The Latins in Greece: a Brief Introduction

Total Page:16

File Type:pdf, Size:1020Kb

The Latins in Greece: a Brief Introduction chapter 1 The Latins in Greece: A Brief Introduction Nickiphoros I. Tsougarakis The Fourth Crusade and the sack of Constantinople by the crusaders cast a long shadow on Greece’s subsequent history and on relations between Greeks and western Europeans down to the present day. Pope John Paul ii’s apology to the Orthodox for the events of the crusade, in 2001, and the satisfaction with which it was received by certain sections of the clergy and of wider Greek soci- ety serves to illustrate, if not the actual impact of the events themselves, at least popular perceptions of the events in Greece and the West as well as the use made of these events in 20th-century historiography. Today, the relations of the medieval western world with the Greek/Byzantine East may be more relevant than ever. The Eurozone crisis of the early 2010s has been accompa- nied by the re-emergence in segments of the press and society (both Greek and western European) of negative national stereotypes emphasising the differ- ences between Greek and western-European culture and questioning whether a union between the two is viable or indeed desirable. The terms ‘Latin Greece’, which features in the title of this volume, and ‘medieval Greece’, which also features in the book, may require some explana- tion. Here, they are used as shorthand to refer to the Latin polities that were founded on Byzantine lands in the aftermath of the Fourth Crusade. They can be taken therefore as rough synonyms for the political entity known as the Latin Empire of Constantinople or Romania, as it was more commonly called by Latin contemporaries. These polities were the product of conquest. Even before the conquest of Constantinople was achieved on 12 April 1204, the cru- sading army, comprised of Frankish knights and Venetians, had inadvertently laid the foundations of the new empire by agreeing on a pact, aimed at safe- guarding the interests of the participants in the expedition in the event of the siege’s success. Following the city’s capture and the installation of a Frankish knight, Baldwin of Flanders, in the throne of Constantine, the crusaders set about partitioning the Byzantine Empire amongst themselves. This was a daunting task not only militarily, but administratively as well, for the conquer- ors first had to determine what lands and resources were there for the taking and how they might be equitably divided. In the event, both the theoretical division and the conquest of the new lands were achieved rapidly if somewhat haphazardly. Out of this process a number of Latin crusader polities emerged, © koninklijke brill nv, leiden, ���5 | doi ��.��63/9789004�84�04_00� 2 Tsougarakis which either owed allegiance to the emperor at Constantinople but were in practice governed independently, or, as was the case with Crete, were ruled as colonial appendages of western European powers. The first such state to be founded was also the shortest-lived one: Boniface of Montferrat, who had led the Fourth Crusade and had hoped to be elected emperor, conquered much of northern Greece and founded what would later be known as the Kingdom of Thessalonica. The suzerainty of Constantinople over the kingdom was implicitly acknowledged when, in 1209, Emperor Henry crowned Boniface’s orphaned son Demetrios as first king of Thessalonica. The kingdom’s fall to the Greeks of Epirus in 1224 was a stark reminder to the West of the precariousness of the new empire’s position. Faced only with sporadic resistance, Frankish contingents of knights carried the expansion southwards, eventually founding the lordship (later duchy) of Athens and Thebes, the counties of Boudonitsa and Salona, in central Greece and the Frankish state par excellence in the Aegean, the Principality of Achaea, in the Peloponnese. The new lords of these territories were the vassals of the emperor of Constantinople. The conquest progressed at an equally rapid pace in the islands. Euboea (called Negroponte by the Latins), in Latin hands since 1204, was assigned by Boniface of Montferrat to three Lombard nobles, known as triarchs, each ruling a third of the island. Between 1209 and 1216 the entirety of the island had come under the control of a single one of these lords, Ravano dalle Carceri, who placed himself under the suzerainty of Venice. Thereafter, the island occupied a peculiar position whereby it technically owed alle- giance to the empire but was in all but name a Venetian appendage, ruled by the Serenissima. Venetian subjects, led by Marco Sanudo, also embarked on the conquest of the Aegean islands and the establishment of the Duchy of the Archi pelago, with its “capital” at the island of Naxos. The establishment of the Venetian nobility in the Aegean islands, again, meant that while technically the islands were held of the emperor (and of the prince of Achaea after 1248), their rulers had to balance their own interests and those of their suzer- ains against those of their motherland.1 Venice’s most important domain how- ever, was the island of Crete. Realising Crete’s advantageous position, Venice conquered the island and began a well-planned colonisation campaign in 1211. Though conquered as a direct result of the Fourth Crusade, Crete was not part of the Latin Empire and was subsequently ruled as a dependence of Venice, by colonial authorities appointed from the metropolis. Venice’s acquisition of 1 For an examination of this balancing act, see Marina Koumanoudi, “The Latins in the Aegean after 1204: Interdependence and Interwoven Interests”, in Urbs Capta: the Fourth Crusade and its Consequences, ed. Angeliki Laiou (Paris, 2005), pp. 247–65..
