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Wartime Mobilities in the Burkina Faso-Côte D'ivoire Transnational Space

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Wartime Mobilities in the Burkina Faso-Côte D'ivoire Transnational Space Diaspora at Home? ACTA UNIVERSITATIS UPSALIENSIS Uppsala Studies in Cultural Anthropology no 53 Jesper Bjarnesen Diaspora at Home? Wartime Mobilities in the Burkina Faso- Côte d’Ivoire Transnational Space Dissertation presented at Uppsala University to be publicly examined in Geijersalen, Engelska parken, Thunbergsvägen 3H, Hus 3, Våning 1, Uppsala, Wednesday, June 5, 2013 at 10:15 for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. The examination will be conducted in English. Abstract Bjarnesen, J. 2013. Diaspora at Home? Wartime Mobilities in the Burkina Faso-Côte d’Ivoire Transnational Space. Acta Universitatis Upsaliensis. Uppsala Studies in Cultural Anthropology 53. 279 pp. Uppsala. ISBN 978-91-554-8666-2. In the period 1999-2007, more than half a million Burkinabe returned to Burkina Faso due to the persecution of immigrant labourers in neighbouring Côte d’Ivoire. Ultranationalist debates about the criteria for Ivorian citizenship had intensified during the 1990s and led to the scapegoating of immigrants in a political rhetoric centred on notions of autochthony and xenophobia. Having been actively encouraged to immigrate by the Ivorian state for genera- tions, Burkinabe migrant labourers were now forced to leave their homes and livelihoods behind and return to a country they had left in their youth or, as second-generation immi- grants in Côte d’Ivoire, had never seen. Based on 12 months of ethnographic fieldwork in Burkina Faso and Côte d’Ivoire, the thesis explores the narratives and everyday practices of returning labour migrants in Bobo- Dioulasso, Burkina Faso’s second-largest city, in order to understand the subjective experi- ences of displacement that the forced return to Burkina Faso engendered. The analysis ques- tions the appropriateness of the very notion of “return” in this context and suggests that people’s senses of home are multiplex and tend to rely more on the ability to pursue active processes of emplacement in everyday life than on abstract notions of belonging, e.g. relating to citizenship or ethnicity. The study analyses intergenerational interactions within and across migrant families in the city and on transformations of intra-familial relations in the context of forced displace- ment. A particular emphasis is placed on the experiences of young adults who were born and raised in Côte d’Ivoire and arrived in Burkina Faso for the first time during the Ivorian crisis. These young men and women were received with scepticism in Burkina Faso because of their perceived “Ivorian” upbringing, language, and behaviour and were forced to face new forms of stigmatisation and exclusion. At the same time, young migrants were able to exploit their labelling as outsiders and turn their difference into an advantage in the competi- tion for scarce employment opportunities and social connections. Keywords: Wartime mobilities, home, transnational space, diaspora, urban anthropology, West Africa, conflict, return, migration, youth, intergenerational relations Jesper Bjarnesen, Uppsala University, Department of Cultural Anthropology and Ethnology, Box 631, SE-751 26 Uppsala, Sweden. © Jesper Bjarnesen 2013 ISSN 0348-5099 ISBN 978-91-554-8666-2 urn:nbn:se:uu:diva-198563 (http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:uu:diva-198563) Printed in Sweden by Elanders Sverige AB For Maika & Jonatan Contents Acknowledgements ............................................................................... 11 1. Introduction ..................................................................................... 15 The Gradual Onslaught of Armed Conflict ....................................... 20 Analysing a Regional History of Mobility ........................................ 23 Labour Migration and Life Cycle Progression in West Africa ....... 24 Ethnographies of Return Migration and Homecomings .............. 28 Understanding Wartime Displacements to Burkina Faso .................. 31 Delimiting an Anthropology of Displacement .............................. 32 Conceptualising Emplacement in Relation to Home and Belonging......................................................................................... 34 Towards an Anthropology of Emplacement ................................. 37 Summary of the Main Analytical Concepts ....................................... 40 Methodology ................................................................................... 41 Life Story Interviews and Migrant Biographies ............................ 42 Participant Observation and Extended-Case Studies ..................... 44 Outline of the Thesis ........................................................................ 44 2. A History of the Burkina Faso-Côte d’Ivoire Transnational Space ..... 49 Pre-Colonial Mobilities and Long-Distance Connections .................. 49 1919-1947: Early Colonial Labour Migration .................................. 51 The Abolishment of Haute-Volta ................................................ 53 The Reconstitution of Haute-Volta ............................................. 55 1947-1960: The Development of a Labour Migration Regime......... 57 1960-1980: The Consolidation of the Burkina Faso-Côte d’Ivoire Transnational Space ......................................................................... 58 The Félix Houphouët-Boigny Compromise ................................. 59 1980-1993: Socio-Economic Decline and Autochthony Politics ....... 61 1993-2002: Succession Struggles and the Build-Up to Civil War ..... 63 Ivoirité Nationalism and Autochthony Discourse .......................... 65 Coup d’État in Côte d’Ivoire: The Militarisation of the Political Competition ................................................................... 67 The Ivorian Identity Crisis ........................................................... 68 2002-2011: Between War and Peace in Côte d’Ivoire ....................... 71 Ruptures and Continuities in Transnational Mobility ....................... 76 Crisis and Chronicity in the Burkina Faso-Côte d’Ivoire Transnational Space ..................................................................... 80 Conclusion ....................................................................................... 82 3. Home-Making and Livelihood in a Bobo-Dioulasso Neighbourhood .................................................................................... 85 Entering Sarfalao .............................................................................. 87 Exploring Emplacement and Neighbourhood in Sarfalao ............. 90 Wassakara: The Aesthetics of Urban Emplacement ...................... 95 The Micro-Politics of Urban Land Allotment ................................... 97 “Les Déguérpis de SOS” ................................................................. 97 “Lotissement is a Lottery” ......................................................... 100 Land Rights, Home-Making, and Ambivalent Neighbourhood ......................................................................... 101 The Rapatriés in Sarfalao ................................................................ 103 Migrants “At the End of the Road” ........................................... 106 Crumbling Futures: Urban Emplacement and Reluctant Home-Making ........................................................................... 109 The Case of the Stolen Pig ......................................................... 111 Conclusion ..................................................................................... 116 4. Narratives of Departure and Continuity .......................................... 119 Transnational Families in Historical Perspective ............................. 120 A Male Migrant Biography ............................................................. 123 A Tentative Return .................................................................... 125 Forced Displacement as Open-Ended Wartime Mobility ............ 125 Female Departures ......................................................................... 127 Ideal Beginnings ........................................................................ 130 Continuity in a Time of Crisis ........................................................ 131 The Advent of the Ivorian Crisis ................................................ 132 Ruptures and Continuities in a Migrant Biography .................... 133 Incessant Mobilities and Displacements .......................................... 135 New Departures, New Returns .................................................. 136 Between Displacement and Labour Migration ........................... 137 Conclusion ..................................................................................... 138 5. Narratives of Return and Rupture .................................................. 141 Migrant Trajectories in the Context of the Ivorian Crisis ................ 142 Charred Ambitions in Abidjan........................................................ 144 The Strength of Weak (Transnational) Ties ............................... 145 “In Search of my Children’s Future” ............................................... 146 Starting from Scratch in Sarfalao ............................................... 148 Generational Returns ..................................................................... 150 A Man of Extraordinary Powers ..................................................... 154 Ambiguous Returns as Displacement? ....................................... 157 ”If they Killed our Children, What Would We Have Done?” .......... 159 Forced
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