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ECOLOGICAL RELEASE AND ALLOMETRY EXPLAIN INSULAR GIGANTISM AND SHAPE VARIATION IN A WIDESPREAD NORTH AMERICAN RODENT By Mariah C. Schlis-Elias A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Science in Biology Austin Peay State University January 2020 Thesis Committee: Dr. Mollie Cashner, Committee Chair Dr. Jason Malaney Dr. Chris Gienger College of Graduate Studies Austin Pe y Document Approval Sheet state ArUniversity Thesis/Dissertation/Research Paper/Literacy Paper/Field Study Last Name: APSU Email: Concentration: Student Agreement In presenting this document in partial fulfillmentof the requirements for a degree at Austin Peay State University, I agree that the library shall make it available to borrowers under the rules of the library. Brief quotations from this document are allowable without special permission, provided that accurate acknowledgement of the source is made. Permissions for extensive quotation or reproduction of this document may be granted by my major professor or, in his/her absence, by the Head of Interlibrary Services when, in the opinion of either, the proposed use of the material is for scholarly purposes. Any copying or use of the material in this document for financial gain shall not be allowed without my written permission. �ia�f Student�� Date Committee Approval We are submitting this document written by ,,{kyia.b, &kl,:s. - f]1C\.,S, . We have examined the final copy of this document for form and content. We recommend that it be accepted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the student's degree. Graduate Committee Major Professor og��Q Second Professor O"? �ec. �i9 Date Signature _C._/J\_&?._l'l _qy;__._,.__0------"______ _ Name Third Professor <Oo.v (3, 'Veif c,ey Received for the Graduate Academic Council by the Dean of the College of Graduate Studies Name Signature Date iii ABSTRACT Island Rule is defined as a trend of gigantism in small-bodied species and dwarfism in large-bodied species inhabiting islands and island-like systems. Several hypotheses attempt to explain gigantism in small-bodied species including immigrant selection, thermoregulation and endurance, resource subsidy, and ecological release, but these are often incompletely tested and infrequently compared directly. In this study, we used geometric morphometrics to obtain indices of size and shape variation across 17 island populations of meadow voles (Microtus pennsylvanicus). We first test whether gigantism occurs in two geographically separated island systems inhabited by M. pennsylvanicus and then evaluate which of the above hypotheses best explains observed variation. Finally, we assess whether shape varies in accordance with size, geography, or other island-specific factors. Resource subsidy and immigrant selection are inapplicable to this system, so we focused on the two remaining hypotheses (thermoregulation and endurance, and ecological release) to evaluate significant signals of gigantism detected among Atlantic island populations. Despite linear models revealing that M. pennsylvanicus cranium size follows a weak pattern with temperature seasonality, results are inverse of Bergmannian expectations, contradicting the Thermoregulation and Endurance Hypothesis. In contrast, regression-based path analyses permitted us to detect significant associations between skull size and island-specific factors, including area and number of predators, each consistent with the Ecological Release Hypothesis. For this species, the primary source of shape variation in island populations is its variation with size due to static allometry. Random, residual (size and allometry-controlled) patterns of shape are likely explained by population-level differences that resulted from founder effects, genetic drift, or natural iv selection and thus are unlikely a product of Island Rule. Taken together, our findings indicate that Island Rule is a latent evolutionary process that depends on biogeographic context. Further, allometry may manifest in important functional consequences as size varies according to expectations of Island Rule, but without corresponding independent selection on cranium shape. Unfortunately, these important evolutionary perspectives and insular variants are threatened by the introduction of non-native predators and projected sea level rise. v TABLE OF CONTENTS STATEMENT OF PERMISSION TO USE ................................................................... ii ABSTRACT ...................................................................................................................... iii TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................. v INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................. 1 STUDY SYSTEM ................................................................................................................ 7 MATERIALS AND METHODS ..................................................................................... 8 SPECIMEN SAMPLING ....................................................................................................... 8 LANDMARKING AND ERROR ASSESSMENT ....................................................................... 9 DATA PREPARATION ...................................................................................................... 11 SENSITIVITY ANALYSES ................................................................................................. 13 THERMOREGULATION AND ENDURANCE VS. ECOLOGICAL RELEASE ............................. 13 PATH ANALYSIS ............................................................................................................. 15 RAW SHAPE VARIATION ................................................................................................. 17 ALLOMETRY ................................................................................................................... 18 RESIDUAL SHAPE VARIATION ........................................................................................ 19 RESULTS ........................................................................................................................ 19 CENTROID SIZE BY POPULATION .................................................................................... 19 THERMOREGULATION AND ENDURANCE VS. ECOLOGICAL RELEASE ............................. 20 PATH ANALYSIS ............................................................................................................. 21 SHAPE ANALYSES .......................................................................................................... 23 ALLOMETRY ................................................................................................................... 26 RESIDUAL SHAPE ........................................................................................................... 27 DISCUSSION .................................................................................................................. 27 INSULAR GIGANTISM EVOLVES IN ACCORDANCE WITH THE ECOLOGICAL RELEASE HYPOTHESIS .......... 28 SHAPE VARIATION IS EXPLAINED BY POPULATION-LEVEL DIFFERENCES IN STATIC ALLOMETRY ............ 32 CONCLUSIONS ................................................................................................................ 35 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .............................................................................................. 38 LITERATURE CITED .................................................................................................. 39 FIGURES ......................................................................................................................... 45 TABLES ........................................................................................................................... 53 APPENDIX ...................................................................................................................... 68 SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL ............................................................................... 80 1 INTRODUCTION Biogeographers have been fascinated by peculiar features and traits of insular organisms for over a century (Wallace 1860; Lomolino et al. 2006a). For example, Charles Darwin was among the first to document the remarkable diversity of island-dwelling organisms, famously revealing beak size and function in the Galápagos finches (Darwin 1859). Since then, biogeographers have continued to evaluate hypotheses related to form and function associated with island-dwelling species. In 1964, J. Bristol Foster highlighted gigantism in insular populations of rodents, while co-occurring large-bodied artiodactyls, carnivorans, and lagomorphs tended toward dwarfism. The increased interest in body size trends of island fauna that followed these initial observations led van Valen (1973) to pen the pattern as “the Island Rule”. A renewed focus on island systems is emerging especially for unraveling the mechanisms responsible for evolutionary trends in insular organisms but also, unfortunately, because of warming climates and rising sea levels (Lomolino et al. 2006, Millien & Damuth 2004, Lokatis & Jeschke 2018). Insular systems yield opportunities to identify areas with high evolutionary potential critical to species resilience and longevity, which are important for conservation (Moritz 1999, Russell & Kueffer 2019). Moreover, evidence suggests that patterns like Island Rule act upon vertebrate

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