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Astrotalk: Behind the News Headlines of July 2013

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Astrotalk: Behind the News Headlines of July 2013 AstroTalk: Behind the news headlines of July 2013 Richard de Grijs (何锐思) (Kavli Institute for Astronomy and Astrophysics, Peking University) The Universe in colour Astronomical images, particularly those published in magazines like the Amateur Astronomer, usually exhibit beautiful colours that often really help you understand the intricate details of what you are looking at. In fact, this aspect of the “beauty” of the Universe was an important driver for me to pursue a career as a professional astrophysicist – and I am often still in awe of the outstanding beauty of many objects that are scattered all over the sky. Having been a successful professional astronomer for more than 20 years now has not diminished that basic human response. Of course, in the mean time, I have come to realize that the “raw” images professional astronomers obtain with the telescopes they use to study the Universe are anything but colourful – although they may still be beautiful! When you use a professional telescope to take images of astronomical objects, most commonly these images are obtained through certain filters – usually coloured pieces of glass that are placed in the light path leading to your detector. These filters are designed such that only a small fraction of the incoming light is transmitted, while most of the light is actually absorbed. In essence, what this means is that your detector – usually a CCD camera similar to the photo camera in your mobile phone, although of much better quality1 – only records a limited range of wavelengths. Images coming straight from the telescope are, therefore, essentially monochromatic: they don’t contain much colour information, but that is exactly what we want as professional astronomers! While you might be awestruck by the beautiful red or blue colours of an object in the sky, as scientists we want to know exactly how “blue” or how “red” that object is: we need a way to quantify the colour, so that we can begin to understand the physical processes that lead to the objects having certain colours. If you are in the fortunate position to be outside the city in a dark place and the sky is clear, have a careful look at some of the bright stars. You may be surprised to find that stars are not all “white”, but some of them are red (for instance, the star Betelgeuse in the constellation of Orion) while others are decidedly bluer. This offers us an immediate insight into the type of star and even the main physical processes that play a role. Young, massive stars are usually very hot and they tend to be white or blue. Just think of the colour of the hottest part of a flame: this also tends to be white or blue. Older stars, often those that are getting towards the end of their lifetimes, are yellow or red; you may have heard of “red giant” stars, which represent the end stages of stars like the Sun. To quantify the colour of an object in the astronomical sense, we usually observe 1 See my article in these pages (December 2011, p. 20) about the new gigapixel camera on board the European Gaia satellite. it through a number of different filters, which each have their own transmission properties. For instance, we can employ filters that only allow a small fraction of the bluest light, the reddest light, or any other wavelength range to which our detector is sensitive to pass through. In optical astronomy, a commonly used filter that is designed to only allow blue light to pass through is called a B filter (“B” for blue), while red filters are usually referred to as I filters (“I” for infrared). Having obtained observations of the same astronomical objects through both of these filters, we can define an astronomical colour, in this case a “B–I” colour. Without going into the nitty gritty of how we calculate this colour, it suffices to know that we determine the intensity (“brightness”, usually referred to by the letter F, for “flux”) of the object in both the B and I filters, and we then take their ratio, FB / FI. This procedure forms the basis for calculating the B–I colour, which thus allows us to quantify how “blue” or how “red” our object is. In other words, we get a value for the colour, which can now be compared with the values we have obtained for other objects or with theoretical predictions based on our detailed physical understanding of the nature of the objects we are studying. Now, you might wonder how this relates to the beautifully coloured images you see in this magazine and elsewhere in the popular astronomy press. These images are usually referred to as “true colour” images, but they are not really “true” in their colour palette: the colours have been significantly enhanced so that the human eye can actually appreciate the colour differences. Each image is captured using at least three different filters: at minimum a red, a green and a blue filter. We then combine those three (or more) images into one, using a Technicolor process pioneered in the 1930s. The same process occurs in digital photo cameras, except that in your camera, it’s done automatically. Such true- colour images can help us understand how different colours vary across an object (like a galaxy or gaseous nebula), and this process also allows us to visualize observations obtained at wavelengths that the human eye is not sensitive to, such as in the ultraviolet or infrared domains. Addition of those colours isn’t done at random, though. On the contrary, astronomers are very careful to stay as true to nature as they can. Thus, in full-spectrum images, the details that correspond to infrared light will have the reddest colour and the details corresponding to ultraviolet will have the bluest. The first true colour measurement of an exoplanet So, where does this leave us in our interpretation of astronomical data? Well, consider a news item I came across last month (July 2013). Astronomers using the Hubble Space Telescope have, for the first time, determined the true colour of a planet orbiting another star. If seen up close this planet, known as HD 189733b, would be a deep azure blue, reminiscent of Earth’s colour as seen from space. But that’s where the similarities end. This “deep blue dot” is a huge gas giant planet orbiting very close to its host star. The planet’s atmosphere is scorching with a temperature of over 1000 °C, and it rains glass, sideways, in howling 7000 km/h winds. At a distance of 63 lightyears, this turbulent alien world is one of the nearest exoplanets to Earth that can be seen crossing the face of its star. It has been intensively studied by Hubble and other telescopes, and its atmosphere has been found to be dramatically changeable and exotic, with hazes and violent flares. Now, this planet is the subject of an important first: the first measurement of an exoplanet’s visible colour. “This planet has been studied well in the past, both by ourselves and by other teams,” says Frédéric Pont of the University of Exeter (UK). “But measuring its colour is a real first – we can actually imagine what this planet would look like if we were able to look at it directly.” To measure what this planet would look like to our eyes, the astronomers measured how much light was reflected off the surface of HD 189733b. HD 189733b is faint and located close to its star. To isolate the planet’s reflected light from this starlight, the team used Hubble’s Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph to peer at the system before, during and after the planet passed behind its host star on its orbit. As it slipped behind its star, the light reflected from the planet was temporarily blocked from view, and the amount of light observed from the system dropped. But this technique also shows how the light changes in other ways. “We saw the brightness of the whole system drop in the blue part of the spectrum when the planet passed behind its star,” explains Tom Evans of the University of Oxford (UK). “From this, we can gather that the planet is blue, because the signal remained constant at the other colours we measured.” The planet’s azure blue colour does not come from the reflection of a tropical ocean, but is due to a hazy, turbulent atmosphere thought to be full of silicate particles, which scatter blue light. Earlier observations using different methods reported evidence for scattering of blue light on the planet, but these most recent Hubble observations give robust confirming evidence. HD 189733b presented a favourable case for these kinds of measurements, because it belongs to a class of planets known as “hot Jupiters”. These massive planets are similar in size to the gas giants in our solar system, but instead lie very close to their parent star – this size and proximity to their star make them perfect subjects for exoplanet hunting. We know that hot Jupiters are numerous throughout the Universe. Since we do not have one in our own solar system, studies of planets like HD 189733b are important to help us understand these dramatic objects. “It’s difficult to know exactly what causes the colour of a planet’s atmosphere, even for planets in the solar system,” says Pont. “But these new observations add another piece to the puzzle about the nature and atmosphere of HD 189733b. We are slowly painting a more complete picture of this exotic planet.” On larger scales: from the Milky Way to the Universe as a whole Colours of objects in the Universe have long fascinated both professional astronomers and the general public.
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