11111111111111111- - . FAOFAO ' ForestryForestry FORESTRY PAPER educationeducaJ:on 123 New trends andand prospects

Seventeenth session of the FAO AdvisoryAdvisory Committee onon Forestry Education combined with Regional Expert Consultation of the Asian Network on Forestry Education

BangkokBangkok,, Thailand 13-15 December 19931993

Food and Agriculture Organization of thethe United Nations

Rome,Rome~ 19941994 The designations employed and the presentation ofof material inin this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoeverwhatsoever on the part of thethe FoodFood andand Agric,ultureAgriculture Organization of the United Nations concerning the legal status of any country,country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning thethe delimitationdelimitation of itsits frontiersfrontiers oorr boundaries.

M·39M-39 ISBNISBN 92-5-103558-X92·5·1D355B·X

All rights reserved.reserved. No partpart ofof thisthis publicationpublication maymay bebe reproduced,reproduced, stored inin aa retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechani­mechani- cal, photocopying or otherwise,otherwise, withoutwithout thethe priorprior permissionpermission ofof thethe copyrightcopyright owner.owner. Applications for such permission, withwith aa statementstatement ofof thethe purposepurpose andand extentextent of of the the reproduction,reproduction, shouldshould be addressed toto thethe Director, Publications DivisDivision,ion, FoodFood andand AgricultureAgriculture Organization of the UnitedUnited Nations, Viale delledelle TermeTerme didi Caracalla,Caracalla, 00100001 DO Rome,Rome. Italy.Italy.

C)© FAO 19941994 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Thanks are due to MessrsMessrs Pierre Rouve and Fernando Barrientos forfor translating the documents intointo FrenchFrench and Spanish respectively:respectively; to Professor Hugh Miller for preparing thethe Summary RecordRecord ofof this meetingmeeting and editing the EnglishEnglish versionsversions of thethe documents;documents; andand lastly to Liza Girling forfor preparing the report for printing.printing. - iii -

CONTENTS

Page

SUMMARY RECORDRECORD 1

APPENDIX 1: Agenda 8

APPENDIX 2:2: List of ParticipantsParticipants 12

APPENDIX 3: Secretariat Note (F.M.(F.M. Schlegel)Schlegel) 25

APPENDIX 44:: HowHow to interlink social sciences and extension and communication in professionalprofessional and technical levellevel forestryforestry education curriculacurricula (H.G.(H.G. Miller)Miller) 38

APPENDIX 5: Forestry education's response to changing social values and other resourcesresources knowledgeknowledge (F. Gilbert) 51

APPENDIX 6:6: Response toto users' needs in forestry education, with special reference to technical and socio-economic aspects of silviculture and management teaching inin the Asia-Pacific regionregion (K.(K. Awang)Awang) 72

APPENDIX 7: IntegrationIntegration ofof universityuniversity coursescourses andand exchange of forestry studentsstudents inin EuropeEurope under the ERASMUS/Silva-NetworkERASMUS/ Silva-Network schemescheme (M. Becker and P. Schmidt) 88

APPENDIX 8: Continuing professionalprofessional forestry education:education: a survey of issuesissues (E.P.(E.P. Bachelard and D.M. Griffin)Griffin) ' , 106 - iv -

APPENDIX 9: Refresher andand in-service forestry training: responding to thethe challengeschallenges ofof maintainingmaintaining quality forestry faculty, government, and industrial personnel (J.M.(J.M. Higgs) 123

APPENDIX 10: Postgraduate level education inin thethe Asia-Asia- Pacific region (I.S.(I.S. Ferguson) 134

APPENDIX 11:11: TheThe professionalprofessional and technical forestry education network inin thethe Asia-PacificAsia-Pacific region.region. Present working inter-institutionalinter-institutional linkageslinkages and prospects (M.(M. Kashio)Kashio) 150

APPENDIX 12:12: TeachingTeaching ecologically benignbenign logginglogging methodsmethods in the professionalprofessional andand technical-leveltechnical-level forestry schoolsschools ofof thethe Asia-PacificAsia-Pacific regionregion (D. Dykstra) 164

APPENDIX 13:13: Non-woodNon-wood forest products inin forestryforestry education (C.(C. Chandrasekharan)Chandrasekharan) 181

APPENDIX 14:14: Integrating multiple land-useland-use approaches intointo forestry education with emphasis on ways to train teaching staff and focus on fieldfield exercises andand the development of instruction materials (A.(A. Temu) 202

APPENDIX 15:15: Professional forestryforestry education with privateprivate or public financing.financing. Strengths,Strengths, weaknessesweaknesses and standardsstandards of quality (H.(H. Peredo)Peredo) 214

APPENDIX 16:16: Vocational level forestry education inin France.France. The contribution of privateprivate enterpriseenterprise to thisthis training (J.(J. Bedel)Bedel) 232

APPENDIX 17:17: Education of privateprivate forest owners.owners. Alternatives, perspectives and implications for vocational training (C.(C. Giry)Giry) 257 - v --

ANNEX A: List of MembersMembers 281

ANNEX B: List of Meetings of the FAOFAO PanelPanel on Education in ForestryForestry andand the FAOFAO Advisory Committee on ForestryForestry EducationEducation 287

ANNEX C: List of SelectedSelected PapersPapers PresentedPresented to SessionsSessions and ad hoc MeetingsMeetings of the FAOFAO Panel on Education inin ForestryForestry (1956-1964)(1956-1964) and the FAO Advisory Committee on Forestry EdEducation ucation (1964-1993)(1964-1993) 289 1

FAO ADVISORY COMMTTTEECOMMITTEE ON FORESTRY EDUCATION

Seventeenth Session

Thailand,Thailand. 13-1513-15 December 19931993

SUMMARY RECORDRECORD

The 17th Session of the FAOFAO Advisory Committee on ForestryForestry Education (ACFE) waswas organized in combinationcombination with thethe RegionalRegional Expert Consultation of the Asian Network on Forestry Education (ANFE).(AN FE). The agenda is shown in Appendix 1. A total of 5757 personspersons participatedparticipated (10 ACFE members, 13 resource persons, 27 ANFE experts and 77 observers). Thirty participants were from developing nations and 27 fromfrom industrializedindustrialized countries.countries. TheThe listlist of participants is given inin AppendixAppendix 2.2.

The session focused onon the needneed toto widenwiden thethe traditionaltraditional education and training of forestersforesters so asas toto incorporateincorporate multiplemultiple landland useuse,, sustainable developmentdevelopment and and anan awareness ofof how landland useuse interactsinteracts with socialsocial conditions.conditions. Mr. M.M. KashioKashio pointedpointed out,out, whilewhile outlining the specificspecilic problemsproblems inin south-eastsouth-east Asia, that the key note has to bebe asas statedstated atat the the UNCED, UN CEO, "sustainable "sustainable developmentdevelopment inin anan environmentally sound, economically viable, socially fair and acceptableacceptable way"way".. With particularparticular reference to the regionregion Dr.Dr. A.A. TemuTemu calledcalled forfor forestry educators to respondrespond byby reviewingreviewing theirtheir objectivesobjectives inin aa radicalradical way, adapting the curriculum toto meet the diverse needs not only of global demands butbut also ofof regionalregional andand nationalnational needs,needs, withwith aa particular shift to multiplemultiple landland use,use, despitedespite thethe resourceresource implicationsimplications such a shift in curriculum might entail.entail. ThisThis callcall waswas echoedechoed byby Mr.Mr. C.C. Chandrasekharan when he pointed out that most countries of the region had not beenbeen able to realiserealise thethe fullfull potential of non-woodnon-wood forestforest 2 products, aa situation thatthat had as much to dodo withwith inadequaciesinadequacies inin forestry education and training as inin institutionalinstitutional blockages.blockages. Dr. K.AwangK.Awang referredreferred to to thethe problem that a longlong periodperiod isis requiredrequired forfor humanhuman resourceresource dedevelopment,velopment, "the the new forester cannot be produced at thethe speed many would like".like".

The extent to which presentpresent curricula, and curriculumcurriculum revisionsrevisions currently being considered,considered, meetmeet thethe needsneeds forfor thisthis "new"new forester"forester" waswas a matter ofof considerableconsiderable debate.debate. ProfessorsProfessors E.P.E.P. BachelardBachelard andand D.M.D.M . GriffinGriffin advocatedadvocated thatthat curricula shouldshould aimaim toto produce graduates who are at one and thethe samesame timetime bothboth expertsexperts inin termsterms ofof managingmanaging thethe complexcomplex natural resource that is the forest and generalistsgeneralists in terms ofof the rangerange of disciplines adjacent to and pertaining to forest management. ProfessorProfessor H.G.H.G. MillerMiller mademade a very similar point, but while emphasisingemphasising thatthat professional andand technical competence must bebe maintained withinwithin education programmes at all levels,levels, he also arguedargued that new personal attitudes had toto be inculcated as much throughthrough the intellectualintellectual environmentenvironment inin whichwhich thethe course is taught as throughthrough anyany changeschanges toto the curriculum: "teaching"teaching should not assumeassume the objectives of forest management, rather it should illustrate how silviculture, policy instruments etc. changechange withwith legitimatelegitimate differences differences inin thethe demandsdemands societies place uponupon forests".forests". For such training to bebe effective,effective, asas Professors Bachelard and GriffinGriffin pointedpointed out,out, forestersforesters havehave toto developdevelop communication skills and expertiseexpertise in areasareas previouslypreviously regardedregarded as being at bestbest peripheralperipheral toto mainstreammainstream forestryforestry education.education.

The changes that are requiredrequired atat thethe undergraduateundergraduate levellevel areare considerable inin comparisoncomparison to thethe traditionaltraditional degree.degree. Professors Bachelard, GriffinGriffin,, Miller and Ferguson all felt that curricula revisionsrevisions ofof recent years had already gone a considerable wayway toto respondingresponding toto the changes required atat undergraduateundergraduate level.level. However, ProfessorProfessor F.F. Gilbert argued that moremore radicalradical approachesapproaches were necessarynecessary if thethe desireddesired outcome of educating for multiple use waswas to be achieved: "management must be ecosystem-based and directed towards long-term stability", even that "forestry"forestry education mustmust integrateintegrate resourcesresources andand 3 management and ultimately managers shouldshould be moulded into a single professional body". Difference inin views seemed toto relate more thethe extent to whichwhich thethe ethosethos ofof stewardship stewardship hadhad alreadyalready becomebecome incorporatedincorporated intointo forestryforestry curriculacurricula inin thethe differentdifferent countriescountries ratherrather thanthan any divergencedivergence in beliefsbeliefs asas toto thethe ultimate ultimate ainn. aim. ProfessorProfessor Gilbert,Gilbert, however, seemedseemed ratherrather lessless concernedconcerned overover thethe needneed toto maintain a "core ofof professionalprofessional competence"competence" ththanan were, for example,example, eithereither Professors Bachelard and Griffin or ProfessorProfessor Miller.Miller. Rather worryingly, nit would seem from Mr.Mr. KashioKashio andand Dr.Dr. TemuTemu thatthat multiplemultiple useuse waswas lessless a partpart ofof forestryforestry curriculacurricula inin manymany ofof thethe educationaleducational institutionsinstitutions of south-east AsiaAsia than elsewhere.elsewhere.

A paper by Professor Dr. M.M. Becker and Professor P.P. Schmidt, describing thethe ErasmusErasmus Scheme of the EuropeanEuropean Union, demonstrated the extent to whichwhich newnew ideasideas and attitudes cancan bebe developed throughthrough organized studentstudent exchange,exchange, and to aa lesserlesser extentextent exchangeexchange ofof staff.staff.

There was general agreement thatthat initial training at allall levelslevels would havehave toto bebe systematicallysystematically augmentedaugmented byby subsequentsubsequent in-servicein-service professional training.training. Professor Ferguson put the matter succinctly when he stated:stated: "IfIf there is toto bebe anan argument argument forfor continuationcontinuation asas aa profession, it lies in its demonstrated competencecompetence to to apply thethe technologytechnology ratherrather thanthan inin anyany exclusiveexclusive possessionpossession ofof thethe knowledge.knowledge. It isis my personalpersonal view that any profession ought to be initiatinginitiating periodicperiodic short coursescourses and oughtought toto requirerequire thatthat membersmembers undertakeundertake somesome quantum ofof thatthat further education asas aa demonstrationdemonstration of theirtheir commitment to maintainingmaintaining competence''.competence". ThisThis waswas underlinedunderlined byby Mr.Mr. J.M. Higgs who maintained thatthat programmes of continuing professional development, howeverhowever organized,organized, werewere '"fundamentalfundamental tools" tools" toto bebe employed byby the forestry education community. AsAs ifif toto emphasizeemphasize that information acquisitionacquisition alonealone isis not sufficient, Mr.Mr. D. Dykstra pointed out thatthat environmentallyenvironmentally benignbenign logginglogging is as muchmuch to dodo withwith thethe willingness to apply proper supervisionsupervision as to obtainingobtaining newnew knowledge.knowledge. The inculcatinginculcating of a commitmentcommitment toto the environmentenvironment and thethe preparedness to exert professional judgement andand supervision,supervision, however,however, 4 are properproper aimsaims ofof education.education. This education must bebe providedprovided effecteffectivelyively andand toto a properlyproperly validatedvalidated standard,standard, aspects that becomebecome difficult if thethe educationaleducational world isis undergoingundergoing rapidrapid change,change, as waswas pointed out byby ProfessorProfessor H.H. PeredoPeredo regardingregarding Chile'sChile's inorganic and explosive growth of privatelyprivately financedfinanced forestryforestry education.education.

The meetingmeeting waswas unanimouslyunanimously consideredconsidered innovatiinnovative.ve. Its eexpansionxpansion by holdingholding it in conjunctionconjunction with thethe AsianAsian NetworkNetwork onon Forestry Education (AN(ANFE) FE) producedproduced aa critical mass ofof interestedinterested participants fromfrom the regionregion whichwhich keptkept thethe discussionsdiscussions livelylively andand enthusiastic. The quick sequence ofof presentationpresentation ofof high-levelhigh-level paperspapers kept the meetingmeeting underunder continuouscontinuous andand dynamicdynamic pressure.pressure.

Professor H.G.H.G. MillerMiller of the UniversityUniversity of Aberdeen, U.KU.K was elected as the nextnext ChairmanChairman ofof ACFE.ACFE. This was the seventh and last session chaired by Professor D.M.D.M. Griffin, and his outstanding,outstanding, sustained contribution to forestryforestry educationeducation worldwide was highlighted by the membersmembers.. It was suggested thatthat the 18th Session shouldshould bebe held in a Latin American country.

As a fieldfield activityactivity thethe FacultyFaculty ofof ForestryForestry andand thethe RegionalRegional Community ForestryForestry TrainingTraining CentreCentre (RECOFTC),(RECOFTC), Kasetsart University,University, Bangkok werewere visited.visited.

Two informalinformal working groups were formed to discussdiscuss ideasideas about curriculum development and continuing education and the idea was developed to involveinvolve ACFEACFE membersmembers inin collaborativecollaborative activitiesactivities between sessions.sessions. 5

Conclusions andand RecommendationsRecommendations

Conclusions

1. First degrees in forestry.forestry shouldshould establishestablish a common,common, solidsolid foundation (core curriculum) with the intentionintention ofof educatingeducating professionally competent natural resource managersmanagers of thethe forested environment, using thisthis last term inin itsits widestwidest sense.sense. This educationeducation shouldshould notnot presupposepresuppose thethe objectives of management. TheseThese objectivesobjectives shouldshould be establishedestablished byby society through itsits government,government, with strongstrong inputinput byby forestryforestry professionals. Nonetheless, utilization ofof trees and forests will be inherentinherent inin mostmost forestforest managementmanagement though thethe formsforms ofof utilization will varyvary greatly,greatly, e.g.e.g. tourism,tourism, recreation,recreation, non-woodnon-wood forest products, wood production,production, waterwater andand soso on. As no other professional will have expertise in logging, the core curriculum should usuallyusually contain appropriate courses in logginglogging andand harvesting.

2. The periphery of subjects surrounding the core shouldshould aim to make the forestforest managermanager generally educated inin a rangerange ofof disciplines and issuesissues underpinningunderpinning or impactingimpacting onon forestforest management. WhilstWhilst somesome areare likely to featurefeature inin mostmost curricula,curricula, many will be 'site specific',specific', influencedinfluenced strongly byby thethe naturenature ofof forestry inin eacheach particularparticular country andand eveneven byby thethe ethosethos ofof thethe institution.institution.

3. In addition toto thethe subjectsubject contentcontent ofof aa curriculum,curriculum, therethere isis thethe need to impartimpart attitudesattitudes andand modesmodes ofof behaviour. behaviour .There There shouldshould be emphasis on a properproper humilityhumility andand aa readinessreadiness to consultconsult whilst at thethe samesame timetime havinghaving confidenceconfidence inin one'sone's ownown professional abilityability andand a readinessreadiness to informinform thethe politicalpolitical decision makingmaking process.process. 6

4. Forest scientscientists,ists, as distinct from forestforest managers,managers, maymay originate fromfrom a number of first degree courses in addition to those in forestry. AlmostAlmost always,always, thesethese scientistsscientists requirerequire education goinggoing farfar beyondbeyond a firstfirst degreedegree.. PostgraduatePostgraduate research qualifications, usually obtained inin universities,universities, areare generally required. Such researchresearch degreedegree coursescourses shouldshould includeinclude sections onon the design, monitoring and evaluation ofof researchresearch asas wellwell as in the scientific conduct ofof research.research.

5. Continuing education isis nownow essentialessential for forestry practitioners and has two fundamentalfundamental aims:aims:

(a) to maintainmaintain the competencecompetence ofof forest managersmanagers throughout theirtheir careers;careers;

(b) to givegive specializedspecialized knowledgeknowledge toto individualsindividuals as the need arises during their careers.careers.

The responsibility for effectiveeffective continuing education is broadly spread. Universities, state agencies, industrial groups, commercial companies, forest owners andand professional associations all have aa role to play. The funding of continuing education is oftenoften aa vexedvexed issue.issue.

6. Although the above conclusions areare to be seen initially in regard to professionalprofessional education, theythey alsoalso apply withwith littlelittle changechange toto technical education. Vocational education, by its veryvery intent,intent, raises other issuesissues not addressedaddressed in the session. TheThe Committee diddid notenote thethe pressurepressure forfor 'competency-based' 'competency-based' education at sub-professionalsub-professional levels in a number of countries.countries. However, its usefulness in manymany aspectsaspects ofof professionalprofessional education is doubtful because ofof the problems posed by the important higherhigher levellevel skillsskills andand attributes.attributes. 7

7. Looking to the future, (a) the education of private or community forestry owners is seenseen asas aa topictopic demanding demanding increasing,increasing, focusedfocused attention; (b) the valuevalue of regionalregional forestry networks was realized; and (c) thethe desirabilitydesirability ofof holdingholding overlappingoverlapping meetings of the Advisory Committee with members ofof regionalregional networksnetworks was recognized.

Recommendations

The regular programme of the ForestryForestry Education section of FAOFAO andand thethe main themesthemes to be addressed at the 18th Session of the Advisory Committee should be focused upon:

,. curriculum development, includingincl uding definition, evaluationevaluation andand revision; andand

2. continuing educationeducation inin aa widewide sense.sense.

This integration ofof activities wouldwould both be efficientefficient and addadd meaning toto the work ofof thethe AdvisoryAdvisory CommitteeCommittee through itsits being able to offeroffer timelytimely detaileddetailed adviceadvice onon thethe regularregular programme. 8

APPENDIX 11

FAO ADVISORY COMMITTEE ONON FORESTRYFORESTRY EDUCATIONEDUCATION

17th Session

combined withwith

REGIONAL EXPERTEXPERT CONSULTATION OF THE ASIAN NETWORK ON FORESTRY EDUCATION (ANFE)(AN FE)

13-15 December 19931993

AGENDA

Monday 13 December

1. Opening Ceremony

Statements of:of:

- Mr. J. Mercado,Mercado, RepresentingRepresenting AssistantAssistant Director-General, RAPARAPA - Prof. D.M. Griffin, Chairman,Chairman, ACFE - Mr. M.M. Kashio,Kashio, SecretarySecretary ofof ANFE,AN FE, RAPARAPA

2. Adoption of the AgendaAgenda 9

Session 1:1: FADFAO activitiesactivities in the field of forestry education and training andand followfollow upup toto thethe recommendationsrecommendations of the 16th16th sessionsession ofof ACFE. ACFE.

