AUTHOR INDEX

Addington, J., 210 Bentley, J. R., 266 Aldrich, J. M., 256 Berryman, A. A., 259, 260, 261, 339, 340 AI-Hafidh, R., 56, 58, 59 Bess, H. A., 145 Allen, G. E., 351 Bethel, R. S., 356 Allen, H. W., 71, 85 Birch, L. C., 18, 19, 85 Allen, W. W., 276, 277 Bird, F. T., 347 Amidon, E. L., 338 Black, J. H., 353 Amitai, S., 463 Blackburn, R. D., 162 Anderson, W. H., 148 Bodenheimer, F. S., 462, 464 Andres, L. A., 148, 149 Boling, J. C., 227, 230, 231, 232, 236, 237, Andrewartha, H. G., 18, 19 238, 239, 245 Angalet, G. W., 149 Bombosch, S., 207 Applebaum, S. W., 466 Borden, J. H., 261 Argyriou, L. C., 190 Bowen, W. R., 277 Asquith, D., 412 Bowery, T. G., 299 Auer, C., 98 Box, H. E., 85 Avidov, Z., 460, 461 Bradley, J. R., 306 Axelrod, D. J., 264 Braun, A. F., 283 Ayre, G. L., 264 Bravenboer, L., 196 Brazzel, J. R., 351 Brimblecrombe, A. R., 228 Britton, D. W., ~89 Bailey, J. C., 227, 239 Broodryk, S., 48, 177 Bailey, V. A., 27,32,33,97,98,99, 100, Brooks, W. M., 297 101, 103 Browne, L. E., 340 Balch, R. E., 256, 347 Brownlee, R. G., 340 Barr, W. F., 266, 267 Buckner, C. H., 104 Bartlett, B. R., 115, 127, 132, 136, 168, Bullock, H. R., 351, 353 269,270,271,448,449,450 Burges, H. D., 349, 350 Bedard, W. D., Jr., 258, 340 Burkhardt, C. C., 278 Bedard,.W. D., Sr., 260 Burks, B. D., 229 Bedford, E. C. G., 171,461 Burnett, T., 28,98,200,201 Bell, K., 282, 308 Burton, V. E., 353 Bellas, T. E., 340 Bushing, R. W., 259, 260, 339 Ben-Dov, Y., 464 Butler, F. G., 281, 282 Ben-Shaked, Y., 465 Bynum, E. K., 304 469 470 AUTHOR INDEX

Callan, E. McC., 88 DeBach, P. (cont'd) Caltagirone, L. E., 356,414 168,169,170,171,172,180,181,182, Calvert, D. J., 268 183,184,187,188,190,229,258,269, Cameron, E., 158 340,432,451,452,461,464 Cameron, E. A., 257 Decker, G. c., 53 Cameron, J. W. M., 350 DeLeon, D., 260, 261 Campbell, R. E., 279 DeLoach, C. 1., 305, 306 Canerday, D., 353 De Mars, C. J., 259, 260, 339 Carrick, R., 17 Dickson, R. c., 278 Carson, R., 5 Dietrick, E. J., 46,81,82,120,131,183, Caylor, J. A., 339 269,281 Chada, H. L., 227, 228, 232, 236 Dietz, E. L., 152 Chamberlin, T. R., 40 Dodd, A. P., 144, 153 Chandapillai, M. M., 446 Dolph, R. E., 339 Chant, D. A., 45, 47,48,49,52,53,55,80, Dorzia, N., 463 196,401,402 Dosse, G., 196 Chapman, A. J., 353 Doutt, R. L., 8, 16, 17,24, 25,43,48,52, Chapman, R. C., 334 79,86,168,173,177,195,265,272, Clancy, D. W., 283, 354 275,452 Clark, E. C., 267 Dudley, C. 0., 339 Clausen, C. P., 53, 55, 61, 71, 76, 77, 78, Dulmage, H. T., 351, 354 83,86,181,247,274 Dunn, P. H., 274 Cobb, F. W., 256, 340 Dutky, S. R., 347 Cohen, I., 458, 459, 461, 462 Cohen, J., 461 Ebeling, W., 440 Collyer, E., 402 Elton, C. S., 68 Compere, H., 180, 181 Embree, D. G., 29, 109, 110,218,219,220, Concienne, E. J., 308 221, 222, 223, 224 Conway, G. R., 423, 428, 443, 444, 445, Etzel, L. K., 353, 354 448,449 Evenden, J. C., 256 Cook, E. F., 264 Ewing, S., 34, 35, 36, 37 Copper, W. A., 257 Cowan, C. B., 282 Cunningham, W. J., 32 Falcon,L.A., 348,353,354,356,388,389 Currie, W. E., 278 Featherston, P. E., 280 Feldman, M., 466 Dahlsten, D. L., 256, 257, 258, 259,260, Ferris, C. A., 354, 388 262, 263, 338, 339 Fillmore, O. 0., 266 Dale, W. L., 422 Finney, G. L., 48, 127, 172, 173, 175, 177 Davidson, W. M., 279,388, 389 Fisher, T. W., 181, 183 Davis, C. J., 152, 154 Fiske, W. F., 20, 93, 94, 95, 97 Davis, C. S., 84, 293 Flaherty, D. L., 8, 117, 188,285,402,418, Davis, D. W., 278 452 Davis, J. W., 282 Flanders, S. E., 38,68,71,78,83,89, 181 Dawson, L. H., 282 Fleschner, C. A., 120,131,135,158,183, Dean, H. A., 227, 229, 239 269 DeBach, P., 7, 16, 17, 24,43,44,46,51,52, Force, D. C., 46, 199,407 53, 54, 60, 61,68, 73, 74, 75, 78, 79, Frank, J. H., 104, 108 83,84,85,86,88,89,95,98,108,115, Fraser, B. D., 84, 293 116,117,120,127, 131, 132, 165, 167, Freed. Y., 158 AUTHOR INDEX 471

Frick, K. E., 158, 160 Hansberry, R., 53 Frost, J., 4 Haramoto, F. H., 145 Fullaway, D. T., 153 Harley, K. L. S., 154 Fulton, B. B., 301 Harpaz, I., 460, 465 Harper, R. W., 266 Harries, F. H., 396 Gallagher, J., 353, 354, 388, 389, 391 Harris, P., 46, 161 Garber, M. J., 85,183 Harville, J. P., 263 Garcia, C., 353 Hassel, M. P., 21,30,31,34,39,40,46,94, Garcia, R., 258 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 106, 107, 110, Gard, I., 353, 354, 391 115, 225 Geier, P. W., 337, 448 Hawkes, R. B., 148, 158, 160 Gentry, C. W., 351 Hawthorne, R. M., 412 George, F. H., 334 Haynes, D. L 28, 29, 35 Gerling, D., 200, 465 Heimpel, A. M., 349, 361 Gerson, U., 461, 466 Hensley, S. D., 308 Giese, R. L., 331, 333 Herbert, H. J., 314,402 Glaser, R. F., 85 Herman, S. G., 34 Goeden, R. D., 152, 158 Hernandez, N. S., 354 Golan, Y., 466 Herne, D. C., 52, 316, 317,412 Gonzales, D., 282, 387 Hewitt, G. B., 266 Goodarzy, K., 278 Hickling, C. F., 144 Gould, H. J., 196, 197, 199 Hitchcock, S., 272 Gradwell, G. R., 20, 29,42,95,97,98,99, Hitchen, D. E., 264 100,103,105, 110,225,255,305,334, Holling, C. S., 28, 30, 34, 35, 36, 37, 95, 340 331, 334 Graham, A. R., 218 Holloway, J. K., 46, 144, 145, 158 Graham, H. M., 354 Holm, L. G., 162 Greathead, D. 1., 153,266 Hom, R. C., 84, 270 Green, E. E., 227 Hopping, G. R., 261 Greenberg, S., 463 Horsburgh, R. L., 412 Gregory, B. G., 351 Howard, L. 0., 20, 93, 94, 95, 97 Gressitt, 1. L., 181 Hoyt, S. C., 354, 396, 397, 400, 401, 402, Griffiths, K. J., 34, 35, 334 403 GuagIiumi, P., 228 Huffaker, C. B., 7, 8, 17,20,21,23,24,25, Gudankas, R. T., 353 27,30,31,32,34,38,39,40,41,43, Gurney, B., 201, 205, 208 44,51, 5~61,73,7~ 9~ 10~ 10~ Guthrie, F. E., 277, 299 115,117,118,120,126,127,130,144, 145,152, 161,172,173,174,175,177, 17~ 179, 188, 198, 283, 284, 285, 307, Hafez, M., 48, 69, 173 340,402,403,452,453,466 Hagen, K. S., 24, 25,46,52, 78, 83, 84, 85, Hunt, R., 258 267, 272, 27~ 279, 28~ 281, 28~ 39~ Hurpin, B., 208, 350 448,451 Hussey, N. W., 196, 197, 198, 201, 205, Haldane, J. B. S., 255 208, 349, 350 Halfhill, J. E., 280 Huttenbach, H., 439 Hall, 1. C., 135, 269 Hall, J. M., 349, 351 Hall, J. S., 46 Ignoffo, C. M., 349, 353, 357 Hall, R. C., 340 Imms, A. D., 153 Handschin, E., 85 Ivannikov, A. J., 144 472 AUTHOR INDEX

Janzen, D. H., 23 Lingren, P. D., 282, 304 Jaynes, H. A., 304 Lisser, A., 465 Jensen, F. L., 285, 351 Long, W. H., 308 Jiminez-Jiminez, E., 171,461 Lord, F. T., 313, 314,402 Johnson, E., 149 Lotka, A. J., 32 Johnson, H. G., 269 Love, M., 266 Jones, S. L., 282, 304 Luck, R. F., 256 Lukefahr, M. J., 354 Lund, H. 0., 83 Kamburov, S., 459, 462 Lung, C. T., 83 Kane, W. R., 356 Luvisi, D. A., 285 Keen, F. P., 256, 257, 259, 262, 338, 340 Lynn, C. D., 285 Kelleher, J. S., 80 Kennett, C. E., 25, 27, 30, 39,40,42,44, 47,48,50,73,100,115,118,120,127, MacFadyen, A., 17, 56 130, 144, 15~ 161, 17~ 173, 174, 175, Machado da Costa, J., 229 177,178,179,198,283,284,403,466 Mackauer, M. J. P., 84 Kerrich, G. J., 229 MacLellan, C. R., 316, 321, 322 Khalifa, A., 203 MacPhee, A. W., 314, 327, 396,.402 King, D., 144 Madden, J. L., 56, 59 King, L. J., 143 Maddox, D. M., 149 Kingham, H. G., 196 Madsen, H. F., 273 Kinney, J. R., 396 Maltby, H. L., 171,461 Kirkton, R. M., 304 Malthus, T. R., 20 Kline, L. N., 261 Margalef, R., 254,331 Klomp, H., 32, 34 Marrow, J., 235 Knipling, E. F., 304 Marshall, H. V., 302 Koebele, A. M., 171 Martignoni, M. E., 258, 349 Kraus, N. L. H., 152, 153 Martin, D. F., 353 Kring, J. B., 203 Martin, J. E. H., 256 Kuchlein, J. H., 402 Maskell, W. M., 227 Kunimoto, R. K., 154 Matsumoto, B., 27, 39,40 May, J., 152 Mayton, E. L., 144 Lagace, C. F., 281, 282 McAlister, H. J., 354 Laing, J. E., 284, 402 McAlpine, J. F., 256 Laird, E. F., 278 McCormick, W. J., 308 Landi, P. J., 46, 51, 183 McGarr, R. L, 354 Langley, P. G., 339 McGuire, J. V., 304 Langston, R. L., 264 McKenzie, H. L., 265 La Rivers, I., 266 McLean, L. A., 53 Lawson, F. R., 298, 299, 301, 304, 305, McLeod, J. H., 196, 200 307,371 McMullen, R. D., 273, 278 Legner, E. F., 115 McMurtry, J. A., 24, 28, 35, 43, 51, 52, Leigh, T. F., 281, 282, 353, 354, 387, 388, 269,307,453 391 Messenger, P. S., 17, 20, 23, 28, 32, 43, 46, Le Roux, J., 354 84,126,293,452,453 Levins, R., 87 Metcalf, Z. P., 302 Lewontin, R. C., 85 Meyer, N. F., 85 Lim, G. S., 454 Meyer, Z. A., 85 AUTHOR INDEX 473

Michelbacher, A. E., 76, 270, 271, 272, 273, Parmeter, J. R., 256 275,277,395 Parr, W. J., 196, 197, 198, 201 Middlekauf, W. W., 266, 271 Passlow, T., 203 Miller, C. A., 324, 325 Patterson, 1. E., 257, 258 Miller, D., 158 Patterson, N. A., 315, 316 Miller, 1. M., 259, 338, 340 Peleg, B. A., 461 Miller, P. R., 256 Perkins, R. C. L., 153 Milliron, H. E., 202 Person, H. L., 259, 260 Milne, A., 57, 94 Pesch ken, D., 46 Milroy, 1., 46 Pickett, A. D., 269, 354 Mistric, W. 1., 307 Pickford, R., 266 Mori, H., 402 Pielou, D. P., 85 Morris, R. F., 28, 29,98,99, 103, 305, 324, Pimentel, D., 56, 57, 58, 59 334 Pinnell, R. E., 367, 371 Mott, D. G., 334 Plaut, H. N., 466 Mueller, A., 391 Pope, R. B., 339 Muldrew, 1. A., 59,80 Porath, A., 463 Muller-Kogler, E., 208 Porterfield, W. A., 144 Muma, M. H., 171, 307,461 Prescott, H. W., 266 Prine, 1. E., 258 Putman, W. L., 52, 316, 317,412 Nadel, D. 1., 461, 466 Puttler, B., 46, 367 Nagel, W. P., 56, 59 Nakata, 1.,8,275 Narayanan, E. S., 229 Quezada, 1.,168,169 Negm, A. A., 308 Quist, J. A., 412 Nesbit, D. P., 434, 435 Neunzig, H. H., 297, 302 Ng, K. Y., 439 Rabb,R.L., 277, 298, 299, 302, 304, 306 Nicholson, A. 1.,17,20,25,27,32,33,46, Rao, B. R. S., 229,446,447,448,453 96,97,98,99,100, 101, 103, 105, 255 Rao, V. P., 229 Nickel, 1. L., 273 Reid, R. W., 261 Nielson, M. W., 278 Reigert, R. W., 266 Nord, E. C., 235 Rejesus, R. S., 283 Remington, C. L., 86 Rentz, D. C., 266 Odum, E. P., 17 Reynolds, H. T., 7, 283, 334, 378 Oettinger, A. S., 331, 334 Richardson, H. P., 196 Oosthuizen, M. 1.,153 Ricker, D. W., l35, 152, 158, 269 Opitz, K. W., 177 Ridgway, R. L., 282, 304 Opler, P. A., 263 Riherd, P. T., 228 Orphanides, E. M., 282 Ritcher, P.O., 267, 268 Ortega, 1. C., 270, 271 Rivnay, E., 463 Otvos, 1. S., 259, 260, 339, 340 Rock, G. C., 307 Owen, R. P., 440 Roddy, L. R., 308 Rodin, J. 0., 340 Roney, J. N., 152 Palmer, J., 446 Root, R. B., 264 Parker, F. D., 365, 367, 371 Rosen, D., 170, 171,459,462,464, Parker, 1. R., 266 466 474 AUTHOR INDEX