Recommended publications
  • Panasea Villa Naxos
    P ANASEA V ILLA N AXOS 5 Bedroom villa in Naxos island PANASEA is a haven of peace and serenity, in perfect dialogue with the natural beauty of Kalados, the protected Southwestern coast of Naxos. Wisely nested in a seascape that offers freedom, inspiration and healing that combine to restore a sense of what is truly important in life; panasea villa embodies the values of its playful name, that recalls Panakeia, the ancient Greek goddess of healing. Surrounded by a coastline of wild Cycladic purity with the Aegean Sea lapping on the villa’s shores, a profound experience of solitude and rejuvenation, joyfully awakens the residence’s guests. IDEAL FOR: Couples | Family | Honeymoon | Gay Friendly VILLA FEATURES AT EXTRA COST Digital Cable TV DISTANCES Small beach at villa: 100 m (110 yards) Capacity: 10 / Max adults 8 Personal chef to cook for you Washing Machine - Clothes Dryer Dishwasher Kalados Beach: 1 km (0.62 miles) Villa’s Square Meters incl. Breakfast, daily delivery Air Conditioning Naxos Town: 45 km (28 miles) Transfer Outdoors areas: 5195 m² Heating Naxos port: 48 km (30 miles) Villa’s Square Meters: 220 m² Car hire- Motorcycle hire- Hair Dryer Naxos airport: 33 km (20 miles) Total Bedrooms: 5 Bicycle rental- Fridge Freezer Filoti village: 24 km (15 miles) Total Bathrooms: 5 Laundry / Dry clean services Microwave LOCATION Kitchen: fully equipped Excursions / Guided Tours Kettle Personal trainer (yoga / Pilates) Electric Kitchen Stove Panasea villa is located on Kalados, the protected Free Wi-Fi Southwestern coast of Naxos, and boasts Personal doctor on call Kitchen Utensils Filter Coffee Machine breathtaking sea-views towards the small Cycladic Massage islands to the south.
    [Show full text]
  • And Macedonia (Pp
    Summer 2018 - Greece (pp. 1-9) and Macedonia (pp. 9 -16) - Elly’s notes I traveled to Greece for a second summerschool (see here for the first). I left Arizona on a Monday morning and arrived in Thessaloniki on Tuesday afternoon before traveling on to Naxos on Wednesday. Thessaloniki is the second largest city in Greece and the capital of the Greek province of Macedonia. After Naxos, I would be traveling to the Republic of Macedonia which, under Greek pressure, may be changing its name to the Republic of Northern Macedonia (more below). Of course, some Greek nationalists don’t want the name Macedonia mentioned at all and some Macedonians don’t like the change either. When I was here, a scandal erupted of meddling by the Russians who don’t want this `deal’ either since it will pave the way for Macedonia to join NATO. Thessaloniki was built and rebuilt many times: it went from a pre-historic settlement to Macedonian, Roman, Byzantine, and Ottoman rule. Its fire in 1917 made it possible to plan a new city (see picture below). It was on the Via Egnatia (as is Ohrid) which connected Rome to Istanbul and is now a footpath. Old city walls are still around. Thessaloniki’s grid Typical building 1 More varied building styles Thessaloniki citywalls From Thessaloniki, I went to Naxos for the summer school (with some 35 participants some of whom are shown below). Naxos continues to be a wonderful place: lots of history, swimming, and hiking. Some highlights follow below. Summer school (these two pictures are by Kristel Fischer) 2 Moni Chrisostomou overlooks the chora of Naxos; two nuns remain in the monastery, which has a most beautiful church.