3. Secretariat note byby Dr.Dr. F.M.F.M. Schlegel,Schlegel. SecretarySecretary ofof ACFE, ACFE. FOR,FOR. FADFAO HQ, Rome.Rome.

Session 2:2: Adaptation ofof forestryforestry educationeducation toto users'users' needsneeds

4. How toto interlink social sciences and extension and communication inin professionalprofessional andand technical level forestryforestry education curricula (re.(re. 16th16th ACFE). ProfProf.. H.H. Miller, UniUniversityversity of Aberdeen, U.K.U. K. (Global)(Global)

5. Forestry education's response to changingchanging socialsocial valuesvalues andand other resources knowledge. Prof. F. Gilbert, Faculty of Natural Resources and EnvironmentalEnvironmental Studies, UniUniversityversity of Northern British Columbia,Columbia, CanadaCanada (Global)(Global)

6. Response toto users' needsneeds inin forestryforestry education,education. withwith specialspecial reference to technicaltechnical and socio-economic aspects of silviculture and forest management teaching in the Asia-Pacific region. Dr.Dr. KK.. Awang,Awang, WinrockWinrock F/FREDF/ FRED Project,Project, PertanianPertanian UniverUniversity,sity, Malaysia (Regional)(Regional)

7. Integration of universityuniversity courses and exchangeexchange ofof forestryforestry students in Europe under the ERASMUSERASMUS/Silva-Network/Silva-Network scheme (re. 16th ACFE).ACFE). Prof.Prof. M. Becker,Becker, UniversityUniversity ofof Freiburg,Freiburg. Germany andand P.Schmidt.P.Schmidt, Wageningen, TheThe Netherlands (Global)

Note: "Regional" andand "Glob"Global"al" refer toto the scope of thethe papers.papers. 10

Tuesday 14 DecemberDecember

Session 3: Continuing education

8. Continuing professionalprofessional foreforestrystry education: a survey of issuesissues (re. 16th ACFE).ACFE) . Prof. E.P.E.P. Bachelard and Prof.Prof. D.M.D.M. Griffin,Griffin, Australian National University,University, Canberra,Canberra, AustraliaAustralia (Global)(Global) 9. Refresher andand inin-service-service forforestryestry training:training: rerespondingsponding toto the challenges of maintainingmaintaining qualityquality forestryforestry faculty,faculty, government,government, and industrial personnelpersonnel (re.(re. 16th16th ACFE).ACFE). Mr. J.M.J.M. Higgs,Higgs, USDAUSDA Forest Service, International Forestry, Education & Training,Training, Washington DC,DC, U.S.A.U.S.A. (Global)(Global)

Session 4: New approaches and disciplines inin ForestryForestry EducationEducation

10. PostgraduPostgraduateate levellevel education inin the Asia-PacificAsia-Pacific region.region .Prof. Prof .I.S. I.S. Ferguson, University ofof Melbourne,Melbourne, AustraliaAustralia (Regional)(Regional)

11. The professional and technical forestry education network in the Asia-Pacific region.region. Present working inter-institutionalinter-institutional linkageslinkages and prospects.prospects. Mr.Mr. M.M .Kashio, Kashio, FAOFAO RAPARAPA (Regional)(Regional)

12. The teachingteaching of ecologicallyecologically benignbenign logginglogging methodsmethods for professional andand technicaltechnical levellevel forestryforestry schools in the Asia-Asia­ Pacific region.region. Mr.Mr. D.D. Dykstra,Dykstra, FOP,FOP, FAOFAO HQHO RomeRome (Regional)(Regional)

13. Non-wood forest products inin forestry educationeducation (re.(re. 16th16th ACFE) Mr.CMr.C.. Chandrasekharan, FOP, FAO HQHO RomeRome (Regional)(Regional)

14. IIntegrating ntegrating multiple land-use approaches into forestry education. With emphasis on waysways to train teaching staffstaff andand focusfocus onon fieldfield exercises and the development of instructioninstruction materials.materials. Dr. A. Tennu,Temu, ICRAF,ICRAF, Nairobi,Nairobi, Kenya (Global)

15. Professional forestry education with private or publicpublic financing. Strengths, weaknesses, quality and standardsstandards (re.(re. 16th16th ACFE)ACFE) Prof. H. Peredo,Peredo, UniversityUniversity Austral de ChileChile 11

Wednesday 1515 DecemberDecember

Session 5: Training privateprivate ownersowners andand workersworkers

16. Private sectorsector contributioncontribution to forestry training programmes inin France (re. 16th ACFE) J. Bedel, ENGREF,ENG REF, Montpellier, France (Global)

1717.. Education of privateprivate forestforest owners.owners. Alternatives,Alternatives, perspectivesperspectives and implications for vocational trainingtraining (re.(re. 16th16th ACFE)ACFE) Mrs. C. Giry, Institut pourpour leIe DéveloppementDeveloppement Forestier,Forestier, Paris,Paris, FranceFrance (Global)

Session 6.1:6.1: ACFEACFE AdministrativeAdministrative IV!afters Matters

(For ACFE members only)only)

18. Election of a new Chairman ofof ACFEACFE

19. Any other business:business:

i) Information by thethe ChairmanChairman ii) Recommendations ofof thethe ACFEACFE

20. ACFE membership

21. Date and place of 18th sessionsession ofof ACFEACFE

Visit to: i) Faculty of Forestry, KasetsartKasetsart University,University, and ii) thethe regionalregional CommunityCommunity ForestryForestry TrainingTraining Center (RECOFTC)(RECOFTC)

Farewell cjinnerdinner 12

APPENDIX 2

FAO ADVISORY COMIVIITTEECOMMITTEE ONON FORESTRY EDUCATIONEDUCATION COMITECONTE CONSULTATIF CONSULTATIF FAO FAO DEDE L'ENSEIGNEMENT L'ENSEIGNEMENT FORESTIERFORESTIER COMITE ASESORASESOR DEDE LALA FAOFAO SOBRESOBRE ENSEÑANZAENSENANZA FORESTALFORESTAL

Seventeenth Session Dix-septièmeDix-septieme sessionsession DecimoseptimaDecimoséptima reunionreunión

Bangkok, ThailandThailand 13-15 December 19931993

LIST OFOF PARTICIPANTSPARTICIPANTS

ACFE TVIembersMembers

AUSTRALIA Prof. D.M. Griffin AUSTRALIE Pro Vice-ChancellorVice-Chancellor Chairman, Board of the Faculties The Australian National UniversityUniversity P.O. Box 4 Canberra, A.C.T.A.C.T. 26012601

CANADA Dr. John K.K. NaysmithNaysmith President, Association of UniversityUniversity Forestry Schools ofof CanadaCanada and Director,Director, School of Forestry Lakehead University 995 Oliver RoadRoad Thunder Bay,Bay, Ontario,Ontario, P7BP7B 5E1SEI 13

FINLAND Prof. PäiviöPiiivi6 RiihinenRiihinen FINLANDE Department ofof SocSocialial Economic Forestry FINLANDIA University of HelsinkiHelsinki Unioninkatu 40 BB SF-00170 Helsinki 1717

FRANCE Mr. Jean BedelBedel FRANCIA IngIngénieurem ieur en Chef du GenieGenie RuralRural desdes EauxEaux etet desdes ForetsForêts Chef du DépartementDepartement "Forêts"Forets en regions chaudes" ENGREF, B.P. 5093 34033 Montpellier CEDEXCEDEX

GERMANYGERMANY ProfProf.. Dr. M.M. Becker ALLEMAGNE Arbeitsbreich Holzmark-tlehreHolzmarktlehre ALEALEMANIA MANIA Forstwissenschaftliche FakultätFakultiit UnviersitiitUnviersität Freiburg Kaiser-Joseph Str. 239 7800 Freiburg

KENYA Mr. P.K. KidomboKidombo * Chief of Manpower Development Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources P.O. Box 3051330513 Nairobi

KOREA,KOREA. Republic ofof ProfProf.. Tai Sik Park COREE, Republique de ProfessorProfessor EmeritusEmeritus COREA, RepublicaRepública de Department of Forestry College of Agriculture Seoul National UniversityUniversity Suwon

* Alternate to officialofficial ACFEACFE membermember * Remplac;antRemplagant Iele membre officiel du CCEFCCEF * Alterno al miembromiembro oficialoficial deldel CAEFCAEF 14

NORWAY Mr. Finn Kristian BrevigBrevig NORVEGE Director NORUEGA Skogbrukets Kursinstitutt Honne, N-2820N-2820 BiriBiri

SWEDEN Mr. Sven-Gunnar Larssonl1lrsson SUEDE Director SUECIA SkogsmastarskolSkogsmästarskol School for ForestForest EngineersEngineers Sveriges Lantbruksuniversitet P.O. Box 4343 739 21 Skinnskatteberg

UNITED KINGDOM Prof. H.G. MillerMiller ROYAUME UNI Head, Department of ForeForestrystry REIREINO NO UNIDO UniUniversityversity of Aberdeen Cruickshank Building St.SI. Machar DriveDrive Aberdeen AB9 2UD, Scotland

Resource Persons

AUSTRALIA Prof. E.P. Bachelard AUSTRALIE Head, Department of ForestryForestry The Australian National UniversityUniversity P.O. Box 4 Canberra A.C.T.A.C.T. 26012601

AUSTRALIA Prof. I.S.I.S. FergusonFerguson AUSTRALIE Professor of Forest Science and Head, Forestry Section The UniversityUniversity of Melbourne Parkville,Pariwille, Victoria, 30523052 15

CANADA ProfProf.. Frederick F. Gilbert Dean, Faculty of NaturalNatural ResourcesResources and Environmental StudiesStudies University of Northern British Columbia Prince George, British ColumbiaColumbia V2LV2L 5P25P2

CHILE Prof. H. PeredoPeredo CHILI InstitutoInstituto de SilviculturaSilvicultura Facultad de CienciasCiencias ForestalesForestales Universidad AustralAustral Campus Universitario, IslaIsla TejaTeja Casilla 567, ValdiviaValdivia

FRANCE Mme Clotilde GiryGiry FRANCIA Institut pour leIe DéveloppementDeveloppement Forestier 23 avenue BosquetBosquet 75007 ParisParis

KENYA Dr. August Temu Coordinator, Educational Programme InternatInternationalional Centre forfor ResearchResearch in Agroforestry (ICRAF)(ICRAF) United Nations AvenueAvenue Gigiri PP.O..O. BOX 30677, Nairobi

MALAYSIA Dr. Kamis Awang MALASIE Network Specialist MALASIA Winrock International - F/FREDF /FRED c/o FacultyFaculty ofof ForestryForestry Universiti Pertanian MalaysiaMalaysia 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor 16

UNITED STATES OF Mr. J.M. Higgs AMERICA Education and Training Coordinator ETATS UNIS Forestry Support Programme D'AMERIQUED'AMERIOUE IInternational nternational Forestry ESTADOS UNIDOS U.S. Forest Service DE AMERICA P.O. Box 96090, Washington, DCDC 2009020090

FAOFAO Mr. MM.. Kashio Regional Forest Resources Officer FAO Regional Office for AsiaAsia and thethe PacificPacific (RAPA)(RAP A) Maliwan Mansion,Mansion, Phra Atit RoadRoad Bangkok 10200,10200, Thailand

FAOFAO Mr. CC.. Chandrasekharan Chief Non-WoodNon-Wood Products and EnergyEnergy BranchBranch ForestForest Products Division ForestryForestry Department FAO, 00100 Rome, Italy

FAO Mr. D. Dykstra Forestry Officer (Harvesting(Harvesting Systems)Systems) Forest Harvesting and Transport Branch Forest Products DivisionDivision Forestry Department FAO, 00100 Rome, Italy

FAO Mr. F.S.P. Ng Chief Forest Research, Education and Training Branch Forest Resources DivisionDivision Forestry Department FAO, 00100 Rome, Italy 17

FAO Mr. F.M.F.M. SchlegelSchlegel Secretary, ACFE and Forestry Officer (Education)(Education) Forest Research,Research, EducationEducation and Training Branch Forest Resources Division Forestry Department FAO,FAO, 00100 Rome, ItalyItaly

OBSERVERS

BOLIVIA Dr. Richard Mancilla-Terrazas BOLlVIIEBOLIVIIE ProfessorProfessor,, ForeForestrystry Research && Technology Transfer Universidad Gabriel Rene Moreno Casilla 702702 Santa CruzCruz

KENYA Mr. Richard KaguambaKaguamba Forester P.O. Box 6767767677 Nairobi

KENYA Mr. R. Keogh Training Coordinator World Bank ProjectProject P.O. Box 3024130241 Nairobi

KENYA Prof. Nelson W. Nandili Principal Kenya Forestry College PP.O..O. Box 8 Londiani 18

NORWAY Mrs. Gerd BrevigBrevig NORVEGE Forest ExtensionExtension Service InstituteInstitute NORUEGA Honne N-2820 Biri

RUSSIAN Mr. Victor K.K. TeplyakovTeplyakov FEDERATION Associate Professor FEDERATION Deputy.Deputy HeadHead ofcf RussianRu ssian FederalFederal DE RUSSIE Forestry ServiceService FEDERACION Novocheremuskinskaya StreetStreet 6969 DE RUSIA Moscow 117877117877

FAO Mr. Fathi Z. BotrosBotres Regional Adviser (Near(Near East)East) FAO Population Programme CoordinationCoordination Economic && SocialSocial PolicyPolicy DepartmentDepartment (ESD)(ESD) FAO, 00100 Rome, Italy

ANFE** MembersMembers

BANGLADESH DrDr.. Mohammed KamaluddinKamaluddin (ANFE) Associate ProfessorProfessor InstituteInstitute of Forestry UniversityUniversity of Chittagong Chittagong 43314331

CHINA,CHINA Prof. Zhao Qizeng (ANFE) People's Rep.Rep. of President CHINE, la Republique Nanjing ForeForestrystry UniversityUniversity Dooulairepopulaire de Nanjing CHINA, la RepúblicaRepublica popular de

** AsianAsian NetworkNetwork onon ForestryForestry EducationEducation 19

INDIA Dr. P.L. GautamGautam (AN(ANFE) FE) INDE Dean/DirectorDean/ Director ofof ResearchResearch College of ForestryForestry Dr. Yashwant SinghSingh ParmarParmar UniversityUniversity of Horticulture and ForestryForestry Nauni, Solan 173173 230230 Himachal PradeshPradesh

Prof.Prof. Sudhir KumarKumar PandePande (ANFE) Director Indira Gandhi NationalNational ForestForest AcademyAcademy P.O.P.O. New Forest Dehra Dun (UP)(UP)

INDONESIA Dr. Yusuf Sudo HadiHadi (ANFE)(AN FE) INDONESIE Vice-Dean for Academic AffairsAffairs Faculty of ForestryForestry Institut PertanianPertanian BogorBogor (IPB)(IPB) Bogor AgriculturalAgricultural UniversityUniversity Kampus IPB,I PB, DarmagaDarmaga P.O. Box 168168 Bogor 1600116001

Prof.Prof. Dr. Achmad SumitroSumitro (ANFE)(ANFE) Dean, FacultFacultyy of ForestryForestry Department of Education and CultureCulture Fakultas Kehutamam Gadjah Mada UniversityUniversity Bulaksumur,Bulaksumur, Yogyakarta

Dr. Herujono HadisupartoHadisuparto (AN(ANFE) FE) Chairman, Department of ForestryForestry Faculty of Agriculture Tanjungpura UniversityUniversity Jln.JIn. A. Yani Pontianak 7812478124 20

Prof. D.D. SubanSubari i (ANFE) Dean, Fakultas Kehutanan Dept. Pendidikan DanDan KebudayaanKebudayaan UnUniversitasiversitas LambungLambung Mangkurat Jalan Jenderal A. Yani Kotak PosPos 1919 Banjarbaru Kalimantan SelatanSelatan

MALAYSIA Dr. Nik Muhamad MajidMajid (ANFE) MALASIA Dean, Faculty of Forestry Universiti PertanianPertanian MalaysiaMalaysia 43400 UPM Serdang Selangor DarulDarul EhsanEhsan

MYANMARMYAN MAR U Saw YanVan Aung C.C. DooDoo (ANFE) Director Forest Research Institute Ministry of Forestry Yezin, Pyinmanar Township

U. Aung KyinKyin (ANFE)(AN FE) Professor Institute of ForestryForestry Yezin, Pyinmanar Township

NEPAL Mr. Toran B.B. KarkiKarki (ANFE)(AN FE) Dean Institute of ForestryForestry Tribhuvan University P.O. Box 4343 Pokhara

Mr. A.L. Hammett (ANFE) Institute of Forestry ProjectProject P.O. Box 206206 Pokhara 21

Mr. Bill Buffum (ANFE) Social Forestry & Curriculum AdviserAdviser InstituteInstitute of Forestry Project P.O. BoxBox 206206 Pokhara

NEW ZEALAND Dr. A. Graham D.D. Whyte (ANFE) NOUVELLE-ZELANDE ReaderReader & HeadHead ofof DepartmentDepartment NUEVA ZELANDA School of Forestry University of Canterbury Private Bag 48004800 Christchurch

PAKISTAN Mr. Raja Muhammad Ashfaque (ANFE)(ANFE) Director Forest EducationEducation DivisionDivision Pakistan Forest InstituteInstitute Peshawar

PHILIPPINES Dr. Virgilio A. Fernandez (ANFE) FILIPINAS Dean College of ForestryForestry University of the Philippines at Los BañosBanos 4031 College, LagunaLaguna

SRI LANKA Prof. H.G. Nandadasa (ANFE) Dean FacuFacultylty of Applied Science University of Jayewardenepura Gangodawila, Nugegoda

THAILAND Dr. Niwat Ruangpanit (ANFE) THAITHAILANDE LANDE Dean TAILANDIA Faculty of ForestryForestry Kasetsart University BangkhenBangkhen,, Bangkok 1090010900 22

Dr. Somsak SukwongSukwong (ANFE)(AN FE) Director Regional Community ForestryForestry Training CentreCentre (RECOFTC)(RECOFTC) c/o FacultyFaculty ofof ForestryForestry Kasetsart University Bangkhen, BangkokBangkok 1090010900

Mr. Vitoon Viriyasakultorn (AN(ANFE) FE) Training ManagerManager Regional Community Forestry Training CentreCentre (RECOFTC)(RECOFTC) c/o Faculty Faculty ofof ForestryForestry Kasetsart UniversityUniversity Bangkhen, Bangkok 1090010900

FAO Mr. J.L. MercadoMercado (ANFE) Regional DevelopmentDevelopment Support Communication Officer ·· FAO Regional Office forfor AsiaAsia and the PacificPacific (RAPA)(RAP A) Maliwan Mansion, PhraPhra AtitAtit RoadRoad Bangkok 10200,10200, ThailandThailand

FAO Mr. MichaelMichael JensenJensen (ANFE) Associate Professional Officer FAO Regional Office for AsiaAsia and the PacificPacific (RAPA)(RAPA) Maliwan Mansion,Mansion, Phra AtitAtit RoadRoad Bangkok 10200,10200, ThailandThailand 23

FAOFAO Mr. B.P.B.P. Shrestha (AN(ANFE) FE) ForForestryestry Consultant ForForestryestry ReResearchsearch Support Programme forfor Asia-Pacific -- FORSPAFOR SPA (GCP(GCP/RAS/134/ASB) / RAS/134/ASB) c/o FAOFAO RegionalRegional OfficeOffice for AsiaAsia and the PacificPacific (RAPA)(RAP A) MalMaliwaniwan Mansion, Phra Atit RoadRoad Bangkok 10200,10200, Thailand

FAO Ms. BBereniceerenice Muraille (AN(ANFE) FE) Associate Professional Officer (Agricultura(Agriculturall EngineerEngineer - Forestry)Forestry) Forestry Research SupportSupport ProProgrammegramme for Asia-PacificAs ia-Pacific -- FORSPAFORSPA (GCP(GCP/RAS/134/ASB) / RAS /134 / AS B) c/o FAOFAO RegionalRegional OfficeOffice forfor AsiaAsia and the PacificPacific (RAPA)(RAP A) MaliwanMal iwan Mansion,Mansion, Phra Atit RoadRoad Bangkok 10200,10200, Thailand

FAO Mr. AndersAnd ers JensenJensen (AN(ANFE) FE) Associate Professional Officer ((Forester)Forester) Forestry Research Support ProgrammeProgramme for Asia-PacificAsia-Pacific -- FORSPAFORSPA (GCP(GCP/RAS/134/ASB) / RAS / 134/ASB) c/o FAOFAO RegionalRegional OfficeOffice for AsiaAs ia and the PacificPacific (RAPA)(RAPA) Maliwan Mansion, PhraPhra AtitAtit RoadRoad Bangkok 10200,10200, ThailandThailand 24

FAO Mr. L.L. WollesenWollesen (ANFE)(AN FE) Associate Professional OfficerOfficer (Forestry Planning and PolicyPolicy Assistance)Assistance) (GCP(GCP/RAS/137/JPN) / RAS / 137 / JPN) c/oc/ o FAO FAO RegionalRegional OfficeOffice forfor AsiaAsia and the PacificPacific (RAPA)(RAP A) Maliwan Mansion, PhraPhra AtitAtit RoadRoad Bangkok 10200,10200, ThailandThailand 25

APPENDIX 33

SECRETARIAT NOTE

by

F.M.F.M . Schlegel'

GENERAL

Over the lastlast twotwo yearsyears thethe ForestForest Research,Research, EducationEducation andand Training Branch hashas continued toto workwork withoutwithout aa ForestryForestry OfficerOfficer (Extension). Hence the ForeForestrystry Officer (Education) has had to carry out all technical supportsupport toto Forestry Forestry ExtensionExtension inin thethe FieldField Programme.Programme. TheThe recruitment of a Forestry Officer (Extension)(Extension) waswas carriedcarried outout in in 19931993 andand his nomination will come intointo effecteffect inin 1994.1994. ThisThis willwill allowallow thethe BranchBranch to respondrespond effectivelyeffectively toto ACFE'sACFE's recommendationsrecommendations regarding Forestry Extension (12th SessionSession ofof ACFE,ACFE, Nairobi,Nairobi, Kenya,Kenya, 1983).1983).