Rosenberger, J. H., 274 Stanley, J. M., 351 Rosenstein, A. B., 3 Stark, R. W., 256, 259, 260, 338, 339, 340 Roubicek, M. S., 203 Stehr, F., 264 Royama, T., 99 Steinhaus, E. A., 25, 277, 348, 349,350 Rudinsky, J. A., 261 Ryan, R. B., 261 Stern, V. M., 277, 278, 279, 281, 283, 337, 391,448,451,453 Sabrosky, C. W., 305 Steward, D. K. R., 313 Sadeh, D., 466 Stinner, R. E., 31, 33, 282, 353, 354, 387, Sailer, R. I., 85 388 Salt, G. S., 80, 81 Stone, F. A., 56, 59 Samish, M., 461 Strackey, C., 331 Sandness, J. N., 28, 35 Strohecker, H. F., 266 Sanford, K. H., 314,327, 396 Stromberg, L. K., 354, 388 Sangwan, H. S., 229 Struble, G. R., 257, 258, 261 Sankaran, T., 436 Summers, F. M., 414, 417 Sawall, E. F., 282, 392 Sundby, R. A., 44, 46, 51, 68,74,181, Schlinger, E. J., 46, 83, 280, 281 182,184 Schonkon, D. B., 25 Sutherland, I. E., 331 Schuster, M. F., 227, 228, 229, 230, 231, Swanson, C., 271 232, 236, 237, 238, 239, 245 Swezey, O. H., 153 Scopes, N., 208, 213 Swift, F. C., 307 Scriven, G. T., 269 Swirski, E., 462, 463 Seaman, D. E., 144 Sevacherian, V., 391 Takahashi, F., 94 Sharaf El-Din, N., 203 Tanada, Y., 25, 26, 349, 356 Shea, K. P., 34 Tang, P. G., 83 Shimizu, J., 273 Tassen, R. L., 282, 392 Silverstein, R. M., 340 Taylor, T. H. C., 53, 171, 351 Simmonds, F. J., 53, 54, 55, 71, 77, 78, 82, Telford, A. D., 258 83, 85,86, 161 Thewke, S. E., 367 Simpson, R. G., 278 Thomas, G. M., 257,437 Sisojevic, P., 28, 29, 35, 218 Thomas, W. W., 351 Sisson, R. L., 273 Thompson, C. G., 277 Skinner, F. E., 275 Thompson, W. R., 18, 19, 27, 257 Sluss, R. R., 83, 270, 278, 279 Thorley, G. A., 339 Smith, E. V., 144 Thurston, R., 302, 306, 307 Smith, H. S., 17, 20,43,71,78,93,95,97, Tilden, J. W., 265. 98,120 Tilden, P. E., 340 Smith, O. J., 274 Tinbergen, L., 32, 34 Smith, R. F., 7, 8, 267, 275, 276, 277, 278, Tothill, J. D., 264 279,283,334,336,337,340,378,396, Tucker, R. W. E., 83 415,447,448,449,451,454,458 Turnbull, A. L., 43, 44, 45, 47, 48, 49, 52, Smith, R. W., 266 53,54,71, 80 Solomon, M. E., 43, 336 Southwood, T. R. E., 29,45, 103, 331, 334 Speyer, E. R, 195, 200 Ullyett, G. C., 25 Spitzer, C. H., 283 Urquijo, P., 85 Squires, V. R., 149 Uvarov, B. P., 18, 19 AUTHOR INDEX 475 van den Bosch, R., 46, 47, 55, 59,71,81,82 Wene, G. P., 228 83, 84, 270, 277, 278, 279, 281, 282, Werner, G. D., 281 337,353,354,387,388,391,413,448, Westdal, P. H., 196 451,453,458 Westigard, P. H., 273 van der Laan, P. A., 350 Whitcomb, W. H., 282, 308 van de Vrie, M., 24,43,51, 52, 307,453 White, C., 282 van Emden, H. G., 207 White, E. B., 46, 51,85,183 Varley, G. C., 20, 29, 31, 34, 42, 46,95,97, White, E. G., 21, 27, 32, 38, 39,40,41 98,99,100,101,103,105, 106, 107, White, R. T., 347 110,115,225,255,305,334,340,453 Wilkes, A., 85 Viette, P., 465 Williams, R. N., 228, 229 Vogt, G. B., 148 Wilson, F., 71, 78, 85, 265 Volterra, V., 32 Wilson, 1. W., 144 Voute, A. D., 337 Wolfenbarger, D. A., 354 Wong, T. T. Y., 273 Wood, B. J., 108,423,424,428,430,434, 435,439,440,442,453 Wakeland, C., 266 Wood, D. 1., 256, 340 Walker, I., 80 Wood, E. A., 227, 228, 232, 236 Wang, Y. P., 83 Woodworth, C. W., 20 Wangersky, P. J., 32 Wyatt, I. J., 206, 207 Warren, R., 158 Wycherley, P. R., 445 Waterhouse, D. F., 153 Wygant, N. D., 257 Watkins, W. C., 282 Wylie, H. G., 222 Watt, K. E. F., 43, 44, 45, 48, 49,51,332, Wynne-Edwards, V. C., 22, 23 334,338 Way, M. J., 45,391 Wear, J. F., 339 York, G. T., 266 Weber, P. W., 153 Webster, 1. J., 26 Weldon, 1. W., 145, 162 Zeiger, C. F., 145, 148 Wellington, W. G., 267 Zwolfer, H., 44, 45, 48, 49, 161 SUBJECT INDEX

Abies Alligator weed, biological control of, 145-9 balsamea (1.), 324 (See also A lternanthera con color Gord. and Glend., 257 phylloxeroides) Acaudaleyrodes citri (Priesner and Hosni), Allograpta sp., 267 463 Alsophilia pometaria (Harris), 348 Acieris variana (Fernald), 98,312-3,324-5 Alternanthera phylloxeroides (Mart.) Acmaeodera sp., 265 Griseb., 145-9 Actia diffidens Curr., 324 acreage infested, 148 Aculus herbicides augmenting biological control cornutus (Banks), 413-4, 418-9 of, 149 schlechtendali (Nalepa), 396-411 initiation of biological control, 148 Acyrthosiphon pisum (Harris), 53, present status in U. S., 148 279-81 status in native areas, possible insect regu• Adaptability, adaptiveness (See Natural lation, 148 enemies, adaptability, adaptive• Alternate hosts (or prey), 77, 274-5, 398, ness) 401,408-9,418,444 (See also Addition method (See Natural enemies, Natural enemies) evaluating effectiveness, experi• Amazon, 83 mental methods) Amblyseius Aenoplex carpocapsae (Cushman), 85 aurescens Athias-Henriot, 283 artificial selection of, 85 cucumeris (Oudemans), 283 Afghanistan, 8, 173 swirskii Athias-Henriot, 463 Africa, 18, 149 Anabris simplex Haldman, 266 African bollworm, 465 Anagasta kuhniella (Zeller), 22, 38-9,41 Agasicies, 146-8 Anagrus epos Girault, 13-4, 275 Agathis diversus (Muesebeck), 77 Anagyrus Agrilus hyperici (Creutzer), 49, 50 antoninae Timberlake, 228, 229 Agro-ecosystems, 116, 254, 268-85, 294, diversicornis Mercet, 229 297-8,314,326,459-66 (See also Anarsia lineatella Zeller, 412, 414-7 Integrated control) Anasa tristis (DeGeer), 79 Agrothereutes sp., 263 Anomis texana Riley, 9-10 Agrypon f/aveolatum (Grav.), 109, 217-8, Anthemus inconspicuus Doutt. 177 221-5 Anthonomus vestitus Bohm, 9-10 Alabama, 148 Antigua, 54 Alfalfa, 275-81, 337, 348, 391-2 An ton ina Alfalfa caterpillar, 275-7, 348, 351 graminis (Maskell), 169, 227-48 Alfalfa weevil, 76, 81 indica Green, 227 (See Rhodesgrass scale) 477 478 SUBJECT INDEX

Ants, 117, 120, 127, 130-5, 189,264,308, Aphytis spp., 51, 461, 463 462-3,465 (See also Natural complementary actions, 177-8 enemies, interference effects, displacing coccinellids, 180 experimental methods) effective on armored scales, 181 and tent caterpillars, 264 and phase of scale development, 181 Anystis agilis Banks, 322 sibling species, strains of, 173 Aonidiella chrysomphali (Mercet), 74,170-1,180-2, aurantii (Maskell), 46, 50, 53, 55, 73-5, 185-6,464 78-9, 89, 120, 122-3, 126-8, accidental introduction of, 74 130, 132-3, 135, 167, 169, biological control by, 74 171-2,179-91,463 climatic adaptations of, 74 competition and, 74 citrina (Coquillett), 53, 78-9 displacement of, 74 Apanteles distribution in California, 74 congregatus (Say), 300-3, 306 efficacy of, 74 flaviconchae Riley, 277 coheni DeBach, 171, 464 glomeratus (L.), 365-7 fisheri De Bach, 75, 184 harrisinae Muesebeck, 274 climate and, 75 laevigatus (Ratz.), 465 colonization of, 75 marginiventris (Cresson), 281, 374 competition and, 75 medicaginis Muesebeck, 275-7 origin of, 75 metesae Nixon, 426-7 taxonomic status, 75 orobenae Forbes, 374 holoxanthus De Bach, 170-2,460-1 ru becula Marshall, 367-72 /epidosaphes Compere, 130-1, 171,462 Aphelinus lingnanensis Compere, 74-5, 85, 89, asychis Walker, 72 170-1,180-6 diapause, lack of, 72 abundance of, 74 habitats, 72 climatic adaptations, 75 winter activity, 72-3 competitive ability, 74 flavipes Kurdymov, 203-6, 211 distribution in California, 75 biology, 203 effect of climate, 181-2 following coccinellids, 205 efficacy, 75 temperature effects on efficiency, 203-4 establishment, 74 mali (Haldeman), 83,410 origin, 74 strains: Russian, Tsingtao, 83 selection of, artificial, 85 semiflavus Howard, 196 maculicornis (Masi), 30-1, 42, 48,73, Aphidius 118, 129, 172-9 matricariae Haliday, 207 climate, 73, 173-4 biological control by, in greenhouses, introduction of, 73 206-8 life-cycle, 173 efficiency and competition among hosts, strains of, 173 207 melinus DeBach, 75, 89,120,180,184-6, overlapping host stages, 207 188,190,464 phorodon tis Ashmead, 196 climate and, 75 pulcher Baker, 280 competition and, 75 smithi Sharma and Rao, 280 establishment of, 75 Aphids, 72-3, 83-4, 203-6, 267-9, 275, origin, 75 277-9,444 taxonomic status, 75 Aphis mytilaspidis (LeBaron), 79, 171, 313 gossypii Glover, 202-6, 209, 211 Apple, 218, 273, 312-23, 356-61, 395-411, pomi DeGeer, 404-6 418,466 SUBJECT INDEX 479

Apple aphid, 404-6 Baccharis pilularis DeCandolle, 265 Apple pests, biological control of, 312-3, Bacillus 395-411 lentimorbus Dutky, 346-7 Canada, 312-23 popi/liae Dutky, 346-7 U. S. A., 395-411 sphaericus Neide, 347 Apple powdery mildew, 403-4 thuringiensis Berliner, 347-61, 386, 391 Apple rust mite, 396-411 Bacteria, 26, 391 (See also Bacillus; Natural Apple scab, 404 enemies; Pathogens) Archips argyrospila (Walker), 348, 404 Bagworms, 423-37, 451-2, 454 Arctostaphylos sp., 265 Baits, 414 Area of discovery, 98,100-2,105-6 (See rats, 442 also Natural enemies, searching) Balance of nature (homeostasis), 16-8, 56, 114,247-51 (See also Natural Argentina, 148 Argentine ant, 265 control) alien elements in agro-ecosystems, 254 Argentine moth, 144 alternate hosts and, 254 Argyrotaenia sphaleropa Meyrich, 10 ancient co-evolution of hosts and Arizona, 81-2, 152, 229 parasites, 256 Arkansas, 308 bark beetles as stand regulators, 259 Aroga websteri Clarke, 266 California grassland species, mainly Artemisia spp., 265-8 exotics, lacking parasites, 267 Artichoke, 348 competition and, 254-6 Artichoke plume moth, 348 complex of natural enemies (See Artificial selection (See Selection, artificial) Multiple species introductions; Ascogaster sp. nr. pro van cheri Prov., 324 Natural enemies, multiple in• Ashy gray lady beetle, 269 troduction, complementary Asia, 149, 170-1, 180, 227,422-55,460 action) Aspidiotiphagus sp., 48 density-dependent action (See Density citrin us (Craw.), 49, 78 dependence) Aspidiotus destructor Sign., 54, 60, 165 genetic feed-back exchanges and, 254-5, hederae (Vallot), 78 267,280 perniciosus (Comstock), 53,404-5,413 honeydew and, 254 (See also Foods; Asynchronous parasite, 77 Honeydew) Hyperecteina aldrichi, 77 longevity of the habitat and, 268 Paradexodes epilachnae, 77 monocultures and, 254 A triplex negative feed-back and, 254-5 confertifolia (Torr.), 267 pollen and, 254 (See also Foods) nuttalli S. Wats., 267 population regulation and, 447-51 Attractants, 414, 442, 461 (See also Baits) refuges and, 254 (See also Damping Audubon's warbler, 272 mechanisms) Augmenting natural enemies (See Natural regulation by natural enemies and, 253-6, enemies, augmentation of) 259,265-8,275-6,308,447-51 Australia, 17,49-50,60,85,144,158,165, (See also Natural control) 167,195,228,236 secondary endemics disrupting, 258, 260 Avocado, 137, 269 variations in agro-ecosystems, homeo- Avocado brown mite, 136-7, 269 stasis, 268 Avocado pests, 136 Balsam fir, 324 Azinophosmethyl, harmful to natural Banana, 460 enemies, 355 Band traps for codling moth, 358-60 480 SUBJECT INDEX

Bathyplectes curculionis (Thomsen), 70, 76, Biological control (cont'd) 81 Opuntia spp., 144, 155-8 in California, 76 overlapping stages and, 207 climate and, 76, 82 Phytomyza, 208-9 distribution, 70 pioneering work in glasshouses, 195 efficacy, 76 premise of, 23 host relations and immunity, 81-2 principles, theory and practices, 16-67, introduction into U. S. A., California, 81 137-8 (See also Importations, origin, 82 strategies) Bavaria (Germany), 80 reduced man-power and, 213 Beans, 348 reduced pesticide resistance, 196, 206 Beauveria bassiana (Balsamo) Vuillemin, reduced phytoxicity and, 213 347,359 reduced rooting capacity and, 213 Bee bug, 445 rhodesgrass scale, 227-248 Beet armyworm, 281, 347-8, 352-4, 360, spider mites, glasshouses, 197-200, 210, 380,382, 388 212 Beet armyworm virus, 347-8, 352-4, 360 successes (See Successes in biological con• Beet leafhopper, 18 trol) "Before" and "after" comparisons (See factors in (See Natural enemies, efficien- Natural enemies, evaluation of) cy) Behavioral response (See Functional Tribulus terrestris, 149-153 response) Tyria jacobaeae, 158-60 Bermuda, 229 whitefly, 200-2 Biological control vs. chemical, 218 Bermudagrass, 228, 239 Biological races, 78, 173 (See also Natural BHC enemies, strains; Strains) resistance to, in Phytomyza, 208 Birds, 340 (See also Natural enemies; use in integrated control, 211 Predators) Biological check method (See Ants; Natural and alternate foods, 260 enemies, evaluation of, experi• as predators mental methods) of bark beetles, 260 Biological control of codling moth, 320-2 Alternanthera phylloxeroides, 145-9 of scale insects, 272 re: competition among hosts and, 207 of tent caterpillars, 264 costs/benefits and, 210, 213-4 Blackberry, 13-4, 275 costs for rhodesgrass scale, 245 Black cricket wasp, 266 cotton aphid, 203-6 Black-headed budworm, 98, 312-3, 324-5 cultigens, relation to, 206, 208 outbreaks, 324 defined, 114 (also Preface) inception, weather and parasitism, 324 diapause and, 197-8 termination and parasitism, 324 difficulties, 214 Black scale, 53, 76, 79, 135, 265,462,464 Eupatorium adenophorum, 144 Blackthorn, 100 by field-collected parasites, in glasshouses, Blastothrix 208 longipennis Howard, 271 in glasshouses, 195-214 sericea (Dalm.), 318-9 green peach aphid, 206-8 Blepharidopterus angulatus (Fall.), 321-2 Hypericum perforatum, 144 Blue gum scale, 60 increased yields and, 210 (See also Yields) Bombyliidae, 266 integrated control of pest complex and, Bordered plant bug, 79 209-14 Bothriochloa barbinodis Lag., 232-3 Lantana camara, 153-4 Boucekiella antoninae (Ferr.), 228 SUBJECT INDEX 481