    [Show full text]
  • Tourism Development in Greek Insular and Coastal Areas: Sociocultural Changes and Crucial Policy Issues
    Tourism Development in Greek Insular and Coastal Areas: Sociocultural Changes and Crucial Policy Issues Paris Tsartas University of the Aegean, Michalon 8, 82100 Chios, Greece The paperanalyses two issuesthat have characterised tourism development inGreek insularand coastalareas in theperiod 1970–2000. The firstissue concerns the socioeco- nomic and culturalchanges that have taken place in theseareas and ledto rapid– and usuallyunplanned –tourismdevelopment. The secondissue consists of thepolicies for tourismand tourismdevelopment atlocal,regional and nationallevel. The analysis focuseson therole of thefamily, social mobility issues,the social role of specific groups, and consequencesfor the manners, customs and traditionsof thelocal popula- tion.It also examines the views and reactionsof localcommunities regarding tourism and tourists.There is consideration of thenew productive structuresin theseareas, including thedowngrading of agriculture,the dependence of many economicsectors on tourism,and thelarge increase in multi-activityand theblack economy. Another focusis on thecharacteristics of masstourism, and on therelated problems and criti- cismsof currenttourism policies. These issues contributed to amodel of tourism development thatintegrates the productive, environmental and culturalcharacteristics of eachregion. Finally, the procedures and problemsencountered in sustainabledevel- opment programmes aiming at protecting the environment are considered. Social and Cultural Changes Brought About by Tourism Development in the Period 1970–2000 The analysishere focuseson three mainareas where these changesare observed:sociocultural life, productionand communication. It should be noted thata large proportionof all empirical studies of changesbrought aboutby tourism development in Greece have been of coastal and insular areas. Social and cultural changes in the social structure The mostsignificant of these changesconcern the family andits role in the new ‘urbanised’social structure, social mobility and the choicesof important groups, such as young people and women.
    [Show full text]
  • The Small Cyclades: Four Sparkling Gems
    The Small Cyclades: Four Sparkling Gems Iraklia Schinoussa Koufonissia Donoussa Donoussa 5 Index Iraklia 4 -7 Nature and geography 8 - 10 A place in history 11 Around the island 12 - 17 Beaches 18 - 19 Activities 20 - 22 Local products 23 - 24 Events and folk fetes 25 Info 26-27 Schinoussa 28 - 31 Nature and geography 32 A place in history 33 Settlements and sights 34 - 36 Beaches 37 - 41 Activities 42 - 45 Local products 46 Events and folk fetes 47 Info 48 - 49 Koufonissia 50 - 53 Nature and geography 54 A place in history 55 Touring the island 56 - 60 Beaches 61 - 64 Activities 65 - 67 Local products 68 Events and fetes 69 Info 70 - 71 Donoussa 72 - 75 Nature and geography 76 A place in history 77 Touring the island 78 - 81 Beaches 82 - 85 Activities 86 - 89 Local products 90 Celebrations and fetes 91 Info 92 - 93 The Basics: Getting to the isles of the Small Cyclades 94 7 9 Iraklia, unspoiled, featuring an impressive mountain massif and excellent Wild beaches - protected from strong winds thanks to its proximity to the much larger, craggy islands of Naxos and Ios - may be described as the “wild beauty” among the Small Cyclades. beauty Part of the Natura 2000 network of natural habitats, it enchants with the superb views offered by its mountainous footpaths, the variety of its coastline and its own, unique sights. According to the Homeric legend, Life on Iraklia takes an easy pace, offering quiet and relaxation, with many alternative options for walks and exciting exploration, swimming in on their way back to Ithaca crystal-clear waters, diving in wonderful settings but also entertainment after the end of the Trojan War, at the local, traditional island fetes.