FOLLOW UP TO ACFE RECOMMENDATIONSRECOMMENDATIONS

A manual on teaching methodology on environmental/forestry education for rural teachers inin AndeanAndean countriescountries was prepared.prepared. ItIt isis atat present being edited with the assistanceassistance of an environmental educationeducation expert. It will be publishedpublished in 1994.1994. (Follow up to the 15th15th Session of ACFE, Antalya, Turkey, 1989.)1989.)

Forestry Officer (Education),(Education), ForestForest Research,Research, EducationEducation andand Training Branch, Forest Resources Division, Forestry Department, FAO,FAO, Rome,Rome, Italy.Italy. 26

An updatedupdated DirectoryDirectory ofof Forestry Forestry EducationEducation andand TrainingTraining InstitutionsInstitutions was prepared and printed as a miscellaneous publication.publication. ItIt was distributed worldwide for comments and additional information.information. The final version will be published nextnext yearyear as a Forestry Paper. (Follow(Follow upup to thethe 16th16th SessionSession ofof ACFE,ACFE, Paris,Paris, France,France, 1991.)1991.)

A document about professionalprofessional forestryforestry education withwith public and private financing in ChileChile was prepared in Spanish. It will be edited and published nextnext year.year. (Follow(Follow upup to to the the 16th16th SessionSession ofof ACFE, ACFE, Paris,Paris, France, 1991.)1991.)

Forestry Paper No.100 "Introduction"Introduction to Ergonomics in Forestry for Developing Countries" was adapted forfor francophonefrancophone countries. It will be edited and published next year. (Follow up to the 13th13th Session of ACFE, Mexico City, Mexico,Mexico, 1985.)1985.)

TheThe agenda of thethe 17th17th SessionSession ofof ACFEACFE waswas preparedprepared includingincluding all the recommendations of thethe 16th16th Session.Session.

PUBLICATIONS

The following documents werewere printedprinted andand distributed:distributed:

The English version ofof VolumeVolume II of the ProceedingsProceedings of the InternationalInternational ConferenceConference on ForestryForestry Education,Education, University ofof Tuscia - FAO - IUFRO,IUFRO, held inin Viterbo,Viterbo, Italy, 1990.1990.

The English, French and SpanishSpanish versionsversions ofof thethe finalfinal Report ofof the 16th16th SessionSession of ACFEACFE held inin Paris, France, 1991.1991.

The Spanish version of FAOFAO ForestryForestry PaperPaper No.47,No.47, LaLa EnseiianzaEnseñanza TecnicaTecnica Forestal, Principios y Ejecución.Ejecucion. 27

The EnglishEnglish version ofof FAOFAO ForestryForestry PaperPaper No.100,NO.tOO, Introduction toto ErgonomicsErgonomics forfor DevelopingDevel·oping Countries.Countries.

The Spanish veversionrsion of FAOFAO ForestryForestry PaperPaper No.100,No. tOO, IntroducciónIntroducci6n a a la la ErgonomíaErgonomra parapara PaísesParses enen Desarrollo.Desarrollo.

OTHER ACTIVITIES OF THETHE BRANCHBRANCH

The Branch contributedcontributed to the work ofof the Advisory Committee for ExternalExternal TrainingTraining of FAO'sFAO's InterdepartmentalInterdepartmental WorkWorkinging Group on Training 1991-1993. It participatedparticipated in the Expert ConsultatConsultationion on Strategy Options for Higher AgriculturaAgriculturall Education heldheld at FAO, Rome,Rome, DecemberDecember 1991.

The International Forestry StudentStudent Symposium,Symposium, heldheld inin Padova,Pad ova, Italy in 1992 waswas supportedsupported with thethe delideliveryvery of a keynote paper entitled "Forestry Education - a WorldWorld Perspective".Perspective".

Support was given to thethe FirstFirst NationalNational MeetingMeeting ofof ForestryForestry Research InstitutionsInstitutions held in Campeche,Campeche, Mexico, 1992, with thethe presentation of a paperpaper entitledentitled "Overview"Overview and ProspectsProspects ofof ForestryForestry Research Organizations". A Panel was chairedchaired on ForestryForestry ResearcherResearcher trainingtraining inin ResearchResearch Strategies.Strategies.

Assistance waswas provided to thethe UNCEDUNCED PreparatoryPreparatory MeetingMeeting 1992 withwith a technical paper entitled "Technology Transfer and Forestry Education and TrainingTraining andand Extension".Extension".

The Strategic Planning of the Centre for InternationalInternati onal Forestry Research (CIFOR) waswas supportedsupported in 1992 with a thematicthematic paper entitled "Education and Training forfor ForestryForestry Research".Research". 28

Technical support was given in the formulation of field projects dealing with Forestry Education and TrainingTraining andand ExtensionExtension componentscomponents and the ongoingongoing TFAP. TFAP.

Several Forestry EducationEducation andand TrainingTraining andand E>ctensionExtension projectsprojects were visited inin LatinLatin AmericaAmerica andand providedprovided withwith closeclose monitoring.monitoring. Additionally,Additionally, technical supportsupport andand thethe fielding ofof ExpertExpert and Evaluation Missions was provided.

OTHER IVIATTERSMATTERS

Information isis given inin Annex 1 on FAO'sFAO's fieldfield projectsprojects inin Forestry Education andand Training.Training. (Follow(Follow upup toto the 14th14th SessionSession of ACFE, Ljubljana, Yugoslavia,Yugoslavia, 1986.)1986.)

FAO's ForestryForestry Department'sDepartment's ongoing Field ProgrammeProgramme in Forestry Education andand Training is covered by 38 projects. They can be classified under three categoriescategories asas follows:follows:

A 4 field projects specificallyspecifically dealing with forestry education and training.

B 7 field projects with forestry education and training as a mainmain component.

C 27 fieldfield projects with a forestry education and training element limitedlimited toto a trainingtraining programmeprogramme ofof nationalnational forestryforestry personnelpersonnel 'and/or aa fieldfield training programme for rural people, a study tourtour or fellowships. 29

ACFE MEMBERSHIPMEMBERSHIP

The Advisory Committee atat present hashas aa totaltotal number of 26 members. In 1993 four new member countries were appointed: CostaCosta Rica, CoteCôte d'ivoire,d'Ivoire, Egypt andand Malaysia.Malaysia. The CzechCzech Republic, Honduras and Vietnam have beenbeen ininvitedvited toto proposepropose a candidate for membership. This would give a total ofof 2929 members.members.

Fourteen members are fromfrom dedevelopingveloping countries, fourteen from Industrializedindustrialized countries countries and and oneone fromfrom a countrycountry inin transition.transition. TheThe followingfollowing table indicates distribution of membership by region.region.

Region Developing Industrial- Transition Countries ized Countries Total CountriCountrieses

Africa 5 - - 5

Asia 33(1) (1) 3 - 6(1)6 (1)

Europe - 9 - (1)(1) 9 (1)(1)

Latin 4 (1)(1) - - 4(1)4 (1) America - 2 - 2 North America

Total 12 (14)(14) 14 - (1)(1) 26 (29)(29) 1

FOI'estryForestry Education ProjectsProjects Arirm_c~ Pro/etsProjets d'EducaUond'Education ForestièreForesthhe ProyectosProyectos dede Educacl6nEducación Forestal

1. Projects soociflcallyspecifically apQrovedapproved torlor ForestryFQ!oslrv Education&IuAtign andand TrainingTraining 11,. Proja!sProiets approMsaoprouvés soécifiquementsp!kifiguemon! pour l'EducationI'Educatlon etat la18 FormationFOfrnalion ForestièreForesllere 1. ProyeclosProyectos aprobadQsaprobados especifIcamenteespeciflcamente para EducaciónEdYcac!6n yy CapacitaciónCaoacilaci¢n Forestal

YEAR COUNTRY TITLE TYPE OF EDUCATIONEDUCATION TOTAL Project BudgetBL.dget (US$(US$ 000) ANNEE PAYS TITRE TYPE D'EDUCATIONC'EDUCATION TOTAL Budge!Budget du projet AÑOANO PAIS TITULO TIPO DE EDUCACIONEOUCACION TOTAL Presupuesto Proyecto

1993·941993-94 AfricaAf rica Forest Industries Training Centre ConsolidatIonConsolidation of the galosgains alof thethe firstfirst 4,904,810 (Regional) forfor SADC (Phase(Phase II) phasephase so as to render thethe FITCFile capablecapable of01 producing trainedtrained technicians in the fieldneld of sawmilling,sawmlfllng, panel products and sawdoctoringsawdoctorlng InIn a viableviable and sustain-sustain· w able manner. o

1986-92198f).92 Bangladesh OevelopmentDevelopment of professional education 1. Upgrade professional teachingteaching skillsskills InIn 2,622.13612,622,861 inIn thethe forestryforestry sector lore51ryforestry at B.Sc.(Hons) levellevel andand initiateInitiate the necessary groundwork forlor a futurefuture M.Sc. degree inIn Forestry. 2. Assist IFCUIFeu Inin planning and development of curriculum and preparation of trainingtraining materialsmaterials forfor a B.Sc.HonsB.Sc.Hens degree.degree. 3. Assist IFCU teateachingching studentsstudents lorfu B.Sc.HonsB.Sc.Hons Inin Forestry.Forestry.

19881988-96·96 PONPeru EducaciónEducacl6n forestal ecológicaecol6gica escuelasescuelas Promover la educacl6neducación del niñonlilo campesino Andino 3,341,720 rurales Sierra Peruana (Phase(Phase II)II) en la recuperarecuperacióncl6n y eleI uso racionaltaelonal de loslos rerecursoscursos naturales enen eIel marco de su realidadrealidad cultural. ' 1992-96 Senegal (PhaseCentre II)Forestler de Recyclage A Thies FormerpermanentepourRenforcer la misaannuellement la adaptéeencapacité oeuvre aux44de des stagiaires.labesoins Directionactivités de delades politigue formation Eaux et nationaie. Foréts 2,922,254 31 33

2. ProlectsProjects withwllh a main EducationEdycatlon and Training ComooOQntComponent 2. Proietsproiets avec unaune comoosante...orlncloalecomoosante orincioale d'Educatlond'Education et Formation 2. ProyectosProveCfos con Unun componentecomoonente Principalorlncloal de EducaciónEducacl6n vy CapacitaciónCaoacltacl6n Forestal

1990-951990·95 Bangladesh UpazRlaUpazilla atfQ(estatlooafforestation and nursery ImprOlledImproved capabilitiescapabliities lorfor ForestFQ(est Department to undertake 2,201,498 development community forestry.lorestry. Involvement and participationpartIcipation ofof UpazllasUpazillas endand locallocal communities and government agenciesagencies to carry out communItycommunity lorestryforestry activities.activities. SupportSupport toto village village homestead forestry.forestry.

1991-96199t·96 BaMaSalMa Desarrollo comunal forestal en ContrlbulrContribuir elevar nlvelnivel de vida de los campesinoscampeslnos del 6,054,526 eIel all1p1anoaltiplano Boliviano altIplano.altiplano. Apoyar en forma directadlrecta a las comunidadescomunidades ruralesmrales de departamentos Potosi,Potosl. OruroCruro yV LaLa Paz.paz. Integrar la plantacl6nplantación Vy manajomanejo dede .6rbo1esárboles anen los sistemas ddee usouso agrlco!aagricola Vy pecuario.pecuario. Aumentar disponibilidaddisponlb~ldad leña,lei\a, madera, ~ fomJes,forrajes, frutas.frutas. Promover partlclpacl6nparticipación activa dede mujeresmUJeres y "'11=niños.

1992-94t992·94 Burundi DefinlllortDefinition poIhlquepolitigue et élaboration~aborntioo planplan AiderAlder MinistèreMlnlst~re Amenagement.Amenagement, Tourisme et EnvironnementEnvlronnement IIá 190,000

d'actionsd'actlons secteurseCleur forestierforeslier .' définirdennlr uneune potinguepoIltlque forestlereloresliere et preparerprltparer unun programmeprogramme d'actlonsd'actions y comprls la formallonformation desdes cadrescadres forestiers.forestlers.

1993-941993·94 Chile Desarrollo forestal partlclpatlvoparticipatIvo en eleI Oilusl6nDifusión de la foresterlaforesteria social en la18 regiónregl6n AndinaAndlna del 403,494 norte de ChileChUe norte de ChReChile.. ColaborarCoIaborar concon institucionesInstituclones dede lala IIIIII yy IVIV reglonesregiones enen cuantocuanto aa capacltacl6n,capacitación, dlagnost1codiagnostico Vy validación.valldacl6n. FormulaciónFormulacl6n de un proyecto de desarrollo forestalforestal campesinocampesino para las zonas andasáridas y senil-áridas.seml-llndas. UmllarLimitar acclonesacciones de dilusi6ndifusión de material de DFPOFP a la zonazona del norte del pafs.pals. 4•

1993 India Demonstration and trainingtraining InIn primaryprimary Train staff51aff of IPIRTIIPIATI 10in utilizing plantation wood 212,000 '''''' processing of smallsmall logs by adopting the existing sawmillssawmlls for the purpose of creatingcreating aa prototypeprototype utilizingutlllzing existingexisting mills. mils.

19891989-93·93 Iran,... StrengthenStrengtheninging postgraduate programme of01 Develop a comprehensive and efficient system of 350,000 Faculty of NaturalNatural Resources,Resources, Karadj natural resources conservation, utlizatlonutilization and management wfthwith reference to soilso! conservation and resource management, through training of requisrterequisite manpower.

19891989-94·94 Tunisia Assistance technique au developpement MettteMettre Aa dispositIondisposition DirecteurDlrecteuf généralg{meral ForétsFor~ts 775,400nS,400 forestier!oresUer consultants dans domainesdomalnes prioritairesprloritalres identifies.kientifiés. ConcevoirCom;evolr plans annuels formationfonnatlon et81 recyclage àa TétrangerI'etranger etat assisterasslster àa leur leur bonnebonne execution. DMlnirMink besoins besoins en en matière matlbre formationformation etet t5 recydagerecyciage personnel d'encadrementd'encadremenl elat établIretabUr programme etat définirdennlr moyens.moyens. 5

3. ProiectsPro!ftC!s with EducationEdycatlon andand TrainingTraining ElementsElflmenls 3. ProietsProlets avec .des Elements d'Educationd'Educatlon etet FOrmationformallon 3. ProvectosProyectos con Elementos dede EducaciónEducacl6n vy CapacitaciónCaoacttacl6n ForestalForestal

1992-94 Interregional Forestry and 1000food security InIn Mediterranean and Near EastEast regionregion GCP/INT/539/ITAGCP j lNT /539/ IT A

1991-93 InterregionalInterregional InterregionalInterregional projectproject lorfor partparticipatoryicipatory upland conservationconservalion GCPjlNTGCP/INT/542/ITA / 542) lTA

1988·931988-93 Africa (Regional)(Regional) Mise en valeur rressourcesessources geneliquesgenétiques IIgneusesligneuses usages multiples GCPGCP/RAF/234/FRA /AAF /234/FRA

19891989-92·92 Africa (Regional)(Regional) Watershed management/restoration Highlands of FoutaFouta DjallonOjallon ... RAF/87/075RAF/87j 075 '"

19921992.96-96 Africa (Regional)(RegIonal) Institutional support for101' protectionprotection ofof EastEast AfricanAfrican biodiversitybiooiversity UNOUNO/RAF/006/GEF/ RAF / OO6/ GEF

19891989.93·93 Asia & Pacific RegionalAegional wood energyenergy development inin AsiaAsia (Regional) GCPGCP/RAS/131/NET tRAS/t31/NET

1993-941993·94 Asia & Pacific Asia-PacificAsla·Pacific AgroforestryAgroloreslrv NetworkNetwork (APAN)(APAN) (Phase(Phase II)II) (Regional) GCPGCP/RAS/133/JPN/ RAS / l33/ JPN 6

1991-94 Asia & PacificPacific Forestry Research Support ProgrammeProgramme for lor the the Asia-PacHic Asia·Pacific RegionRegion (FORSPAR)(FORSPAA) (Regional) GCP/RAS/134/ASDBGCP /RAS/I34/ASDB

1991991-961-96 Asia & PacHicPacific Forestry planning and policypolley assistanceassistance inin thethe AsiaAsia andand PacificPacific RegionAeglon (Regional)(Regional) GCP/RAS/137/JPN

1991-96 Asia & Pacific ImprovedImproved productivity of01 man-made lorestsforests through tree breeding (Regional)(Regional) RAS/91/004

1992-941992-94 Asia & Pacific South Pacific Forestry Development Programme (Phase I) '" (Regional) '" RAS/92/361

1990-93 Near East (Regional) Development of forestlorest resourcesresources forfor environmentalenvironmental protectionprotection GCPGCP/REM/052/JPN /REM/052/JPN

1990-93 NNearear East (Regional) ArklArid zone forestryforestry sandsand dunedune stabilizationstabilization RAB/89/034

1986-93 Angola Antl.cfesertificaAntl-desertificationtion of Tombwa ANG/85/007ANG/as/OO7