Brachiaria ciliatissima (Buckl.), 232-3, 235, Carabidae, 104 239,248 Carbamates, 387,403,412,417-8 Brazil, 83,148,172,228-9 Carbaryl, 387, 466 British Columbia, 80, 356 associated with aphid increases, 307 British Guiana, 77 effect on natural enemies, 307, 355 Broccoli, 348 harmful to natural enemies, 355 Brown soft scale, 79, 135, 462 -induced pest problems, 355 Brumoides parvicollis Casey, 267 Cardiochiles nigriceps Viereck, 297-9 Bryobia rubrioculus (Scheuten), 413 Caribbean Islands, 77, 83 Bucculatrix thurberiella Busck, 10, 282 Carpocapsa pomonella (See Laspeyresia Bulls-eye rot, 404 pomonella) Bunchmoth (Tirathaba), 438-9 Castnia licoides Bois., 77 Catabena esula (Druce), 153 Catastrophic agencies, 95-6, 103 Cabbage, 348, 365-76 Catolacus aeneoviridis (Girault), 267 Cabbage looper, 281, 348, 351-2, 354, 373, Cauliflower, 348 380, 382, 388, 391 Cecidomyiidae, 260 Cabbage looper virus, 348-9, 352-4, 360, Celery, 348 391 Census data, 118, 120, 127 Cabbage pests, 365-76 Cephalosporium aphidicola Petch, 208 Cactoblastis, 60 Ceratitis capitata (Wied.), 460-2, 466 cactorum (Berg.), 144 Ceroplastes Caleotachnites (Recurvaria) milleri (Busck), floridensis Comstock, 464 257 rubens Maskell, 166 Calico scale, 271 Chad,8 California, 6,11-14,46,48-51,53,55,60, Chaff scale, 130,464 72-6,79,81-4,145,152-3,155, Chaparral biome, 264-5 158,160-1,165,167-9,172-3, Check methods, 454 (See also Natural 177,179,181,183-4,186,188, enemies, evaluation of, experi• 191,227,229,351-9,377-96, mental methods) 411-20,452 biological, 131-35 California live oak, 263 chemical, 127-30, 269-73, 283 California oakmoth, 263-4 chemical removal, 135-6, 268-73 California oakworm, 348 comparison plots, 201, 230, 232-8 California red scale, 50, 53, 55, 73-5, 78-9, DDT and olive scale, 127-30, 175 89,120-3,127-8,130,132-3, demonstrating climatic effects, 183 135,138,167-9,171-2,179-91, hand-removal, 135-6, 269 463 sleeve-cage, 273 biological control of, 74 Chelinidea key pest of citrus, 74 tabulata (Burmeister), 155 natural enemies of, 73 vittiger Uhler, 155 stages preferred by parasite, 73 Chelonus texanus Cresson, 281 Callimerus arcufer Chap., 426 Chemical control (See Integrated control; Campanotus vicinus Mayr, 267 specific chemicals) Campoletis perdistinctus (Vier.), 297-9 rhodesgrass scale (useless for), 228 Canada, 29,53,80, 98, 109-10, 158, 195, Chi/ocorus 225,305,312,325,347,356 bipustulatus (L.), 48-9 Cane sourgrass, 232-3, 235, 248 orbus Casey, 49 Canete Valley, Peru (See Cotton, integrated China, 74, 83, 170, 180 control) Chlorinated hydrocarbons, 464, 466 (See Cantheconidea furcellata Wolff, 426 also specific chemicals) 482 SUBJECT INDEX

Chlorion laeviventris (Cresson), 266 Bathyplectes curculionis, 76, 82 Chloris gayana Kunth, 227-48 black scale, 76 Chromaphis juglandicola (Kaltenbach), 53, Coccophagoides u tilis, 73 83,89,269 Comperiella bifasciata, 74 Chrysanthemum, 197, 206-8, 211-2 Eretmocerus serius, 76 Chrysobothris mali Horn, 413 Hyperecteina aldrichi, 77 Chrysocharis melaenis, 209 Metaphycus helvolus, 76 Chrysolina, 60, 145 mites, 407, 409 hyperici (Forster), 50 natural enemies, 72-6, 82-4 quadrigemina (Suffrian), 49, 50, 119, 144 olive scale parasites, 73 Chrysomphalus, 181 Paradexodes epilachnae, 77 aonidum (L.), 168-72, 191,460-3 Praon exsoletum, 72 ficus Ashmead, 168-72, 191 Prospaltella perniciosi, 75 Chrysopa spp., 269 spotted alfalfa aphid enemies, 72-3 carnea Stephens, 85, 272, 282, 387, 392 Trichogramma, 371 nigricornis Burmeister, 410 Trioxys oculata Say, 410 complanatus, 72 Cinnabar moth, 158-60 pallidus, 83 Circulifer tene/lus (Baker), 18 Coccids, 165-92, 227-48, 270-2, 318-9 Citrophilus mealybug, 53, 165 (See also Scales) Citrus, 165-72, 179-92,458-64 Coccinella sp., 278 pests, integrated control of, 459-64 Coccinella novemnotata franciscana Muls., Citrus black aleyrodid, 463 278 Citrus blackfly, 60 Coccophagoides utilis Doutt, 30, 48, 73, Citrus blackfly parasite, 76 118,174,177-9 Citrus mealybug, 132, l34-5 climate and, 73 Citrus red mite, l35 introduction, 73 Citrus rust mite, 460, 463 life cycle, adelphoparasitism, 177 Cladosporium sphaerospermum, 201, 203 Coccophagus sp., 319,463 Clausenia purpurea Ishii, 462 Coccus hesperidum L., 79, 135,462 Cleptes sp., 263 Cochineal insect, 155 Climate, 173-4, 183,422,452 Cochlidiidae, 424 disease and, 26 Cockchafers, 424, 442, 446-7 favorable to pests but naturally sup• Cocoa, 423, 428, 442-5,448-55 pressed, 422 Coconut scale, 54, 60, 165 non-controlling on California red scale, Codling moth, 273, 312-3, 316, 320-3, 183 327,351,355-60,396,403-6, non manipulatable, 40 466 pathogen effectiveness and, 349, 353 disease, 323 regulation by Aphytis lingnanensis and, economic importance, 320 184 economic injury levels, 320 Climatic effects, 173-4, 183, 407, 409, granulosis virus for, 351, 355-60 452-3 "life tables" for, 320 Aphelinus asychis, 72 mortality, 320-3 A phy tis parasitization, 320-3 chrysomphali, 74 predation, 320-3 fisheri, 75 by birds, 322-3 lingnanensis, 75, 181-3 rate of increase and integrated control, maculicornis, 73 323 melinus, 75 temperature, 323 SUBJECT INDEX 483

Coeloides Comparison of systems, 108 (See also brunneri Viereck, 261 Check methods) dendroctoni Cushman, 261 Comparison plots, 138 (See also Experimen• Co-existence, 100-2 (See Competitive tal methods) displacement) rhodesgrass scale, 230-1 Coffee mealybug, 166 Compensation in yield, after spider mite Colias damage, 196 eurytheme Boisduval, 275-7, 348, 351 Compensation of crop damage (cabbage), philodice Godart, 277 373 Collards, 348 Compensatory effects, 114 Colobesthes falcata, 443 Comperiella bifasciata Howard, 74-5, 79, Colonization 181,186 establishment, soil and vegetation in• adaptability, 74 fluences, 245 climatic limitations, 74 techniques, 229-30, 239-41 co-existence with Aphytis, 74 Colonized natural enemies competitors of, 74 Agathis diversus, eastern U. S. A., 77 distribution in California, 74 Aphelinus asychis, California, 72 efficacy, 74 Aphytis fisheri, California, 75 establishmen t, 74 lingnanensis California, 74 origin, 74 maculicornis, California, 73 Competition, 17,47-51, 74, 168, 172, melinus, California, 75 180-2, 184-5, 190, 200,464 (See Bathyplectes curculionis, 76 also Density dependence; Regula• California red scale parasites, California, tion) 73 Aphytis fisheri and, 75 Coccophagoides utilis, California, 73 lingnanensis and, 74-5 Comperiella bifasciata, California, 74 melinusand,75 Eretmocerus serius, Cuba, Trinidad, California red scale parasites and, 74-5 Panama, Costa Rica, western Comperiella bifasciata and, 74-5 Mexico, 76 establishment of natural enemies and, 68 Habrolepis rouxi, California, 74 interference, 168, 399-400 of olive scale, California, 73 mites, 398 Palpozenillia palpalis, Carribean Is., 77 multiple introductions, 168 Paradexodes epilachnae, U. S. A., 77 among parasites, 207 Paratheresia claripalpis, Trinidad, 77 between predators, 399 Praon exsoletum, California, 72 Prospaltella perniciosi and, 75 Prospaltella perniciosi, California, 75 Competitive displacement, 47-51,168,172, of spotted alfalfa aphid parasites, 72-3 180-2,184-5,464 (See also Com• Trioxys complanatus, California, 72 petition) Colony spread, rhodesgrass scale parasites, Competitive interferences, 189, 192 230, 237-9, 245, 248 (See also Competitive status of weeds, reduction of, Dispersal; Natural enemies, mobil• by natural enemies, 144-5 ity) Complementary factors (parasites), 73, 171, Colradia pandora Blake, 257 186,192 (See also Natural Common bitter brush, 267 enemies) Community stability and biological control, Complex of enemies required, 154, 161 42-5,51-2,56-61,247 (See Bio• Complex of natural enemies (See Natural logical control, principles etc., enemies, multiple introductions) theory, etc.; Stability) Compoletis perdistinctus (Viereck), 297-8 484 SUBJECT INDEX

Computers (See Systems analysis and pest Cotton aphid, 202-6 management) biology and hosts, 203 Coniferous forests, 256-63 (See also Natural competition and parasite effectiveness, enemies, coniferous forests) 203-4 Connecticut, 296 control by Cycloneda and Aphelinus, 205 Conservation of crop, measure of control, in greenhouses, 203-6, 209-10 38 virus problems with cucumbers, 206 Conservation of natural enemies, 24, 281, Cotton boll weevil, 308 309,452 (See also Alternate hosts Cotton bollworm, 281-2, 296-7, 304, 308, or prey; Foods; Honeydew) 348,351-6,361,374,377, Consperse stink bug, 404, 413 382-9,391-2 Control (See also Biological control; Cotton bollworm virus, 347-8, 351, 353-4, Integrated control; Population regulation) 360-1 Cotton leaf perforator, 282 biological (rhodesgrass scale) Cottony cushion scale, 53, 60,136,165, damage gauge, 230 167-9, 191,462 and yield, 230-2 relative and absolute, 21 Cowpea, 351 Convolvulus, 203 Coyote brush, 265 Copidosoma bakeri (Howard), 267 Crataegus, 100 Coptotermes curvignathus Holmgr., 442 Cratichneumon culex (Mueller), 100, 105-9 Cordia macrostachya (Jacquin) Roemer and Cremastopsyche pendula Joannis, 423, Schultes, 54, 161 425-6,432 Corn earworm (See Cotton bollworm) Cross-striped cabbageworm, 373 Corn earworm virus, 347-8, 351. 353-4, Cryptic enemies, 305-9 360-1,389-91 Cryptochaetum iceryae (Williston), 167-9 Cory Ius, 100 Cryptolaemus montrouzieri Mulsant, 196 Costa Rica, 76 Cuba, 76, 153 Costs/benefits, 53-6, 210, 213-4, 217-8, Cucumber, 196-205, 210-11,348 393,409-11,460,464-5 (See Cucumber virus, 206 also Biological control, cost Culex tarsalis Coquillett, 258 benefi ts; Savings) Cultivars (See Varieties, host plants) and biological control, 117, 161 Cultural practices or methods, 117, 254, Cotton, 8-11, 205,281-3,304,308,337, 275,280,296,299-300,302, 348,351-5,377-94,464-5 304, 367, 389-91,409 (See also integrated pest control, 8-11, 464-5 Integrated control, cultural prac• Canete Valley, Peru, 8-11 tices) phases of, 8-9 Cybocephalus sp., 49 savings, 10-11 Cycas, 180 troubles from unilateral uses of Cyclamen mite, 127, 283-4 pesticides, 8-11 (See also Pesti• Cycloneda sanguinea L., 205, 278 cides) natural enemies affected, 10 control of cotton aphid in greenhouses by, pesticide-induced problems, 9-10 205 resistance to pesticides, 8, 10 used with Aphelinus, 205 resurgence of pests, 8, 10 Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers., 228, 239 yields in Peru, 10, 11 Cyprus, 173 pathogens for integrated control, 351-5 Cyrtorrhinus, 60 Polistes manipulation for bollworm, 303-4 Cyzenis albicans (Fall.), 29, 100, 103-5, predation and, 308 108-10,217-8,221-5 SUBJECT INDEX 485

Dactylopius opuntiae Licht., 155-7 Density dependence (cont'd) Dacus low-intensity can regulate, 40 neohumeralis (Perkins), 85 reciprocal, 23 oleae (Gme1in), 465 tests for, 96-9, 103, 105, 107 tryoni (Froggatt), 85 Density dependent movement, 238-9 Dahlbominus fuscipennis (Zetterstedt), 85 Density dependent parasitization, 276 artificial selection of, 85 Density dependent regulation, 17, 19-20, Damping mechanisms, 31-6, 231 (See also 26-36 Models) Density independent factors, 95-6, 103-4 Darna trima (Moore), 424,426-8,434-5, Density related behavior, 25 437 Density responses of predators, 402, 407, DO-136,347 409 (See also Functional response; DDT, 117, 195, 269-73, 315-7, 319, 460, Numerical response) 464 Deraeocoris brevis Uhler, 400, 410 belated recognition of dangers, 3, 4 Derostenus sp., 262 as check method tool, 127, 130, 175 (See Desmia funeralis (Hubner), 348, 351 also Natural enemies, evaluation Diadegma plutellae (Viereck), 374 of effectiveness, experimental Diamondback moth, 25,348,373 methods, interference effects) Diapause, 72,197-8,366,372,417 effects on Vedalia, 168 and coccinellid response to aphids, 278 Deciduous fruits, 466 Diaphnocoris pellucida (Uhler), 321-2 Demeton, 278-9 Diatraea saccharalis(F.) , 77,83,304,308 Demeton-methyl, integrated control, 206, Diazinon, resistance to, in Phytomyza, 208 211 Dicofol, 460, 463 Dendrocopos syriacus (Hemprich and Dieldrin, 460 Ehrenberg),465 Dikrella cruentata Gillette, 13, 275 Dendroctonus Dimethirimol, 211 brevicomis LeConte, 259-61, 338-41 Diprion hercyniae (Hartig), 347 ponderosae Hopkins, 261 Diprionidae, 261-3 pseudotsugae (Hopkins), 261 "Direct pests," 52-3, 172, 192 Dendroica auduboni Townsend, 272 "Direct and indirect pests," 52-3 Density dependence, 17,28-30,47-51,94, Dirhinus giffardii Silvestri, 462 97,99,101,103-5,110,230, Disc equation, 28 232-3, 254-5, 276 Discreteness of generations, 38-9 community stability and, 41-5 (See also Discrimination of natural enemies, 25, Balance of nature; Species diversi• 68-76, 200 (See also Host ty) preferences) complex of agencies and, 32-4 Disease, 323 (See also Pathogens) of species and, 45 of apple, 404 damping mechanisms and (See Damping Dispersal ability, 118, 136, 227, 229, mechanisms) 237-9,423-4 (See also Move• definition of, 22 ments; Natural enemies, mobility) delayed, 25, 30-1, 98,100,103-5 of Anagrus, 275 demonstrations of, 20-1 and Apanteles effectiveness, 276 fragmentation theory and, 32 cinnabar moth, 160 general predators, role of, 34, 43, 51-2 mites within tree, 401 host/ parasite (predator/prey) interactions mode of movement, 238 (See Models) of pathogen, 349-50; pathogens and intrinsic mechanisms, 22 moisture, 297 lag-effects in natural enemies (See Lag re: pea aphids, cutting, and natural effects) enemies, 280 486 SUBJECT INDEX

