrich ostrich eggs eggs were were ther thethe distance,distance, thethe more more organized organized the the brought to Crete,Crete, asas we we have have noted, noted, before before forces one expected to encounter, thethe greatergreater there werewere anyany palaces, palaces, or or at atleast least before before the gains, [then][then] thethe moremore thoroughgoingthoroughgoing thethe there werewere anyany palacespalaces as as we we subsequently subsequently preparations. ‘States’'States' were better equipped toto

333 meet these challenges than individuals ” to the authority of a ruler and/or hierarchy, meet(1987, these 257). challenges lo than individuals" to thereligious authority or ofother-wise, a ruler and/or and its hierarchy, replacement (1987, 257).10 religiousby a different or other elite-wise, with and different its replacement dynastic ties CONTROL , CONFL ICT , by aand different more eliteinclined with todifferent aggression; dynastic ties COMPETITION (2) CONTROL,AND/OR COOPERATCONFLICT, IONBET COMPETITION W EENTHE and shortagesmore inclinedof foodstuffs to leadingaggression; to aggression, (2) shortages of foodstuffs leading to aggression, AND/ORO LD COOPERATIONP ALACES AND BETWEEN THE E THEFFECT ON or (3) a period of weakness leading to attacks OLDFORE PALACES IGNTRADE AND THE EFFECT ON or (3)on aKnossian period of dynastic weakness affiliates leading orto alliesattacks if not FOREIGNKopcke’s TRADE reference to “states” raises the on Knossianon Knossos dynastic itself, affiliatesfollowed or by allies counterattack if not on Knossos itself, followed by counterattack Kopcke'squestion reference of the number to "states" of polities raises involved the in and con-quest. On the other hand one can questionsponsoring of the long-distancenumber of polities trade, involved and perhaps in and imagine,con-quest. perhaps On themore other easily, hand that one as acan result result sponsoringestablishing long-distance relations withtrade, foreign and perhaps courts, inimagine,of a devastating perhaps more earthquake easily, that attention as a would establishingthe Old Palacerelations period. with Inforeign the absence courts, ofin of afor devastating a time turn earthquake inward toward attention repairing would the for a time turn inward toward repairing the the textsOld wePalace must period. again admitIn theto greatabsence uncer- of damage.ll Accordingly a further con- textstainty. we Itmust appears again likely admit that to a pollgreat of uncer-Minoan damage.sideration11 ofAccordingly the horizon a in furtherwhich Knossoscon- sideration of the horizon in which Knossos tainty.prehistorians It appears would likely showthat a apoll majority of Minoan favour- may have taken the initial steps toward prehistoriansing the existence would ofshow at least a majority three independent favour- mayCretan have dominance, taken the perhapsinitial includingsteps toward domi- Cretan dominance, perhaps including domi- ingpalaces the existence in the ofOld at Palaceleast three independentperiod, bu t nance of foreign trade, seems in order. palaces(perhaps in bythe a smallerOld Palace majority), period, Knossian but nance of foreign trade, seems in order. (perhapsdomination by a in smallerthe New majority), Palace period. Knossian The position as regards the Old Palace period domination in the New Palace period. Thehas position been statedas regards emphatically the Old Palace by Cadogan, period The dividing line between the periods is haswho been after stated noting emphatically the existence byof considerableCadogan, Thegenerally dividing taken line to between be a great the earthquake periods is whoregional after noting diversity the existence in the Middle of considerable Minoan generallywhich at takenleast atto Knossos be a (andgreat perhapsearthquake simul- regionalperiod, diversityparticularly in asthe reflected Middle inMinoan pottery, period, particularly as reflected in pottery, whichtaneously at least at at Phaistos) Knossos marks(and perhaps the end simul- of the writes “. , . in no way may we see Knossos taneouslyOld Palaces at Phaistos) and the constructionmarks the end of the of Newthe writesas capital ". . . ofin Creteno way in Oldmay Palace we see times, Knossos even OldPalaces Palaces (Warren and the & construction Hankey 1989, of 6the l-65). New A as thoughcapital itof was Crete even in thenOld Palaceconsiderably times, largereven though it was even then considerably larger Palacesproblem (Warren arises, & however,Hankey 1989, in attempting 61-65). A to than Phaistos or Malia -- let alone the problemdescribe arises, a process however, by which in attemptingan earthquake to thanpossibility Phaistos of orits havingMalia --a commandinglet alone the describemight leada process to dramatic by which change an ofearthquake this nature possibilityposition inof the its whole having south aAegean commanding ” (1987, mightin the lead governance to dramatic of Cretechange or of the this control nature of position72). On in the the other whole hand, south a number Aegean" of reasons(1987, inits the foreign governance trade. ofOne Crete possibility or the controlof course of is 72).have On been the otheradvanced hand, for a numberthe view of that reasons Crete itsthat foreign the destruction trade. One at possibility Phaistos ofand course in the is havewas beenunited advanced under Knossos for the inview the Newthat CretePalace was united under Knossos in the New Palace thatsurrounding the destruction area (probably at Phaistos including and in Kom-the period. These include the secure and surroundingmos, where area there (probably is also some including evidence Kom- of period.peaceful appearanceThese include of Crete the as shownsecure by and the mos,earthquake where theredamage is atalso this some time) evidence was greater of peacefulexistence appearance of unprotected of Crete “country as shown houses”, by the earthquakethan that at damage Knossos at and this its time) surrounding was greater area existencethe expansion of unprotected of Crete abroad, "country the spreadhouses", of than(including that at ArchanesKnossos and and itsAnemospelia, surrounding where area theKnossian-inspired expansion of Crete pottery abroad, styles the throughout spread of (includingthere is also Archanes evidence and for Anemospelia, earthquake damage where Knossian-inspiredthe island in place pottery of the regionalstyles throughout diversity of thereperhaps is also at this evidence time). Thefor earthquakeamount of damagedamage thethe island Old Palace in place period, of the the regional possible diversity economic of perhapsimplied at at this Knossos, time). however,The amount by the of remainsdamage thecontrol Old Palace by Knossos period, implied the possible by the economic control by Knossos implied by the distri-`distri-’ impliedof the Houseat Knossos, of the however, Fallen Blocks by the (and remains the bution of scalings made by Knossian seals, uplift visible on the slopes of Juktas and bution of sealings made by Knossian seals, of the House of the Fallen Blocks (and the and the nature of the site of Kato Zakros and upliftAilias, visible together on withthe theslopes fault of lines Juktas in the and andthe theobjects nature found of the there site which of Kato suggest Zakros it mayand Ailias,Kairatos together Valley, withif theattributable fault lines to thisin the thehave objects served found as a thereport forwhich Knossos suggest (Wiener it may Kairatosearthquake) Valley, is certainly if attributable considerable. to Ofthis have1987, served 266 and as aworks port cited).for Knossos (Wiener earthquake)course it is possibleis certainly to imagine considerable. a great Of 1987, 266 and works cited). courseearthquake it iscausing possible (1) delegitimizingto imagine a damage great The separate ceramic zones of central, east earthquake causing (1) delegitimizing damage The separate ceramic zones of central, east 334 334 centralcentral and and eastern eastern Crete Crete inin MMIIMM11 notednoted byby (Cherry(Cherry 1986, 1986, 24, 24, citingciting HodderHodder 1977;1977; 1978,1978, CadoganCadogan and and others others (Cadogan(Cadogan 1983,1983, 507-518507-5 18 199-269;199-269; 1982;1982; and DeAtleyDeAtley & &Findlow Findlow andand 1988, 95-99;95-99; WalbergWalberg 1983; 1983; PoursatPoursat 1984).1984). (Conversely(Conversely the subsequentsubsequent marked 1987,1987, 75-76; 75-76; AndreouAndreou 1987)1987) andand the ceramic reductionreduction of of regionalism regionalism in in the the potterypottery ofof thethe differencesdifferences betweenbetween the northernnorthern (Knossian)(Knossian) neopalatialneopalatial period,period, standingstanding alone,alone, could could andand southern southern (Phaistian) (Phaistian) sectors sectors in in thethe centralcentral resultresult fromfrom anan internalinternal “Versailles"Versailles effect”effect" zonezone (Betancourt(Betancourt 1986,1986, 284-292)284-292) areare reflectingreflecting the the cultural cultural prestige prestige of of the the Palace Palace reinforcedreinforced by by whatwhat appears to bebe aa special special ofof KnossosKnossos andand the consequentconsequent stimulus to easteast central central style style of of carpenter'scarpenter ’s tools tools (Poursat (Poursat importationimportation and and emulationemulation ofof itsits products by 1984,1984, 75). 