1991-931991 -93 Belize Forest conservation and management BZE/87/009 7

1987·941987-94 B~MaBolivia Restauracl6nRestauración forestalforestal yy rehabilitacl6nrehabilitación de Ilerras/Rlotierras/Rio GuadalqutvIrGuadalqulvlr GCPjBOL/OI6/NOR.l1IGCP/BOL/016/NOR.III

1987·931987-93 BtazMBrazil Integrated forestry developmentdevelopment!n in thethe NortheastNortheast ofof BrazilBrazH BRA/87/007BRAj87/007

1989·931989-93 GapeCape Verde Oeveloppement/mlseDéveloppement/mise enen valeurvaleur ressourcesressources forestièresforestll!res (Phase(Phase III) GCP/CVI/OI5/BELGCP/CVI/015/BEL

1993·941993-94 capeCape Verde Formation en apiculture TCPTCP/CVI/2353(T) /CVIj2353(T)

1988·941988-94 Chad DeveloppementDéveloppement activitésactlvites forestièresloresUeres Cl-ID/87/O1CHO/87/0tB 6 CS)'"Ol

1991991-961·96 China AfforestationAfforestation,, lorestforest resources, planning and development (Phase(Phase I) GCP/CPR/009/BELGCPjCPR/OO9/BEL

11993-94993·94 Mozambique Support to management ofof forestryforestry andand wildlandw~dland resourcesresources MOZ/92!OI3MOZ/92/013

'9BB-941989-94 Pakistan Suketar watershed management project - Azad,Alad, Jammu and KashmirKashmir PAK/87/009PAKj87/009

'9BB-941989-94 Philippines Population-EnvironmentPopulation-Environment lEGIEC ProgrammeProgramme FPA/PHIjB9/POSFPA/PHI/89/P05 8 1 .l! .8 '" 0<0 Oii~ " " .. .:l" .z " " .. " t 0 ¥ ~'" ~ ~ ~ ,; ~ ~ ~ ~ .J .0 • " • • • • • • E E u 0 0 0 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ - c> w u. 1993-97 UNO/SRL/001/GEFSri Lanka ~ Development of wildlife and conservation & protected area management ; .. " .. .i:' 11 11 '£ i'c> 0 .~ ~ ~ ~U ~ ~ • " • • il: E u 0 0 ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ , " • • • ~ .. ,. :> '" g 0 1992-95 GCP/TUR/045/SWITurkey • Development of appropriate modela for community forestry In Turkey 37 38

APPENDIX 44

HOW TO INTERLINK SOCIAL SCIENCESSCIENCES ANDAND EXTENSIONEXTENSION AND COMMUNICATION ININ PROFESSIONALPROFESSIONAL AND TECHNICAL LEVELLEVEL FORESTRYFORESTRY EDUCATIONEDUCATION CURRICULACURRICULA

by

Hugh G.G. MillerlMiller'

SUMMARY

The firstfirst requirementrequirement ofof trainingtraining at bothboth professionalprofessional andand technitechnicalcal levellevel is thatthat thethe practitionerspractitioners areare competentcompetent inin forestry.forestry. InIn addition, and particularlyparticularly wherewhere involvedinvolved inin extensionextension forestry,forestry, forestersforesters at allall levelslevels shouldshould havehave somesome understandingunderstanding of agriculture and the social sciences.sciences. It is emphasised,emphasised, however, thatthat hybridhybrid coursescourses between forestry and these disciplines may end up with graduates not adequately competent inin any field. RatherRather thethe aimaim shouldshould bebe toto givegive thethe forester and the other specialistsspecialists adequate knowledge ofof each others fields to enableenable effective collaboration. In addition foresters must learnlearn sufficient humility to accept that the setting of objectives of management inin thethe functionfunction of someone else, such as the owner or local community. This is bestbest inculcatedinculcated through the methodmethod oror thethe ambienceambience withinwithin which subjects are taught. OneOne aspectaspect thatthat shouldshould bebe centralcentral to thethe curriculum, however, is the concept ofof multiplemultiple objectiveobj ective forestry,forestry, thethe teaching of which shouldshould demonstrate howhow changingchanging objectivesobjectives changechange silviculture and policypolicy instruments.instruments. FinallFinallyy it is emphasisedemphasised that statestate forest services,services, and sometimessometimes professionalprofessional societies,societies, must organiseorganise programmes of in-service trainingtraining or Continuous Professional Development toto ensure thethe foresters continue toto respond to the needs of society.

, Head, DepartmentDepartment of Forestry,Forestry, UniversityUniversity of Aberdeen, Scotland,Scotland, U.K.U.K. 39

INTRODUCTION

Encroachment byby farmersfarmers ontoonto forestforest land,land, soil erosion onon farms and cleared forests, realisationrealisation of the dependence ofof somesome agriculturalagricultural systems on forest grazings, problems of growing humanhuman miserymisery in rural areas and so on,on, allall part of aa largerlarger ruralrural problemproblem thatthat couldcould bebe described as a need for integrated llandand use planning of which forestry is only a part. ThereThere isis nownow wide-spreadwide-spread acceptanceacceptance ofof this,this, indeedindeed thatthat forestry must be consideredconsidered inin aa widerwider land-useland-use planningplanning context isis emphasised in the forest policypolicy statementsstatements of bothboth FranceFrance (FA0,1988)(FAO,1988) and the EuropeanEuropean UnionUnion (Commission(Commission ofof thethe EuropeanEuropean Communities,Communities, 1988). EvenEven inin thethe developeddeveloped countriescountries ofof Europe,Europe, however,however, "efficient""efficient" land-use planning designed to achieve optimum and sustainable use of soil and climateclimate isis usuallyusually atat variancevariance with establishedestablished traditional usesuses and can not bebe implementedimplemented for social and political reasons. Thus,Thus, inin northern Europe the drive to reduce agricultural production hashas lead to systems of subsidy that aim to encourage tree planting on the best of agricultural soilssoils whilewhile often bolstering exploitexploitiveive agriculture, for example sheep farming, on thethe foothillsfoothills wherewhere ruralrural societies areare fragile,fragile, depopulation is occurring and hencehence traditionaltraditional landscapes areare threatenthreatened.ed. The obvious solution, to plantplant treestrees inin thethe foothillsfoothills andand allow agriculture to retreatretreat ontoonto thethe bestbest land,land, isis socially,socially, andand hencehence politically, unacceptable.unacceptable.

Similarly, in developing countries societiessocieties areare oftenoften atat transition but this does not meanmean that traditional life stylesstyles can be changed at the whim of planners,planners, no mattermatter how obviousobvious a solutionsolution maymay appearappear on paper. ThatThat therethere mustmust bebe planning,planning, givengiven thethe pressurepressure onon resources,resources, isis obvious.obvious. Equally obviousobvious is that communities are central to thethe process and that traditiontraditionalal distinctionsdistinctions between agricultureagriculture andand forestryforestry cannot bebe sustained.sustained. IndeIndeeded at thethe llevelevel of particular communities it may be that such distinction nevernever existed, the forest being regarded as a source ofof animalanimal fodder,fodder, fruit,fruit, fuel,fuel, buildingbuilding materialmaterial etc.etc. that makesmakes itit integralintegral to the agricultural enterprise. ThisThis assertionassertion isis oftenoften mademade andand isis undoubtedly frequentlyfrequently true.true. HoweHowever,ver, itit should not be allowedallowed to 40 hide the facts that many societies (perhaps all societies at some stage of their development)development) regardregard thethe clearance of of forestsforests asas aa mark of civilisation (e.g. Perlin,1989) and and thatthat with developmentdevelopment comes an increasing split into specialised agriculture and forestry on theirtheir ownown areas Gungle(jungle fruitfruit starts to be cultivatedcultivated in orchards,orchards, forest grazinggrazing isis replaced by feed supplements etc.).etc.}. Indeed,Indeed, itit maymay bebe thethe veryvery factfact thatthat this split, or specialisation, was so advanced inin the developed countries that lead to wrong paradigmsparadigms ofof land-useland-use beingbeing applied toto countriescountries stillstill in transition.transition. The mismatch ofof centralcentral planningplanning (administration)(administration) andand locallocal needs was perhaps not serious when populations were lowlow butbut asas thesethese have expanded problems havehave becomebecome acute.acute.

Arguably, recognitionrecognition ofof this was the centralcentral messagemessage in the World Bank's "Forestry SectorSector PolicyPolicy PaperPaper "" ofof 1978.1978. Since then the concept of Social andand/or/ or communitycommunity forestryforestry hashas beenbeen the subject of much discussion, some informed and some notnot so. WhatWhat is abundantly clear, however, isis thatthat inin most, if not all, parts of the world the forester must come out of thethe forestforest andand workwork inin partnershippartnership withwith thethe ruralrural community and his agricultural oppositeopposite numbers.numbers.

PERCEIVED FAILURE ININ FORESTRYFORESTRY EDUCATIONEDUCATION

Foresters, andand hence forestry education, are often accused ofof failing to adjustadjust toto thesethese newnew understandings. understandings. InIn aa fascinatingfascinating studystudy Dove (1992) lookedlooked atat thethe conflictingconflicting views of professional foresters and small farmers in Pakistan. ItIt was found that while foresters believed thatthat small farmers were disinterested in planting treestrees inin fact the reversereverse was true, furthermorefurthermore whilst foresters advocated large blocks of market-orientated speciesspecies farmersfarmers werewere lookinglooking to plantplant traditionaltraditional multi-purpose species predominantly to meet household needs. DoveDove concluded byby statingstating thatthat therethere waswas aa failurefailure byby forestersforesters toto distinguishdistinguish their non-empiricalnon-empirical beliefs about farmersfarmers fromfrom theirtheir empiricallyempirically basedbased knowledge of trees and suggestedsuggested that professionalprofessional foresters would bebe a legitimate subject ofof studystudy forfor socialsocial scientists!scientists! 41

This seemsseems to bebe ratherrather anan extremeextreme manifestationmanifestation of thethe problem. ToTo suggestsuggest thatthat itit isis generallygenerally true would bebe absurd yetyet there is little doubt thatthat thethe attitudeattitude depicteddepicted waswas quitequite common inin thethe pastpast and to aa realreal extentextent the remnantsremnants are with us yet. However,However, itit isis alsoalso true thatthat increasinglyincreasingly forestersforesters havehave beenbeen activeactive atat developingdeveloping socialsocial and community forestry (a randomrandom selection ofof recent papers by foresters on thisthis subjectsubject isis Arnold,Arnold, 1992,1992, Baillett,Baillett, 1992,1992, Carter and Grunow, 1993, andand manymany othersothers cancan be found). TheThe termterm "extension"extension forestryforestry" " has come to bebe mostmost widelywidely usedused inin this context, a term thatthat Sim and Hilmi (1988) defineddefined asas coveringcovering "anyany situationsituation where people are directly involvedinvolved inin anyany forestry activity onon their own land, or on landland controlled by the communitycommunity oror state,state, inin whichwhich thethe peoplepeople havehave a direct interest inin the outcome, and fromfrom whichwhich theythey hopehope toto derivederive somesome return in goods, cash,cash, oror otherother benefits,benefits, within a reasonablereasonable period of time. WhereWhere appropriate,appropriate, thisthis maymay includeinclude programmesprogrammes undertakenundertaken byby non-government organisationsorganisations or or industriesindustries toto promote forestry byby individuals or groups ofof people,people, toto meetmeet eithereither communitycommunity oror industrial industrial needs in the area. TheThe contentscontents may,may, therefore,therefore, be adapted toto cover activities rreferredeferred toto as socialsocial forestry,forestry, community forestry or byby otherother similar terms ...".. ."

Note that this isis ratherrather differentdifferent to thethe usualusual useuse ofof thethe termterm extension to denote transfer of information from a centre of knowledge (e.g. research ininstitutestitute or university) toto rather distant potential users of such knowledge, i.e. advisory work. ToTo remainremain consistentconsistent with FAOFAO the definition of SimSim andand HilrniHilmi willwill bebe usedused here.here.

PROFESSIONAL QUALITIES IN RELATION TO FORESTRY EXTENSION

In its importantimportant reviewreview ofof forestryforestry extensionextension organizationsorganizations the FAO statedstated thethe "tree"tree growinggrowing isis aa problemproblem concerningconcerning people, andand veryvery rarelyrarely a purely technical problem ... forestry staff require an understanding ofof thethe community and the conditions under which they 42 live ...... a forestryforestry extensionextension strategy requires thatthat change mustmust· bebe brought about by membersmembers of the ruralrural communitycommunity and their own community groups." AsAs thethe titletitle ofof thisthis paperpaper suggestssuggests itit isis aa problemproblem of socialsocial sciencescience andand communicationcommunication asas muchmuch asas of technicaltechnical competence. ToTo bebe effectiveeffective extensionextension foresters must be technically competent and mustmust understandunderstand howhow forestryforestry cancan fit with otherother land-uses, particularly agriculture. Importantly,Importantly, however, theythey must hahaveve thethe imimaginationagination necessarynecessary toto understand andand respectrespect waysways different than theirtheir own andand aboveabove allall havehave humility.humility. These personal qualities are necessary because extension forestersforesters areare goinggoing toto have to allow the community toto set the objectivesobjectives for the forestforest and toto bebe intimatelyintimately involved in the means of achieving these objectobjectives.ives. ThereThere isis no placeplace forfor the impositionimposition ofof viewsviews from the top, itit isis "bottom"bottom up"up" managementmanagement and as suchsuch isis strangestrange toto civilcivil servanservantsts (and(and administers ofof aidaid programmes) in many societies. SimSim andand HilmiHilmi (1988)(1988) even suggested thatthat a readiness by the professional to engage inin manual work with thethe community isis ofof advantage.advantage.

More specifspecifically,ically, FAO (1986) laid out some of the characteristics ofof thethe extensionextension foresterforester as:as:

good technicaltechnical or professional qualifications with extensive field experience; training and expeexperiencerience in thethe use ofof teachingteaching methods;methods; the ability to useuse communication mediamedia ofof allall levels;levels; the ability toto listen,listen, observe and understand accurately whawhatt other people are trying toto communicate;communicate; readiness toto evaluate the successsuccess ofof communicationcommunication activities, inincludingcluding those he or she may have created;created; a strong belief in the ability of peoplepeople to adoptadopt anan ideaidea which is in their own best interestinterest and to makemake itit work;work; patience. 43

To these might bebe addedadded (1)(1) thethe appreciationappreciation thatthat traditionaltraditional land-use patterns areare thethe result of rational decisions and so cannot bebe entirely wrong, andand (2) aa sufficientsufficient graspgrasp ofof sociology,sociology, includingincluding understanding that a stranger (whether(whether ofof aa differentdifferent tribe,tribe, region,region, class,class, country or background)background) cancan nevernever bebe totally integrated into aa community, indeed couldcould do harm by trying too hardhard to dodo so.so.

IMPLICATIONS FORFOR FORESTRYFORESTRY EDUCATIONEDUCATION CURRICULACURRICULA

EducatEducation,ion, accordingaccording toto CarterCarter (1973),(1973). is thethe artart ofof makingmaking available to generations the organised knowledge of the past, including attitudes and otherother forms ofof behaviourbehaviour ofof positivepositive valuevalue to society.society. It isis convenient to consider the impartingimparting ofof knowledgeknowledge andand thethe inculcationinculcation of attitudesattitudes separately, oneone being rather moremore thethe content of thethe curriculum and the other beingbeing thethe intellectualintellectual environment in which itit is taught. It is also necessary to distinguish professional fromfrom technicaltechnical training, although in somesome countriescountries thethe distinctiondistinction is becoming increasingly blurred.blurred.

IInn its document the FAO (1986) calledcalled forfor forestryforestry coursescourses "toto be changed"changed" toto include ecological andand environmentalenvironmental subjects, economics, managementmanagement and thethe socialsocial sciences.sciences. With the possiblepossible exception of the socialsocial sciencessciences most of thethe changeschanges startedstarted to bebe made to forestryforestry educationeducation atat thethe professionalprofessional levellevel manymany yearsyears ago.ago. The statement isis undoubtedly lessless true forfor technicaltechnical training.training.

Sticking first withwith professionalprofessional training.training. CurriculaCurricula havehave beenbeen subject to extensiveextensive reviews of recent decades particularly thethe lastlast (e.g.(e.g. Roche 1990). There has been an increasing need in Europe toto increase attention to the economics and organisationorganisation of harvesting and marketmarketinging whilstwhilst inin northnorth AmericaAmerica the trend hashas beenbeen to increaseincrease the amount of sisilvicuturelvicuture atat thethe expense ofof anan over concentration onon llogging.ogging. TheThe positionposition in otherother parts of thethe worldworld isis dependentdependent onon whetherwhether therethere isis already a largelarge processingprocessing industry.industry. IndeedIndeed MillerMiller (1990) suggested thatthat 44 in such countriescountries there was a casecase forfor splittingsplitting educationeducation atat thisthis levellevel into separate forestforest managementmanagement andand logginglogging degrees.degrees.

Other areas that areare demandingdemanding moremore teachingteaching timetime areare economics, particularly aa widerwider interestinterest in land-useland -use economics, and the problems ofof thethe economiceconomic assessmentassessment ofof thethe managementmanagement for non-timber benefits.benefits. AlsoAlso corecore andand optionaloptional coursescourses areare appearingappearing inin subjects such as recreation managementmanagement,, management forfor conservationconservation objectives and, where it waswas notnot alreadyalready inin thethe course,course, wildlife.wildlife.

Because forestforest managers throughoutthroughout the world, asas advocatedadvocated in the introductionintroduction toto thisthis paper,paper, areare increasinglyincreasingly making decisions at the integradeintegrade betweenbetween agriculture and forestry, some understanding of basic agricultural systems,systems, terminology andand policypolicy isis clearlyclearly necessary.necessary. So necessarynecessary that educationeducation institutionsinstitutions have sometimes setset out to create hybrid degreesdegrees in agricultureagriculture andand forestry,forestry, oror eveneven specialistspecialist degrees inin agroforestry.agroforestry. There are undoubtedly needs for suchsuch graduates, forfor example jointjoint degrees may be ofof valuevalue inin planningplanning departments oror research postsposts inin agroforestry.agroforestry. However, in the more general scene, as hashas beenbeen discusseddiscussed elsewhereelsewhere (Miller(Miller 1990,1990, RocheRoche 1990), suchsuch moves risk placing into the outside world graduates who are neither completelycompletely competentcompetent in forestry nor in agriculture. Accordingly, many institutions havehave triedtried a different tack andand havehave sought to includeinclude elementary courses in agriculture or forestry in their forestryforestry and agricultural degree programmes, respectivelyrespectively.. ThisThis at leastleast ensures thatthat thethe practitionerspractitioners of of thethe two majormajor landland usesuses cancan communicate, something that bringsbrings manymany advantagesadvantages includingincluding aa willingness to collaborate.collaborate. In including such cross-over courses in a degree programme it isis importantimportant thatthat teachersteachers strenuouslystrenuously avoidavoid anyany suggestion of an "us"us andand them"them" situation,situation, neitherneither should a beliefbelief bebe inculcated that one discipline is more important thanthan thethe other.other. ToTo dodo so would bebe toto reintroducereintroduce thethe confrontationalconfrontational attitudesattitudes of previousprevious generations (paradoxically, the finger of blameblame maymay moremore oftenoften havehave to be pointedpointed atat forestryforestry schoolsschools thanthan atat agriculturalagricultural schools,schools, perhapsperhaps some form of inferiorityinferiority complex).complex). 45

With these moves to increaseincrease thethe amountamount ofof economics,economics, conservation and agriculture in forestry degree programmes comescomes thethe needneed toto reduce the teaching inin otherother areas.areas. All to oftenoften this hashas beenbeen inin thethe basic sciences andand ecology,ecology, a trendtrend thatthat is undoubtedly due forfor reassessmentreassessment (although(although increasingincreasing forestryforestry subjectssubjects atat thethe expense of thethe sciences isis popular with students!).students!). AsAs emphasisedemphasised byby FAO FAO (1986)(1986) an understanding of the science base for forestryforestry and agricultureagriculture isIs necessary ifif optimaloptimal decisions areare toto be made and, more particularly, if thethe practitionerpractitioner is to remain competentcompetent throughoutthroughout his or herher professional life (this will be furtherfurther exploredexplored inin thethe nextnext section).section). However,However, forfor thethe moment no solution is being offered as to how an ever growing teaching requirementrequirement cancan bebe fitted intointo anan inelasticinelastic time period. What is clear,clear, is that professionalprofessional and technical competence must bebe maintained.