Dispersal ability (cant 'd) Ecosystem complex (cont'd) pests and natural enemies into cotton, unity of, 458-60 281-3 Ecosystem complexity, 294 Dispersal experiments, 238 and stability, 294, 297-8, 304, 308 (See also Balance of nature) Distribution, artificial, 230-7 Ecuador, 8 Distribution of progeny, 35 (See also Dis- Effectiveness of natural enemies (See Natu• crimination of natural enemies) ral enemies, evaluation of Diversity of species and stability of bio• effectiveness) logical control, 23, 294, 297-8, Egypt, 172-3 304, 308 (See also Balance of Egyptian alfalfa weevil, 81 nature) Egyptian cotton worm, 465 Douglas fir, 257, 261 Elachertus nigritulus (Zett.), 465 Douglas fir beetle, 261 Elateridae, 268 Douglas fir tussock moth, 257 Emigration losses, 116 (See also Mortality) Drosophila, 28 Encapsulation, 59, 367 melanogaster Meigen, 80 Encarsia formosa Gahan, 195, 200-2, 211 Dusmetia (See also Biological control; indica Burks (See Neodusmetia sangwani) Successes) sangwani Rao (See Neodusmetia sangwani) biology, 200 Dust, 116, 127, 258-9, 265 comparison plots, 201 Dysaphis plantaginea (Passerini), 404 competition of, 200 host-feeding, 200 interference by honeydew, 201 Earias insulana Boisduval, 465 preferred host stages, 200 Earwigs, 104 rate of increase, 200 Economic importance of pests or of control stocking in greenhouses with, 200-2 effects, 54, 217, 225-9, 266, 276, temperature effects, 200-1 278,295,317,320,396,413, wound-killing of hosts, 200 423-5,437,439,445-6,451, Endoclita hosei (Tindale), 443 459-60 (See also Costs/benefits; Endrin, tool as check method, 130 (See also Savings) Natural enemies, experimental Economic injury levels, 12, 145, 277, 320, methods) 339,378,382-5,388-9,406-7, England, 80, 108, 195-6, 200, 208, 211, 412-5,417,419,427,451 225 compensation in yields, 196 English ivy, 123 and cotton aphid on cucumbers, 203 Enoclerus lecontei (Wolcott), 259-60 green peach aphid on chrysanthemums, Entomogenous fungi, mass culture of, 208 207-8 Entomogenous microorganisms (See Inte- and honeydew, 201 grated control; Microbial control; and parasitism, 372, 374 Pathogens) pests of oil palms, cocoa, rubber, 427, 451 Entomophagous insects (See Natural Economic losses reduced, 296-300 enemies; Parasites; Predators) Economic thresholds, 461-2 (See also Entomophthora coronata Kevorkian, 208 Economic injury levels) Eodiatraea centrella (Moschler), 77 Ecosystem complex Eotetranychus sexmaculatus (Riley), 136, citrus, 459-64 269 cotton, 464-5 Eozenillia equatorialis Townsend, 437 deciduous fruits, 462, 466 Ephestia cautella (Walk.), 94 olive, 465 Epilachna varivestis Mulsant, 77 SUBJECT INDEX 487

Epizootics, and host population dynamics, Evaluation of biological control, 161 (See 346,352 also Natural enemies) and population regulation, 25 Evaluation of natural enemies (See Natural Equilibrium density, 30,118,125-6,145 enemies, evaluation of) Equilibrium mortality, 221 Evergestis rimosalis (Guenee), 373 Erannis tiliaria (Harris), 348 Evolution Eretmocerus, 60 camouflage, 52 diversiciliatus Silvestri, 463 and dietary range, 51-2 serius Silvestri, 76 homeostasis, 56 (See also Balance of climate, 76 nature; Stability) efficacy, 76 and host-parasite adaptation, 56-61 establishment, 76 mimicry, 52 origin, 76 Exclusion methods (See Natural enemies, Eriosoma lanigerum (Hausmann), 83, 404, evaluation of effectiveness, ex• 410 perimental methods) Erythroneura elegantula Osborn, 12-14, Exenterus sp., 263 274 Exorista psychidarum Bar., 437 Establishment of natural enemies, 68, 71, Exotic pests, 268 76 Experimental methods of evaluation, adaptability and, 69 113-38, 294-5 (See also Natural adult requisites and, 68 enemies, evaluation of effective• biological control and, 68 ness) climatic effects on, 68 Experiments and systems analyses, 332-6 competitors and, 68 (See Systems analysis and pest failures, 71 management) female progeny production and, 68 Exploitation, 198 (See also Economic im• habitat finding and, 68 portance; Natural enemies; Para• host acceptability and, 68, 76 sites; Pathogens; Predators) host suitability and, 68, 76 intrinsic properties and, 69 reproduction and, 68 Facultative factor, 94 success, rate of, 71 Fall cankerworm, 348 survival and, 68 Fall webworm, 34~ synchrony with hosts and, 68, 76-8 Field collection and distribution of enemies, Estigmene acrea (Drury), 348, 382, 388 346-8, 352 Ethylene dibromide, 461 Field "insectary production," 247 Eucalyptus weevil, 60 Fig scale, 79 Eucelatoria armigera (Coquillet), 281 Fiji, 60, 165 Eupatorium adenophorum (Spreng.), 144-5 Fir, 257 Euphorocera tachinomoides Townsend, 281 Fir engraver, 261 Eurasia, 18, 217 Florida, 148, 153, 227, 296,460 Europe, 81-2, 149, 312, 356 Florida red scale, 168-72, 191, 460-3 European corn borer, 348 Florida wax scale, 464 European pine sawfly, 35, 347 Foods, alternative or supplementary, 24, 52, European red mite, 52, 312-7,395-412, 392,398,401,408-9,418 414-8 Forest bark beetles, 259-61 European spruce sawfly, 347 Forest lepidoptera, 256-8 Euryophthalmus cinctus califomicus Van Forest sawflies, 261-3 Duzee,79 Forest scale insects, 258-9 Euschistus conspersus Uhler, 404, 413 Forficula auricularia L., 104 488 SUBJECT INDEX

Formosa, 75 Grape (cont'd) Fragmentation theory, re: host-parasite trou bles, use of pesticides, 12-4 interactions, 32 resistance to pesticides, 12 France, 82-4 resurgence of pests, 12 Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergande), 404 yields, 12 French fly, 210 Grape leaf folder, 348, 351 Fringed signalgrass, 232-3, 235, 239, 248 Grape leafhopper, 12-4, 274 Frosted scale, 270-1 Grape leaf skeletonizer, 53, 273-4 Fruit fly, 80, 85 Grapholitha molesta (Busck), 77, 357, Fruit tree leaf roller, 348, 404 412-7 Fruit tree mite, 413 Grasshoppers, 266 Functional response, 26, 94, 222,402,407, Grasslands, 265-8 409 (See also Natural enemies; Great Basin tent caterpillar, 281, 348 Numerical response) Greece, 173, 190 S-shaped, 222 Green fruitworm, 404 Fun~, 25, 208, 266, 279-80, 346, 352 (See Greenhouse pests (See Glasshouse crops, also Pathogens) pests of) Greenhouse whitefly, 200-2, 209, 211 Green peach aphid, 196, 206-8, 307, 308 Geese (weed control), 144 on chrysanthemums, 206-8 Genetic changes in properties, 267, 280 chrysanthemum cultivars, susceptibility to, Genetic diversity, variability, 84, 89 206 by hybridization, 84 economic injury levels, 207-8 Dacus neohumeralis, 85 entomogenous fungi, 208 Dacus tryoni, 85 in glasshouses, 206-8, 210 Paratheresia claripalpis, 85 movements, 206 Spalangia orienta lis, 85 pesticide resistance, 206 by mUltiple colonizations, 84 rate of increase, 206 Genetic feedback and biolo~cal control, Green stink bug, 79 56-61 Green's mealybug, 165,462 Genetic selection, 378 Grey larch tortrix, 98 Geocoris pallens Stal, 282, 387, 392 Guadaloupe, 83 Georgia, 148 Gymnorhina tibicen, 17 Glasshouse crops Gypsy moth, 60, 93, 348 acreage in world, 195 biological control of pest complexes, 209-14 Habrolepis cotton aphid, 202-6 fanari Delucchi and Traboulsi, 171 Myzus persicae, 206-8 rouxi Compere, 74 pests of, 195-214 adaptability, 74 Phytomyza syngenesiae, 208-9 distribution, 74 spider mite, 197-200 establishment, 74 whitefly, 200-2 ori~n, 74 Granulosis virus (See Pathogens; Viruses) Haemocytic encapSUlation, 80 Grape, 11-14,273-5,348,351,418,452 Hand-removal check-method (See Natural economic injury levels, 12 enemies, evaluation of, experi• integrated pest control, in California, 11-4 mental methods) Anagrus epos, efficiency, 13-4 Haplothrips faurei Hood, 316-7 native pests out of balance, 11-4 Harrisina brillians Barnes and McDunnough, savings, 14 53,273-4 SUBJECT INDEX 489

Harvestmen, 104 Host preferences (con t 'd) Hawaii, 60, 144, 152-5, 228,462 of Paratheresia claripalpis, 77 Hawthorn, 100 for Diatraea saccharalis, 77 Hazel, 100 Zeadiatraea lineo/ata, 77 Hedera helix L., 123 Host specificity (See Natural enemies; Para• Heliothis armigera (Hubner), 465 sites; Pathogens; Predators) virescens F., 9, 10,297-9,304,348,351 Host-specific strains, 77-82 zea (Boddie), 281-2, 296-7, 304, 308, of Aphytis mytilaspadis, 79 348,351-6,361,374,377, Aspidiotiphagus citrin us, 78 382-9,391-2 Bathyp/ectes curculionis, 81-2 Helopeltis clavifer Wlk., 443, 445 Comperiella bifasciata, 79 Hemerocampa pseudotsugata McD., 257 Mesoleius tenthredinis, 80 Hemiberlesia lataniae (Sign.), l36, 269 Metaphycus luteo/us, 79 Hemisarcoptes malus (Shimer), 49, 313 Paratheresia claripa/pis, 77 Hemlock looper, 257 Prospaltella perniciosi, 75 Herbicides and biological control, augmen• Trichopoda pennipes, 79 tative, 149 Housefly, 59, 95 Herpetogramma bipunctalis (F.), 145 Hyaloides harti Knight, 321-2 Hippodamia spp., 267 Hydrogen cyanide fumigation, 201 convergens Guerin, 267, 269, 278 Hylemya seneciella Meade, 160 quinquesignata Kirby, 267-8 Hymenia fascialis Cramer, 145 Holland, 196, 199 Hypena strigata F., 153-4 Homeostasis (See Balance of nature) Hypera brunneipennis (Boheman), 81 Honeydew postica (Gyllenhal), 76, 81 artificial for natural enemies, 282 Hyperaspis taeniata significanis Casey, and Encarsia, 201 155 and sooty mold, 201-2 Hyperecteina aldrichi Mesnil, 77 Hong Kong, 170-1, 180, 227,460 Hypericum perforatum L., 46, 49, 60,118, Horogenes molestae (Uchida), 85 144-5, 161 artificial selection of, 85 Hyphantria cunea (Drury), 348 Horse-nettle, 306 Hyphantrophaga hyphantriae Townsend, Host "escape," 31, 40-2 281 Host immunity, 79 Hyposidra talaca, 443 immune response, 80 Hyposoter exiguae Vier., 281 host age and, 81 host health and, 81 host superparasitism and, 81 partial immunity, 81 Icerya purchasi Mask., 53, 60,136,165, variations with time, 81-2 167-9,191,462 Host-parasite interactions and regulation Immune hosts, 80 (See Density dependence; Models; Drosophila melanogaster, 80 Natural control processes; Oscilla• Hypera tions) brunneipennis, 82 Host plant, influence on Comperiella postica, 81 bifasciata. 78 larch sawfly, 80 Host preferences Importations, procedures, strategies (See of Palpozenillia pa/palis, 77 also Introductions) for Castnia licoides, 77 adaptability limitations and, 69-70 Eodiatraea centrella, 77 biological races and, 69 Zeadiatraea lineo/ata, 77 biotypes,69 Zeadiatraea muellerella, 77 ecotypes,69 490 SUBJECT INDEX

Importations Integrated control (cont'd) biological races and (cont'd) in Canada, 312-27 polymorphs,69 climate and weather effects, 407, 409 strains, 69 codling moth, 320-3 colonization and, 70 competition (Zetzellia and Metaseiulus), limitations, 71 399-420 cryptic species and, 69-70 complex of enemies and greater stability, culture, 70-1 308 (See also Multiple introduc• limitations, 71 tions; Natural enemies) mass culture, 70-1 complex of pests, glasshouses, 197, foreign exploration and, 70 209-14 genetic variability and, 69 costs/benefits, 409-11 population variability and, 69 cotton, 392 quarantine, reception, 70 cotton, 281-3 (See also Cotton, integrated restrictions, 70 pest control) sampling, restrictions, 70 cotton aphid in glasshouses, 203, 205 source populations, 70 cotton pests in California, 377-93 sibling species and, 69 cotton bollworm, 383-8 source populations and, 69 pesticides sampling, 70 resistance, 378 strategies, 86-7 side effects of organochlorines, 377, best strategies, 87 382 and Callan's colonizer types, 88 side effects of organophosphates, 378, first-failure strategy, 89 382 future strategies, 87 cotton pests and microbial tools, 351-5 initial strategies, 88-9 criteria of enemy evaluation, 295 partial success strategy, 89 "criteria" of need for control, 382 and population genetics, 86 crop residues and insects, 296 and post-release evaluations, 87 cultural practices, 296, 367,409 (See also taxonomic identification, 70 Cultural practices) Imported cabbageworm, 348, 365-76 in cotton, 389-90 India, 172-3, 227,229 ground cover, 439 Insecticide check method (See Check• MH-30 beneficial, 302 methods; Natural enemies, definition of, 378,415 evaluation of) demeton-methyl, 211 Integrated control, 3-15 (See also Pest dimethirimol, 211 management and systems analysis; ecologically centered, 7, 12, 14, 295 specific crops) economic considerations, 295 adjuvants and microbial control, 350 ecosystem emphasis and complexity, alfalfa caterpillar, 275-7 7-14, 295 (See also Pesticides, alternate hosts or prey, benefits from, selective use of, pesticides• 398,401,408-9,418 induced problems) apple diseases (control), 404 manipulations, 313-4, 326 apples, 395-411 European red mite, 313-7 BHC,211 grape (See Grape, integrated pest control) baits, 414 (See also Baits) grape leafhopper, 274-5 bases of integrated control system, 378-82 green peach aphid, 206-8 economic levels, 382-5, 388-9 height of cutting for bark beetles, 260 basic change in approaches needed, 362 implementation facilitated in Israel, 459 cabbage pests controlled by natural and baits, 461 augmented parasite popUlations, 374 costs/benefits, 460, 464-5 SUBJECT INDEX 491