75). TheThe palatialpalatial KamaresKamares potterypottery of thethe restrest ofof Crete, Crete, rather rather than than from from the the KnossosKnossos and and Phaistos, Phaistos, on on thethe otherother hand,hand, is putativeputative KnossianKnossian neopalatialneopalatial hegemonyhegemony inin veryvery similar, similar, as as areare thethe palacespalaces inin generalgeneral in in Crete.)Crete.) overalloverall design, design, characteristicscharacteristics ofof construction (e.g.,(e.g., ashlarashlar withwith orthostates,orthostates, masons'masons’ AnotherAnother argument argument forfor politicallypolitically independentindependent marks)marks) and and cult cult areasareas andand equipment.equipment. WithWith regionsregions centred centred onon palaces inin Minoan Crete regardregard toto thethe possible implications of potterypottery hashas been been proposedproposed by by Cherry Cherry (1986) (1986) on on thethe zones,zones, itit isis worthworth noting that the east-central,east-central, basisbasis ofof cross-cultural studies indicating thatthat Malia-PyrgosMalia-Pyrgos style doesdoes notnot appearappear inin east east manymany societiessocieties havehave passed through a stagestage ofof CreteCrete or thethe Cyclades, Cyclades, whereas whereas Knossian Knossian "peer“peer polity polity interaction"interaction” en en route route toto larger KamaresKamares appearsappears inin somesome quantityquantity bothboth atat federations,federations, and and onon thethe basisbasis ofof the presump- PalaikastroPalaikastro andand ZakrosZakros (where(where it isit alsois also tiontion thatthat aa polity comprising a CretanCretan palacepalace imitated)imitated) and inin the the Cyclades; Cyclades; and andthat that andand itsits hinterlandhinterland constitutes aa naturalnatural unitunit converselyconversely muchmuch east CretanCretan andand CycladicCycladic forfor thethe Bronze Age fromfrom thethe standpointstandpoint ofof potterypottery hashas been identifiedidentified inin thethe Middle Middle politicalpolitical geography, asas indicated indicated by bythe the MinoanMinoan depositsdeposits fromfrom KnossosKnossos (MacGillivray (MacGillivray exampleexample of of Mycenaean Mycenaean Greece. Greece. Considering,Considering, 1987,1987, 249, 276276 && 278).278). ByBy MM111 MMIII the the however,however, that largelarge andand imposingimposing structures structures regionalregional differencesdifferences inin pottery havehave largelylargely appearappear inin Crete inin EMIIBEMIIB (Branigan(Branigan 1970,1970, disappeareddisappeared (Walberg (Walberg 1983, 1983, 151).151). Accord-Accord- 43),43), togethertogether with indications, inin thethe burialsburials inglyingly thethe argumentargument basedbased on on pottery pottery and and ofof Mochlos (Soles(Soles 1988),1988), of aa highlyhighly strat-strat- otherother culturalcultural artifact zones for independentindependent ifiedified society with accessaccess toto foreignforeign luxuryluxury politiespolities throughout thethe OldOld Palace Palace period period products,products, and thatthat thethe OldOld Palaces Palaces are are in in doesdoes notnot appearappear compelling.compelling. existenceexistence byby MMIB-MMIIA,MMIB-MMIIA, there there seemsseems a a sufficientsufficient spanspan ofof centuries to encompassencompass aa Moreover,Moreover, there is no reasonreason why a KnossianKnossian peerpeer politypolity interactioninteraction phasephase priorprior to tothe the assertionassertion ofof sovereignty over certaincertain partsparts ofof earliestearliest possiblepossible assertionassertion of Knossianof Knossian CreteCrete inin the the Old Old Palace Palace period period should should dominancedominance inin the OldOld PalacePalace period.period. TheThe necessarilynecessarily result inin thethe closure closure of localof local existenceexistence ofof aa directdirect linklink betweenbetween controlcontrol andand potterypottery andand otherother workshops workshops or orin theirin their topographytopography isis alsoalso openopen toto doubt,doubt, as the laterlater promptprompt adoptionadoption ofof Knossian stylesstyles oror tech- historyhistory ofof Crete and of thethe AegeanAegean indicates.,indicates., niques,niques, nor is therethere anyany reasonreason whywhy KnossianKnossian InIn thethe 5th century B.C., forfor example,example, thethe era era sovereigntysovereignty wouldwould necessarily result inin thethe ofof independent city-statescity-states waswas followedfollowed by by an an rapidrapid diminution of local exchange networks. AthenianAthenian Empire which exercisedexercised controlcontrol ofof : RecentRecent workwork inin contexts contexts where where political political AegeanAegean trade,trade, particularlyparticularly in inthat that basic basic relationshipsrelationships areare known has shown thatthat thethe commoditycommodity known as corncorn inin the the United United circumstancescircumstances under whichwhich politicalpolitical boun-boun- KingdomKingdom and wheatwheat inin the the United United States States dariesdaries find clear expressionexpression in materialmaterial cul-cul- (Thucydides(Thucydides 2.38.2, 1.120.2;1.120.2; cf. cf. 3.86.4; 3.86.4; tureture are “highly"highly variable andand veryvery complex"complex” Rhodes 1985,1985, 38).38). Cross-culturalCross-cultural compcomp--

335 arisons with Middle and Late Bronze Age arisons with Middle and Late Bronze Age -caraVcarava&er$remainingranserii)emaining to to be be excavated excavated show show societies in the Near East and Egypt with signs of the employment of MM11 building societieswhich Minoanin the Nearpalatial East rulers and wouldEgypt have with signs of the employment of MMII building which Minoan palatial rulers would have techniques,techniques, a ajudgement judgement sharedshared byby Mac-Mac- been familiar disclose that Zimri-Lim of Mari Gillivray (personal communications, for beenhad familiar five palaces disclose and thatspent Zimri-Lim a great deal of ofMari his Gillivray (personal communications, for had five palaces and spent a great deal of his whichwhich I amI am most most grateful). grateful). AA viaduct nearnear time travelling between them (Sasson 1990; time travelling between them (Sasson 1990; thethe watchtower/caravanserai watchtower/caravanserai at atZakros Zakros Choi- Choi- see Bottero 1957) and that Amenhotep III had see Bottero 1957) and that Amenhotep III had romandresromandres appears appears to tobe be part part of of the the road road and and major palaces at Malkata and at Medinet major palaces at Malkata and at Medinet towertower system, system, and and thus thus of of the the same same general general Gurab at the entrance to the Fayum, and built horizon as the viaduct constructed at Knossos Guraba lake at (presumably the entrance towith the an Fayum, accompanying and built horizon as the viaduct constructed at Knossos a lake (presumably with an accompanying inin MMIIA; MMIIA; future future excavation excavation will will testtest thisthis palace) at a site thought to be Akhmim, the hypothesis. (I am grateful to J. A. Mac- palace)home atof ahis site wife thought Ty, in to middle be Akhmim, Egypt the hypothesis. (I am grateful to J. A. Mac- GillivrayGillivray for for informing informing me me of of the viaduct at home(Wiener of 1987,his wife 266, NoteTy, 47).in middle Egypt the viaduct at (Wiener 1987, 266, Note 47). Choiromandres.)Choiromandres.) SomeSome ofof thesethese structuresstructures andand the the associated associated road road system system werewere notednoted Accordingly, it seems appropriate to ask long ago by Evans, who referred to the Accordingly, it seems appropriate to ask long ago by Evans, who referred to the whether there is evidence to suggest that structures as Minoan guard stations or whether there is evidence to suggest that structures as Minoan guard stations or Knossos may have taken the initial steps “phrouria” (1928, 76). With J. L. Myres he Knossos may have taken the initial steps "phrouria" (1928, 76). With J. L. Myres he towards hegemony, at least as regards north- was able to trace along a route through the towards hegemony, at least as regards north- was able to trace along a route through the central and east Crete, in the Old Palace LasithiLasithi districtdistrict toto Siteia Siteia “the "the repeated repeated centralperiod. and east Crete, in the Old Palace occurrence of such guard- or watch-stations period. occurrence of such guard- or watch-stations alongalong the the coursecourse of aa Minoan Minoan built built way, way, The first body of evidence to consider is the similar in all respects to that which traverses The first body of evidence to consider is the similar in all respects to that which traverses chain of hilltop watchtowers or caravanserai, thethe central central sectorsector of thethe islandisland" ” [footnote[footnote chainand perhapsof hilltop in watchtowerssome cases forts,or caravanserai, arranged in omitted]. Evans continues, “In view of these and perhaps in some cases forts, arranged in omitted]. Evans continues, "In view of these line of sight along roadways, perhaps most consistentconsistent phenomena phenomena itit seemsseems impossible not linenoticeable of sight in along east Creteroadways, but recognizable perhaps most to admit the conclusion that the great Minoan noticeable in east Crete but recognizable