TheThe next two areas in which manymany authorities,authorities, includingincluding FAOFAO (1986)(1986) andand Sim and HiImiHilmi (1988), hahaveve calledcalled forfor more input areare socialsocial science and communication skills.skills. MillerMiller (1990) (1990) hashas arguedargued againstagainst any move that converts forestry degrees into down-marketdown-market rural sociology degrees, any more than forestry degrees should become down-market engineering degrees.degrees. Indeed,Indeed, thethe analogyanalogy isis appositeapposite forfor engineeringengineering in most forestry degree programmesprogrammes isis taughttaught toto aa levellevel thatthat enablesenables thethe forest manager toto know the requirementsrequirements of, of, and and toto be able toto communicate with, professionally trainedtrained engineers.engineers. No moremore cancan bebe expected of sociology in the forestryforestry programme,programme, toto dodo soso wouldwould bebe toto deny the speciality of sociology itself.itself. Thus,Thus, manymany forestryforestry schoolsschools havehave in recent timestimes initiated coursescourses onon social forestry and on ruralrural development forestry.forestry. Sim and HiImiHilmi (1988)(1988) suggestedsuggested thatthat suchsuch courses include factors suchsuch asas traditionaltraditional leadershipleadership patterns,patterns, landland tenure, family structure, concepts of reward,reward, agroforestry etc.etc. TheyThey alsoalso placed greatgreat emphasisemphasis onon extensionextension practices and methodsmethods ofof communication. To thesethese oneone wouldwould wantwant toto add add teamwork, teamwork, collaboration and the creation and organisationorganisation of networksnetworks to bringbring communities, foresters, agriculturalists and land-use planners together.together. 46

Many forestryforestry schoolsschools nownow havehave optionaloptional or compulsorycompulsory courses entitled ruralrural development,development, socialsocial andand environmentalenvironmental forestry,forestry, rural development foreforestrystry etc.etc. HowHow effectivelyeffectively these are being taughttaught may be questioned butbut initialinitial reviewsreviews are not unencouraging.unencouraging.

It shouldshould be recalledrecalled at this stage that the work of DoveDove inin Pakistan suggestedsuggested thatthat thethe problem was asas muchmuch thatthat ofof attitudeattitude asas ofof lack ofof knowledgeknowledge amongamong professionalprofessional foresters.foresters. It .vvaswas further emphasised aboveabove thatthat thethe teaching of forestryforestry andand agricultureagriculture as distinct and antagonistic professions has harmed thethe ability of both to contribute to moremore rationalrational land-useland-use planning,planning, ruralrural managementmanagement and, in particular, community involvement. RatherRather nebulous concepts such as stewardshipstewardship and service coupled with anan emphasisemphasis onon humilityhumility should permeate through both degree programmes. InIn manymany respectsrespects it is as much thethe attitudeattitude adoptedadopted inin thethe teachingteaching ratherrather thanthan inin whatwhat isis taught.taught. OneOne aspectaspect ofof aa curriculumcurriculum planplan thatthat mustmust bebe emphasisedemphasised is that fromfrom anan early stage, and particularlyparticularly in forest policy and silvicultural coursescourses,, the objects of managementmanagement should not be assumed, nor,nor, and most importantly,importantly, shouldshould it be statedstated oror impliedimplied thatthat thethe forestryforestry profession has anyany particularparticular rightright toto setset thethe objectives.objectives. These willwill be set and prioritised by the ownersowners workingworking within the policy guidelinesguidelines established byby government throughthrough the democratic process locally or nationally or perhapsperhaps both.both. FurthermoreFurthermore,, thethe ethos of multi-purposemUlti-purpose forestry should be emphasised,emphasised, forfor multi-objective forestryforestry notnot only allows optimisation between objectives at anyanyone one time but also permits the change in ordering of thesethese objectives as societies change (as theythey will). IfIf there is oneone messagemessage in thisthis paperpaper itit isis thithiss simple one thatthat teaching should notnot assumeassume thethe objectiveobjective ofo( forest forest management,management, ratherrather it should illustrateillustrate howhow silviculture,silviculture, policypolicy instrumentsinstruments etc.,etc., changechange withwith legitimate differences in the demands societies place upon forests.forests.

The remaining area highlighted in many reports on training forfor extension forestry is that of proficiency in communication, communication withwith colleagues,colleagues, superiors,superiors, assistantsassistants andand aboveabove allall withwith the people to bebe assistedassisted throughthrough anan extensionextension forestryforestry programme.programme. It 47 hahass alreadyalready beenbeen emphasisedemphasised ththatat some trainingtraining inin agricultureagriculture andand sociology wouldwould easeease communication withwith thosethose withwith whomwhom thethe forester has to work.work. TheThe importance importance of of collaboration collaboration throughthrough networksnetworks hashas also beenbeen emphasised.emphasised. TheThe mattermatter ofof regularregular communicationcommunication within peer groups andand withwith superiorssuperiors (report(report writing,writing, oraloral presentationpresentation etc.)etc.) undoubtedlyundoubtedly will be aidedaided by requiringrequiring students in universityuniversity departments toto useuse these means of communcommunicationicati on inin preparing essays,essays, presenting oral reportsreports onon projectsprojects etc.etc. FurthFurthermoreermore projectproject work involvinginvolving groups ofof studentsstud ents is also toto be eencouraged.ncouraged. ToTo whatwhat extentextent there isis thethe furtherfurther needneed toto includeinclude actualactual teachingteaching ofof writingwriting skills,skills, ratherrather than the practicepractice of them,them , isis thenthen probablyprobably aa functionfunction ofof thethe naturenature of secondarysecondary schoolschool educationeducation in the countrycountry concerned.concerned.

RathRatherer different isis the teachingteaching of of thethe communicationcommunication skillsskills needed to reach,reach, andand havehave aa dialoguedialogue with,with, villagersvillagers andand farmers,farmers, particularly in some parts of the developingdeveloping worldworld where literacyliteracy rates maymay be rather low. InIn anan idealideal worldworld thethe extensionextension forester shouldshould havehave in hishis networknetwork ofof professionalprofessional colleaguescolleagues somesome personperson withwith particularparticular skills in thisthis field.field. In thethe realreal world,world, however,however, thisthis isis rarelyrarely thethe case.case. ThiThiss does not excuseexcuse the foresterforester seekingseeking advadviceice and comments from wherever such expertise may be found. MeanwhileMeanwhile thethe trainingtraining shouldshould includeinclude atat leastleast exposureexposure toto thethe useuse ofof mediamedia atat allall levels,levels, fromfrom thethe broadcastingbroadcasting media to picturepicture books.books. It hashas alsoalso beenbeen mentionedmentioned earlier, and mustmust bebe emphasisedemphasised again,again, thatthat anyany communicationcommunication programmeprogramme shouldshould havehave designeddesigned withinwithin itit meansmeans of assessingassessing the effectiveness ofof the techniquestechniques beingbeing used.used. An inputinput byby trainedtrained sociologists atat thisthis stagestage isis ofof greatgreat benefit.benefit.

ThuThus,s, the professional fforesterorester in anan extensionextension programmeprogramme must be professionallyprofessionally competent,competent, must be ableable toto arrivearrive atat managementmanagement ttechniquesechniques from consideration ofof firstfirst principles, must aallowllow otheothersrs toto sesett the objectivesobjectives ofof management management and must havehave llearntearnt thethe humilityhumility to consult. TheseThese remainremain truetrue forfor allall professionalprofessional forestersforesters irrespective of their job descriptions.descriptions. 48

Much the same applies to thethe technicaltechnical forester although in some respect the training they receivereceive tends to militatemilitate againstagainst thethe flexibilityflexibility aarguedrgued for here.here. At suchsuch levelslevels therethere is oftenoften a poorpoor understanding ofolthe the science underpinning forestry which makes change harder. ByBy contrast,contrast, technicaltechnical foresters may be closer in background to thethe communitycommunity with whomwhom itit isis necessarynecessary toto consultconsult andand thisthis cancan bebe made an advantageadvantage.. SuchSuch technicaltechnical andand vocationallyvocationally trainedtrained forestersforesters areare often the spear head of any extension programme and this should be reflected in theirtheir trainingtraining.. TheyThey should be trained in the presentation of talks, slideslide showsshows etc.etc. As with professionalprofessional foresters there alsoalso remains thethe need toto be technically competentcompetent and toto havehave somesome ideaidea of the interaction of forestry with other land uses. AgainAgain the essenceessence of multiple use forestry shouldshould havehave beenbeen taught.taught. Flexibility, however,however, comes in the first instanceinstance fromfrom thethe professionalprofessional level.level.

IN-SERVICEIN-SERVICE TRAINING ANDAND CONTINUOUSCONTINUOUS PROFESSIONALPROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT

This discussion would notnot be complete without emphasising that much cancan changechange overover thethe fortyforty yearsyears ofof aa foresters foresters careercareer andand stepssteps must be taken to assist them to cope with suchsuch changes. ManyMany forestforest services run "in-service""in-service" courses at bothboth technicaltechnical andand professionalprofessional levels and these can be most importantimportant inin assistingassisting aa forestforest serviceservice toto carry outout itsits functionsfunctions efficiently.efficiently. The planning of such coursescourses is importantimportant and should be given resources.resources. TrainingTraining couldcould bebe throughthrough aa training arm within the service itself or byby buyingbuying appropriateappropriate coursescourses from locallocal forestryforestry schools.schools.

Very similar, and likely to becomebecome ofof increasingincreasing importance,importance, isis the move for professionally trained foresters in many countries to group intoInto professionalprofessional societiessocieties that areare designeddesigned toto influenceinfluence thethe standardsstandards and contents of curricula for forestryforestry degreesdegrees and,and, of moremore importance,importance, to requirerequire thatthat ifif membersmembers are to remainremain professionalprofessional they must seek to top-up theirtheir originaloriginal training at regularregular intervalsintervals ---- a programmeprogramme of 49

Continuous Professional Development (CPD)(CPD).. The importance of such training in retaining thethe confidence of thethe public and government inin thethe forestryforestry profession cannot bebe over emphasised. InIn countriescountries wherewhere thethe profession is not sufficiently well organised to arrange such trainingtraining itself it is usually true that almost all professional forestforestersers work within a state service. In suchsuch casescases concernedconcerned professionalsprofessionals should agitate to ensure thatthat the statestate takestakes thethe leadlead inin organisingorganising regularregular trainingtraining courses and requiring that allall professionals attend. FortyForty years is a long time over which toto relyrely onon thethe trainingtraining givengiven duringduring anan initialinitial fourfour years.years. The veryvery developmentdevelopment of extensionextension forestry over thethe past twenty years stands witness to this fact.

REFERENCES

Arnold, M. 1992. LearningLearning from farm forestry in India. Forest,Forest. Trees and People Newsletter. No.No. 13,13, 4343 -- 46.46.

Baillett, A.G., 1992. AA ReviewReview of community forestryforestry advancesadvances inin Nepal.Nepal. Commonwealth ForestryForestrv ReviewReview 71,71, 9595 -- 100.100.

Carter, V.G.,V.G., 1973.1973. Dictionary of Education. McGrawMcGraw - Hill;Hill; NewNew York.

Carter, J. and Grunow,Grunow, J. 191993.93. Participating vs. promotional approaches to tree cultivation on private lland:and: experiences inin thethe middlemiddle hills of Nepal. Forest,Forest. TreesTrees andand PeoplePeople NewsletterNewsletter NoNo 19,19, 4-9.4-9.

Commission of the European Communities (CEe)(CEC), , 1988.1988. CommunityCommunity Strategy and Action Programme for the ForestryForestrv Sector.Sector. COMCOM (88)(88) 255 GEC,CEO, Brussels.

Dove, M.R. 1992.1992. Foresters beliefs aboutabout farmers:farmers: aa prpriorityiority for social science research in socialsocial forestry. AgroforestryAgroforestry Systems Systems 17,17, 13-41.13-41. 50

Food andand AgricultureAgriculture OrganizationOrganization (FAO)(FAO) 1986.1986. Forestry Extension Organization (eds(eds H.A.HilmiH.A.Hilmi andand D.Sim),D.Sim), FAOFAO ForestryForestry PaperPaper 66.66. FAO,FAO, Rome.

Food andand AgricultureAgriculture OrganizationOrganization (FAO)(FAO) 1988.1988. Forestry Policies in Europe. FAOFAO ForestryForestry Paper Paper 86. 86. FAO,FAO, Rome.Rome.

Miller, HH.G..G. 1990.1990. General summarysummary.. pppp 57-6157-61 in Proceedings InternationalInternational Conference on ForestryForestry Education.Education. UniUniversityversity of Tuscia, Viterbo.

Perlin, J. 1989. A ForestForest Journey: TheThe RoleRole ofof Wood in thethe Development of Society. HarvardHaryard UniversityUniversity Press,Press, Cambridge,Cambridge, Mass.Mass.

Roche, L.L. 1990. The profession of forestry:forestry: aa modernmodern synthesis.synthesis. pp151-158 inin Proceedings IntInternationalernational Conference onon ForestryForestry EducatiEducation.on. UniversityUniversity ofof Tuscia,Tuscia, Viterbo.Viterbo.

Sim, D. andand HiImi,Hilmi, H.A.H.A. 1988.1988. ForestryForestry ExtensionExtension Curricula.Curricula. FAO FForestryorestry Paper No.85. FoodFood andand AgricultureAgriculture Organization,Organization, Rome.Rome.

World Bank,Bank, 1978.1978. Forestry SectorSector PolicyPolicy Paper.Paper. World Bank,Bank, Washington D.C.D.C. 51

APPENDIX 55

FORESTRY EDUCATION'SEDUCATION'S RESPONSE TOTO CHANGING SOCIAL VALUES AND OTHEROTHER RESOURCESRESOURCES KNOWLEDGEKNOWLEDGE

by

Frederick F.F. GilbertGilbert 1 '

Forestry education has been responding slowly to the changing social pressures and increasing ecological knowledge that have caused many to questionquestion the approachesapproaches and practicespractices of traditionaltraditional forestforest management. Requirements thatthat foresterforesterss taketake other vavalueslues of thethe forest intointo considerationconsideration whenwhen planningplanning silviculturalsilvicultural activitiesactivities havehave necessitated curricular rrevisionevision in order toto include concepts ofof integratedintegrated resourceresource managementmanagement andand coursescourses in fisheries, range, recreation,recreation, wildlife management and other forest uses andand values.values. TheThe move to ecosystemecosystem based decision-makingdecision-making willwill dictate that forestryforestry students receive broaderbroader exposure to the many dimensions of naturalnatural resources and and landland managementmanagement either either at atthe the end end of of a 4 4 yearyear undergraduate degree programme oror inin theirtheir juniorjunior andand seniorsenior yearsyears asas an undergraduate.undergraduate. Intellectural grounding in social,social, economiceconomic andand environmental aspects of landland management willwill be as importantimportant asas anyany technical skills impartedimparted byby thethe degreedegree programme.programme.

Examples of the influence of professional accrediting organizations and of recent curricularcurricular changeschanges inin NorthNorth AmericaAmerica andand elsewheelsewherere are presented.presented. The importantimportant trendstrends includeinclude increasingincreasing interdisciplinarity, greater understanding of social value systems, andand

1, Dean, Natural ResourcesResources and EnvironmentalEnvironmental Studies,Studies, UniversityUniversity ofof Northern British Columbia,Columbia, Callada.Canada. 52 more sensitivity to the environment and the ecological limitations ofof the forested landland base.base. InIn North America, thethe issue of curricular revision has beenbeen reviewedreviewed by thethe SocietySociety ofof AmericanAmerican ForestersForesters andand threethree broad elements recommended: 1)1) generalgeneral universityuniversity requirements,requirements, 2)2) a natural resources core common to a numbernumber of disciplines and 3) aa professional forestry module. TheThe examplesexamples given in this paper reflect different responses that seem to fit thisthis modelmodel appropriately.appropriately.

In manymany respectsrespects the debatedebate over the formform thatthat forestryforestry education should take in order to respondrespond toto changingchanging societalsocietal valuesvalues parallelsparaliels thethe debate withwithinin thethe profession itselfitself overover thethe role of thethe professional forester. North AmericanAmerican foresters throughthrough their professional societies,societies, the SocietySociety ofof AmericanAmerican ForestersForesters (SAF)(SAF) and the Canadian Institute of Forestry (CIF) withwith the various provincial bodies such asas thethe AssociationAssociation ofof BritishBritish ColumbiaColumbia ProfessionalProfessional ForestersForesters (ABCPF)(ABCPF) areare splitsplit amongamong "old school" adherents, who see no need for change, and generallygenerally younger members ofof the professionprofession who recognize responsive and responsible change as not only necessary,necessary, but inevitable.inevitable. BecauseBecause thethe nationalnational professionalprofessional bodies in the United States and Canada accredit forestry educationeducation theirtheir internalinternal debatesdebates have great relevance asas toto how educators will, or can,can, modifymodify forestryforestry degree programmes. I am most familiarfamiliar withwith thethe North American scene so I will concentrate this paper on that geographic area but will provide examples, where possible, from other regionsregions ofof thethe globe.globe.

ForestryForestry,, asas a profession, hashas itsits roots in centralcentral Europe.Europe. In many ways it was an outgrowthoutgrowth ofof agricultureagriculture and as aa resultresult similarsimilar principles of landland managementmanagement werewere applied.applied. Silviculture and thethe growth of treestrees forfor economiceconomic profitprofit becamebecame the backbonebackbone of thethe profession and thus the education of professionals. Trees werewere aa cropcrop and education was geared toto teaching howhow toto tend the crop and to maximizing production. AsAs inin agriculture,agriculture, this meantmeant a rapid move fromfrom natural (albeit in many cases terriblyterribly degraded) to managed ecosystems with monocultures,monocultures, even-agedeven-aged stands, truncated succession, shortened early succession,succession, and moremore recentlyrecently chemicalchemical applicationsapplications beingbeing consequences ofof crop management. Also,Also, asas withwith agriculture,agriculture, these modifications to the naturalnatural environment broughtbrought thethe need toto control 53 diseases, insects, competition and fire to ensure maturation of the crop for economiceconomic return.return. As forestryforestry waswas becomingbecoming moremore complex,complex, education expanded to encompassencompass forest entomology, forest diseases, vegetation management andand firefire management. WithWith the passagepassage of time the focusfocus ofof forestyforesty educationeducation remainedremained on treetree growthgrowth andand yieldyield and more refined silviculture at the site and stand levels. Wood science,science, product manufacturing,manufacturing, andand harvestingharvesting techniques all found aa placeplace inin the forestryforestry curriculum.curriculum.

Although all these traditional components still remain in oneone form oror another,another, some components of of thethe SAF andand elFCIF list ofof educational requirements reflectreflect thethe type of change that isis underwayunderway (Tables 11 andand 2).2). TheThe CIFelF listlist isis thethe moremore recentrecent ofof thethe twotwo andand yetyet itit isis the moremore traditional.traditional. Integrated ReResourcesource Management is the onlyonly subject area requirement that addresses resource areas outside forestryforestry.. The SAFSAF requiresrequires thatthat topicstopics underunder ManagementManagement shouldshould includeinclude multiple-use principles encompassing not just wood butbut forage,forage, water,water, wildlife, fish,fish, recreation,recreation, cultural,cultural, educationaleducational andand aestheticaesthetic benefits.benefits. Both bodiesbodies areare wrestling withwith strong arguments fromfrom certain educational institutions and membersmembers to liberalizeliberalize the requirementsrequirements to provide greatergreater diversitydiversity ofof educationaleducational opportunities.opportunities. A parallelparallel argument is thatthat membershipmembership of thethe professionalprofessional societiessocieties should be expanded to includeinclude otherother resourceresource practitionerspractitioners who managemanage thethe forested land base. SAFSAF andand toto aa lesserlesser extentextent CIFelF havehave moved in this direction byby openingopening membership to wildlifewildlife biologists,biologists, resourceresource sociologists, rangerange managers,managers, andand others.others.