Integrated control Integrated control (cont'd) implementation in Israel (cont'd) strategy and steps in development, 415 dosages, 461 strawberries, 283-5 selective use of pesticides, 461 strip cutting alfalfa, 280-1 supervised control (by Citrus supervised control, 275, 392 Board), 459, 464, 465 need for, 411 interplanting cotton and alfalfa, 391 teamwork, 7 lecanium scale, 317-20 tetradifon use, 199 light traps, 388-9 tropical crops (oil palms, cocoa, rubber), Lygus, 382-3,389 422-55 MH-30, tobacco pests and natural enemies, alternate host removal, 444 296,302 aphids, 444 manipulating host-parasite densities, bagworms, 423-37 365-76 bunchmoth (Tirathaba), 438-9 manipulations, 295, 299, 303-4 caterpillars, 423-37 Metaseiulus on mites, 396-420 cockchafers (rubber), 446-7 effects of pesticides, 403-4 dispersal (caterpillars), 423-4 tolerance to pesticides, 403 economic importance, 423-5, 437, 439, microbial agents, microbial control, 445-6,451 346-62,389-90 (See also Micro• economic levels, 427, 451 bial control) even-broodedness and outbreaks, 424-5, mites, crucial to integrated program 444 (apples, peaches), 396, 414 ground cover limiting rhinoceros beetle, outbreaks of, 396 439-41 resistance, 396,411-2,417 in rubber, 446 threatened apple production, 396 mealybugs, 444 moon phase and moth flight patterns, 389 pesticides moth flight monitoring, 388-9 dosages, 427-8, 430--2, 444-7 natural enemy resource, use of, 309 effects on natural enemies, 422,425, nutritional augmentation of natural 434,443.,.51 enemies, 392 (See also Foods) induced pests, 422, 424-5, 432-5, parathion soil drenches in, 210 437-9,443-51 peaches, 411-20 selectivity, 425-8, 437-8, 442, 444, pesticides (See Pesticides) 445 philosophy of, steps and problems in pests mainly indigenous, 448 development, 6-7, 447-8, 453-5 plant hoppers, 444 pioneer work, 395 planting times, 454 prediction of injury, 417 proximity of rubber to alternate host prediction of pest levels, 295 plants, 446 principles of, 447-8 resurgence of pests, 427 refuge habitats for natural enemies, 275 rhinoceros beetle, 439-42 releases of na tural enemies, 365-76 ring-bark borer, 444 for Pieris, 367-373 spider mites, 437-8 resident natural enemies, use of, 312-7 success, 430, 438-9, 441, 444-5, sales motive in pest control, 4 447-51 selection for resistance, reduction of, supervised control, 430-2,442,445 410-11 traps, 446-7 spider mites, 196-200 virus for cabbage looper, 374 spotted alfalfa aphid, 277-9 water spraying, 201 sterile-males and parasites in combination, weather not manipulatable, enemies are, 209 40 492 SUBJECT INDEX

Integrated control (cont'd) Key-factor, 28-9, 96 yields, 417 for change vs. regulation, 42, 260,425 from integrated control, cotton, 383, random, 96 385,387-8 for regulation, 221 and population manipulations, 369, 374 Key-pest, 466 reduced by pesticide phytotoxicity, 387 Klamath weed (= St. Johnswort), 46, 49,60, Interactions, biological, 335 (See also 118-9 Systems analysis) Knapweed gall-fly, 97 biotic, 349-50, 353 Interference, honeydew and Encarsia, 201 Interference method (See Natural enemies, Lachnosterna bidentata (Burm.), 446 experimental methods) Laetilia coccidivora (Comstock), 155 Intrinsic limitation, 22 Lamachus sp., 263 Intrinsic properties of natural enemies, 25 Lambdina /iscellaria lugubrosa Hulst, 257 Introductions (See also Natural enemies, Lantana camara L., 153-4 introductions; Parasites; Patho• acreage in Hawaii, 153 gens; Predators) complex of natural enemies required, 154 and augmentative methods, 186 degree of control, 153-4 for biological control, 60-2, 143-5, initiation of biological control, 153 148-55, 158, 203, 217-8, 228-9, Larch sawfly, 80 279,346-7,356,367 Laspeyresia [= Carpocapsa 1 pomonella (L.), for forest pests, 312-3 273,312-3,316,320-3,327, guidelines for, 61-2 351,355-60,396,403-6,466 key technique, 191-2 Latania scale, 136, 269 Inverse density dependent factors, 95, Lead arsenate, 427 103-4,110 Leaf caterpillars, 423-37 (See also Latin /phiseius degenerans (Berlese), 463 names) Iran, 84, 173 Lecanium Iraq, 82, 173 cerasorum Cockerell, 271 Israel, 166, 170-3,458-66 coryli (L.), 317-20 Italy, 79, 82,462 pruinosum Coquillett, 270 Lecanium scale, cycles, 318 economic importance, 317 Japan, 77, 166,462 life history, 317 Japanese beetle, 60, 77, 346, 361 mortality (See Parasitization) Jeffrey pine, 258 parasitization of, by Blastothrix, 319 Jimson-weed, 306 "Legislative factor," 96 Juglans Leopard moth, 466 cali/ornica S. Wats., 269 Lepidosaphes hindsii Rehd., 269 beckii (Newman), 53, 130-1, 171,462 major Hell, 269 ficus (Signoret), 79 regia L., 269 ulmi (L.), 313 rupestris Engelm., 269 Leptomastidea abnormis Girault, 196 Leptomastix dactylopii Howard, 195 Lespesia archippivora (Riley), 281 k of the negative binomial, 35 Lettuce, 348, 351 k-values, 103-5 Life-tables, 93-110,115,219-22,294,303, Kale, 348 320-1,324 Kauai, 152, 154 fir engraver, 261 Kenya, 153, 166 sawflies, 262 SUBJECT INDEX 493

Life tables (cont'd) Mass rearing (cont'd) western pine beetle, 260 rhodesgrass scale parasites, 237-48 Light traps, 389 Trichogramma, 304 Linden looper, 348 truck releases, 241-2, 245 Lithophane sp., 404 Matsucoccus sp., 258 Lodgepole needle miner, 257 Maui, 150-2, 154 Lodgepole pine, 257-8 Mauritius, 54, 165 Longitarsusiacobaea (Waterhouse), 160 McDaniel spider mite, 396-411,418 Long-tailed mealybug, 136, 269 Mealybugs, 444 (See also Dactylopius, other Louisiana, 304 Latin names) Lures, 340 Medetera, 260 Lygus spp., 380, 384,404 Medicago sativa 1., 275-81, 337,391-2 hesperus Knight, 281, 352, 377, 381-3, Mediterranean, 149 389, 391-2 Mediterranean flour moth, 22, 38-9,41 Lypha dubia Fall, 104 Mediterranean fruit fly, 460-2, 466 Melolonthidae, 442, 446 Melons, 348 Mesoleius tenthredinis Morley, 80 Macrocentrus ancylivorus Rohwer, 85,413 Metagonistylum minense Townsend, 83 artificial selection of, 85 climatic strains, 83 Magpie, 17 dry race, 83 Mahasena corbetti Tams, 432, 434-6 wet race, 83 Malacosoma sp., 264 Metaphycus califomicum fragile (Stretch), 267, 281, califomicus (Howard), 271 348 flavus (Howard), 463 Malathion, 258 helvolus (Compere), 76, 265 Malaysia, 76,411,422-55 luteolus (Timberlake), 79 Mammals as sawfly predators, 262 Metarrhizium anisopliae (Metch.), 347 Manatee (weed control), 144 Metaseiulus occidentalis (Nesbitt), 284-5, Manduca 396-411,416-9 quinquemaculata (Haworth), 348 Metasyrphus sp., 267 sexta (Johannson), 297-307, 348 Methods of evaluation of biological control, Manipulations for pest control, 40, 280, 197 295,299,303-4,365-76 Methoxychlor, 460 in cotton, 304 Methyl parathion, 387 in tobacco, 303 Metisa plana WIk., 423, 425-7, 429-34 Manitoba, 80 Metopolophium dirhodum (Walk.), 267 Marking methods, 238 Mexican bean beetle, 77 Maruca testulis Geyer, 351 Mexico, 76-7, 153-4, 229,460 Mass production of natural enemies (See MH-30, 296, 302 Mass-rearing and releases of ... ) Microbial control, microbial agents, 346-62, Mass rearing and releases of natural enemies, 389-90 70, 208-10, 218, 237-48, 340, adjuvants, 350 346-7,356-60,362,365-76 application for temporary effects, 347 airplane releases, 227, 242-5 behavior of larvae and effectiveness, 353 of Aphidius, 280 biotic influences on effectiveness, 349-50 central production center, 210 climatic influences on effectiveness, Cephalosporium aphidicola, 208 349-50 Chrysopa, 272, 282, 304 commercial microbial agents, 347-8 longevity influence on, 237 experimental development of, 348, Macrocentrus, 413 352-3 494 SUBJECT INDEX

Microbial control Monitoring pest numbers (See Population commercial agents (cont'd) censuses; Supervised control; registration of, 347, 361 Traps) compatibility of pathogens, 349-50, 360 Monoctonus paulensis Ashmead, 268 cost/benefits, 350, 352 Mormon cricket, 266 dosages and application, 352-3, 356-7 Mormoniella vitripennis Walk., 95, 98 field collection and distribution, 346, 348, Mortality (See also Climate; Competition; 352 Natural enemies; Parasites; Patho• granulosis virus for codling moth, 355-60 gens; Predators; Temperature; etc.) introductions in new environments, 346-7, Apanteles, overwintering, 367 356 encapsulation, 367 major considerations, 349-50 bark beetles (parasitism, predation), pH effects, 353 259-61 safety and utility data, 348 black-headed budworm, 324-5 safety of entomogenous pathogens, 360 bollworms by predators, 282 slow development of, 350 codling moth, 320-3 techniques of, 346-7 compensating, 308 ultra-violet radiation effects, 353, 390 compensatory, 178,306 Microgaster peroneae Walley, 324 controlling, 221 Microlarinus cross-striped caterpillar (parasitism), 374 lareynii (J.-Duval), 149-50, 152 density responses (See Natural enemies, lypri[ormis (Wollasten), 149-52 responses to density) Micropletis plutellae Muesebeck, 374 diamondback moth (parasitism), 374 Microterys flavus (Howard), 463 differential, for check method use, 127 Milky spore disease, 346, 361 dispensable, 178, 305-6 Missouri, 365 equilibrium mortality, 220-1 Mites, 356,462 (See also Spider mites) factors, 103-5, 340 Mobility (See Dispersal; Natural enemies, generation, 103 mobility; Movements) host feeding, 187, 200 Models, 26-36 indispensable, 178, 305-6 development of, for winter moth, 105-8 key-factor, 24-30, 259-60 host-parasite (predator-prey), 26-36 low intensity of, and regulation, 40 asynchrony as damping, 35 non-compensatory, 305-6 complex of factors regulating, 32-4 parasitism (See Parasitization) damping mechanisms, 31-6 percentage a poor index of role, 126 distribu tion of attacks, 35 sa wflies, 262 superparasitism damping, 35 and survivorship, 260 model building (See Systems analysis and tobacco budworm (parasitism), 297-8 pest management) tobacco horn worm (parasitism), 300-1, population regulation, 93-110 305, (predation) 299 predictions, 11 0 winter losses, 298, 409 rhodesgrass scale, model tests, 232-4 wound-killing of hosts, 200 and systems analyses, 27 Mosquito bug, 445 winter moth, experimental tests of, 108-9 Mosquito fogging, 258 biological control in Canada, 109 Motility (See Movements; Natural enemies, comparison of systems, 108 mobility) experimental modification, 108 Movements prediction by census, 108 and air currents, 218-9 Molokai, 152, 154 differential, in aphids and natural enemies, Monellia, 269 280 SUBJECT INDEX 495

Movements (cont'd) Natural control (cont'd) and evaluation of enemies, 454 synchrony (coincidence) or asynchrony, green peach aphid, 206-7 35 of moths and moon phase, 389 varying physical environments, role of, 17 Phytoseiulus persimilis, 199 (See also Climatic effects) winter moth and parasites, 219, 225 Natural enemies (See also Disease; Microbial Mozambique, 8 control; Parasites; Pathogens; Multiple parasitism, 178, 223-5 Predators; Population regulation) Multiple species introductions, 45-51, 68, and acaricide resistance, 196 73,101,154,178-9,186,190, adaptability and adaptiveness, 24, 60, 84 192,223-5,279-80 (See also (See also Genetic feedback) Natural enemies, complex of ...) alternate prey or hosts, benefits from, Multivoltine, respect to host or prey, 192 398,401,408-9,418 Mutual interference, 100-3, 110 alternative or subsidiary foods (See Foods) Mutual interference constant m, 102 ant effects on (See Ants) Mycetophagous flies, 260 and aphid populations, 307-8 Mymaridae, 256 augmentation of, 365-76 Myzus persicae (Sulz.), 196, 206-8,307-8 azinophosmethyl and carbaryl harmful to, 355-6 carbaryl effect on, 307, 355-6 Nabis americoferus Carayon, 282, 387 in chapparral, 264-5 Nacoleia diemenalis (Guer.), 446 dust-induced outbreaks, 265 Nasonia vitripennis Walker, 59 high parasitization of gall midge on Natural balance (See Balance of nature; Baccharis, 265 Natural control) mealybug outbreaks rare, 265 Natural control (See also Balance of nature; natural enemies possibly regulative, 265 Natural enemies, roles oD other pests rarely outbreak, an exotic and balance of nature, 16-18 one mainly, 265 changes in density vs. mean density, 18 chemical removal of, 388 characteristic abundance, 17 compensatory actions, 320-1, 323-4 competition (See Competition) compensatory mortality, 178, 306 "control" by density-unrelated factors, competition of, interfering?, 399-400 18-9 complementary actions, 45-51,73,154, criticism of, 19 171, 177-8, 186, 192, 313-4, definition, 17 320 density dependent factors (See Density complex of cabbage pests controlled by, dependence) 374 equilibrium density, 17 complex of, and compensations, 308 limitation, 18 complex of enemies important, 45-51, 73, mechanisms of, 21-2, 26-36, 56-8 223-5,308,313-4,320 (See also natural enemies (See Natural enemies, Natural enemies, multiple intro• alternative foods for, responses ductions) to density) in coniferous forests, 256-63 parameters, three inseparable, 20 bark beetles, 259-61 processes of, 18-23, 407 (See also Density birds as predators of, 260 dependence) clerids as predators of, 259 principal views of, 18-23 diversity of natural enemies, 259 relative and absolu te control, 21 endemic and epidemic phases, 259-61 steady state, 17 other predators of, 260-1 su ppression, 18 parasites of, 259-61 496 SUBJECT INDEX