to admit the conclusion that the great Minoan elsewhere as well. In east Crete alone over roadroad-system-system that that radiated radiated from from Knossos Knossos over over elsewhere40 have been as well. identified, In east many Crete of aalone seemingly over the whole of the central and eastern districts 40 have been identified, many of a seemingly the whole of the central and eastern districts canonical size of about 14 by 11 meters, and waswas alsoalso plannedplanned withwith aa certain certain strategic strategic canonicalextending size along of aboutroads 14leading by 11 inland meters, out and of control by the Minoan Priest-King” (1928, extending along roads leading inland out of control by the Minoan Priest-King" (1928, sight of the sea in some cases, suggesting that 78-79; Pendlebury, Eccles & Money-Coutts sight of the sea in some cases, suggesting that 78-79; Pendlebury, Eccles & Money-Coutts the provision of internal rather than external 1932-1933, 99). Evans collected MM11 the provision of internal rather than external 1932-1933, 99). Evans collected MMII security was their primary function.12 More- sherdssherds from severalseveral ofof the the watchtowers watchtowers securityover, it iswas difficult their primary to identify function. a foreign12 More-threat (Evans 1928, 78) and from the one at Ziros a over, it is difficult to identify a foreign threat (Evans 1928, 78) and from the one at Ziros a against which the road and watchtower signetsignet with with aa hierographic inscriptioninscription dated dated againstsystem couldwhich havethe beenroad directed, and watchtower although by Yule to MM11 (1981, 85-88; Evans 1921, system could have been directed, although by Yule to MMII (1981, 85-88; Evans 1921, the possibility of Anatolian or Syrian pirates 275,275, FigureFigure 204H;204H; seesee alsoalso PendleburyPendlebury 1965,1965, thecannot possibility be totally of discounted.Anatolian or Syrian pirates 147. Evans refers to the site as Sto Dhaso). cannot be totally discounted. 147. Evans refers to the site as Sto Dhaso). EvansEvans describesdescribes the the roadroad systemsystem andand guard Chryssoulaki has now completed the towerstowers inin numerousnumerous earlyearly publicationspublications (colle= (colle-’ Chryssoulaki has now completed the excavation of Zakros Choiromandres, the ctedcted inin Tzedakis,Tzedakis, Chryssoulaki,Chryssoulaki, Boutsaki && excavation of Zakros Choiromandres, the largest and best preserved of the known east VenieriVenieri 1989);1989); subsequent investigationsinvestigations havehave largest and best preserved of the known east Cretan watchtowers, and has confirmed an concludedconcluded that that some some of of Evans'Evans’ examples examples of of Cretan watchtowers, and has confirmed an MM11 date for its construction (Tzedakis, MinoanMinoan roadsroads werewere probablyprobably sections sections of of MMII date for its construction (Tzedakis, Chryssoulaki, Boutsaki & Venieri 1989, 43- medievalmedieval or TurkishTurkish kalderimikalderimi (W.(W. Mc-Mc- Chryssoulaki, Boutsaki & Venieri 1989, 43- 75). Chryssoulaki believes the visible Donald,Donald, personal personal communication,communication, for which II 75). Chryssoulaki believes the visible remains of the road system ehtowers or amam most grateful).grateful). PendleburyPendlebury noted manymany remains of the road system (watchtowers_-- .-.-______or _.

336336 of these!these watchtowers/caravanseraiwatchtowers/caravanserai inin hishis against Knossos.Knossos. Elsewhere in thethe Aegean,Aegean, Melos is rebuilt during travels (1965,(1965, 10,10, Note Note 1).1).1313 PendleburyPendlebury Phylakopi onon Melos is rebuilt during also noted thatthat manymany ofof thethe remainsremains observedobserved MMIIA, toto judgejudge fromfrom thethe finefine MMIIA MMIIA jars jars and cups from Knossos which appear, and a by earlierearlier travellers,travellers, suchsuch as as the the walls walls of of and cups from Knossos which appear, and a Kisamos noted byby BuondelmonteBuondelmonte inin 1422,1422, fortificationfortification wallwall at thethe sitesite may may have have its its origin in this period, although the evidence as hadhad disappeared (1965, 16). The process con- origin in this period, although the evidence as tinuestinues today;today; ChryssoulakiChryssoulaki reportsreports thatthat thethe toto datedate isis unclear unclear (Barber (Barber 1987, 1987, 67-68). 67-68). Ayia Irini on Kea is also rebuilt and re- remainsremains of threethree ofof thethe 4040 watchtowerswatchtowers notednoted Ayia Irini on Kea is also rebuilt and re- occupied, receives Knossian pottery, and sees byby herher teamteam inin the the first first season season have have been been occupied, receives Knossian pottery, and sees a fortification wall built in this period removedremoved by locallocal farmersfarmers (personal@ersonal comm-comm- a fortification wall built in this period unication).unication). AccordinglyAccordingly thethe numbernumber through-through- (Barber(Barber 1987, 68;68; MacGillivray,MacGillivray, forthcoming forthcoming Again, these fortification walls may outout Crete in thethe BronzeBronze Age may have been A).A). Again, these fortification walls may have been intended to encourage Minoan farfar greatergreater than is apparent today. have been intended to encourage Minoan contactscontacts through trade instead of raid.raid. IfIf thethe watchtowers/caravanseraiwatchtowers/caravanserai andand road road the systemsystem isis inin fact largely ofof MMIIMM11 date, thenthen ItIt isis worthworth notingnoting in in connection connection with with the and onon present evidenceevidence thethe systemsystem existedexisted priorprior suggestedsuggested constructionconstruction ofof aa roadwayroadway and of toto significantsignificant habitation in the valleysvalleys behindbehind watchtowerwatchtower networknetwork coveringcovering muchmuch of the thethe easteast CretanCretan coastline, coastline, a circumstancea circumstance centralcentral andand easteast Crete at thisthis timetime thatthat the whichwhich suggestssuggests central,central, oror at leastleast regional,regional, MMIIAMMIIA horizonhorizon seessees aa markedmarked increaseincrease in labour at planningplanning andand administration rather than locallocal levellevel ofof ambitionambition and deployment of labour at inter defensedefense toto protectprotect women women and and livestock livestock KnossosKnossos andand Phaistos,Phaistos, asas indicated,indicated, inter againstagainst brigands;brigands; thethe farmsteadsfarmsteads which which later later alia,ah, by thethe erectionerection ofof monumentalmonumental buildings buildings occupyoccupy thesethese valleysvalleys seemseem toto be neopalatialneopalatial withwith complexcomplex prepre-planned-planned drainagedrainage systems,systems, (MacGillivray(MacGillivray and Chryssoulaki,Chryssoulaki, personalpersonal byby thethe quarrying and transportationtransportation ofof largelarge communication).communication). AA large,large, imposingimposing buildingbuilding ashlarashlar blocksblocks forfor building building and and by theby the surroundedsurrounded byby a wallwall withwith projectingprojecting towerstowers constructionconstruction of of thethe koulouras, Royal RoadRoad [1989 excavatedexcavated byby Dr.Dr. Tsipopoulou atat Ayia Photia andand viaduct viaduct at at Knossos. Knossos, (MacGillivray(MacGillivray [1989 Momigliano [1989] onon the easterneastern coastcoast ofof MMI-II MMI-II date date may may andand forthcomingforthcoming B] B] and and Momigliano [1989] provideprovide uponupon finalfinal publicationpublication importantimportant newnew havehave advocated advocated aa MMIIAMMIIA horizon forfor variousvarious informationinformation concerningconcerning thethe control control and and developmentsdevelopments which which EvansEvans placedplaced inin MMIB.) defensedefense of of east east Crete. Crete. ItIt isis possible thatthat thethe same generalgeneral horizon Malia, as sawsaw monumentalmonumental construction construction at at Malia, as suggested by the results of recent excavation WhetherWhether thesethese roadwaysroadways andand thethe suggested by the results of recent excavation under the northwest quarter of the Late accompanyingaccompanying watchtowers, watchtowers, fairly fairly uniform uniform in in under the northwest quarter of the Late Minoan palace (Pelon 1987a, 271; 1987b, appearanceappearance and ambitious in ingeographic Minoan palace (Pelon 1987a, 271; 1987b, and ambitious geographic 189, 195). scope,scope, were were builtbuilt atat the direction ofof various 189, 195). regionalregional centrescentres oror centrallycentrally inspiredinspired fromfrom . Knossos,Knossos, andand whether they werewere constructedconstructed WeWe havehave already noted thethe appearanceappearance ofof cooperativelycooperatively or competitively,competitively, will will be be greatgreat swordsswords inin MMII, andand thethe developeddeveloped difficultdifficult to to determine. determine.’ "Peer “Peer polity" polity” comp- comp- traditiontradition of of metallurgy and weaponweapon man-man- etitionetition (Renfrew (Renfrew and and CherryCherry 1986)1986) may exist ufactureufacture on on which which they they depended. depended. MoreoverMoreover withwith regard toto roadworks roadworks as aswith with other other MinoanMinoan prowess prowess in in metal metal weapon weapon production production matters,matters, particularlyparticularly when thethe spur spur of of waswas not not limited limited to to the the long long sword, sword, but but incl- incl- militarymilitary competition competition or or necessity isis added.added. udeduded the the short short sword, sword, the the solid solid long long dagger dagger Indeed,Indeed, it it is is possible possible that that in in parts parts of of Crete Crete the the andand the shoe-socketedshoe-socketed andand tube-socketedtube-socketed roadwayroadway and and watchtower watchtower system system was was directed directed spearheadspearhead and and arrowhead, arrowhead, all all ofof which‘which may may