What prompted these changes?changes? Do they predict the direction of future changes accurately? WhatWhat areare thethe likelylikely revisionsrevisions to curricular requirements in the short and longlong terms?terms?

Although the concepts of integrated resource managementmanagement and multiple-use areare notnot new (documented discussion on the multiplicity of resources toto be derivedderived from forestforest managementmanagement datedate backback toto thethe 1930's and earlier c.f. Behan 1990),(990), they have donedone little to expand mostmost forest managementmanagement curricula from thethe narrownarrow focusfocus ofof thethe sustained sustained yield concept. ThisThis agronomicallyagronomically basedbased ideaidea pushespushes thethe landland base to 54 produceproduce thethe maximum fibrefibre outputoutput onon a sustainedsustained basis and other resources,resources, ifif consideredconsidered at all, are secondary or deferred to adjacentadjacent land units. TheThe ideaidea thatthat thethe landland basebase should produce a multiplicity ofof resourceresource and social values on the same landscape was never embraced by thethe forestforest profession eveneven while the "secondary" professions-fisheries and wildlife biology, recreationrecreation management,management, range conservation and others - endorsed it.it.

The SAF inin conjunctionconjunction with U.S. schools of forestry sponsored the "Forestry Curriculum Development Project" in thethe latelate 1960's. Much discussion of integratedintegrated forestforest resourceresource managementmanagement resultedresulted in cosmetic changes to forestryforestry curricula,curricula, lip-service to the concept andand basically businessbusiness asas usualusual withinwithin academia.academia. As Behan (1990) pointspoints out the best indication of the failure toto adoptadopt aa new teachingteaching philosophyphilosophy was the ultimate rejection of a text bookbook byby DuerrDuerr etet al.al. (1979),(1979). "Forest Resource Management"Management" spawnedspawned byby thethe efforteffort thatthat effectivelyeffectively lookedlooked at allall renewablerenewable naturalnatural resourcesresources andand espousedespoused integratedintegrated forestforest management Behan (op. cit.) compared the sustained yield multiple-use and multi-resource forest managementmanagement approaches (Table(Table 3) and firmly believed inin 1990 that the latterlatter was the emergentemergent model for forestforest management. HeHe defineddefined multiresourcemulti resource forestforest managementmanagement as:as: "The"The deliberate applicationapplication or withholding of laborlabor/capita/ capita inputsinputs to,to, oror from,from, a biophysical forest system for the simultaneoussimultaneous production ofof generalgeneral socially desirabledesirable outputs.outputs. ItIt is conditionedconditioned by priorprior knowledgeknowledge ofof consequences toto the systemsystem ofof bothboth spontaneousspontaneous andand managementmanagement induced perturbations and constrained by thethe intentionsintentions of maintaining the forestforest systemsystem asas aa forestforest system".system". He also arguedargued forfor anotheranother forestry curriculum development project to acknowledge thatthat forestry management isis system management andand toto recognize the totality ofof social, biophysical and economic factorsfactors that mustmust affectaffect managementmanagement decisions.

Perhaps in response to Behan's plea and the risingrising rejectionrejection ofof the old management paradigms andand theirtheir influenceinfluence on forestry curricula,curricula, SAF and the National Association ofof ProfessionalProfessional ForestryForestry SchoolsSchools andand Colleges convenedconvened aa symposium inin 1991 to exploreexplore howhow forestryforestry education in the nextnext centurycentury couldcould addressaddress thethe challengeschallenges of thethe 55 changes occurringoccurring inin resourceresource management.management. As CortnerCortner (1992)(1992) summarized, "curricula should hahaveve aa broader resource focusfocus andand not be narrowlynarrowly focused on timber or rangerange andand theythey shouldshould produceproduce critical thinkers andand problem-solvers"problem-solvers" not justjust "biological"biological technocrats".technocrats". Forestry education in thethe futurefuture neededneeded toto be be ecosystem-oriented, ecosystem-oriented, global, interdisciplinaryinterdisciplinary and notnot orientedoriented toto technicaltechnical training.training. It mustmust integrate the socialsocial and biophysicalbiophysical sciences,sciences, reflectreflect a commitment toto didiversityversity and prepareprepare students for lifelong llearningearning (Cortner 1992).1992). The curriculum shouldshould havehave threethree broad broad elementselements (General(General UniversityUniversity Requirements, aa common Natural Resources Core,Core, andand a ForestryForestry module). TheseThese elementselements shouldshould (SAF(SAF 1992):1992): • stress basic competencies not traditional courses • provide a flexible foundation for life-longlife-long learning • focus on education ratherrather than on trainingtraining • provide a moremore balancedbalanced resourceresource perspectiveperspective • place resource management inin an international contextcontext or at least increaseincrease global awarenessawareness • stress that resource managers have a responsibility to society, as well as to their professionprofession andand employeremployer • impimpartart the ability to participate inin thethe socio-politicalsocio-political processprocess • provide hands-on experiential learning to integrate theory withwith practice • provide more educational flexibility (Le.(i.e. more open courses for non-majors, minors, etc.)etc.) • place a strong emphasisemphasis on currentcurrent issuesissues • place an increased emphasisemphasis onon truetrue (e.g.(e.g. faculty-faculty- coordinated and interactive) team teaching.

Others have voiced similarsimilar views.views. Burch (1988)(1988) argued that universitiesuniversities needneed toto dissolvedissolve disciplinarydisciplinary boundaries thatthat tend toto compartmentalize knowledgeknowledge andand toto combine skills from a variety of disciplines to train professional "social foresters". Such curricucurriculala would require an integratedintegrated course inin ''Methods"Methods of SocialSocial ScienceScience Applied toto ForestryForestry Issues"thatIssues" that incorporates incorporates demography, demography, anthropology,anthropology, socsociology,iology, political science, psychology, historyhistory andand economicseconomics.. ThisThis would bebe followed by six requiredrequired disciplinary courses in Geographic InformationInformation Systems, Marketing,Marketing, Environm'entalEnvironmental (Natural Resources) Sociology,Sociology, 56

Ecological (or(or Resource)Resource) Anthropology,Anthropology, OrganizationalOrganizational Systems inin Resource ManagementManagement and CommunicationCommunication Skills forfor Resource Managers. InIn Burch'sBurch's (1988)(1988) view this wouldwould provide thethe socialsocial forestersforesters with skillsskills inin : "(a) social measurement thatthat coverscovers thethe fullfull range of essential possibility in social life; (b) an ability to group and display the data gained from these measures, andand aa way of connecting them to biophysical data; (c) an understanding of what and how to market cash products suchsuch asas honey,honey, mushrooms,mushrooms, basketsbaskets etc;etc; (d) anan overalloverall interpretiveinterpretive frameworkframework forfor perceiving thethe functioningfunctioning andand processes of social structures andand cultural values;values; (e)(e) aa means toto create and to manage the various internal and external species of socialsocial organizationsorganizations affecting humans and forests; and (f) an ability to listen, to interview,interview, to organize, toto give voicevoice to,to, to persuade,persuade, toto inform, and toto direct the participants in social forestry projects".projects".

II had the opportunity in 19881988 as ChairChair ofof aa newlynewly createdcreated Department of NaturalNatural Resource Sciences at WashingtonWashington StateState University (WSU) toto direct a two-year planning process that fundamentally changedchanged thethe wayway that universityuniversity taughttaught forestry to itsits students (Gilbert et al.al. 1993).1993). Following the basicbasic tenetstenets expressedexpressed decades earlier (eg. Galick 1951)1951) that forestry education needs to bebe more broadly based with basic understandings of the ecological, social and economic environments within which forest management decisions are mademade andand policiespolicies developed,developed, thethe newnew curriculumcurriculum waswas developeddeveloped by casting away the old structure and revisitingrevisiting what competencies andand learninglearning levels shouldshould be expected of a graduate of an undergraduate foreStryfore8try programme.programme. From the facultyfaculty deliberationsdeliberations emergedemerged a recognition that thethe basic competenciescompetencies werewere thethe samesame for foresters as for wildlife,wildlife, recreationrecreation or range managers. ThisThis waswas expressedexpressed in the structure of an umbrellaumbrella degree programmeprogramme thatthat allowedallowed specializationspecialization while maintaining commonality among thethe resource disciplines. Forestry graduates differed from wildlife, range or recreationrecreation graduates primarily in the final two years of aa fourfour yearyear degreedegree andand eveneven then shared a number of key courses inin areasareas such as planning,planning, sociology, resource economics and policy.policy. An integrated field camp providedprovided further opportunity forfor interdisciplinarity.interdisciplinarity. ThisThis waswas accomplishedaccomplished withinwithin the accreditationaccreditation requirementsrequirements ofof SAF.SAF. 5757

·-Similarly,Similarly, atat thethe UniversityUniversity ofof NorthernNorthern BritishBritish ColumbiaColumbia (UNBC) we havehave developeddeveloped a forestryforestry majormajor withinwithin aa Natural Natural ResourcesResources ManagementManagement BScBSc degreedegree programme.programme. OtherOther majorsmajors includeinclude fisheries,fisheries, wildlife and outdoor recreation. AsAs atat WSU,WSU, students take what amounts to aa commoncommon firstfirst twotwo years.years. In fact all students at the universityuniversity take the same 5 core courses within the first year ofof studystudy.. TheseThese coursescourses give both science and non-sciencenon-science majorsmajors an integratedintegrated foundation ofof knowledge from the social sciences,sciences, physicalphysical sciencessciences andand lifelife sciencessciences as wellwell asas thethe artsarts andand humanities.humanities. Experimental in nature, the courses avoid the "Great"Great Books"Books" oror "Great"Great Ideas"Ideas" approachesapproaches presentingpresenting subjects as interdependent,interdependent, interestinginteresting sources of informationinformation thatthat reflect what we are, how wewe havehave evolved,evolved, ourour relationshipsrelationships to thethe physical and biological environments and the socio-cusocio-culturalltural contexts of humanityhumanity.. TheThe introductory chemistry,chemistry, physicsphysics and biologybiology coursescourses are reduced toto one semester jfif a studentstudent has had the subjectsubject prior toto entering UNBC. TheseThese courses,courses, along with aa ·core core coursecourse inin universityuniversity writing and communications,communications, a course in micro-economics, two 1-credit introductoryintroductory natural resources courses and a computercomputer applicationsapplications course, fillfill outout thethe firstfirst yearyear ofof studystudy atat UNBC.UNBC.

The forestry curriculum at UNBCUNBC (Fig. 1) differsdiffers fromfrom WSU'sWSU's (Fig. 2) in several ways.ways. ThereThere areare nono specializedspecialized options atat UNBCUNBC at this time, although aa Business/ManagementBusiness/ Management option isis beingbeing explored.explored. The Chemistry and Physical Sciences foundationfoundation area is much stronger at UNBC.UNBC. TheThe NaturalNatural ResourcesResources corecore hashas beenbeen "deepened""deepened" byby twotwo courses with coursescourses likelike IntegratedIntegrated ResourceResource ManagementManagement in thethe second year; First Nations' ResourceResource ManagementManagement in the third; and Planning, Watershed Management, Environmental ImpactImpact Assessment, andand Issues andand Ethics in the senior year. TheseThese courses,courses, along with a Field Camp, provide opportunities to share a multiplicitymultiplicity of resourceresource values fromfrom among the disciplines representedrepresented inin thethe studentstudent body and the faculty. InIn essenceessence itit isis notnot justjust forestryforestry studentsstudents whowho areare being exposed toto the concepts inin aa course,course, butbut ratherrather thethe classroomclassroom becomes an interactiveinteractive arenaarena wherewhere diversediverse usesuses andand valuevalue systemssystems

, "First Nations" is a term used inin CanadaCanada for aboriginal peoples.peoples. 58 operative on the land base are represented andand discussed.discussed. FacultyFaculty drawn from Environmental Studies, Biology, Outdoor Recreation/Tourism andand Forestry forfor these key coursescourses demonstrate interdisciplinary problem-solving withinwith in thethe classroom.classroom. The forestryforestry corecore is reduced toto 88 coursescourses (see(see list).list).

The trend to moremore interdisciplinarity,interdisciplinarity, greater understanding ofof social value systesystems,ms, aanrind more sensitivity toto the environment and the ecological limitations of the forested land base isis notnot restricted toto North American curricula. In thethe United Kingdom, for example, the University of.of Edinburgh's Institute of EcologyEcology andand ResourceResource ManagementManagement within thethe Division of BiologicalBiological SciencesSciences is responsible forfor the Honours inin Forestry program (BSc Ecological Science) (Table 4)4).. The Forestry, or Honours year, builds on thethe BSc.BSc. inin EcologicalEcological ScienceScience whichwhich isis awarded after three years of study. BiologyBiology andand environmentalenvironmental science,science, conservation and resource management provideprovide thethe understanding ofof the scientificscientific basisbasis ofof resource resource management. management. The HonoursHonours yearyear consists of the Honours topic, egeg Forestry,Forestry, and specialistspecialist teaching inin the subject area (one halfhalf dayday perper week);week); aa CommonCommon CoreCore ofof seminars,seminars, tutorialstutorials and exercisesexercises on environmentalenvironmental issues issues and and topicstopics forfor all students (one(one half to one full day per week);week); twotwo Honours Options (from a list of about 12)12) to reinforcereinforce an area of interestinterest that inin ForestryForestry might be WoodWoodlandland Management,Management, RemoteRemote SensingSensing or Tropics Soils;Soils; and finally an Honours Project lastinglasting 88 -- 10 weeks.weeks. TheThe project is an originaloriginal piece of work either selected from a list of 40 or 50 topics representing the interests of thethe Institute or proposed by the student as his/her ownown topic. The overall programme reflects the international scope of the Forestry program at the UniversityUniversity of Edinburgh,Edinburgh, with manymany studentsstudents participating fromfrorn developing countries. TheThe moremore generalgeneral ecologicalecological and sustainable management themes areare wellwell suited to establishing a framework for ecosystemecosystem basedbased forestforest management.management.

In Africa, the University of Science and Technology inin GhanaGhana offers a B.Sc.B.Sc. degreedegree inin Natural ResourcesResources ManagementManagement thatthat is ecosystem basedbased and designed to provideprovide aa multiple-usemultiple-use managementmanagement approach toto thethe development,development, managementmanagement andand useuse ofof renewable renewable 59 natural resources. StudentsStudents maymay specializespecialize inin forestry but the intentionintention isis that they would planplan holisticallyholistically becausebecause ofof theirtheir training.training.

The institutions described are representativerepresentative ofof the globalglobal change underway in forestryforestry education.education. Other examplesexamples could bebe presented suchsuch as the InstituteI nstitute of ForestryForestry in NepalNepal which offersoffers aa 33 year bachelor's course of study following aa 2-year2-year technician's course that trainstrains practitioners of community forestryforestry (Rechlin 1993). Graduates serveserve as as advisorsadvisors to to villagersvillagers whowho areare thethe dede facto land managers and thus makemake the keykey land-useland-use decisions.decisions.

What will forestry education look likelike when the debates are over and the current round of changechange hashas beenbeen implemented?implemented? Clearly,Clearly, thethe social, economic, and environmental topicstopics that reflect political and cultural changes in society will bebe moremore stronglystrongly represented.represented.

A society that values diverse, healthy, and aesthetically pleasing forestsforests will place even greater demands on professionalsprofessionals toto practicepractice ethical, sustainable, and environmentally-sensitive management of lands and natural resources.resources, TheThe broadened,broadened, interdisciplinaryinterdisciplinary nature of the undergraduate degree in natural resources will better prepare aspiring landland managers toto meet the complex needsneeds ofof societysociety today.today. Forestry still requires skilled technicians trained inin thethe manipulativemanipulative practices;practices; however, thethe important decisions on which practicespractices toto implementimplement andand what circumstancescircumstances will be mademade byby well-roundedwell-rounded landland managementmanagement professionals.

The socialsocial dimensions of forestry education are being strengthened inin manymany ways.ways. These include: thethe integrationintegration ofof naturalnatural and social dimensions in ecological economics to helphelp forestersforesters better justify, oror implement,implement, sustainablesustainable practicespractices (Bradley(Bradley andand LewisLewis 1992);1992); the moremore effectiveeffective presentationpresentation of thethe linkagelinkage betweenbetween politicspolitics andand policy-making in forest resource policy by concentrating onon the systems that create policy ratherrather thanthan thethe legislationlegislation whichwhich preachespreaches itit (Ellefson(Ellefson 1993); and byby makingmaking forestersforesters moremore knowledgeableknowledgeable aboutabout socialsocial constraints (Heiner(Heiner 1992).1992). 60

However, these elements willwill not, in and of themselves, create foresters committed to ecologicallyecologically soundsound andand sociallysocially acceptableacceptable management. Such commitment requires understanding that management mustmust be ecosystemecosystem based and directed toto long-termlong-term sustainability ofof all resource vavalues.lues. Thus, a primary role of educationeducation isis toto give students thatthat sound basis inin knowledgeknowledge ofof ecosystemecosystem functionfunction and ofof thethe interrelatednessinterrelatedness ofof renewablerenewable naturalnatural resources.resources. The value systems ofof society,society, oror ofof thethe other other professions professions representingrepresenting thosethose Interestsinterests cancan be capitalized on to achieveachieve social, economic or eveneven environmental realities that push us more effectively toto positions of such sustainability. TheThe long-termlong-term sustainabilitysustainability of communities,communities, economic stability in the forest industry,industry, productivityproductivity andand availabilityavailability ofof allall valuesvalues that derivederive fromfrom forestedforested ecosystemsecosystems ---- all thesethese aspectsaspects of forestforest management require a better understandingunderstanding of ecosystemecosystem structure,structure, function and dynamics.dynamics. ThereThere isis moremore toto sustainingsustaining humanhuman civilizationcivilization inin thethe long termterm thanthan simplysimply exploitingexploiting resourcesresources effectivelyeffectively today.today. All human values and experiences as revealed in the arts or humanities, are expressions of how differentdifferent generationsgenerations and culturescultures havehave relatedrelated toto their natural resources and the land base. TheseThese understandingsunderstandings must be part of futurefuture "forestry""forestry" education.