    [Show full text]
  • Download Trip Notes
    Greek Cyclades Trip Notes TRIP OVERVIEW Join us on our classic Greek Cyclades swimming holiday, a perfect place for quiet coastal swims and to immerse yourself in remote, charming islands. The Cyclades was the site the very first SwimTrek trip, and we’re still exploring its enchanting islets and wild natural beauty. This island-hopping getaway gives you the chance to swim amongst some of the most beautiful scenery, isolated beaches, and dramatic coastlines in the Mediterranean Sea. From our base of Schinoussa in the heart of the archipelago, we have the opportunity to island-hop around the Cyclades, discovering their isolated beaches and breathtaking coastlines, as well as enjoying several crossings. Our beautifully remote Greek adventure will consist of exploring the unspoilt islands of Schinoussa, Fidousa, Iraklia, Kato Koufonisi and Keros. With a combination of crossings between islands and beautiful coastal swims, you’ll have the chance to explore the diverse scenery which exists in this unique island group. From sea caves and tunnels, to arches and islets, there is no shortage of beautiful topography and landscapes to explore, above and below the water. WHO IS THIS TRIP FOR? This trip is designed for the swimmer that is looking for a combination of both island-hopping and coastal swims. Swimmers should have a basic understanding of open water swimming and be capable of completing the average daily swim distance of around 5km (split over a minimum of two swims) prior to the start of the trip. LOCATION SUMMARIES Schinoussa Our base for the week, Schinoussa is still largely unspoilt and undiscovered by all but the most intrepid traveller.
    [Show full text]
  • Cruising Greece's Aegean Treasures
    American College of Dentists Centennial Celebration Cruise presents CRUISING GREECE'S AEGEAN TREASURES Nafplion • 7-night Cyclades small ship cruise with Delos, Mykonos, Naxos, Santorini, Milos, Paros, Syros, Aegina • Athens The stunning Cyclades are both an avid traveler’s playground and a pleasure hunter’s paradise — and you’ll experience all the joys of Greek island hopping on this swoon-worthy cruise illuminating Mediterranean history, cuisine, and art. Bask in Greece’s sunny, subtropical splendor with three days in the country’s prettiest port town of Nafplion before embarking on a blissful 7-night voyage to iconic Santorini and Mykonos, as well as lesser-known Cyclades gems of Naxos, Paros, Delos, Milos, and more, before your voyage ends with three nights in Athens. You’ll tour antique wonders, including the ancient villages of Mycenae, Corinth, and Melanes; unveil early medical practice in Epidaurus; and explore the most famous of Greek structures: The Parthenon and its sprawling Acropolis. Contemporary Greece is spotlighted, too, as you join a home-hosted lunch with a Naxos family, tour Santorini’s capital city of Fira, and revel in hedonistic Mykonos — glamorous outpost of the jet set. Reserve Today! Call Toll-Free 1 800 322 6677 - WWW.VANTAGETRAVEL.COM/VIG20 Reserve Today! Call Toll-Free 1 800 322 6677 - WWW.VANTAGETRAVEL.COM/VIG20 YOUR PRICE INCLUDES • Purchase your airfare from Vantage and your airport • The services of a Vantage Cruise Director who is a transfers, fuel surcharges, and government taxes and historian and certified guide for Greece who will offer fees are included a six-part lecture series on the history, architecture, • Exclusively chartered small ship limited to just 48 and archaeology of your destinations.
    [Show full text]
  • The World View of the Anonymous Author of the Greek Chronicle of the Tocco
    THE WORLD VIEW OF THE ANONYMOUS AUTHOR OF THE GREEK CHRONICLE OF THE TOCCO (14th-15th centuries) by THEKLA SANSARIDOU-HENDRICKX THESIS submitted in the fulfilment of the requirements for the degree DOCTOR OF ARTS in GREEK in the FACULTY OF ARTS at the RAND AFRIKAANS UNIVERSITY PROMOTER: DR F. BREDENKAMP JOHANNESBURG NOVEMBER 2000 EFACE When I began with my studies at the Rand Afrikaans University, and when later on I started teaching Modern Greek in the Department of Greek and Latin Studies, I experienced the thrill of joy and the excitement which academic studies and research can provide to its students and scholars. These opportunities finally allowed me to write my doctoral thesis on the world view of the anonymous author of the Greek Chronicle of the Tocco. I wish to thank all persons who have supported me while writing this study. Firstly, my gratitude goes to Dr Francois Bredenkamp, who not only has guided me throughout my research, but who has always been available for me with sound advice. His solid knowledge and large experience in the field of post-classical Greek Studies has helped me in tackling Byzantine Studies from a mixed, historical and anthropological view point. I also wish to render thanks to my colleagues, especially in the Modern Greek Section, who encouraged me to continue my studies and research. 1 am indebted to Prof. W.J. Henderson, who has corrected my English. Any remaining mistakes in the text are mine. Last but not least, my husband, Prof. B. Hendrickx, deserves my profound gratitude for his patience, encouragement and continuous support.