337337 have made their first Aegean appearance in period [1982, 6771). Aegean appearance in period [1982, 6771). A Amajor major destruction destruction of of haveCrete made (Hiller their 1984,first 27, 31). Pyrgos on the south coast to the east of Pyrgos on the south coast to the east of Crete (Hiller 1984, 27, 31). Phaistos may be assignable to this general Phaistos may be assignable to this general Fire destructions of large areas of major sites period as well. A tower, walls and a cistern period as well. A tower, walls and a cistern Fireoccur destructions in MMII, of butlarge it areasis of courseof major always sites had been built at Pyrgos prior to the had been built at Pyrgos prior to the occurdifficult in MMII, to say butwhether it is suchof course destructions always are destruction, possibly as a defensive measure destruction, possibly as a defensive measure difficultthe result to say of whether warfare, such earthquakes destructions or evenare (Cadogan 1977, 70-84; (Cadogan 1977, 70-84; WalbergWaIberg 1983, 1983, 151). 151). the accidentsresult of setting warfare, earthquakesoff widespread or evencon- accidentsflagrations. setting Any ofoff these widespread could have con- caused Of course hegemony need not result from Of course hegemony need not result from flagrations.the fire destructionsAny of these around could thehave end caused of warfare, warfare need not necessarily result warfare, warfare need not necessarily result the MMIIAfire destructions at Knossos andaround Phaistos. the end Some of of in widespread destruction of sites, and in widespread destruction of sites, and MMIIAthe destr-uctions at Knossos andof major Phaistos. sites towardSome of or at destruction caused by fighting may be destruction caused by fighting may be the thedestr-uctions end of MMIIB of major (or thesites beginning toward or of at repaired and hence difficult to detect in the repaired and hence difficult to detect in the theMMIIIA end of --MMIIB MacGillivray, (or the forthcoming beginning ofB) archaeological record. However, given the archaeological record. However, given the MMIIIAmay well haveMacGillivray, been caused forthcoming by warfare. B) number of destructions of major sites, at least number of destructions of major sites, at least mayPhaistos well haveat this been time sufferscaused aby major warfare. some in all likelihood resulting from warfare some in all likelihood resulting from warfare Phaistosdestruction at thisby fire time sealed suffers by a layera major of in MMII, it seems appropriate to note the MMII, it seems appropriate to note the destructioncalcestrwzo by (cementfire sealed rubble) by aftera layer which of in possibility that possibility that MMIIMM11 witnessed witnessed the the initial initial calcestruzzolarge parts (cementof the Old rubble) Palace areafter rebuilt. which steps towards the assertion of Knossian steps towards the assertion of Knossian largeNearby parts Kommos of the Oldmay Palacehave suffered are rebuilt. a hegemony, at least as regards north-central hegemony, at least as regards north-central Nearbydestruction Kommos also, butmay further have excavationsuffered isa and east Crete, together with some degree of and east Crete, together with some degree of destructionrequired toalso, determine but further its extent excavation and precise is control over long-distance trade. requiredhorizon. to determineWhat may its have extent been and an precise early control over long-distance trade. horizon.palace at WhatMonastiraki, may have lying been midway an earlyon the Other areas of evidence bearing on the Other areas of evidence bearing on the palacenatural at routeMonastiraki, from Phaistos lying andmidway the on the possibility of a single administration over Mesara to possibility of a single administration over naturalRethymnon route from on the Phaistos north andcoast, the and Mesara with to major parts of Crete during parts of MMII-III major parts of Crete during parts of MMII-III Rethymnonscalings and on pottery the north resembling coast, thoseand withof may be noted. may be noted. OlivierOlivier believes believes that that the the sealingsVano 25 and at Phaistospottery (Ferioliresembling those of degree of uniformity in hieroglyphic inscr- & Fiandra 1990, degree of uniformity in hieroglyphic inscr- Vano222, 25 Note at Phaistos 4 and 224; (Ferioli & Fiandra 1990, iptions on seals and documents and in their Kanta 1988, 313), is iptions on seals and documents and in their 222,completely Note 4 anddestroyed 224; Kanta and (perhaps 1988, 313), more is use at the various sites where they appear use at the various sites where they appear completelysignificantly) destroyed abandoned and at(perhaps the end ofmore probably denotes the “existence “of a large probably denotes the 'existence "of a large significantly)MMIIB. Thereabandoned is no way at atthe present end ofof power which extended over the whole of power which extended over the whole of MMIIB.determining There whether is no the way destruction at present and of Crete for Crete for at alleast leasr thethe lastlast part part of theof the determiningabandonment whether of Monastiraki the destruction was due toand protopalatial period ” (1990, 18). The abandonmentwarfare involving of Monastiraki Knossos, Phaistos was dueor both, to protopalatialsimilarity at variousperiod" sites (1990, of hieroglyphic 18). Theand similarity at various sites of hieroglyphic and warfareor to natural involving causes. Knossos, Phaistos or both, Linear A scripts, Linear A scripts, ofof seals, ofof religious religious or to natural causes. depictions and depictions and culticcultic equipment, equipment, of of finds finds at at peak sanctuaries, and of the general design of In the east central zone, at Malia a major peak sanctuaries, and of the general design of major at least the palaces at Knossos and Phaistos Inadministrative, the east centralstorage zone, atand Malia cult aarea, at least the palaces at Knossos and Phaistos after MMIIA at the latest, together with administrative,Quartier Mu, is alsostorage destroyed and atcult the endarea, of after MMIIA at the latest, together with thethe_. of appearance of such specific architectural QuartierMMIIB Mu,(as defined is also atdestroyed Malia) at andthe endnever appearance of such specific architectural never practices as the use of ashlar masonry, MMIIBreoccupied; (as thedefined excavators at Malia) believe and that the practices as the use of ashlar masonry, excavators believe that the orthostates and masons’ marks, indicate at reoccupied;most likely thecause of the destruction was orthostates and masons' marks, indicate at destruction was least the existence of very close contact mostdeliberate likely human cause ofagency.14 the (Poursat bel- least the existence of very close contact (Cherry 1986, deliberateieves this destructionhuman agency. may 14occur (Poursat at the same bel- (Cherry 1986, 33-35),33-35), ifif notnot common common direction. ievesgeneral this time destruction as the destructions may occur atat theKnossos same direction. generaland Phaistos time asat thethe enddestructions of the Old at PalaceKnossos and Phaistos at the end of the Old Palace

338 338 IsIs there anyany directdirect evidence evidence for for Knossian Knossian TheThe questionsquestions ofof course remainremain whetherwhether thethe dominancedominance or or primacyprimacy withwith respectrespect to to foreignforeign inspirationinspiration for for thethe EgyptianisingEgyptianising motifs motifs came came trade?trade? MacGillivrayMacGillivray (while (while acknowledging acknowledging fromfrom thethe movement ofof Egyptian objectsobjects oror thethe difficultydifficulty ofof distinguishingdistinguishing KnossianKnossian from from MinoanMinoan artisans,artisans, and whetherwhether thethe contactscontacts PhaistianPhaistian KamaresKamares ware)ware) believesbelieves thatthat mostmost betweenbetween MaliaMalia and EgyptEgypt indicatedindicated by thethe ofof the Kamares sherds found abroad appear appliquesappliques and and other other materialmaterial were were directdirect oror fromfrom illustrationsillustrations toto be Knossian,Knossian, as inin thethe indirect,indirect, suchsuch asas via via Knossos-led Knossos-led gift gift casecase ofof thethe MMIIA type bridge-spoutedbridge-spouted jars jars exchange/tradingexchange/trading ventures. andand straightstraight-sided-sided cups found inin Egypt,Egypt, withwith theirtheir closestclosest parallels from the LoomweightLoomweight OfOf coursecourse thethe establishment establishment ofof Knossian Knossian Basement/EarlyBasement/Early Olive