Aldo LeopoldLeopold (1949)(1949) saidsaid thatthat we needneed toto "think"think like aa mountain"mountain".. EducationEducation shouldshould bebe aa tooltool thatthat allowsallows forestryforestry studentsstudents to do just that, toto considerconsider impactsimpacts andand implicationsimplications ofof theirtheir actionsactions wellwell beyond their own lifetimes. TechnologyTechnology shouldshould notnot bebe emphasized until students have a foundationfoundation for evaluating the benefits and consequences ofof using thatthat technologytechnology.. ThereThere are,are, of course,course, manymany models that maymay achieveachieve this.this. One modelmodel consideredconsidered by thethe Washington State University faculty was that the undergraduate degree should span 5 years and includeinclude major liberalliberal arts and socialsocial sciencescience components. Wallinger (1993) arguedargued thatthat the education of forestryforestry professionals should include graduategraduate trainingtraining withwith aa comprehensive, comprehensive, broadlybroadly based Doctor ofof Forestry.Forestry. In thithiss vview,iew, a Bachelor's degree isis only adequate as the techniciantechnician degree for forest resource management.management. 6161

Forestry education must integrate resources and management and ultimatelyultimately forest resource managers shouldshould bebe moulded into a single professionalprofessional body.body. UNBC's approachapproach isis justjust one modelmodel to achieve these objectivese. WhateverWhatever the model, forestry will no longer be the stand-alonestand-alone profession ofof past decades. TheThe foresterforester will,will, asas Wallinger (1993)(1993) advocated,advocated, be be oneone membermember ofof a cadrecadre ofof naturalnatural resources (land) managers whowho share thethe commoncommon tasktask of extracting and protectingprotecting the diversediverse valuesvalues of thethe landland andand thethe renewable renewable resources it supportssupports byby meansmeans ofof ecologicallyecologically sustainablesustainable practices.practices. The new land ethic canon of thethe SAFSAF statesstates that "Stewardship of the land isis thethe cornerstonecornerstone ofof thethe forestryforestry profession". profession". Thus wise andand effective land management, not forest management per se, is the credo by whichwhich thethe professionprofession willwill operateoperate inin thethe future.future. Responsibility for effective and sustainable landland use doesdoes not rest solely with the natural resources professionals; engineers, municipal planners, business managers andand others plus the peoplepeople whowho educateeducate thesethese otherother professionals mustmust join in thethe movemove toto sustainablesustainable developmentdevelopment andand landland use. ThisThis tasktask isis aa moremore formidableformidable oneone thanthan educatingeducating forestersforesters toto treat thethe landland with respect,respect, nuture it, and produceproduce outputs thatthat notnot only have values for human societies but also sustain~usta in the land basebase in perpetuity. The forester's ededucationucation mustmust sensitizesensitize him/herhim/her toto the complecomplexx and dynamic nature of socialsocial valuesvalues enabling himhim/her/her to recognize whenwhen changes inin value systems areare occurring and toto influence those changes. TheThe curriculumcurriculum willwill exposeexpose studentsstudents toto allall thethe resource professions andand be based upon a foundationfoundation ofof ecologicalecological knowledgeknowledge.. TheThe resultresult willwill bebe forestforest landland managersmanagers whowho understandunderstand and acceptaccept theirtheir social responsibilities and and are ableable to workwork cooperatively with people from many disciplines, cultures and walks of life toto achieve ecologically sustainable management forfor diverse resourceresource objectives. II believe wewe havehave mademade aa goodgood startstart andand thatthat by thethe end of thethe decadedecade mostmost forestryforestry schoolsschools willwill havehave adaptedadapted theirtheir trainingtraining programs accordingly.accordingly. 62

Acknowledgennents:Acknowledgements:

I thank F.M. Schlegel of FAO forfor inviting me to prepareprepare and present thisthis paper for the Advisory Committee on Forestry Education. InformationInformation onon the UniversityUniversity of Edinburgh'sEdinburgh's forestry program was provided by Shiela Wiloon.Wiloon. SuggestionsSuggestions for iimprovingmproving thethe manuscript made by Winifred Kessler were much appreciated.

Literature cited:

Behan, R.W.R.w. 1990.1990. Multiresource forestforest management: a paradigmatic challenge to professional forestry. J. For.For. 88(4):88(4): 12-18.12-18.

Bradley, D.PD.P.. andand B.J.B.J. Lewis.Lewis. 1992.1992. Ecological economics.economics. Integrating naturalnatural andand social dimensions. J.J. For.For. 90(2):90(2): 30-33.30-33.

Burch Jr.,Jr., W.R.W.R. 1988.1988. The uses of social science in the trainingtraining of professional social foresters. J. World For.For. Resour.Resour. Manage.Manage. 3:73-109.

Cortner, H.J.H.J. 1992. Commitment to change:change: ForestryForestry inin thethe future.future. Report from the DenverDenver educationaleducational symposium.symposium. J.J. For.For. 90(3):90(3): 15-17.

Duerr, WA.,W.A., D.E. PePeigaurde,igaurde, N.B. Christiansen and S. Guttenburg 1979.1979. Forest resource managementmanagement decision making. 2nd edition.edition. W.B. Saunders CoCo.,., Philadelphia PA.PA. 611 pp.pp.

Ellefson, P.V.P.V. 1993.1993. Politics andand policymaking. AA teachingteaching challengechallenge inin forestry. J. For.For. 91(3):91 (3): 24-27.24-27.

Galick, L.H.L.H. 1951. AmericanAmerican forestforest policy.policy. Euell, Sloan andand Pearce,Pearce, New York, N.Y. 252 pp. 63

Gilbert, F.F.,F.F. , K.A. Blatner, M.S. Carroll, R.L. RichmondRichmond and B.J. Zamora. 1993.1993. IntegratedIntegrated ForestForest ResourceResource education. OneOne responseresponse to thethe challenge.challenge. J.J. For.For. 91(3):91 (3): 17-22.17-22.

Heiner, H. 1992. The challenge of global forestforest management. Report fromfrom UNCED.UNCED. J.J. For.For. 90(9):90(9): 28-31.28-31.

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Table 1.

Standard ForestryForestry curriculumcurriculum requirements as outlinedoutlined byby thethe Accreditation Handbook of thethe SocietySociety of American Foresters.

GENERAL EDUCATION

a). Communications b). Science and mathematicsmathematics c). Social Sciences and humanitieshumanities (including(including economics)economics) d). Electives

PROFESSIONAL EDUCATIONEDUCATION

a). Forest Biology. Topics shouldshould include taxonomy, ' distribution, and ecologicalecological characteristics ofof trees andand other importantimportant plants;plants; physiologyphysiology of trees,trees, includingincluding metabolismandmetabolisIll---and growth;growth; basicbasic andand appliedapplied genetics;genetics; ecological concepts and principles,principles, includingincluding firefire ecologyecology and useuse ofof fire;fire; soilsoil formation, classification,classification, composition,composition, and properties; silviculture, including methods of establishing and controlling the composition,composition, growth, and quality of forestforest stands;stands; entomologyentomology andand pathology,pathology, including thethe studystudy ofof representativerepresentative forest organisms and thethe applicationapplication of integratedintegrated pestpest management;management; andand wildlife and fishfish biolol,,y,biology, includingincluding hhabitatabitat manipulationmanipulation and population dynamics.dynamics.

b). Measurement of Forest Resources.Resources. TopicsTopics should include land measurement, photogrammetry and remote sensing;sensing; sampling theorytheory andand methods;methods; measurement of trees,trees, forestforestss and forestforest products;products; wildlifewildlife habitathabitat assessment;assessment; meameasurementsurement of water yieldsyields and quality;quality; assessmentassessment of 65

air quality and ofof thethe esthetic,esthetic, cultural,cultural, mineral,mineral, range,range, recreation, andand wildernesswilderness valuesvalues ofof forests.forests.

c). Management ofor Forest Resources.Resources. TopicsTopics shouldshould includeinclude multiple-use principles,principlcs, incorporating management forfor wood, forage, water,water, wildlife,wildlife, fish,fish, recreation,recreation, cultural,cultural, educational, and estheticesthetic benefits;benefits; forestforest engineering,engineering, including harvesting and wood utilization; and systematicsystematic approaches to problem-solvingproblem-solving andand decision-making.decision-making .

. d). Forest ResourceResource Policy andand Administration.Administration. ThisThis areaarea ofof study integratesintegrates allall aspectsaspects ofof forestryforestry education.education. It provides thethe student with an understanding of the social,social, political, legal,economic, institutional, and historical influences on forestry.forestry. Topics should includeinclude forestforest policy, administration, landland and resource planning, budgeting, and financial and personnel management. 66

Table 2.2.

Core subjectsubject areas required forfor forestryforestry programme accreditation by the CanadianCanadian ForestryForestry AccreditationAccreditation Board.Board.

BASIC PHYSICAL andand BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES and MATHEMATICS

FOREST SCIENCESCIENCE andand SYNTHESISSYNTHESIS Dendrology SilvicsSiIvies Siviculture Forest SoilsSoils Forest HydrologyHydrology Forest EcologyEcology Fire Management/Meteorology Tr~eTree Morphology/PhysiologyMorphology/ Physiology ForestForest EntomologyEntomology Forest PathologyPathology Forest MensurationMensuration Photogrammetry/PhotoPhotogrammetry / Photo InterpretationInterpretation/Remote/ Remote SensingSensing Electronic Data ProcessingProcessing Statistics/Biometrics Forest Economics Forest Land Management Integrated Resource Management Timber Harvesting Forest Products and Manufacturing Communications and Technical Report WritingWriting Forest PolicyPolicy

COMPLEMENTARY STUDIES Human RelationshipsRelationships Humanities Professional Ethics BusineBusinessss and Management SkillsSkills 67

TableIah!<.1 3 Comparison of Sustained-yield multiple-usemUltiple-use and multi resourceresource forest management. (from(from Behan, 1990)

Sustained-yield multiple-use MultiresourceMuhiresource

Assumptions The forestforest isis aa collectioncollection ofof several several The forest isis aa singlesingle biophysicalbiophysical systemsystem useful, merelymerely coincidentalcoincidental substances substances that respondsrcsponds as aa systemsystem tolo the manipulationmanipUlation and services; social perceptionsperceptions of of anyany ofof its its parts;parts; socialsocial perceptionsperceptions of utility areare constant;constant; aa chronicchronic socialsocial utilityuti lity areare volatile volatile and and unstable; unstable; the the scarce scarce tendency towardtoward Moveruse"overuse"w is historic; factor of productionproduction isis capital.capital. land is thethe scarce factorfactor of production.

0Objective bj ective Perpetuate thethe physicalphysical supplysupply ofof Least-cost, simultaneous productionproduction of several several particular andand independentindependent interdependent andand usefuluseful substancessubstances andand substances and services.services. services.

Constraint Periodic harvestharvest ofof each each resourceresource mustmust Maintenance of thethe forestforest systemsystem as a forest be less than oror equal [0to itsils periodicperiodic system. increment.

Application A police-actionpolice-action enterprise in Prior simulation,simulation, subsequent subsequent monitoring of rationing; an arbitrary policy thethe systemic response toto managementmanagement activities; activities; limitation onon useuse rates.rates. evaluation in biophysicalbiophysical andand socialsocial terms.terms.

IntuitiveIntuitive Increasing production through long­long- Short-term marginalmarginal adjustments;adjustments; maintenancemaintenance response term capital investment;investment; the ultimate of options; rationalrational useuse ofof investment investment capital.capital. constraint is the biophysicalbiophysical maximummaximum of aa givengiven site.site.

ConseqConsequenceuence A flowflow of of some some unchanging unchanging substances substances The productproduct mixmix ofof substances substances maymay change,change, is sustained inin thethe longlong run, butbut but a flow ofof value value is is sustained. sustained. short term sacrifice of othersothers maymay bebe necessary (c.(e.g., g., wildlife escape escape cover in aa clearcut).cJearcut).

Appropriate The aristocratic, mercantile politica1political Thedemocratic,Thedemocratic, capitalisticcapital istic political political economy economy socialsocial context economies ofof central Europe in thethe of thethe UnitedUnited StatesStates inin thethe late lale 1900s.19OOs. l700s.1700s. 68

Table 4

The University of Edinburgh'sEdinburgh's Honours Forestry program, showing the normalnormal coursecourse structure forfor the threethree yearsyears ofof thethe BScBSc Ecological Science with Honour's yearyear options.options.

Year 1 Origin and DiversityDiversity of LifeLife Physics in the LifeLife SciencesSciences Human PopulationPopulation BiologyBiology Biological and Economic SystemsSystems Chemistry I (or GeographyGeography II oror Geology)Geology) Introduction toto EcologicalEcological ScienceScience Field Course

Year 2 PrinciplesPrinciples ofof Ecology Ecology Biometrics At leastleast oneone ofof Resource Resource Economics, Economics, AnimalAnimal Biology,Biology, Plants andand Fungi . . At leastleast oneone ofof ClimateClimate andand Water,Water, SoilsSoils and Land Use Plus other courses (to a totaltotal ofof 6)6) selectedselected from:from: Agriculture 2;2; Biological Chemistry; Cellular Metabolism; Evolution in Action;Action; Genes,Genes, VirusesViruses andand Immunity;Immunity; Human andand MammalianMammalian Physiology;Physiology; Psycology;Psycology; andand others. Field courses in Ecological ProcessesProcesses andand ResourceResource Measurement

Year 3 EcologicalEcological SystemsSystems Resource EcologyEcology Natural Resource ManagementManagement Plus one of:of: Evolutionary andand Ecological Genetics; Rural BusinessBusiness Management; EnvironmentalEnvironmental Technology;Technology; BehaviouralBehavioural Ecology; Evolution and Ecology of Plants; CropCrop ScienceScience Two or threethree fieldfield coursescourses selectedselected from:from: Upland Forestry;Forestry; LowlandLowland Forestry; WildlifeWildlife Ecology; and Agriculture 69

HonoursHonours Ecological Systems Year Resource Ecology Natural Resources Management OneOne of:of: Rural BusinessBusiness Management; Crop Science or Animal Production Common Core Options 70

EEducationalducational FoundationsFoundations

CornCommunicationsmunic.tions Arts andand HumanitiesHumanitiu BiologicalBiological SciencesSd~n«$ MaMath,th, Statistics,Stlilistics, and 'Introductory' Inlrodutlory Writing 'ArisArts and and HumanitiesH umanities Introductory'Introductory Biology Biology ComputerCum pulrr Sciences Scirncu 'Technical' Technical andand ProfessionalProfessional general universityuniycrsily 'General'General EtologyEcolOGY ·Malhemalie.~'Mathematics r~for LifeUfe Report Writing requirement Scientists ()I' or CalculusCalculus oror 'Human'Human RelationsRelations IntroductionIntroduction tQto Mathe-Mathe­ matical Analysis SocSocialial SciencesSciencts InterculturalIn tercultural StudiesStudies CheChemistrymistry andand 'BiometryBiometry or or Management Management 'Economics'&;onomia; in Agriculture 'ID'Interculturallercultural StudiesStudies PhysicalPhysiCliI SciencesSclen«s InformationInformalion ScienceScience orof FundamentalsFundamentals of general universityuni-'Crsily 'Introduction'inlroduClion to\0 MicroeconomicsMicroeconomics requirementrequirement ChemistryChemistry 'Social' Socia lScience Science generalge neral (}I'or PrinciplesPrinciples of university requirementrequirement ChemistryChemistry Physical'Phys ica l GeologyGeology

NaturalNatura lResources Resources CoreCore ForestryForestry CoreCore 'Introduct'Introductionion toto NaturalNatural Resource Resourte: ManagementManagement I 'ForC$1'Forest Biology Introduction' Introduction ro to Natural Natura lResource Resource ManagementManagement" II 'Sil,icullurc'Silviculture ' IntroductionIntroduction toto Natural Natural Resource Rewurte: ManagementManagement 'Forest MeasurementsMeasurements III -Timber'Timber HarvestingHarvesting "Introductionintroduction toto Natural Natural Resource Resourte: ManagementManagement •'Principles Principles ofof Range Range ManagementManagement IVI V 'Forest FinanceFinante: andand Valuation ''IntroductionIntroduction toto SoilSoil ScienceSciente: 'Forest SamplingSampling 'Natural'Natural Resource Resourte: MeasurementsMeasurements andand InventoriesInventories "Forest GGrowthrOWlII and Yield 'ForwForest and Range Plant ResourcesResources I 'Wood,Wood, Wood ProductsProducts and 'ForestForest andand RangeRange PlantPlant ResourcesResou"cs "II MarketingMarketing 'NaturalNatural ResourceResource EconomicsEconomics Harvcst' Harvest SchedulingS<:heduling 'Nan'Naturalora lResources Resourte:s andand SocietySociety Introduction'Introdudion toto WildlandWildland FircFire ' AirphotoAirphOio InterpretationInterpretation andand RemoteRemote SensingSensing ' Natural ResourceResource PlanningPlanning ''NaturalNatural ResourceResource Policy and AdministratAdministrationion ' Watershed Management 'InIntegratedtegrated FieldField StudiesSlUdi(:!. 'BigBig Game Game Range Range ManagementManagement or IntroductoryIntroductory WiWildlifeldlife ManagementManagement

FoForestryrestry OptiOptionsons

BuBusinesssin ess WildlifeWildlirt ' PrinciplcsPrinciples ofof Accounting Introductory' Introductory Wildlife Wi ldlife Management Management Two of rhelilt following: 'Animal'Animal PopulationPopulation DynamicsDynamics ' Fundamentals ofof MMicroeconomicsicroeconomics ''WildlifeWildlife EcologyEcology ' Law and tthehe Legal EnviroEnvironmentnme nt ofof Rangc' Range HabitatHabitat AnalysisAnalysis Big'Big Gante Game Rangc Range Management Management Busin~Business ' Management iInformationnformation ScienceSeiente: (0(0 Methods) MaManagementnagtment ThruThree oror mOl"f'more of thetht following:follOwing: 'Forest' Forest PathologyPat hology 'PrinciplesPrinciplcs ofof Management Management andand OrganizationOrgani7,,)t ion Forest'ForW EntomologyEntomology 'Operations ManagementManagement "Wildland'Wildland RecreationRecreation ''BusinessBusineu InformationInformation Systems S)'$I.cms 'FinanceFinance DirectedDittttr d StudiesStudiu 'Risk' Risk andand InsuranceInsurance ''MarketingMarketing International' International Business Busines.s

FigFigureure 1.I. Modules in thetile revisedrevised WashingtonWashington StateState UniversityUnive rsity forest forcst managementma nagement curriculum.curric:ulum. 71

EduCAtionalEducational Foundations

CoCommunicationsnlfflunicalion5 Arts IIIandnd IlumanitieslIuma nltiu BlnloglcaBiologicall SciencesSciences Math, StatisticsStatlstics andand 'EffeEf fectivecl;\'c UniversityUniversity 'Cor*Coree Arts andand HumanitiesHumani[ic.s 'Core'Core LifeLife SciencesSciences ComputerComputtr Sciences Scientts Writing andand 'IntrIntroductoryoductory BiologyBiology *Calculus' Calculus CommunicatCommunicationion 'EcologyEcolog 'Computer'Computer Science Science 'Biostatistics' Biooatistia Chemistry and PhysicalPb)'Sical 5<:ltnccsSciencts SociaSociall SciencesSc:irn~s 'C'Coreore Physical Physical Sciences Sciences ' CoCorere Social ScienceScience 'PhysiPhysicalul ChemistryChemislry 'Micro'Micro economicseconomics ''OrganicOrganic ChemistryChemistry 'PhysicsPhysies or AtmosphericAtmospheric StudiesStudies 'Geomorph*Geomorphologyology

NaNaturaltural ResourcesResourcu CoreCO~ ForestryForestry. CoCorer e 'Natural'Natural ResourcesRerourees ManagManagementement I[ 'Silviculture'Silviculture 'Natural'Natural ResourcesRe!.(Iurces Management IIII 'Forest'Forest HealthHealtb 'N31ural'Natural ResourcesRC$Ource.s ManagementManagement III [II 'Forest'For«/. Practices,Practices, Guidelines andand 'Na'Naturaltural ResourcesRcsourtt5 Management I[VV Regulations 'FoForestresl SoilsSoils Fire'Fire Ecology Eeology and and Management Management 'ResourceResource InventoriesInventories and and Mea_surements Measurements Forcst'ForClI Harvesting Harveuing Systems Systems 'Forest'Forest BiologyBiology Foresl' ForClt GrowthGrowth andand Yield 'PlantPlant SystemsSystems 'Fores'Forestt ProductsProducts 'N'Naturalatural ResourcesResourcc.s EconomicsEconomics 'International'International TradeTrade 'Soci'Society,ety, PPolicyolicy andand AdministAdministrationration 'G'Geographicalcogr:aphical InformationInformaliOll Systems Systems 'Integrated'Integrated ResourceRC$Ourcc Management 'First'First Nations'Natioll5' ApproachesApproacl!es toto ResourceResource Management ''FieldField Camp 'NaturalNatural ResourcesResources Planning 'Watcrshcd'Watershed ManagementManagement 'Envir'Environmentalonmenta] ImpactImpact AssessmentAnc5sment ']ssue$Issues andand ElhiQEthics inin N~tura]Natural ResourcesResourccs

Figure 2.2. Modules in thcthe UniversityUniversity of NorthernNorthern BritishBr;tilih Columbia'sColumbia·s forestryforeury curriculum. 72

APPENDIXAPPENDIX 66

RESPONSE TO USERS' NEEDS IN FORESTRYFORESTRY EDUCATION, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCEREFERENCE TO TECHNICAL ANDAND SOCIO-ECONOMIC ASPECTSASPECTS OFOF SILVICULTURESILVICULTURE ANDAND MANAGEMENT TEACHING IN THE ASIA-PACIFIC REGIONREGION

by

KamisKarnis Awang ,

ABSTRACT

Forestry in the Asia-Pacific region,region, inin commoncommon with that in the rest of thethe world,world, isis undergoingundergoing transformation.transformation. ThereThere areare increasingincreasing concerns overover rapid deforestation, environmentalenvironmental degradation, possiblepossible threats to biodiversitybiodiversity and the marginalization ofof forestforest dwellers.dwellers. The challenges faced by the forestry profession in resolving these complex andand interrelated issues requires new approachesapproaches toto forestry and hence aa new breed ofof foresters.foresters. InIn future forestry education must satisfy a broadened range ofof clientele includingincluding notnot onlyonly thethe traditional,traditional, such as national governments (forest services)services) andand timbertimber companies,companies, butbut alsoalso farmers, villagers, conservationists, landless people and recreationists.recreationists. With regardsregards toto silviculturesilviculture and managementmanagement teaching itit is nownow opportune to reviewreview curricula withwith aa viewview to makingmaking innovativeinnovative changeschanges in response toto increased knowledge base andand new technologies.technologies. TheThe areas/disciplines to bebe considered include genetics and biotechnology, forestforest resourcesresources measurement, biodiversity and sustainable management, appropriateappropriate silviculture and harvesting,harvesting, economicseconomics andand resources evaluation, and social sciences. CurriculaCurricula revisionrevision however,however, must be done inin thethe nationalnational context.context.