    [Show full text]
  • Tertullian's Text of the New Testament Outside the Gospels
    TERTULLIAN’S TEXT OF THE NEW TESTAMENT OUTSIDE THE GOSPELS by BENJAMIN DOUGLAS HAUPT A thesis submitted to the University of Birmingham for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY School of Philosophy, Theology, and Religion College of Arts and Law University of Birmingham January 2019 University of Birmingham Research Archive e-theses repository This unpublished thesis/dissertation is copyright of the author and/or third parties. The intellectual property rights of the author or third parties in respect of this work are as defined by The Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988 or as modified by any successor legislation. Any use made of information contained in this thesis/dissertation must be in accordance with that legislation and must be properly acknowledged. Further distribution or reproduction in any format is prohibited without the permission of the copyright holder. ABSTRACT This study examines Tertullian’s references to the New Testament outside the Gospels, in order to determine whether he was citing from a Greek or Latin copy of these writings. A new collection of these references was undertaken and is explained in the Appendix. The conclusion of the analysis is that Tertullian was quoting the New Testament writings using Greek exemplars and translating anew in most instances. Tertullian was one of the first Christians to have undertaken such translation work. It is proposed that Tertullian was participating in and influenced by a broad cultural-linguistic movement called the Second Sophistic. Latin writers like Cicero, Quintilian, Varro, and Apuleius were also participants, and their translation of Greek works into Latin likely formed Tertullian to become a literary translator.
    [Show full text]
  • Tertullian and the Doctrine of the Trinity I
    TERTULLIAN AND THE DOCTRINE OF THE TRINITY I. Tertullian – Originator of the Trinity Tertullian's Legend At the end of the second century there were three main centers of church organization – in Antioch, in Alexandria, and in Rome. The language used in the church writings was Greek. But the situation was soon to be changed; due to the writings of Tertullian, Carthage, his city, and Latin, his language, were to gain prominence and give rise to a Latin Christianity.1 Though Tertullian (ca 170-ca 230) is the most important Christian writer2 in the development of Christian doctrine, he was not mentioned during the third century. He inspired, however, other writers in Africa: Minucius Felix (fl. second half of the second century), Cyprian (200-258), Arnobius of Sicca (fl. ca 300), Lactantius (ca 240-ca 320), and the first Italian theologian who wrote in Latin, Novatian (210-280), whose De Trinitate3 is just a repetition of Tertullian's treatise. Novatian‟s treatise was written in 257 and probably in reaction to the doctrine of Sabellius (fl. ca 215) which he began to propound shortly before. Even today Tertullian‟s importance is not fully recognized. Adolf von Harnack (1851-1930), a preeminent German theologian, writes: When the Nicene formulary is praised, it is always of Athanasius that we think; when the Chalcedonian decree is cited, it is the name of Leo the Great that is magnified. But that Tertullian is in reality the father of the orthodox doctrine of the Trinity and of the Person of Christ, and that in the whole patristic literature there is no treatise that can be compared in importance and influence with the tract “Against Praxeas” it has necessarily been left to the investigation of our own day to exhibit.4 2 We do not know much about Tertullian, and what we know is primarily from his own writings.5 We know that Septimius Tertullianus6 lived during the reigns of Emperor Septimius Severus (193-211) and his son Caracalla (211-217) in Carthage, and was probably born ca 170.
    [Show full text]
  • Greece Study Guide
    Greece Study Guide IN THE FOOTSTEPS OF PAUL 1 Table of Contents Table of Contents 2 Introduction 3 Alexandria Troas 4 Amphipolis and Apollonia 7 Amphipolis 8 Apollonia 12 Athens 14 Corinth 17 Delphi 37 Heraklion Crete 40 Kos 41 Malta 45 Mars Hill 49 Neapolis 54 Nicopolis 58 Patmos 61 Philippi 64 Rhodes 66 Samos 72 Samothrace / Samothraki 79 Thessaloniki 81 Veria - Berea 94 IN THE FOOTSTEPS OF PAUL 2 Introduction “ In the first century, Christianity was a community of believers. Then Christianity moved to Greece and became a philosophy. Then it moved to Rome and became an institution. Then it moved to Europe and became a culture. And then it move to America and became a business.” - Priscilla Shirer Shaul / Paul went to Greece within the framework of his second and third journeys. It was during a night gourd 49 A.D., when Shaul / Paul, while at Troas of Asia Minor, had a vision in which he saw a man of Macedonia who called him to carry on with his work in the this man’s homeland: Come over into M acedonia, and help us. It is worth noting that this divine intervention, which Shaul/ Paul with his fellow laborers Silas, Titus and Timothy took as an invitation from the Lord to make the message of His Gospel know to that area, was not the first. Their arrival at Troas and, as a consequence, their turn westwards and more specifically to Greece had become manifest on two further occasions during this second journey of Shaul / Paul. IN THE FOOTSTEPS OF PAUL 3 On the first occasion, when the left Iconium, they were prevented by the Holy Spirit from turning eastwards, to Asia, and as a result they finally headed for the regions of Phrygia and central Galatia.