Olive PressPress and thethe north-north- hegemony,hegemony, wheneverwhenever itit occurredoccurred (if ever),ever), westwest pitpit atat Knossos, thethe MMIIMM11 materialmaterial from needneed not havehave involvedinvolved thethe direct direct use use of of AyiaAyia Irini, Phyla-kopiPhyla-kopi andand AkrotiriAkrotiri (where(where force;force; some combinationcombination ofof manoeuvremanoeuvre andand thethe holesholes dugdug forfor thethe emplacementemplacement of of thethe roofroof marriage,marriage, for example,example, mightmight have have been been supportssupports rev-ealedrevealed KamaresKamares sherds of finestfinest sufficient.sufficient. Moreover,Moreover, hegemonyhegemony ifif achievedachieved KnossianKnossian quality)quality) and thethe MMIIBMMIIB toto IIIA IIIA isis unlikelyunlikely to haveto have been permanentlybeen permanently wavywavy-line-line cups cups fromfrom UgaritUgarit (1987,(1987, 273-279 maintained;maintained; ratherrather the differingdiffering effectseffects ofof andand personal communication).communication).1515 TheThe blackblack war,war, drought,drought, plagueplague and and malaria, malaria, the the angularangular temperedtempered wareswares so socommon common at at accidentsaccidents ofof individualindividual longevitylongevity affectingaffecting Phaistos,Phaistos, onon thethe other other hand, hand, are areseldom seldom rulerule andand succession, succession, andand thethe varying varying foundfound abroad.16 16 TheThe occasionaloccasional appearanceappearance influenceinfluence ofof dynasticdynastic intermarriageintermarriage wouldwould abroadabroad ofof the the east eastCretan Cretan variety variety of of probablyprobably have resulted (if thethe historyhistory of of other other provincialprovincial Kam-ares ware,ware, discusseddiscussed above,above, civilizationscivilizations is any guide) inin shiftingshifting alliancesalliances maymay reflect the rolerole ofof easteast CretanCretan portsports inin andand political boundaries and differingdiffering degreesdegrees overseasoverseas trade.trade. ofof centralcentral authorityauthority overover time.time. ComplexComplex societiessocieties throughoutthroughout history have tended,tended, inin ThereThere are also, however,however, somesome indicationsindications ofof thethe words of Adams,Adams, toto “dominate"dominate weakerweaker contactcontact duringduring MMIIMM11 betweenbetween MaliaMalia andand neighbours,neighbours, coalesce, suffer fromfrom varyingvarying Egypt.Egypt. TheThe clayclay of ofa jug a fromjug from AswanAswan formsforms andand degrees of predation, develop and resemblesresembles thatthat of Malia TownTown groupgroup (though(though breakbreak off patternspatterns ofof ,i symbiosissymbiosis ---- allall inin thethe decorationdecoration findsfinds itsits closest closest parallel parallel at at dizzyinglydizzyingly abrupt shiftsshifts" ” (Adams 1974, 249).249). Palaikastro)Palaikastro) andand the MinoanisingMinoanising pottery ofof HaregehHaregeh andand Kahun resembles thethe crinkledcrinkled-- AdamsAdams continues:continues: "A“A concern forfor tradetrade rimmedrimmed or lobedlobed kantharoikantharoi fromfrom the the same same highlightshighlights thesethese inter-reactionsinter-reactions -- --partly partly groupgroup (Cadogan 1983, 516), althoughalthough suchsuch aggressive,aggressive, partly symbiotic,symbiotic, atat bestbest only only vesselsvessels areare alsoalso found atat Knossos and and inin thethe partly intelligibleintelligible toto thethe societiessocieties involved,involved, at at southsouth ofof Crete, andand allall thethe kantharoikantharoi imitateimitate mostmost times dangerously competitivecompetitive" ” (Adams(Adams metalmetal prototypesprototypes withwith probable probable Anatolian Anatolian 1974,1974, 249).249). WhileWhile thesethese observationsobservations were originsorigins (Davis,(Davis, E.N. 1977,1977, 89-90). 89-90). The The made in the contextcontext ofof AdamsAdams' ’ workwork onon tradetrade general similaritysimilarity ofof thethe clay clay mould mould from from inin thethe ancientancient NearNear East,East, theythey appearappear relevantrelevant s Malia toto thethe TadTod Treasure Treasure has has already already beenbeen toto MiddleMiddle andand LateLate Bronze Bronze Age Age Crete Crete as as noted. Lastly andand more significantly,significantly, well. OfOf course itit isis alsoalso possiblepossible thatthat twotwo or or Egyptianising motifsmotifs (falcons,(falcons, cats,cats, palm palm more palacespalaces cooperatedcooperated inin majormajor foreignforeign trees, sphinx)sphinx) appearappear on on moulded-clay moulded-clay relief relief ventures; the Old Testament describesdescribes a a jointjoint appliques forfor vasesvases from from Quartier Quartier Mu Mu at at seasea venture through the Red SeaSea by Solomon Malia, whichwhich also also produced produced an Egyptianan Egyptian and Hiram, thethe PhoenicianPhoenician rulerruler ofof Tyre, Tyre, to to stone vase (Poursat(Poursat 1982,1982, 677;677; 1984,1984, 86-87).86-87). acquire luxury itemsitems suchsuch asas .gold,gold, ivory,ivory,

339 spices and rare animals (I Kings 9, 26-28). existence there of a workshop are possible spicesMoreover, and rare a Knossian animals (I hegemony Kings 9, need26-28). not existence there of a workshop are possible Moreover, a Knossian hegemony need not alternativealternative explanations explanations for for so solarge large a supplya supply have affected the trading relationships or of offering tables and other ritual equipment. haveactivities affected of otherthe palaces,trading anyrelationships more than orthe of offering tables and other ritual equipment. activities of other palaces, any more than the creation of a Macedonian Empire in Lead and stone weights are found, as creationHellenistic of Greecea Macedonian affected theEmpire trading in Lead and stone weights are found, as Hellenistic Greece affected the trading MichailidouMichailidou (forthcoming (forthcoming A A andand B)B) hashas activities of the individual Greek poleis. But observed, not only in the palaces and in activitieswhether of one, the twoindividual or several Greek palaces poleis. were But observed, not only in the palaces and in whether one, two or several palaces were houseshouses around around the the palaces, palaces, but but also also in inhouses houses primarily responsible for Minoan long- in non-palatial settlements, villas and tombs. primarilydistance traderesponsible by the endfor ofMinoan the Old Palacelong- in non-palatial settlements, villas and tombs. Villas and houses at Ayia Triadha distanceperiod, tradethe case by forthe a end decisive of the palatial Old Palace role in Villas and houses at Ayia Triadha and and period, the case for a decisive palatial role in TylissosTylissos contained contained not not onlyonly weightsweights andand Minoan trade with the Near East and Egypt loomweights, but also copper Minoanseems compelling.trade with the Near East and Egypt loomweights, but also copper oxhideoxhide ingots ingots seems compelling. andand Linear Linear A A tablets, tablets, and and both both areare rich in luxuryluxury products products and and bronze bronze objects. objects. ItIt isis A PO~TSCR~~ONFOREIGNTRADE IN possible, however, that by LMIB Ayia ATHENEWPALACE POSTSCRIPT ON FOREIGN TRADE IN possible, however, that by LMIB Ayia PERIOD TriadhaTriadha had had become become the the administrative administrative centre centre THEThe NEW creation PALACE of the PERIOD New Palaces has ofof the the Mesara Mesara whilewhile PhaistosPhaistos remainedremained thethe Thesometimes creation been of seen the as Newmarking Palaces a change has in religiousreligious centre, centre, in in which which case case the the buildingsbuildings sometimesthe control been of Cretanseen as trade marking (for aexample change inby inin which which most most of of the the tablets tablets and and ingots ingots were were theBranigan, control ofwho Cretan while trade doubting (for examplea significant by foundfound would would have have been been part part of of the the palatialpalatial Branigan,palatial role who in whilelong-distance doubting trade a significant in the Old ratherrather than than the the private private sector. sector.1717 palatialPalace role period, in long-distance accepts a directing trade in palatialthe Old Palace period, accepts a directing palatial role for such trade in the neopalatial period role for such trade in the neopalatial period AtAt Akrotiri Akrotiri on on Thera, wherewhere thethe eruptioneruption [1982, 209; 1987, 245-249 and 333; 1989, preserved in one precise horizon so many of [1982,68; and 209; forthcoming]). 