Natural enemies Natural enemies (cont'd) in coniferous forests endemic and indigenous (See Naturally• bark beetles (cont'd) occurring biological control) predators and cutting height, 260 evaluation of, 26,42,93-110, 113-3!l, regulating factors not understood, 259 230,295,431-4,454 secondary natural enemies, 260 additions, 118-9 endemic phase studies needed, 256-7 check methods, 187, 268-73, 283-5, Lepidoptera, 256-8 397-401 (See also Check methods) Douglas-fir tussock moth outbreak, comparison plots, 230, 232-7, 247, 367 257 and compensatory action, 319 hemlock looper outbreaks and viruses, correlation and life-table methods, 257 93-110,255,324-5 lodgepole needle miner, detailed study damage levels vs. pest densities, 197 of, 257-8 exclusion or subtraction, 118, 120-5, pandora moth outbreaks and viruses, 255,258 257 experimental methods, 113-38, 187, pine butterfly outbreaks and viruses, 230,312,323,397-401 257 geographic distribution, 72 life tables for fir engraver, 261 interference, 110, 125,126 sawflies, 261-3 biological check, 127, 131-5 exotics outbreak, endemics rarely, 261 hand-removal, 127, 135-7 heavy natural enemy attack, 262-3 insecticidal check, 127-30 mammals as predators, 262 trap method, 136 scale insects, 258-9 life-table methods, 93-110 dust-inhibition of parasites of, 258-9 multiple species introductions and, 73 experimental evaluation by pesticides, need for, 113 258 yield data in, 231-7, 247 mosquito fogging-induced outbreaks, experimental evaluation (See Natural 258 enemies, evaluation of) outbreaks Malathion-induced, 258 feeding habits, 402-3, 414 conservation of, 24, 281, 309,452 (See field "insectary" production, 247 also Alternate hosts; Foods; functional response (See Functional Honeydew) responses) criteria for effectiveness, 24-5, 295 glasshouses, 195-214 adaptability, 24 guidelines for introductions, 61-2 other intrinsic properties, 25 and host interactions, 32, 145 (See also power of consumption, 24 Density dependence; Models; power of increase, 24 Oscillations) cryptic enemies, 305-9 host-specificity in weed control, 144-5, re: cultivars, 212 161 cultivation, 117 of hosts on non-crop plants, 306-7 and cultural practices, MH-30 beneficial, increasing environmental diversity, 304 302 indigenous (See Naturally-occurring and damage levels vs. pest density, 196-7 biological control) differential distribu tion, 72 indispensable mortality, 305-6 discrimination (See Discrimination) interference effect&, 115-7, 130-5 (See dispersal role in experimental methods, also Ants; Damping mechanisms; 120,136 Dust; Honeydew; Mu tual inter• effectiveness of (See Successes in biologi- ference; specific pesticides) cal control) agro-ecosystems, unnaturalness of, 116 effIciency of, factors in, 161 introductions of (See Introductions) SUBJECT INDEX 497

Natural enemies (cont'd) Natural enemies kinds of, 24-6 (See also Parasites; Patho• in palm oils (cont'd) gens; Predators) regulation by, 447-51 lag effects in, 25, 30 (See also Density responses to density, 452 dependence, delayed; Lag effects) shift of indigenous enemies with pests lasting effects of, 225 to exotic crops, 448 MH-30 effect on, 296 synchrony disrupted by pesticide, 425 manipulation of (See Manipulations for virus of caterpillar, 437 pest control) naturally-occurring mass rearing and releases (See Mass rear• in Canada, 312-28 ing and releases) in eastern U.S.A., 294-311 measures of effectiveness (See evaluation in western U.S.A., 253-85 of, above) numerical response, 222 (See also Numeri• milky spore disease of Japanese beetle, cal response) 346 lack of, in codling moth predators, 322 mobility, 120, 135, 230, 237-9, 245, 248 nutritive supplements (See Foods; Honey- (See also Dispersal; Movements) dew) moisture and fungus epizootic, 297 optimal efficiency, 116 multiple introductions, 45-51, 68, 73, outbreaks, from failure of (See Outbreaks) 101,154,178-9,186,190,192, parasites (See Parasites; Parasitization) 223-5,279-80,308,313-4,320 pathogens (See Pathogens) (See also Natural enemies, com• and pest predictions, 305 plex of, complementary actions) pesticides effect on, 10, 12-4, 116-7, 130, native pests out of balance, 11-4, 253-85, 206,258,270,272,282,307, 294-328, 422-57 312-9, 377-8, 382, 387-8, 395, natural range sites, rhodesgrass scale, 422,425,434,443-5 232-4 indirect, 403, 412, 417-8, 425, 444 nest boxes for Polistes, 299-300, 304 Metaseiulus, 403-9 nutritional augmentation of, 392 "non-toxic" materials, 117 in oak woodlands, 263-4 pioneering work, for glasshouses, 195 oak moth outbreaks cyclically, 263 and plant cultigens, 206 parasites and virus, 263 predator/prey distributions and responses, outbreaks rare, 263 401-3,417 parasites of Lepidoptera, 263 predators (See Predators) species of Lepidoptera, 263 reduction of general pest levels, 300-3 tent caterpillars, ants, parasites, and (See also Successes in biological birds, 264 control) in oil palms, cocoa, and rubber, 422-57 reduction of localized losses by, 296-300 absolute VS. relative abundance, 435 (See also Successes in biological annual crops vs. perennials, 453 control) braconids and a looper, 444 check-methods, plot size, problems, 454 regional variation in efficiency of, 76-8 conservation of, 452 regulatory role of (See Regulation) evaluation of effectiveness, 431-4, 454 releases of (See Mass rearing and parasitization, tachinids and bagworms, releases ...) 436-7 response to density, 402,407,409 scoliids and tachinids (and cock• egg supply limiting, 30 chafers), 447 functional, 26-36 (See also Functional pesticide effects on, 422, 425, 434, response) 443-5 handling time, 30 (See also Functional indirectly (even-broodness), 425, 444 response) 498 SUBJECT INDEX

Natural enemies Natural enemies, native (cont'd) response to density (cont'd) in alfalfa-stimulus to integrated control, lag-effects, 25, 30-1 (See also Damping 275-6 mechanisms; Numerical response) alfalfa caterpillar, 275-7 (See also numerical, 26, 29-36, 40 (See also Colias) Numerical response) density-dependent parasitization, 276 overall, 26-36 early selective use of pesticides, and regulation, 28-9 (See also Regulation) 277-9 sigmoid, 28-9 effective biological control of, 275-7 rhodesgrass scale, 227-50 virus epizootics in alfalfa caterpillar, roles of, 93-110 (See also Regulation) 277 in sagebrush, grasslands, and ranges, noctuiid moth parasites, 281 265-8 pea aphid, 279-81 aphids on grasses and natural enemies, change in phenology of, due to 267 cultural practices or genetic Aroga on sagebrush, 266-7 changes, 280 coccids, 267 emigration of natural enemies but extensiveness, 265-6 not aphids from cut fields, 280-1 grass species mainly of exotics lacking response of Hippodamia to invasion their parasites, 267 of,278 grasshoppers, natural enemies of, 266 successful control (coastal areas, com• insects little studied, 26~ plex of predators, fungi and Mormon cricket and parasites and Aphidius), 280 predators, 266 spotted alfalfa aphid, 277-9 regulating factors unknown, 266 diapause and Hippodamia response, tent caterpillar outbreaks on bitter• 278 brush, 267 heavy predation in early summer, 278 and virus, 267 Hippodamia and Cycloneda, 278 wireworms and scarabs little understood, introduced parasites and indigenous 268 fungi, additive, 279 searching, 24, 26-8, 30,40-2, 50, 98, resistant alfalfa, use of, 279 100-2, 105-6, 231, 238, 297 selective use of demeton and stocking in glasshouses, 195-214 Hippodamia, 279 synchronization, 222, 319 (See also Damp• in apple and peach ing mechanisms) spider mite control by Metaseiulus, 285 temperature effects (See Temperature effects) in cotton, 281-3 Typhlodromus caudiglans, effective on artificial "honeydew," 282 low mite densities, 316 cottonleaf perforator, pesticides- varying performance of, 75 induced, 283 in different countries, 76-7 favorability to pests, 282 viruses (See PatHogens; Viruses) Heliothis, pesticides-induced, 282 "wasteful" feeding increasing control, 402 mass releases of Chrysopa for bollworm, weather effects (See Weather) 282 for weed control, 143-162 other predators of bollworm, 282 winter mortality of, 298, 409 pesticides effects on bollworm para• Natural enemies, native sites, 282 in agro-ecosystems, 268-85 in fruit and nut trees, 268-73 re: exotic pests and related indigenous avocado pests controlled by parasites pests, 268 and predators, 269 longevity of crop and effectiveness, 268 Chrysopa releases for mealybug, 272 SUBJECT INDEX 499

Natural enemies, native Naturally-occurring biological control, in fruit and nut trees (cont'd) 253-85,294-309,312-27,346, citrus pests controlled by parasites and 352,356,360 predators, 269 in Canada, 312-27 DDT-induction of coccid pests, 270-2 blackheaded budworm, 324-5 of pear psylla, others, 272-3 codling moth, 320-3 evaluation of, by hand removal of control by resident enemies, 314-23 avocado pests, 269 ecosystem complexity, 263, 314, 326 by chemical check methods for citrus, European red mite, 313-7 walnuts and pears, 269-73 lecanium scales, 317-20 by sleeve-cage methods on pears, 273 predictive consequences in orchards, walnut pests controlled by coccinellids, 314 269 in eastern United States, 294-309 in grape, 273-5 crop residues and insects, 296 grape leafhopper controlled by Anagrus, and ecosystem complexity, 294, 297-8 274 experimental techniques, 294 alternate host essential, 274 life-table techniques, 294 refuge habitats planted, 275 manipUlation of, 303-4 grape leaf skeletonizer; control by para• reduction of general pest levels, 300-3 sites and virus, 274 reduction of local loss, 296-300 spider mites controlled by Metaseiulus, innocuous phytophagous species, 253 285 outbreaks the exception, 253,255-6 in strawberry, 283-5 in western United States, 253-85 (See control of two-spotted mite by also specific vegetation types) phytoseiids, 284-5 Navel orangeworm, 356 inoculative releases of pest (cyclamen) Negative feed-back (See Density depen- mites, 283 dence) its control by phytoseiids, 283-5 Nematodes for weed control, 144 Natural enemies, role in natural control, Nemeritis canescens (Grav.), 94 16-62 (See also Regulation; Nemestrinidae, 266 Natural control) Neodiprion sp., 261 causing species diversity, 23 fulviceps (Cresson), 262 food-limitation re: reliable enemies, 23 sertifer (Geoffroy), 35, 347 host (or prey) control, regulation, and fluctuation, 36-42 Neodusmetia sangwani (Rao), 227, 229-30, discreteness of generations caused by, 232-48 38-9 biology, 229 manipulatable component of nature, 40 colony establishment, 239-41, 245, 248 oscillations induced by, 38-40 colony spread, 230, 237-9 parasite-flour moth interactions, 38-40 crop yield as measure of effectiveness, host-parasite interactions and regulation, 237 23, 26-42 (See also Density dispersal ability, 227, 229, 237-9 dependence; Models; Natural introductions of, 229 control; Regulation) longevity, 237 pest outbreaks and disease, 26 parasitism of rhodesgrass scale, 230 predators vs. parasites, 24 searching ability, 231 reciprocity in predator/prey (host- Neophasia menapia Feld., 256-7 parasite) control, 23 Neotabraea malacorticis (Cord.) Jack., 404 synopsis of role, 16 Nest boxes for Polistes, 299-300, 304 Natural enemy effectiveness, Netherlands, 196, 199 pre-judgments, 177 Nettle caterpillars, 424-5, 427, 431,437 500 SUBJECT INDEX

Neutralization method (See Natural enemies, Opuntia (cont'd) evaluation of) degree of biological control, 155 New Brunswick, 312, 323-5 initiation of biological control, 155 New Zealand, 60, 158, 195 littoralis (Engelm.) CkIL, 155-8 Nezara viridula (L.), 79 oricola Philbrick, 155-8 Nicholson and Bailey model, 26-36 predators, effects on cochineal on main- objections to, 99-100 land (California), 155 increasing amplitude in oscillations, 99 Orange, 124, 128, 133-4, 348 no allowance for co-existence, 100 Orange dog, 348 Nigeria, 351 Oregon, 158, 160 Nigra scale, 53 Organochlorines, 377,417,424-5,434 (See "Non-toxic" materials, adverse effects of, also specific chemicals) 117,127 Organophosphates, 206, 403, 412-3, 464, North America, 312 466 (See also specific chemicals) North Carolina, 148, 296-300, 306, 307 Oriental fruit moth, 77, 357, 412-7 Nova Scotia, 109, 217, 312, 314-23, 326 Orius sp., 282 Nuclear polyhedrosis virus, 348, 351-4, 360, Orthezia annae Cockerell, 267 465 Oryctes rhinoceros (L.), 439-42, 451 Nuculaspis californica (Coleman), 258 Oscillations, 30, 36-42, 99,101,103,105, Numerical response, 25-6.94, 222, 322, 201 (See also Density dependence; 402,407, 409(See also Functional Host-parasite interactions; Models) response; Natural enemies) Encarsia/Trialeurodes, 201 Apanteles, 302 Ostrinia nubilalis (Hubner), 348 codling moth predators, lack of, 322 Outbreaks, 222, 225, 268, 312, 324,422-5, Nutrition (See Foods; Honeydew; Natural 437-9,447-51 enemies, augmentation of) cycles not understood, 256-7, 267 even-broodedness and, 424-5, 444 forest pests, 312, 324 Oahu (Hawaii), 154 indigenous vs. exotics, 261, 265, 268 Oak, 20, 100, 103, 225, 255, 263-4 non-cyclic, 264, 266, 274 Oak woodlands, 263-4 orchard mites controlled by predators, Octotoma scabripennis Guer., 154 316-7 Oil palms, 423-42, 444, 448-55 pesticide-induced, 258,422,424-5,432-5 Oleander scale, 78 caterpillars and spider mites, 382-3 Oligonychus sp., 437 caterpillars on cotton, 388 punicae (Hirst), 136-7, 269 rare, 253, 255-8, 261, 263, 265-7 Olive, 73, 129, 138, 172-9,465-6 (See also tent caterpillar on bitterbrush, 267 Aphytis; Coccophagoides) and virus, 267 Olive fly, 465 Overexploitation, 198 Olive parlatoria scale, 30, 48, 50, 53, 55, 73, of aphids by Hippodamia, 278 118,129-30,138,168-9,172-9, Overlapping stages, 207 191,462,466 Oyster shell scale, 313, 395 Olla abdominalis (Say), 269 Omnivorous looper, 136, 269 Ontario (Canada), 312 Pacific mite, 418 Operophtera brumata (L.), 29, 95, 100, Padosphaera leucotricha (E. & E.) Salm., 103-5,108-9,217-25,255,313, 403-4 348 Pakistan, 55, 75, 172-3, 177, 206 Opuntia spp., 144, 161 Paleacrita vernata (Peck), 348 in California, 155-8 Palexorista solennis (Wlk.), 437 SUBJECT INDEX 501

Palpozenillia palpa/is (Aldrich), 77 Parasites Pamakani (See Eupatorium adenophorum) densi ty and efficiency (con t 'd) Panama, 76 "axiom," 184 Pandora moth, 257 development related to host plant, 180 Panonychus ulmi (Koch), 52, 312-7, of diaspine scales, 73-4, 78-9 (See also 395-412,414-8 Latin names; Scales) Papilio cresphontes Cramer, 348 dispersal ability (See Dispersal; Move• Paradexodes epilachnae Aldrich, 77 ments; and Natural enemies, mobility) Paragrass, 232 Paraguay, 148 of Drosophila melanogaster, 80 Paramyelois transitella (Walker), 356 dust inhibition of, 116, 258-9, 265 field-collected stock, use of, 208 Parasite quest theory, lO0-3, 106, 108, 110 of fig scale, 79 Parasites, 24-6, 253-85 (See also Natural and flour moth interactions, 38-40 enemies; specific Latin names) functional response (See Functional airplane releases of, 242-9 response) of alfalfa weevil, 70, 76, 81 host-feeding, 200 Anagrus epos host-feeding augmenting parasitism, 186 alternative host of, 13 hyperparasites disrupting effects, 258 efficiency and rate of increase of, 13 of Japanese beetle, 77-8 resistance to sulfur, 13 oflarch sawfly, 80 Apanteles, 300-1 of Lepidoptera, 77, 256-8, 274, 297-8, diapause, 372 300-1,305,320-5,374,444 encapsulation and stage of host, 367 (See also common and Latin overwintering mortality, 367 . names) per cent parasitism, 368-9, 374 of a looper caterpillar, in cocoa, 444 reducing host feeding, 372 of Mexican bean beetle, 77 synchronous with Pieris, 365,367-8 and oak moth, 263 augmentation vs. introduction, 186 of oleander scale, 78 of avocado pests, 269 of olive scale, 30-1, 42, 48-9, 73, 79, 118, of bark beetles, 259-61 172-9 of black scale, 76, 79 (See also Black scale) of oriental fruit moth, 77 of bordered plant bug, 79 (See also oscillations induced by, 38-40 Scales) of pentatomids, 79 of brown soft scale, 79 (See also Scales) of pine bu tterfly, 256-7 of California red scale, 73-5, 78-9 (See of rhodesgrass scale, 228-9 also California red scale) seasonal restrictions of, 73, 77 Campoletis, 297-8 of southern green stink bug, 79 and coccinellids in combination, 205 of spotted alfalfa aphid, 72-3, 279 of cockchafers, 447 of squash bug, 79 of codling moth, 320-3 (See also Codling of sugarcane borer, 83 moth) of tobacco insects, 294-309 Comperiella bifasciata, 78 of walnut aphid, 83-4 complementary action of, 73, 313-4,320 of winter moth, 217-25 (See also Natural enemies) of woolly apple aphid, 83 and control of woolly aphid, 410 wound-killing of hosts, 200 and DDT, for "field insectary" produc• of yellow scale, 78-9 tion,l77 Parasitization, 178, 319-25, 332-52, 367-9, density and efficiency 374,412,436-7 (See also Para• anomalies, 184 sites) 502 SUBJECT INDEX