    [Show full text]
  • Frankokratia: a Journal for the Study of Greek Lands Under Latin Rule a Message from the Editors
    Frankokratia 1 (2020) 1-2 brill.com/fra Frankokratia: A Journal for the Study of Greek Lands under Latin Rule A Message from the Editors Given the spectacular rise in the number of research periodicals across all aca- demic disciplines in recent decades, the launching of a new journal requires an explanation. We consider the creation of Frankokratia a long-overdue ser- vice to a growing international field, the somewhat unfocused development of which has often been torn between the exigencies of national history and the broad-brush treatment of Eurocentric or global narratives. To be sure, Frankokratia is not meant to essentialize the field by replacing local Greek and Cypriot journals or discouraging publication in periodicals engaging more broadly with the history, art history, and archaeology of the Middle Ages and early modernity. It has been conceived as nothing more (or less) than a spe- cialized interdisciplinary forum of the highest quality, submissions to which will be subjected to the double-blind peer-review process common to high- ranking publications in the humanities. Papers will be accepted on the merits of originality of thought and incisiveness of argumentation with the aim of benefitting a learned readership, including not only the professional historian, but also the graduate student and the educated enthusiast. With this goal in mind, and starting out with a relatively small number of pages, we anticipate an elevated rejection rate, meaning that sometimes even competently crafted papers may, for one reason or another, not be accommodated in Frankokratia. Although we are committed to being as objective and inclusive as possible, we kindly ask, in advance, of the prospective authors of papers for which the journal’s reviewers will not recommend publication to take any comments as constructive criticism for possible future publication elsewhere.
    [Show full text]
  • Contacts Between Syriac Orthodox and Latin Military Orders
    CONTACTS BETWEEN SYRIAC ORTHODOX AND LATIN MILITARY ORDERS DoROTHEA WELTECKE· INTRODUCfION Syriac Orthodox writers have much more to say about the Latins and are more precise in their descriptions than vice versa. But in general Syriac Orthodox and Latins respectively are on the periphery of either perspec­ tive in the written sources,l In reality, however, Syriac Orthodox and Latins - traders, monks, knights. scribes, physicians, administrators - certainly met in the streets of Jerusalem, Antioch. Acre, Edessa and else­ where, and mixed on a day-ta-day basis.2 Recent systematic research has shown that the Latins even lived close to Oriental Christians in rural areas of Palestine,) To develop a better understanding of these contacts it seems necessary to focus on intercultural encounters on social strata • I would like to thank Amill Gorgis and Gabriel Rabo for their advice on Syriac Orthodox social structures. For the abbreviations used in the footnotes :-;ee the end of this article. I A. Lilders, Die Krellzzllge in! Um'iI .fy"i.�('h('r und I1rme"i.�cll/'r Que/ll'n (Berlin, 1964); A.D. van den Brincken, Die "Nl1tione.f Chri.wiLIIloJ'llm Orientu/ium" im V('I" standnis del' /u/f'ini.fchl'n Hi.ftOl'iographil', !'Cm d('l' Mifle de.f 12. hi.f in die zwt'ite Hii/fte des /4. Juhrllllndel'l.f, Koiner Historische Abhandlungen, 22 (Cologne. 1973); C. Cahen, "Some New Editions of Oriental Source.<; about Syria in the Time of the Crusades", in Outrl'fl/er: Sflldies in Iht' HLftury uf Ihe Crusading KinRdtJm of Jl'rllsu/em.
    [Show full text]