1987, 245-249 and 333; 1989, preserved in one precise horizon so many of 68; and forthcoming)). thethe materials materials of of daily daily life, life, almostalmost everyevery house containedcontained lead lead weights, weights, but but withwith aa greatergreater It would appear, however, that the case for concentration in houses containing large It would appear, however, that the case for concentration in houses containing large an independent maritime or merchant class numbers of loomweights, suggesting to an independent maritime or merchant class numbers of loomweights, suggesting to with a significant role in long-distance trade Michailidou that the lead weights were used with a significant role in long-distance trade Michailidou that the lead weights were used actually becomes somewhat more plausible, in weighing wool (Michailidou, forthcoming actually becomes somewhat more plausible, in weighing wool (Michailidou, forthcoming if quite unproven, in the New Palace period. A and B). Seal impressions as well as if quite unproven, in the New Palace period. A and B). Seal impressions as well as For it is with the new palaces that we find a weights appear in houses. The West House For it is with the new palaces that we find a weights appear in houses. The West House large increase in population, particularly in contained loomweights in a number to rival large increase in population, particularly in contained loomweights in a number to rival settlements along the coasts, the growth of the Loomweight Basement at the Palace of settlements along the coasts, the growth of the Loomweight Basement at the Palace of towns which in some cases surround Knossos, at least raising the question of towns which in some cases surround minimini-- Knossos, at least raising the question of palaces, luxurious separate town houses at possible private production of palaces, luxurious separate town houses at possible private production of woollenswoollens forfor palatial and other sites, and fine country export. Whether the West House was indeed palatial and other sites, and fine country export. Whether the West House was indeed villas. Palaikastro, for example, with its private is of course open to question, given villas. Palaikastro, for example, with its private is of course open to question, given main street running “straight and true, broad the non-domestic nature of its pottery main street running "straight and true, broad the non-domestic nature of its pottery and well-surfaced, and flanked by impressive assemblage with its numbers of particular and well-surfaced, and flanked by impressive assemblage with its numbers of particular facades” (Branigan 1972, 754), could have types of specialized vessels, such as incense facades" (Branigan 1972, 754), could have types of specialized vessels, such as incense provided homes for such merchant-mariners. burners on stands, together with numbers of provided homes for such merchant-mariners. burners on stands, together with numbers of The villa at Nirou Chani, a harbour on the specialized vessels from the Cyclades and The villa at Nirou Chani, a harbour on the specialized vessels from the Cyclades and north coast, was stacked with ritual equip- mainland Greece;*8 the religious aspects of northment includingcoast, was stacked40-50 plasteredwith ritual stucco equip- mainland Greece;18 the religious aspects of ment including 40-50 plastered stucco thethe buildingbuilding and and itsits contents (N.(N. Marinatos offering tables possibly destined for export, 1984, 34-51) and the “official” appearance of offeringalthough tables religious possibly use atdestined the site foror theexport, 1984, 34-51) and the "official" appearance of although religious use at the site or the thethe flfleeteet depicted onon one of itsits walls.walls. (A(A

340340 greengreen jasperjasper sealseal foundfound byby SolesSoles atat Mochlos betweenbetween the domainsdomains ofof palacepalace andand town, town, onon the north coast of Crete in 19891989 shows a publicpublic andand private.private.1919 shipship closelyclosely resembling thosethose inin the TheranTheran WhileWhile itit may be true in generalgeneral thatthat “Aegean"Aegean WestWest HouseHouse frescofresco [Soles [Soles and and Davaras, Davaras, lifelife waswas essentiallyessentially andand always always concerned concerned forthcoming].forthcoming]. TheThe casecase forfor regardingregarding Thera withwith agricultureagriculture andand stockraising"stockraising” (Warren (Warren && atat the time of the eruption in LMIA as part of HankeyHankey 1989,1989, 4), surelysurely thethe wealthwealth ofof sites sites aa “Greater"Greater Minoa"Minoa” is setset forthforth inin Wiener, Wiener, likelike ZakrosZakros andand AkrotiriAkrotiri cancan only only be bethe the forthcoming.)forthcoming.) resultresult of theirtheir rolerole inin a aMinoan Minoan trade trade net- net- work,work, zealouslyzealously maintainedmaintained by thethe palatialpalatial rulers.rulers. TheThe West West HouseHouse atat AkrotiriAkrotiri provides,provides, inin additionaddition toto thethe lead lead weights weights and and loomloom-- weightsweights citedcited earlier, a dramaticdramatic depictiondepiction inin AccordinglyAccordingly thethe possibilitypossibility of aa significantsignificant thethe MiniatureMiniature FrescoFresco of fleets,of fl eets,armed armed private role in long-distance trade may in fact warriorswarriors and fighting, aa usefuluseful reminderreminder thatthat bebe greater inin thethe NewNew Palace Palace period period than than the the thethe palacespalaces mustmust havehave playedplayed a a criticalcritical rolerole inin Old,Old, althoughalthough hardlyhardly compellingcompelling inin either.either. providing the infrastructure for long-distancelong-distance Indeed,Indeed, itit isis far far from from clear clear whether whether the the tradetrade inin the New Palace period as in thethe Old. evidenceevidence forfor trade trade noted noted in housesin houses at at NeopalatialNeopalatial Crete isis extremelyextremely rich rich in in bronze, bronze, Akrotiri,Akrotiri, Nirou Chani,Chani, Tylissos,Tylissos, AyiaAyia Tria- butbut very poorpoor inin sourcessources ofof copper copper and and of of dhadha and other placesplaces representsrepresents private ven- coursecourse totallytotally lackinglacking inin sources sources of tin.of tin. tures,tures, or whetherwhether thisthis activityactivity waswas centrallycentrally ObtainingObtaining bronze or itsits constituents constituents throughthrough controlled,controlled, eithereither byby regional regional centres centres or or long-distancelong-distance trade trade mustmust havehave beenbeen ofof vitalvital (directly(directly oror indirectly)indirectly) by by Knossos. Knossos. At At interestinterest toto thethe New New as aswell well as theas Oldthe Old Zakros, forfor example,example, “palace”"palace" and “town”"town" Palaces. InIn thethe Late Late as as well well as as the the Middle Middle appearappear to functionfunction asas anan economiceconomic unit,unit, with with Palaces. Minoan period, itit waswas surely surely the the palaces palaces thethe palace shrine,shrine, storeroomsstorerooms andand workshopsworkshops which determined, and provided,provided, thethe basicbasic containingcontaining allall the luxuryluxury productsproducts and imp-imp- structurestructure and infrastructureinfrastructure ofof MinoanMinoan long-long- orts,orts, includingincluding reworkedreworked Egyptian Egyptian vases, vases, distancedistance trade. ivoryivory elephant tusks and oxhideoxhide ingots,ingots, andand the towntown responsible responsible for forpreparing preparing and and ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS storingstoring essentialessential foodstuffsfoodstuffs asas indicatedindicated byby In thethe preparationpreparation of of this this paper paper I have I have the frequentfrequent appearanceappearance therethere ofof wine wine and and received much critical advice andand olive pressespresses (Chryssoulaki(Chryssoulaki && PlatonPlaton 1987,1987, commentary from D.D. andand D. D. Arnold, Arnold, P. P. 77-84). Indeed, thethe towntown blocks blocks on on the the Betancourt, K.K. Branigan,Branigan, S. S.Chryssoulaki, Chryssoulaki, flflankinganking hillshills seemseem to towerto tower over andover and 0. Dickinson,Dickinson, S. Hood,Hood, J.J. A.A. MacGillivray, encroach uponupon the palace. AtAt the the comer corner of of J. Rutter,Rutter, A.A. SnodgrassSnodgrass and V.V. Watrous.Watrous. I I the hillhill toto the the north, north, 50 50meters meters from from the the have also receivedreceived muchmuch helpfulhelpful informationinformation palace and 300 metersmeters fromfrom thethe seasea atat whatwhat and advice from D. Collon,Collon, J.J. Crouwel,Crouwel, E.E. may have been the landward entranceentrance toto thethe Davis, J. Davis,Davis, V.V. Hankey, S.S. Iakovidis,Ialcovidis, A.A. town, stoodstood HouseHouse AA withwith its its 525 525 nodules nodules Lewis, C.C. Lilyquist,Lilyquist, J.J. and and P. P.Muhly, Muhly, T. T. L bearing 1,0051,005 sealseal impressionsimpressions stampedstamped byby Palaima, J.J. Sasson, P.P. Warren,Warren, J.J. Weinstein Weinstein 214 sealseal types,types, somesome showing showing contactcontact withwith and J. Younger.Younger. To themthem II herehere expressexpress mymy parchment or hides (Weingarten 1983, 38-42. heartfelt thanks.thanks. Subsequent researchresearch byby Weingarten Weingarten may may provide additionsadditions toto thesethese figures).figures). It seemsseems provide FOOTNOTES likely that HouseHouse AA waswas aa controlcontrol pointpoint forfor 1.1. TheThe number number ofof bronzesmithsbronzesmiths isis surely surely much much inin goods coming in and out of Zakros. ItIt would would excess ofof that required byby the internal needsneeds ofof the be difficult to findfind atat ZakrosZakros any any demarcationdemarcation palace, and impliesimplies thatthat thethe palace palace controlled controlled thethe