Parasitization (cont'd) Peach (cont'd) Apanteles on tobacco hornworm, 300-1 in California, 395, 4ll-20 bagworms,423-37 in Canada, 316-7 bark beetles, 259-61 pests of, 395,411-20 Campoletis on tobacco budworm, 297-8 Peach silver mite, 413-4, 418-9 codling moth, 320-3 Peach twig borer, 412, 414-7 of cross-striped caterpillar, 374 Pear, 273, 356-466 of diamond back moth (adequate), 374 Pear psylla, 273-4 of gall midge on Baccharis, 265 Pectinophora gossypiella (Saunders), 283, grape leaf skeletonizer, 274 351 lecanium scale, 319 Periodic releases loopers, 444 of natural enemies, 195-7, 200-1, 203-5, and low host density, 223 207-9,211-2,365-76 multiparasitism, 223-4 of pests, 196-7, 203, 205, 207, 209, percentage, poor efficiency index, 126, 2l1-2,365-76 231,234-5,247 Periodroma saucia (Hubner), 374 rates, 223 Persea americana Mill., 269 of rhodesgrass scale, 230 Persian walnut, 269, 271 Winthemia on tobacco hornworm, 305 Peru, 8, 9-ll, 14, 172 Paratheresia claripalpis (van der Wulp), 77,85 Pesticides, 3-15 (See also Integrated con• Parathion, 210 trol; Microbial control; Natural enemies) Parlatoria oleae (Colvee), 30, 48, 50, 53, 55, adverse effects on cotton plants, 387 73, 118, 129-30, 138, 168-9, anti-pesticide extremism, 6 172-9,191,462,466 calendar (preventive) schedules, 395 pergandii Comstock, 130, 464 commercial development of, 347-8, Parthenocissus sp., 203 352-3, 362 Paspalum, 235-6, 239, 248 compatability of microbials, 349-50, 360 Patasson, 60 conventional misuse of, 8-ll, 458-9 Pathogens, 24-6, 294, 297, 307, 346, 348, costs expanded, 378 351-60 (See also Microbial con• dosages, 414, 427-8, 430, 432, 444-7 trol; Natural enemies) and application, 352-3, 356-7,461, Bacillus thuringiensis, 347-8, 350-2, 355, 465-6 391 drift of, 464 bacteria, 26, 391 (See also Latin names) affecting parasites of Pieris, 371 and climatic factors, 26 interference effects on Aphytis, 174 and epizootics, 346, 352 economic importance, apples, 396-8 fungi, 297 (See also Fungi; and Latin economic levels and, 406-7, 412-5, 417, names) 419 granulosis virus of codling moth, 355-60 effects on birds, 466 host specificity, 348 effects on natural enemies, 254, 269-73, kinds of effects, 346 282-3,355,378,387,395, milky spore disease of Japanese beetle, 403-10,422,425,432,443-51, 346,361 458-64 pH and effectiveness of, 353 indirect, 403, 412 and prolonged control, 25 on pathogens, 350 and regulation, 25 -induced problems, 5, 8-16, 218, 258-9, safety of, 360 269-73,282-3,307, 312-23, viruses (See Viruses) 326-7, 355-6, 371, 377-8, 382-3, Pea aphid, 53, 279-81 388,422,424-5,432-5,437-9, Peach, 77, 285, 312, 317, 395-6,411-20 443-51 SUBJECT INDEX 503

Pesticides Phalangida, 104 -identical problem (cont'd) Phases of integrated control, cotton in Peru, mites, 365, 395 8-9 malathion-induced outbreaks, 258 Phenacaspis pinifoliae (Fitch), 258 microbials and side benefits, 350, 352-5 Phenology, 218-9, 278-80 (See also Natural selective nature of, 389 enemies) mineral oils, 460 Pheromones (codling moth), 357 mortality partly compensatory, 387 Philippines, 153 national board regulating (Israel), 459 Philodromus rufus Walckenaer, 28 necessity for and adverse effects, 395 Philonthus decorus (Gr.), 104, 108 organochlorines and cotton, 377 Phorocera sp., 263 adverse side effects, 377 Phryganidia californica Packard, 263-4, 348 organophosphates and cotton, 377 Phyllocoptruta oleivora (Ashmead), 460, broad-spectral, 377-8 463 low environmental movement, 377 Physokermes sp., 258 non-persistence, 377 Phytocoris spp., 321 preventive treatments, 5 Phytodietus sp. nr. vulgaris Cress., 324 required on apples and peaches, 395 Phy tomyza syngenesiae [= atricornis I Hardy, resistance to, 5, 9, 10, 12, 196,206,208, 208-9 213-4,378,395-7,411-2,417-8, on chrysanthemums in glasshouses, 458-9 208-9 by codling moth, 273 cultivar preferences, 208 organophosphates, 206 Phytoseiids, 127 (See also A mblyseius, by Phytomyza, 208 Metaseiulus, Phytoseiulus, resurgence of pests, 9, 10, 21, 254, 273, Typhlodromus) 279,378, 395 (See also Pesticides, Phytoseiulus persimilis Athias-Henriot, induced problems) 196-200,209-10,284,407 ryania ineffective (apple), 396 biological control by, 197-200 sales organization and strategy, 4 costs of, 200 secondary pests, 458-9 effect of tetradifon on, 199 selectivity and selective use of, 209, movements of, 199 277-9,309,315-8,320,322-3, overexploitation by, 198 326-7,352-5,389,425-8, prediction of effects, 197-200, 209 437-8,442,444,449-50,461, and spider mite leaf-damage, 196 466 and temperature, 199 on apples, 401, 403-11, 414 Phytotoxicity of pesticides, 387 side effects (See Pesticides, -induced Pieris problems) protodice Boisduval and LeConte, 374 subsidies for developing selective ones, 362 rapae (L.), 348, 365-76 success story, 4 Pine bu tterfly, 256-7 syndrome, 3-6 Pineus sp., 258 unilateral use of, 4, 8 Pink bollworm, 283, 351 Pest management (See Integrated control; Pinus Systems analysis and pest manage• contorta Doug!. var. latifolia Engelm., ment) 257-8 Pest populations and cultural practices, 280 jeffreyi Grev. & Balf., 258 Pest resurgences, 8-10, 21 (See also Pesti- ponderosa Laws., 256, 259-60, 262, cides, -induced problems) 337-41 pH and pathogen effectiveness, 353 Pioneering examples, biological control, pH and virus applications, 390 J 55, 167 Phaeogenes sp., 267 glasshouses, 195 S04 SUBJECT INDEX

Plagiohammus spinipennis (Thoms.), 154 Population regulation (cont'd) Plague locust, 18 control; Density dependence; Planococcus Natural control; Natural enemies; citri (Risso), 10, 132, 134-5, 195 Regulation) kenyae (LePelley), 166 control and, 38, 115, 119, 138 Plant hoppers, 444 damping and refuge effect, 231 Platyngomiriodes apiformis Ghauri, 443, densities;Apanteles, 367;Pieris, 366 445 by indigenous species, 312-27 (See also Platynota sp., 10 Naturally-occurring biological Platyptilia carduidactyla (Riley), 348 control) Plots by natural enemies (See Density depen• agro-ecosystems, unnaturalness of, 116 dence; Natural control; Natural comparison plots (See Experimental enemies) methods) mechanisms and instruments, 21-3 and inferences from plots, 449 rhodesgrass scale, by N. sangwani, 230-7 selection of, 115-7 weeds by phytophagous insects, 145 size of study area, 116 PopUlation stability (See Ecosystem com• Plutella plexity and stability) maculipennis (Curtis), 25, 348 Population structure xylostella (Curtis), 373 categories of, 86 Pococera atramenalis Led., 10 founder numbers, 86 Polistes sp., 297,299,300-1,303-4,306 gene exchange, 86 annularis (L.), 299, 304 genetic load and, 86 exclamans Viereck, 299 source environments and, 86 fuscatus (F.), 299 source populations and, 86 manipulation for bollworm control, 304 subpopulations and, 86 nest boxes for, 299-300 PopUlations (See also Integrated control; Polyhedrosis viruses (See Viruses) Population regulation; and Ponderosa pine, 256, 259-60, 337-41 specific pests) Popilliajaponica Newman, 60,77,346, censuses, 414, 430, 432, 451 361 climatic influences, 452-3 (See Climatic Population dynamics (See also Biological effects) control; Climatic effects; Natural crashes, 222 control; Natural enemies; Popula• of caterpillars, 437 tions; Population regulation; densities (See Density dependence; Population stability) Economic injury levels; Life cycles, 318 tables; PopUlation dynamics; fluctuations in absence of complex of Population regulation) predators, 314 dynamics of winter moth, 218-9 forest pests, 218-9, 312 epizootics, 25 orchard pests, 312-7 equilibrium density (See Equilibrium predictions in orchards, 314 density) regulation by indigenous enemies, 312-27 even-broodedness and, 424, 444 Population levels, 295 (See also Economic fluctuating conditions and, 17 injury levels; Population regula• life tables (See Life tables) tion; Regulation) oscillations (See Oscillations) Population management (See Integrated outbreaks (See Outbreaks) control) phenology of winter moth, 218-9 PopUlation regulation, 16-62,93-110, predictions (See Predictions) 113-38,165-94,340,430,437-8, scales regulated, 165-94 (See also Scales) 444, 447-51 (See also Biological widely varying, 17-8 SUBJECT INDEX 50S

Porthetria dispar (L.), 60, 93, 348 Predators (cont'd) Potato, 348 stocking of, 205 Power of and timber cutting, 340 consumption of prey, 24-5 of tobacco insects, 294, 299-301, 303 displacement, a measure of efficiency, 50 (See also Natural enemies) increase, 30-1, 40-2 Predictions, 108, 110, 116, 168, 341,417 increase of natural enemies, 24 of biological control Practices of biological control (See Theories by Encarsia, 202 and practices of biological con• by Phytoseiulus persimilis, 196-200, trol) 209-10 Praon exsoletum (Nees), 72-3 of pest populations, 305, 314 climate and, 72 Preventive spray schedules, 5, 12-14 (See Great Basin climatic zone and, 72 also Integrated control; Pesticides, hibernal diapause and, 72 -induced problems) summer heat and, 72 troubles from, 5 Precautionary measures, 161 Prickly pear, 60, 144, 155-8 Predation (See Host-feeding; Natural Principe (Africa), 54, 165 enemies; Predators) Principles of biological control, 16-62, by birds, 322-3 137-8, 191-2 on codling moth, 320-3 Pristiphora erichsonii (Hartig), 80 "wasteful" feeding, 402 Procecidochares utilis Stone, 144 Predator (or parasite) response (See Func• Prodenia tional responses; Natural enemies; litura (F.), 465 Numerical response) praefica Grote, 281 Predators, 24-6, 104, 165, 167-8, 320-3, Prospaltella 410 (See also Natural enemies) lutea Masi, 463 of apple aphid, 410 perniciosi Tower, 74-5, 181, 186 ants on tent caterpillars, 264 adaptations of, 75 augmenting, 340 California red scale strain, 75 avian, 260, 322-3, 340 climate and, 75 of bark beetles, 259-61 competition and, 7S clerids on bark beetles, 259 distribution in California, 75 of codling moth, 320-3 efficacy, 75 of cotton insects, 304, 308 establishment, 75 and cutting height, 260 oriental strain, 75 effects on bollworms, 386-7, 392 origin, 75 functional response of (See Functional Prunus spinosa, 100 response) Pseudeucoila bochei Weld, 80 indigenous, in agro-ecosystems, 268-85 Pseudococcidae, 265 on insects of chaparral, 264-5 Pseudococcus mammals on sawflies, 262 adonidum (L.), 136, 269 mass rearing (See Mass rearing and re- citriculus Green, 165, 462 leases ...) fragilis Brain, 165 phytoseiids (See Phytoseiids) gahani Green, 53 Polistes, 297,299-301,304 maritimus complex, 272 polyphagous, 104 Pseudoplusia rogationis Guen., 10 release of pests and predators, 283-5 Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco, 257, of scale insects, 258 261 serological technique, 104 Psilopholis vestita Sharp, 446 stability of, 104 Psychidae, 423-5, 451-2, 454 506 SUBJECT INDEX

Psylla pyricola Forster, 273-4 Rhodesgrass scale (cont'd) Pteroptrix (= Casca) chemical control useless, 228 chinensis (Howard), 181 effects on rhodesgrass, 236-7 smithi (Compere), 170-1 hosts, 228, 232 Puncture vine, 149-53 introduced parasites, 228-9 Purple scale, 53, 130-1, 171 longevity without food, 232 Purshia tridentata (Pursh) D. c., 267 natural enemy of (See Neodusmetia Pyralidae,438 sangwani) Pyrophyllite, 127 in North America, 227 potential savings (area), 228-9 suitability of hosts, 232 temperature effects, 230 Quadraspidiotus perniciosus (Comst.), 53, in Texas, 227 404-5,413 time element, 246 Quercus, 20, 100, 103, 225, 255, 263-4 in the world, 227 (See also oak) Rhodesia, 153 agrifolia, 263-4 Rhopalomyia californica Felt, 265 Quest cons tan t, 100-2 Rhopalosiphum padi L., 267 Quest theory, 100-3, 106, 108, 110 Rhyparida iridipennis, 443 Rodolia cardinalis (Mulsant), 53, 60, 136, 165,167-8,462 Rosy apple aphid, 404 Rainfall, 422 Rubber, 423, 439, 445-55 Range, 265-8 Rubus spp., 13-4, 275 Rate of increase, 98, 200, 203, 323 Runner beans, 196 re: host variety, 207 Rutelidae,442 re: integrated control, 323 Ryania,316 Red spider mite, 196-200, 211-2 Red wax scale, 166 Refuge effect, 231 (See also Damping Sabulodes caberata Gucnce, 136, 269 mechanisms) Safety (See Pesticides and microbial con- Refuges, blackberry, 13-4,275 trols) Regulating factors vs. key factor for change, Sagebrush, 265-8 305 Sago palm, 78 Regulation (See Density dependence; St. 10hnswort (See Klamath weed) Natural control; Population Saissetia regulation) nigra (Nietn.), 53 Resistance to pesticides (See Integrated oleae (Olivier), 53, 76, 79, 135, 265, control; Pesticides, resistance to) 462, 464 (See Black scale) Resistant crop plants, 279 Sales motive in pest control, 4 Resurgence of pests (See Pesticides, re- Salt marsh caterpillar, 348, 382, 388 surgence of pests) Saltsage, 267 Rhinoceros beetle, 439-42, 451 Sandburgrass, 239 Rhizarcha, 209 San Jose scale, 53,404-5,413 Rhizobius, 60 Sanninoidea exitiosa graefi (Hy. Edwards), Rhodesgrass, 227-48 413 Rhodesgrass scale, 169, 227-48 Sarcophagidae, 266 biological control of, 234-7, 248 Savings costs, 245, 248 from biological or integrated control, biology and distribution, 227-8, 232 10-1,14,53-5,117,161,167, SUBJECT INDEX 507