341 distribution of bronze throughout its realm. (The role may already have been in existence in MM11 (Poursat, distributionof the Cretan of bronze palaces throughout in controlling its realm. the distribution (The role of may already have been in existence in MMII (Poursat, of the Cretan palaces in controlling the distribution of forthcoming),forthcoming), but ofof course course not not much much weight weight should should bronze, at least as regards wapons, is considered be placed on a single example. bronze,below andat least in Wiener as regards 1987.) weapons, is considered be placed on a single example. below and in Wiener 1987.) 8. 8.This This view view was was atat oneone point shared by Branigan.Branigan. 2. Indeed this seems the main thrust and point of ‘(TJhe 2. Indeed this seems the main thrust and point of "[Title building building of of thethe palacespalaces coincides withwith aa St&grass ’ argument, with which I am in full remarkable impetus in the commercial activities of the Snodgrass'agreement. argument, with which I am in full remarkable impetus in the commercial activities of the agreement. MinoansMinoans overseas... overseas.. and. and it itis is unlikely unlikely that that the the palatialpalatial monarchesmonarchs failed failed toto fosterfoster andand controlcontrol thisthis newnew 3. For example, an Egyptian text from the time of activity. The organization and building of a fleet of 3.Snefru, For example, the first ruleran Egyptian of the 4th text Dynasty, from the refers time to of 40 activity. The organization and building of a fleet of Snefru, the first ruler of the 4th Dynasty, refers to 40 shipsships sufficient sufficient to to carry carry out out the the ventureventure waswas itselfitself aa ships bringing cedars from the Levant (Schafer 1902, task of such magnitude that only an administration of ships30); bringing a Hittite cedarstext speaks from ofthe 100 Levant ships (Schafer bringing 1902, grain task of such magnitude that only an administration of 30); a Hittite text speaks of 100 ships bringing grain palatialpalatial proportions proportions could could havehave undertaken itit" ” (1969,(1969, (Heltzer 1977, 210; Klengel 1974, 171-174); a tablet 4). (Heltzerfound at1977, Ugarit 210; asked Klengel the ruler 1974, to 171-174);equip an additional a tablet 4). found at Ugarit asked the ruler to equip an additional 150 ships (Sasson 1966, 133 cites UT:2062:4-5; 9. See generally the papers in the volume, Trade in 150Fensham ships 1967,(Sasson 221 1966,citing 133C. Virolleaud, cites UT:2062:4-5; 9. See generally the papers in the volume, Trade in Fensham 1967, 221 citing C. Virolleaud, PRU,PRU, thethe Ancient Ancient Near Near East, East, edited edited by by J. J. D. D. Hawkins,Hawkins, and and Volume 5, 88 ff and especially lines 34) and Egyptian especially the papers of P. Garelli, K. R. Veenhof, M. Volumetemples 5, and 88 tombsff and depictespecially flotillas lines of 3-4) ships, and such Egyptian as the especially the papers of P. Garelli, K. R. Veenhof, M. temples and tombs depict flotillas of ships, such as the T.T. Larsen, Larsen, S. S. Dailey, Dalley, C. C. Zaggacnini, Zaggacnini, M.M. HeltzerHeltzer and and Punt fleet of Hapshepsut at Deir el Bahari (SHve- E. Lipinski. See also Sasson 1966. PuntS6derbergh fleet of 1946, Hapshepsut 14) and at theDeir numbers el Bahari of Syrian(Save- E. Lipinski. See also Sasson 1966. Sederbergh 1946, 14) and the numbers of Syrian merchantmen shown on the walls of the tomb of 10. Kopcke ’s formulation reflects the existence of merchantmenKenamun (Davies shown &on Faulkner the walls 1947, of 40-46).the tomb (I amof 10. Kopcke's formulation reflects the existence of Kenamun (Davies & Faulkner 1947, 40-46). (I am highlyhighly organized organized states states in inthe the Near Near East East and and Egypt Egypt in in grateful to Dr. Dieter Arnold for providing the the Middle and Late Bronze Age. Greek merchant gratefulEgyptian to references.) Dr. Dieter Arnold for providing the the Middle and Late Bronze Age. Greek merchant Egyptian references.) marinersmariners in in the the Archaic Archaic and and Classical Classical periods periods faced faced a a somewhatsomewhat different different environment, environment, particularly particularly in in thethe 4. Branigan 1989, 66-67 writes: “It seems unlikely west. 4.therefore Branigan that 1989, Minoan 66-67 commercial writes: "It relations seems unlikelywith the West. thereforeAegean inthat the Minoan Old Palace commercial period wererelations controlled with theby Aegean in the Old Palace period were controlled by 11.11. WorthWorth noting, noting, however, however, is is thethe possibility of of the Palaces, and for the most part trading relations major damage at other sites in the same general time theappr Palaces, to be and undirected for the mostfree-lance part trading activity relations ”; and major damage at other sites in the same general time appear to be undirected free-lance activity"; and horizon,horizon, for for whichwhich there is nono evidenceevidence of of earthquake earthquake ‘There is therefore no reason to think that the palaces (Moody & Lukermann 1985.65, 71). "Thereplayed is anytherefore significant no reason role to in think the thatpromotion the palaces and (Moody & Lukermann 1985, 65, 71). played any significant role in the promotion and control of trade relations with the Near East in the Old 12. I am greatly indebted to Dr. Stella Chryssoulaki, controlPalace ofperiod. trade ” relations with the Near East in the Old 12. I am greatly indebted to Dr. Stella Chryssoulaki, Palace period." whowho has has investigated investigated these these buildings, buildings, and and to to Prof. Prof. J. J. A.A. MacGillivrayMacGillivray for for showing showing me me somesome of of these 5. Whether there was a palace at Malia in MM11 structures and discussing them with me. 5.similar Whether to those there at Knossoswas a palace and Phaistos at Malia is uncertainin MMII structures and discussing them with me. similar to those at Knossos and Phaistos is uncertain but there was at least a major MM11 structure, at the 13. Pendlebury referred to them as forts, but butsite there of the was Late at leastMinoan a major palace, MMII as indicatedstructure, byat thethe 13. Pendlebury referred to them as forts, but site of the Late Minoan palace, as indicated by the preferredpreferred to to thinkthink of thethe structuresstructures as as caravanserai, caravanserai, walls obsevable under Quartier III and IV. In addition noting of one, at a site called locally wallsthere obsevable were major under administrative Quartier III and and cult IV. buildingsIn addition at noting of one, at a site called locally starsfa there were major administrative and cult buildings at Tuvernnes,that “it would be more in keepingkeeping with the Quartier Mu nearby (Pelon 1987b, 187-201). Tavernaes,that "it be more in Quartier Mu nearby (Pelon 1987b, 187-201). peacefulpeaceful character character ofof MinoanMinoan civilizationcivilization andand withwith convivialconvivial Cretan Cretan habits habits if if wewe couldcould take a clue fromfrom 6. Branigan 1987, 248, speaks of four koulouras at this name and call them ‘taverns ’ rather than ‘forts ”. 6.Knossos Branigan holding 1987, grain248, speaks for 1,000 of four people, koulouras but the at this name and call them 'taverns' rather than 'forts'". Knossosearliest ofholding the four grain was probablyfor 1,000 covered people, over but by the earliest of the four was probably covered over by the 14.14. Evans believed that KnossosKnossos itselfitself sufferedsuffered aa greatgreat construction of the Theatral Area at the time the others MMIIB destruction by earthquake, but MacGillivray, constructionwere built in of MMIIA the Theatral (Evans Area 1935, at 53 the and time Figure the others30). MMIIB destruction by earthquake, but MacGillivray, who has recently restudied the pottery, would pIa& wereI am built grateful in MMIIA to S. Hood (Evans and 1935, J. A. 53 MacGillivray and Figure 30). for who has recently restudied the pottery, would place I am grateful to S. Hood and J. A. MacGillivray for thisthis destruction destruction inin MMIIIAMMIIIA (forthcoming B). drawing my attention to the sequence of use of the drawingkoulouras. my attention to the sequence of use of the koulouras. 15.15. AtAt AyiaAyia IriniIrini onon KeaKea inin PeriodPeriod IvIV (which(which is largelylargely contemporarycontemporary with with MMIIA, MMIIA, though though it it maymay 7. A lead weight from Quartier Mu at Malia begin earlier and end a little later) Minoan pottery weighing7. A lead 14.4 weightgrams suggestsfrom Quartier the possibility Mu at that Malia the begin earlier and end a little later) Minoan pottery weighing 14.4 grams suggests the possibility that the includingincluding KnossianKnossian KamaresKamares appearsappears inin limitedlimited metrological system of neopalatial Crete and the quantity at first, but then increases rapidly so that by metrologicalCyclades, probably system based of onneopalatial a unit of aboutCrete 60and grams, the quantity at first, but then increases rapidly so that by Cyclades, probably based on a unit of about 60 grams, thethe end of PeriodPeriod IVIV MinoanMinoan potterypottery constitutesconstitutes aa