Savings Senecio jacobaea 1., 53, 158-9, 160 from biological and integrated Sequence theory, 192 control (cont'd) Serological technique, 104 170,188-91,210,213-4,217-8, Setora nitens Wlk., 424, 426, 432, 443 35Q-2, 393,409-11, 460 (See Sex attractants, 461 also Biological control; Shrews, 104 Costs/benefits; Successes) Siberia, 149 and field production of natural enemies, Sibling species, 69, 75, 78-9, 173 247 Sigmoid response, 28-9 potential area of, for rhodesgrass scale, Silviculture, 340 228-9 Sitobion fragariae (Wlk.), 267-8 Scaeva sp., 267 Six-spotted mite, 136, 269 Scales, 79, 165-94,227-48, 258-9, 270-2, Social structure, 17, 22 318-9,463 (See also Latin names; Soil, influence on colony spread, 244-5 Pesticides, induced pests) Sonchus sp., 209 black (See Black scale) Sooty mold, 201, 203 blue gum, 60 Sorex, 104 calico, 271 South Africa, 25,60,74,153,158,171, California red (See California red scale) 460 chaff, 130, 463 South America, 148, 153, 158, 181 coconut, 54,60, 165 Southern cabbageworm, 374 cottony cushion, 165, 167-8 Soybean, 296 Florida red, 168-72 Spain, 173 frosted, 270-1 Spalangia lecanium, 317-20 orientalis Graham, 85 olive, 168, 172-9 sundaica Graham, 85 rhodesgrass, 227-48 Sparasion pilosum Ashmead, 266 Scarabaeidae, 268 Spartina spp., 239, 244, 248 Scelionidae, 256-6 Spathimeigenia sp., 263 Schistocerca gregaria (Forskal), 18 Species diversity and stability, 42-5,51-2, Sciaridae, 260 304 Scolytus ventralis LeConte, 261 Specificity, host or prey, 192 Searching ability (See Natural enemies, Sphaerococcus graminis (Maskell), 227 (See searching) Rhodesgrass scale) and mobility, 238 (See also Dispersal; Sphaerophoria sp., 267 Movements) Spicaria sp., 297 Secondary enemies, effect of, 152, 155 Spider mites, 116, 188, 196-200, 209-12, Selection, artificial, 84 382,395-403,437-8,453 changed host preference, 85 and diapause, 197-8 Chrysopa carnea, 85 pesticide-induced, 355-6 Horogenes molestae, 85 Spiders, 28-9, 400 DDT resistance, 85 Spilochalcis leptis Burks, 267 Macrocentrus ancylivorus, 85 Spinach, 348 improved climatic tolerance, 85 Spinaria spina tor Guer., 426 Aphytis lingnanensis, 85 Spiny bollworm, 465 Dahlbominus fuscipennis, 85 Spodoptera improved host finding ability, 85 exigua (Hubner), 348, 352, 354, 382, 388 Trichogramma minutum, 85 littoralis (Boisduval), 465 improved sex ratio, 85 litura (F.), 437 Aenoplex carpocapsae, 85 ornithogalli (Guenee), 373 Dahlbominus fuscipennis, 85 Spotted alfalfa aphid, 46, 53, 72, 277-9 508 SUBJECT INDEX

Spray calendar, 5 Successes in biological control (cont'd) Spring cankerworm, 348 Homoptera, 166-7, (See also Scales) Spruce-hemlock forest, 257 host-feeding affecting, 186 Squash bug, 79 integrated control and, 350-2, 410, 430, Stable states, 30-1,42,101-5 438-~441,444-5,447-51,45~ Steady density, 101-5 462-4 Steneotarsonemus pallidus (Banks), 127, in Israel, 459, 462-4 283-4 Lantana in Hawaii, 153-4 Sterile male releases, 209, 356 low host density thresholds and, 180 Stethorus oil palms, cocoa, rubber, 430, 438-9, 441, picipes Casey, 269,400 444-5,447-51 punctillum Weise, 316-7 olive scale, 172-9, 466 siphonulus Kapur, 437 parasite density, anomalies, 184 Stink bugs, 85 proportions of, 166-7, 191 Stocking of pests and/or natural enemies rhodesgrass scale, 234-7 cotton aphid, with predators and para- scales, 165-92,462-4 site, 205, 211 superparasitism and, 207 green peach aphid, 206-8, 212 taxonomic relationships, 171, 173, 180-1 weeds, 143-62 Phytomyza, 209 winter moth, 217-25 spider mites, 196-200, 211-2 Sugarcane 'borer, 83, 304, 308 virus introduction and, 206 Sugarcane leafhopper, 60 whitefly, 200-2, 211 Sulfur, 460, 463 Strains, 173 (See also Host-specific strains; resistance to, in Anagrus, 13 Natural enemies, strains, races) Superparasitism, 207 Aphelinus mali, 83 Supervised control, 275, 392,411,442,445 Aphytis maculicornis, 173 (See also Integrated control) Metagonistylum minense, 83 Switzerland, 98 Tiphia popilliavora, 83 Sycanus dichotomus Stal, 426 Trichogramma minutum, 82 Sympherobius californicus Banks, 269 Trioxys pallidus, 83-4 Synchronization, 35, 103, 207, 222, 225, Strawberry, 127,198,283-5 278-80,301-2,365,401-2,425 Strip-cutting to aid natural enemies, 280 disrupted by pesticide, 425 Sturmia harrisinae Coquillet, 274 in distribu tion, time and place, 401-2 Subtraction method (See Natural enemies, with host, 301-2, 365, 367-8 evaluation of effectiveness) Syngamia haemorrhoidalis Guenee, 153-4 Successes in biological control, 4, 8-14, Syria, 173 53-6,113-38,143-62,190-1, Syrian woodpecker, 465 197-200,202,206-10,217-25, Syrphidae, 267 234-7,253-93 (See also Syrphus sp., 267 Cost/benefits; Multiple species Systems analysis and pest management, 27, introductions; Naturally• 330-42 occurring biological control) computer language, 333 alfalfa caterpillar, 276-7 computers, roles of, 333-4, 336 citrus rust mite, 463 construction and examination of sub- climatic effects on, 173-4, 183 models, 334 cultural practices and, 174 data processing, 333 extent of effort and, 180, 191 ecological concepts and basis, 332 factors favoring, 166-7, 191 execution of ecological research, 333-7 Florida red scale, 459-60 factors in high host density thresholds, 180, 191 analysis of system, 337-41 SUBJECT INDEX 509

Systems analysis and pest management Territory, 17, 22 factors in (cont'd) Tetradifon, 199 augmenting predators, 340 Tetranychus avian predators, 340 mcdanieli McGregor, 396-411, 418 determination of important factors, 340 pacificus McGregor, 418 determination of pest status, 338-9 piercei McGregor, 437 influence of silvicultural practices, 340 urticae Koch, 196-200, 284-5, insect-determined forest cutting. 339 407,412,414-8 lures, use of, 340 Tetrastichus sokolowskii Kurdjumov, 374 modeling the pest ecosystem, 340 Texas, 148, 227-9, 236-46 pest predictions, 305 Texasgrass, 232-4, 248 predation and timber cutting, 340 Theories, principles, and practices of bio• regulatory or density-influencing factors, logical control, 16-62,42-55, 340 101-2, 114,137-8,451-3 (See simulation, 341 also Density dependence; Natural strategy and tactics, 341 control; Population regulation) western pine beetle, 337-41 alternate foods, use of, 52 integrated control (See Integrated con• biological control unpromising, 53-5 trol, systems analysis and) biotic factors dominant in tropics, 452 interaction complexities as input, 335 challenges to, 42-62 interplay between experiments and theory, competitive displacement (and co• 332,334,336 existence), 47-51,101-2 methods and procedures in, 337-41 of Chrysolina hyperici by C. steps in systems analysis and model build• quadrigemina, 50 ing,334-5 involving genus Aphytis, 50-1 teamwork, distinct disciplines, 340 of several species by Aphytis and Coccophagoides, 47-9 conservation of natural enemies, 452 costs/benefits, 53-5 (See also Talc, 127 Costs/benefits; Savings) Tansy ragwort, 53, 158-60 direct and indirect pests,S 2-3 Tarsonemus pallidus Banks (See genetic feed-back ideas, 56-61 Steneotarsonemus ...) as adaptation reducing effectiveness?, Tasmania, 158 58-61 Taxonomy, importance to biological con- as regulating population size, 56-8 trol, 171, 173 monocultures, the tropics, and balance, Tea, 453 448 Telenomus sphingis (Ashmead), 306 multiple species introductions, 45-51 (See Teleonemia scrupulosa Stal, 153-4 also Multiple species introduc• Temnochila, 260 tions) Temperature effects, 407, 422 (See also power to displace as measure of efficiency, Climatic effects) 50 Aphelinus jlavipes efficiency, 204 predators vs. parasites, 24 Aphytis, 73-5 premise of biological control, 23, 43 cotton aphid, 203 species diversity and community stability, Encarsia, 200-1 42-5,51-2 (See also Balance of mortality of codling moth, 323 nature) Phytoseiulus persimilis, 199 Therioaphis trifolii (Monell), 46, 53, 72, rhodesgrass scale, 230 277-9 Tenebroides corticalis Melsh., 323 Therion califomicum (Cresson), 281 Tent caterpillars, 264, 267 Theronia atlantae fulvescens Cresson, 256-7 510 SUBJECT INDEX

Thrips tabaci Lindeman, 210-1 Trichopoda pennipes F., 79 Timberlakia europaea (Mercet), 228 "Trimedlure," 461 Time element Trinidad, 76-7 in correcting upsets, 117 Trioxys rhodesgrass scale, 246-7 complanatus Quilis Perez, 72-3 Tiphia popilliavora Rohwer, 83 distribution in California, 72 climatic strains, 83 estival diapause, 72 Tirathaba mundella Wlk., 438-9 winter cold and, 72 Tobacco, 295-307,348 pal/idus (Haliday), 83-4, 89, 270 acreage in eastern U.S.A., 296 in California, 83 budworms and parasites, 296 climatic limitations, 83 and losses, 298 ecotypes, 84 and wasps, 297, 303 origin, 83 description of ecosystem, 296 strains, 83-4 Tobacco budworm, 9, 10, 297-8, 304, 348, Tritneptis sp., 263 351 Turnip, 371 Tobacco hornworm, 297-307, 348 Two-spotted spider mite, 196-200, 211-2, Tobacco insects, 294-309 284-5,407,412,414-8 Tomato, 306, 348, 371 Typhlodromus Tomato horn worm, 348 athiasae Porath and Swirski, 463 Transition, pesticides to biological control, caudiglans Schuster, 52, 316-7 188 occidentalis Nesbitt, 284-5 Trap method, 136 (See also Natural enemies, Tyria jacobaeae (L.), 158-60 interference effects, experimental in California, 158-60 methods) initiation of biological control, New Traps Zealand and California, 158 light, 388-9, 446-7 Tyrophagus longior (Gerv.), 210 pheromone, 357 Trema cannabina, 444 Trialeurodes vaporariorum Westwood, 166, 195,200-2,209-11 Uganda, 8 Tribulus Ultra-violet radiation cistoides L., 150-2 and pathogen effectiveness, 349-50, 353 te"estris L., 149, 152-3 and traps for codling moth, 357 biology, 149 and virus, 390 degree of success, 152 Unilateral ps inhibition of control by secondary Unilateral pest control, 4 (See also In• predators, 152 tegrated control; Pesticides) initiation of biological control of, U.S.A., 4, 9,18,53,60,71,77,143,144, 149, 152 148-9, 158, 227-8, 294, 305, popUlation fluctuations, 149 309,338,347,356,412 Trichogramma, 83,321,366 Urophora jaceana Hering, 97 evanescens Westwood, 367-76 Uroplata girardi Pic., 154 minutum Riley, 82, 85, 304, 306 U.S.S.R., 356 artificial selection of, 85 Utah, 81 climatic strains, 82 semifumatum (Perkins), 277, 281 weather effects, 371 Variegated cutworm, 374 Trichogrammatoidea nana Zehntner, 426 Varieties, host plants, 206-8, 212 (See also Trichoplusia ni (Hubner), 281, 348, 351-2, Host preferences; Host specific 354,373,382,391 strains) SUBJECT INDEX 511

Vaseyochloa multinervosa (Vasey) Hitchc., Weeds (cant'd) 232-3,248 losses from, 143 Vedalia beetle, 53, 60, 136, 165, 167-8,462 West Indies, 153, 161 Venezuela, 77, 83, 228 Western flower thrips, 404 Venturia Western peach tree borer, 413 canescens (Gravenhorst), 34, 38-41 Western pine beetle, 259-61, 337-41 inequalis (Cke.) Wint., 404 Western yellow-striped armyworm, 281 Villa sp., 263 White fir, 257 Virginia creeper, 203 Whitefly, 166, 195, 200-2, 209-11 Virulence, 25-6 economic levels, 201 Viruses, 26, 225, 257, 263-4, 267, 274, and Encarsia, 200-2 277,347-8,351-60,374,390, in glasshouses, 200-2, 210 437 rate of increase, 200 of alfalfa caterpillar, 348, 351 temperature effects, 200 and aphid control on cucumbers, 206 Winter moth, 29, 95, 100, 103-5, 108-9, of cabbage looper, 348, 352-5 217-25,255,313,348 granulosis virus of codling moth, 355-60 biological control of, 109 evaluation of effectiveness, 356-60 Winthemia manducae Sabrosky and host specificity, 356-7 DeLoach, 303, 305-6 and hemlock looper, 257 Wireworms, 268 and oak moth, 263 Woodpeckers, 260, 320 and pandora moth, 257 as codling moth predator, 320, 322-3 and pH and ultra-violet, 390 Woolly apple aphid, 83,404,410 polyhedrosis viruses of: Wound-killing of hosts, 200 alfalfa caterpillar, 277, 351 beet armyworm, 348, 352-4 bollworms, 352-5 Xanthoencyrtus phragmitis Ferr., 228 cabbage looper, 348, 352-5 corn earworm, 348 European pine sawfly, 347 Yellow scale, 53, 78-9 European spruce sawfly, 347 Yellow-striped armyworm, 373 Vitis Yields, 12, 231-7, 247, 383, 385, 387 californica Bentham, 12 cabbage, 369, 374 vinifera L., II cotton, 10-1 cotton aphid and, 203 grape, 12 Walnut aphid, 53, 83, 89, 269-70 as measure of effectiveness, 231-2, 237 Walnut aphid parasite, 83-4, 89, 270 peach,417 Walnut, 269, 273 Phytoseiulus and, 210 Washington, 158, 160,356,395-411,418 and spider mite damage, 196 Water hyacinth, 149 Weather, 26,40, 324, 371 (See also Climatic effects; Temperature Zeadiatraea effects) lineolata (Walker), 77 Weeds muellerella (Dyar and Heinrich), 77 biological control of, 143-62 Zeiraphera diniana Gm., 98 cost/benefits relations, 161 Zetzellia mali (Ewing), 399-400 evaluation, 161 Zeuxidiplosis giardi Kieffer, 50 factors in success, 161 Zeuzera spp., 443 precau tions in, 161 pyrina (L.), 466