342342 substantial proportion of the ceramic inventory. The inclusion of dataconcerning concerning areas areas which which did did not substantialquantity ofproportion fragments of fromthe ceramic different inventory. vases suggests The inclusion of data produce vasefragments fragments as as well well as as areas areas which which did. did. quantitythat “the of number fragments of vases from brought different in was vases immense suggests ’ (J. produce vase that "the number of vases brought in was immense" (I. Overbeck 1989, 12). Overbeck 1989, 12). AsAs to to whether whether the the vases vases arrived arrived as as a aconsequence consequence of of statestate or or private private activity, activity, it itis isworth worth noting noting that that a alater later 16. An early export, the MMIB-MMIIA cup from Amama tablet (EA 14 lines 34-46)34-46) reportsreports the Pharaoh 16. An early export, the MMIB-MMIIA cup from Amarna tablet (EA 14 lines Karmi on the northwest coast of Cyprus (Grace 1940, making a gift to the ruler of Babylon of over a Karmi on the northwest coast of Cyprus (Grace 1940, making a gift to the ruler of Babylon of over a IO-52), thousand stone vases filled with five kinds of oil is of a kind well known both from KnossosKnossos thousand stone vases filled with five kinds of oil 10-52),and from is of Phaistos a kind andwell otherknown sites both in from (Moran 1987, 99-100; Knudtzon 1915, 118). (1 thank the south anda a (Moran 1987, 99-100; Knudtzon 1915, 118). (I thank andfragment from Phaistos of a MMIIA and other globular sites rhyton in the from south Phylakopi and P. Warren who, with typical generosity, brought the globular rhyton from Phylakopi P. Warren who, with typical generosity, brought the fragmenthaa its of a MMIIA existence of this tablet, which runs contra to his thesis, best parallel at Phaistos (Koehl,(Koehl, personalpersonal existence of this tablet, which runs contra to his thesis, hascommunication). its best parallel at Phaistos to my attention; and also D. Collon and C. Lilyquist, communication). ScientificScientific studies studies now now underway undenvay to my attention; and also D. Collon and C. Lilyquist, may provide a means of distinguishing more readily whowho provided provided informationinformation regardingregarding the specificspecific maybetween provide Knossian a means and of Phaistian distinguishing more readily tablet.) The “Admonitions of Ipuwer ” (Papyrus Leideo between Knossian and Phaistian Kamares.Kamares. tablet.) The "Admonitions of Ipuwer" (Papyrus Leiden 344,344, Recto),Recta), anan EgyptianEgyptian text text of of uncertainuncertain date, date, contains a phrase which has been translated “nobles 17. Warren ’s excavation on the Acropolis hill of contains a phrase which has been translated "nobles 17.Knossos Warren's revealed excavation numerous on fragmentsthe Acropolis of Egyptianhill of areare embalmedembalmed with with their their oiloil asas farfar as asCrete Crete" ” Knossos revealed numerous fragments of Egyptian alabaster vases outside the architectural limits of the (Lichtheim(Lichtheim 1976, 1976, 152). 152). alabaster of the palace (thisvases volume, outside above),the architectural but the significancelimits of significance of palacethis material (this volume, with respect above), to but the thequestion of private 18.18. II thankthank P. P. BetancourtBetancourt forfor bringing thethe naturenature of of private thisparticipation material with in neopalatial respect to trade the questionis unclear of given the thethe pottery pottery assemblage assemblage to to my my attention. attention. is unclear given the participationfollowing considerations: in neopalatial trade following considerations: 19.19. TextualTextual evidence evidence listing listing large large quantitiesquantities ofof foodstuffsfoodstuffs found found together together with with agricultural agricultural implementsimplements (1) the possible special nature of the areaarea and large pithoi (Palaima 1990, 95 and Notes 42-43) excavated,(1) thewith possible its “dancing special floors nature ”, (threeof the circular and large pithoi (Palaima 1990, 95 and Notes 42-43) circular may require a reconsideration of the doubts expressed excavated,structures, with unique its in"dancing Crete, built floors", from (threereused ashlar may require a reconsideration of the doubts expressed reused ashlar in Warren 1985, 101, and Wiener 1987, 265, con- structures,blocks), andunique its North in Crete, House built containing from children ’s in Warren 1985, 101, and Wiener 1987, 265, con- House containing children's cerning the adequacy of the hinterland at blocks),bones which and itsin theNorth judgement of the excavator bear cerning the adequacy of the hinterland at ZakrosZakros to to the excavator bear provide a sufficient agricultural surplus to support a bonesmarks which indicating in the human judgement sacrifice of and cannibalism provide a sufficient agricultural surplus to support a marks indicating human sacrifice and cannibalism major independent palace. (Wall, Musgrave major independent palace. (Wall, Musgrave && WarrenWarren 1986, 1986, 333-388). 333-388). (2) the possibility of palatial involvement MalcolmMalcolm H. H. Wiener,Wiener, with other(2) areasthe possibility where alabaster of palatial vases involvement or vase 720720 Park Park Avenue,Avenue, with other areas where alabaster vases or vase fragments have been recovered such as the Royal NewNew York, York, New New York York 10021. 10021. fragmentsRoad, the Littlehave Palace/Unexploredbeen recovered such Mansion as the complex Royal Road,(Warren, the Littlethis volume), Palace/Unexplored the Warrior Mansion Graves complex north of (Warren, this volume), the Warrior Graves north of the palace and Evans ’ ‘Isopata Royal Tomb ” which BIBLIOGRAPHY:BIBLIOGRAPHY: thecontained palace and12 completeEvans' "Isopata Egyptian Royal alabaster Tomb" vases, which as as containedwell as two 12 lapis complete lazuli EgyptianEgyptian apealabaster amulets vases, and an wellEgyptian as two faience lapis froglazuli amulet Egyptian (Evans ape 1906,amulets 141-161; and an ADAMS,ADAMS , R.R. McC.MCC. 1974:1974: “Anthropological "Anthropological EgyptianWarren 1969, faience 105, frog 112-l amulet 13; Cline, (Evans forthcoming). 1906, 141-161; PerspectivesPerspectives onon AncientAncient TradeTrade", ”, CurrentCurrent Warren 1969, 105, 112-113; Cline, forthcoming). AnthropologyAnthropology 15(3): 15(3): 239-258. (3) the possibility that nearly all of the (3) the possibility that nearly all of the fragments are LMII and hence not indicative of the ALEXIO U , S. 1987: “Minoan Palaces as fragmentsstructure ofare Minoan LMII neopalatialand hence nottrade indicative since, as ofWarren the ALEXIOU, S. 1987: "Minoan Palaces as structurenotes, the of North Minoan House neopalatial produced trade a since, single as fragment Warren CentresCentres of of TradeTrade andand Manufacture".Manufacture ”. In In R.R. notes, the North House produced a single fragment from the LMIB destruction level, while the fragments HaggHagg & N. MarinatosMarinatos (Eds.): 251-253.251-253. . fromfrom the the LMIB area ofdestruction the dancing level, floors while camethe fragments from an from the area of the dancing floors came from an LMII-LMIIIAl context, as did those from the Little ANDREOU,ANDREO U , FF. . 1987: 1987: PotteryPottery GroupsGroups ofof LMII-LMIIIA1Palace/Unexplored context, Mansion as did and those the from twelve the whole Little Palace/Unexplored Mansion and the twelve whole the Old Palace Period in Crete,. Ph.D. vases from the Isopata Tomb. the Old Palace Period in Crete, Ph.D. vases from the Isopata Tomb. Dissertation,Dissertation, University ofof Cincinnati.Cincinnati. (4) the problem inherent in estimating by (4) the problem inherent in estimating by extrapolation the total number of Egyptian vases ASTOUR,ASTOUR, MM. . 1973:1973: "Ugarit“Ugarit and thethe extrapolationreaching a site the from total the numbernumber ofof fragments Egyptian found vases in Aegean ”. In H. 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343343 BARBER , R. L. N. 1987: The Cyclades in BARBER, R. L. N. 1987: The Cyclades in Maddin&Maddin& V. V. KarageorghisKarageorghis (Eds), (Eds), EarlyEarly the Bronze Age, London. the Bronze Age, London. MetallurgyMetallurgy in inCyprus Cyprus 4000-500 4000-500 B.C.: B.C.: 203- 203- 212.212. Nicosia. Nicosia. BASS, G. 1986: “A Bronze Age Shipwreck BASS, G. 1986: "A Bronze Age Shipwreck at Ulu Burun (Kas): 1984 Campaign ”, AJA BRANIGAN at Ulu Burun (Kas): 1984 Campaign", AJA BRANIGAN, K., K. 1987:1987: "The “The Economic Economic Role Role 90(3): 269-296. of the First Palaces ”. In R. 90(3): 269-296. of the First Palaces". In R. HaggHggg & &N. N. MarinatosMarinates (Eds): (Eds): 245-249. 245-249. B ISSON DE LA R OQU E , F. 1950: Trt!sor de BISSON DE LA ROQUE, F. 1950: Tresor de T&d. Service des antiquit& de BRANIGAN, K. 1989: TM. Service des antiquites de l'Egypte.I’Egypte. BRANIGAN, K. 1989: "Minoan“Minoan Foreign Foreign Catalogue g&&al des antiquit& Egyptiennes Relations in Transition”. Aegaeum, Catalogue general des antiquites Egyptiennes Relations in Transition". Aegaeum, AnnalesAnnales du mu& du Caire, Numbers 70501-70754, ‘ArchCologie Eegt!enne du musee du Caire, Numbers 70501-70754, 'Archeologie Eegeenne de de l'Universite I’UniversitC Cairo. de Lii?ge 3: 65-71. Cairo. de Liege 3: 65-71.

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