1 Faculty of Forestry, UniversitiUniversiti PertanianPertanian Malaysia,Malaysia, Selangor,Selangor, Malaysia.Malaysia. 73

INTRODUCTION

Education development is an evolutionary process. ForFor forestryforestry education this process is consonant with changes in both the needs of the forestry profession andand thethe concernsconcerns expressedexpressed byby societysociety atat large.large. The Asia-Pacific region,region, comprising some 40 countries and home toto more thanthan halfhalf ofof humankind, humankind, hashas beenbeen undergoingundergoing rapidrapid socio-socio­ economic transformationstransformations. This has placed tremendous pressurespressures on natural resources (especially forest resources),resources). and on the environment of developing tropical countriescountries inin thethe region.region. TheThe seriousnessseriousness of these problems-- rapid deforestation,deforestation, environmentalenvironmental degradation,degradation, increasingIncreasing threat to biodiversity,biodiversity, marginalisationmarginalisation of forestforest dwellers/users--dwellersjusers-- havehave been acknowledged by the various countries concerned, and efforts are being mademade toto resolveresolve them.them.

Resolving thesethese problemsproblems howehowever,ver, requiresrequires forest forest policypolicy toto address many goals, some ofof whwhichich conflict, and many of which are changing rapidlyrapidly (VVorld(World Bank, Bank, undated). undated). TheThe economiceconomic importanceimportance ofof forests and theirtheir productsproducts ststillill needs toto bebe promoted,promoted, now withwith increasedincreased emphasis on non-wood products. TheThe environmentalenvironmental valuevalue of forests,forests, legally recognised by all countries in the region, has to bebe protected. Social goals, including the protectionprotection ofof thethe interestsinterests andand traditional rights of forestforest dwellers,dwellers, alsoalso needneed toto bebe considered. considered. Furthermore, therethere isis need to taketake intointo accountaccount thethe international international concern for the importance ofof tropical forestsforests asas rich habitats for diverse species, andand as aa ssinkink forfor carboncarbon.. MostMost complexcomplex ofof allall thethe goalsgoals thatthat forestry policy hashas toto meetmeet isis thatthat ofof sustainability,sustainability, which has various dimensions:dimensions; ecological, economic,economic, andand thethe socialsocial andand moralmoral aspectsaspects ofof human existence.

The forestry profession, and hence forestry education, needs toto respond and adjustadjust toto thesethese challenges.challenges. ItIt followsfollows thatthat curriculacurricula development and their continualcontinual revisionsrevisions mustmust reflectreflect thesethese dynamicdynamic and changing realities.realities. TheThe technical andand socio-economicsocio-economic implications,implications, 74 particularlyparticularly in relation to the teaching of silviculturesilviculture and management, are discussed here.here.

FORESTRYFORESTRY CLIENTELESCLIENTELES REDEFINED

Traditionally, thethe forestry profession has been responsive toto what hadhad beenbeen defineddefined asas itsits clients--national clients--national governmentsgovernments (forest(forest services)services) andand/or/ or commercialcommercial timber companies.companies. Today,Today, however,however, the profession is increasingly becoming aware that its clienteleclientele has beenbeen redefined.redefined. ClientsClients nownow alsoalso include:include: farmersfarmers wanting to includeinclude trees inin their agricultural systems; villagers wanting woodlots for fuel and other goods; recreationistsrecreationists wantingwanting placesplaces toto relaxrelax andand play; tribal people who traditionally havehave had access to and control overover locallocal forestforest resourcesresources until population pressures beganbegan toto cause competitioncompetition for thosethose resources;resources; landless people wanting food, fuel, fibrefibre andand otherother goodsgoods thatthat are available to them only on publicpublic lands;lands; conservationistsconservationists wanting to protect the diversediverse resourcesresources andand environments.environments.

IndeedIndeed,, in Rao'sRao's (1990)(1990) reviewreview of thethe forestryforestry developmentdevelopment scenario in the Asia-PacificAsia-Pacific region his main areas of focus appear to address this widened clienteleclientele for they encompassencompass the following:following: managing remaining natural forestforest areas inin a sustainable way,way, involving locallocal communities inin thethe protectionprotection andand management of remaining natural forest resources, identifying critical watersheds and undertaking programmes of conservation,conservation, finding appropriate solutionssol utions to minimise forestforest degradation byby shiftingshifting cultivators,cultivators, establishing networks of protected areasareas to conserveconserve biodiversity, strengthening conservation, collection, and storage of germplasmgerm plasm together with treetree improvementimprovement toto ensureensure productivity gains inin reforestationreforestation programmes,programmes, 75

utilization of non-woodnon-wood forestforest productsproducts andand plantationplantation grown wood, promoting community forestryforestry and agroforestry promoting amenityamenity forestry.forestry.

It is obvious that the mandate of the forestry profession hashas nownow been broadened to includeinclude newnew prioritiespriorities entailingentailing linkageslinkages withwith otherother groups, institutions, and resourceresource needs.needs. Therefore, educational preparation of forestry professionals should reflect this trend.

TOWARDS THE PRODUCTION OF THE 'NEW'NEW FORESTER'FORESTER'

Faced with these new demands, forestry education programmes, government agencies,agencies, forestryforestry associations,associations, andand individualindividual practitioners should periodically identify and reviewreview thethe knowledge,knowledge, skills, attitudes, and functionsfunctions of foresters and related specialists (social scientists)scientists).. As the variousvarious formsforms ofof forestforest practicepractice (e.g.(e.g. industrialindustrial forestry,forestry, recreation, environmental management, biodiversity conservation, community forestry, farm forestry) change, itit isis essentialessential to understand how to deal with the current and emerging demands on professionals insteadinstead ofof prescribing traditional' remedies thatthat may no longer workwork (Parker,(Parker, 1989).1989).

Forestry education programmes havehave aa range of options asas they reorganize and innovate. ThoseThose involvedinvolved inin the process, however,however, must be realisticrealistic about thethe constraintsconstraints imposedimposed upon them andand taketake advantage ofof every opportunity open to them.them. In manymany casescases thethe programme should pick from thethe goodgood "germplasm""germplasm" ofof thethe existingexisting curricula and build upon it.it. Thus, a combination of old andand newnew maymay best serveserve institutionalinstitutional needs.needs. In otherother cases,cases, programmeprogramme mightmight consider "creative destruction",destruction", defineddefined asas thethe actact of abandoningabandoning the past, outmoded curricula in orderorder toto createcreate differentdifferent curriculacurricula foundedfounded on aa visionvision ofof thethe futurefuture thatthat preparesprepares forestryforestry studentsstudents inin newnew andand better ways to meetmeet thethe challengeschallenges ofof thethe professionprofession (Parker,(Parker, 1989).1989) . 76

Silviculture andand management (defined(defined inin thethe widest context) constitute the major core ofof forestryforestry programmesprogrammes and will remainremain soso following curricula reviewsreviews made in responseresponse to newnew forestryforestry needs.needs. However, thethe review processprocess provides thethe opportunityopportunity to incorporate new knowledge and technologies. TheseThese maymay includeinclude the following.

Genetics and Biotechnology

Traditionally, research and development in genetics hashas beenbeen dominated by the useuse ofof annualannual plantsplants ofof economiceconomic importanceimportance (for(for agriculture or horticulture) and little has been donedone onon woodywoody plants oror forest trees (Richardson,(Richardson, 1988)1988).. NowNow therethere isis aa massivemassive interestinterest and support for such research, in which the new tools of biotechnology are being introduced atat anan increasingincreasing rate.rate. Biotechnology includes any technique thatthat uses livingliving organismsorganisms to makemake oror modifymodify products,products, improve plants or animals, or develop microorganismsmicroorganisms (Lantican,(Lantican, 1990).1990).

In forestry, biotechnology applicationsapplications encompassencompass germplasmgerm plasm preservation, tree seedlingseedling production, fertilization, protection of plantations, woodwood processing, development ofof new forest products,products, wood by-productsby-products uses,uses, andand safesafe managementmanagement ofof hazardoushazardous wasteswastes (Dixon, 1986). For example,example, clonal forestry using vegetativelyvegetatively propagated materials, which llavehave beenbeen geneticallygenetically improved,improved, is increasing in popularity. However, this practice illustrates a contradiction in the users' needs. OnOn thethe oneone hand,hand, wood usersusers and technologists seekseek aa uniform raw material andand forestersforesters areare tryingtrying toto provide it byby restrictingrestricting genotypicgenotypic variation.variation. At thethe samesame time,time, wewe articulate concern over the loss of geneticgenetic diversity which depletion ofof our naturalnatural forestforest implies.implies.

Forest soils are often nutrientnutrient poor.poor. In Southeast Asia alone there are 87 millionmillion hectares of saline, highlyhighly infertile,infertile, andand drought-pronedrought-prone soil unsuitable for traditionally bred trees. ThroughThrough geneticgenetic engineeringengineering itit may be possiblepossible toto engineer treestrees suchsuch thatthat theythey wouldwould acceptaccept certain 7777 symbioticsymbiotic microbes that can fixfix nitrogennitrogen fromfrom thethe airair (Lantican,(Lantican, 1990).1990). This could replacereplace the useuse ofof nitrogennitrogen fertilizersfertilizers which areare costlycostly andand liableliable to causecause undesirableundesirable effecteffect onon thethe environment.environment. The use of mycorrhizae in plantation managementmanagement isis another area ofof promise.promise. Mycorrhizae enhance nutrient uptake, especially of phosphorusphosphorus andand nitrogen. TheyThey alsoalso havehave beenbeen shownshown toto increaseincrease diseasedisease resistance,resistance, reducereduce rootroot shock inin outplantedout planted seedlings,seedlings, and increase tolerancetolerance toto drought, salt, toxicants,toxicants, andand pHpH extremesextremes (Dixon(Dixon andand Marx,Marx, 1987).1987). Severalfold increase in the growthgroWlh ratesrates of tree seedlingsseedlings inin thethe nurserynursery and field situations -- and frequentlyfrequently fieldfield survivalsurvival itselfitself - is observed after proper mycorrhizal fungusfungus manipulation.manipulation.

Yet another example ofof thethe applicationapplication ofof biotechnology is in the areaarea ofof pestpest management,management, asas alternativesalternatives toto chemicalchemical control.control. InsectInsect pathogenic microorganisms offeroffer oneone solutionsolution forfor control.control. ManyMany of thethe microparasitesmicroparasites havehave merits,merits, includingincluding viruses,viruses, bacteria,bacteria, fungi,fungi, protozoa, and rickettsiae (Dixon,1986).(Dixon,1 986). ForFor example,example, the tussock mothmoth of tropical pinespines isis aa seriousserious global pest. AA 1976 1976 outbreakoutbreak inin PapuaPapua New Guinea destroyeddestroyed 40% of the oldest stand of the LapeguLapegu forestforest inin the highlands.highlands. In 1982,1982, viruses pathogenic toto tussock moth werewere released in NewNew GuineaGuinea throughthrough aerialaerial helicopterhelicopter applications.applications. The moth populationspopulations werewere decimateddecimated byby' viralviral populations.populations.

Forest Resources MeasurementMeasurement

InIn the lastlast twotwo decades,decades, wewe havehave witnessedwitnessed thethe explosionexplosion ofof information gathering, storage and management aided by various new tools suchsuch asas remoteremote sensing,sensing, geographic informationinformation systemsystem (GIS)(GIS) and microcomputers. Their applicationapplication in forest managementmanagement isis vast.vast. Indeed, thethe development of satellitesatellite remote sensing, for example, is dubbed by manymany asas thethe greatestgreatest eventsevents in thethe historyhistory ofof naturalnatural resources managementmanagement (Hoffer,(Hoffer, 1988).1988). With itsits developmentdevelopment it hashas become possible to obtainobtain accurate, timely and reliablereliable data about the extent, location and conditioncondition ofof forestforest landland andand rangelands,rangelands, andand other 78

forest resources rapidly and economically over very large geographic areas.

Satellite remoteremote sensingsensing technologytechnology isis aa useful. tooltool forfor forest mapping and inventory work and for monitoring changes that taketake placeplace over time such asas reforestation,reforestation, deforestation,deforestation, andand urbanizationurbanization (World(World Resource Institute, 1988).1988). Over the last 20 yearsyears there has been a considerable improvement in the resolutionresolution ofof satellitesatellite images.images. WWithith LANDSAT 1,1, whichwhich waswas launchedlaunched in 1972, thethe bestbest resolutionresolution thatthat couldcould be obtained was 80 metersmeters oror roughlyroughly thethe ssizeize ofof aa football football field. field. Today,Today, the resolution has been improved to 20 meters which makes itit possible to obtainobtain moremore detaileddetailed informationinformation from the images.images. SatelliteSatellite imagesimages are quite cheap comparedcompared toto aerialaerial photographsphotographs (Lantican,(Lantican, 1990).1990).

GIS is a computerised mapping system for capturing, storing, retrieving, and analyzing spatial and descriptivedescriptive data.data. In GIS, spatially­spatially- referenced data can bebe derived from hardcopy maps,maps, aeraerialial photographs, video capture techniques,techniques, andand satellitesatellite sensors.sensors. The system can integrateintegrate and analyze such data and produce a mapmap ofof thethe results (Graham et al., 1988). NaturalNatural resourcesresources managersmanagers willwill find thethe GIS an excellent tooltool for datadata storagestorage andand displaydisplay becausebecause it cancan produce an output in aa varietyvariety ofof formatsformats suchsuch asas maps,maps, tablestables and statistical graphics. Further, since it can also be usedused asas aa powerfulpowerful modelling tool,tool, managers can alsoalso useuse it for monitoringmonitoring resourceresource changes, forfor analyzing causes andand effects andand forfor testing thethe outcome of alternative causes of action.

The microcomputermicrocomputer is no doubt oneone of the greatest technological innovationsinnovations ofof thethe lastlast two decades. ItsIts developmentdevelopment hashas provided foresters with an inexpensive tdoltool for various aspects ofof forest management enabling as it does data storage,storage, retrievalretrieval and analysis as well as modelling, word processingprocessing andand presentationpresentation ofof informationinformation inin various formats such as tables, charts and graphs. WithinWithin thethe lastlast fivefive years, tremendous improvementsimprovements in the capabilitycapability of microcomputersmicrocomputers for data processing havehave been achieved. TheirTheir datadata storagestorage capacitycapacity andand 79

processing speeds havehave beenbeen considerablyconsiderably enhancedenhanced withwith thethe development of highhigh speedspeed microprocessors,microprocessors, memorymemory enhancingenhancing devices,devices, and high capacity floppy and fifixedxed disk dridrives.ves. TheirTheir capacity for displayingdisplaying andand producingproducing outputoutput hashas alsoalso considerablyconsiderably improvedimproved with the developmentdevelopment of monitorsmonitors withwith superbsuperb resolutionresolution and which cancan show a greatergreater varietyvariety ofof colours.colours. At the same time printers that cancan make letter-quality printoutsprintouts havehave beenbeen produced.produced.

Biodiversity andand SustainableSustainable ManagementManagement

Biodiversity (biological diversity) refers toto the entireentire rangerange ofof variatvariationion among plants,plants, animalsanimals andand micro-organisms,micro-organisms, acrossacross allall levelslevels of the biologicalbiological hierarchy,hierarchy, fromfrom genesgenes toto ecosystems.ecosystems. It is commonly thought of,of, and quantified,quantified, inin termsterms ofof numbersnumbers of species, particularly of vertebrates and higher plants (Kemp and Chai, 1993)1993).. In these terms tropical forestsforests are exceptionallyexceptionally rich,ri ch , containingcontaining halfhalf of allall vertebratesvertebrates and vascular plant species so far identified and, allowing for the much larger numbersnumbers ofof species, particularly invertebrates,invertebrates, yet to bebe discovered,discovered, possibly 90% of thethe world'sworld 's totaltotal speciesspecies (McNeely(McNeely etet a/., at., 1991). In addition, the limitedlimited studiesstudies so farfar mademade ofof variationvariation withinwithin tree species inin naturalnatural forestsforests havehave revealedrevealed high levelslevels of intraspecificintraspecific diversity which are likely to be a major determinant of how successfully a species will respond to disturbance,disturbance, either from naturalnatural causes,causes, or human interferenceinterference (Solbrig,(Solbrig, 1991). ThisThis genetic variation may bebe particularly significantsignificant inin relationrelation to possiblepossible changes inin global or regional cclimate,limate, or toto the llonger-termonger-term effects, and therefore suslainabilitysustainability of the forest.

Biodiversity conservalionconservation maymay be the catchphrase of today'stoday's development efforts because of thethe increasingincreasing concernconcern forfor rapidrapid tropicaltropical deforestation. But, in order to bebe effective,effective, thethe followingfollowing outstandingoutstanding issuesissues needneed toto be resolvedresolved (Boyle,(Boyle, 1992).1992). How do the levellevel and distribution of biodiversitybiodiversity affectaffect ecosystem funfunctioning?ctioning? How do we measuremeasure biodiversitybiodiversity? ? 80

How do we valuevalue biodiversitybiodiversity? ? How can we identify keykey areasareas for conservation? How can progressprogress on forestforest biodiversitybiodiversity issuesissues be promotedpromoted internationally?

Linked to biodiversity conservation is also sustainable productive forest management. ThisThis not only requires adequate controlcontrol over a permanent forest estate but must be supported by information onon the compositioncomposition ofof thethe mainmain forestforest types.types. The requirement isis for information on thethe silviculturalsilvicultural characteristicscharacteristics of thethe principalprincipal speciesspecies togethertogether with thatthat ofof otherother speciesspecies whichwhich maymay competecompete withwith themthem atat various stages of their development.development. Therefore.Therefore, improved knowledge on ecology and autoecologyautoecology as wellwell asas geneticgenetic structurestructure andand breedingbreeding biology ofof thethe principalprincipal speciesspecies cancan contributecontribute greatlygreatly to managementmanagement for thethe conservationconservation ofof biodiversity.biodiversity.

Appropriate SilvicultureSilviculture and HarvestingHarvesting

Silvicultural andand harvesting practice together constitute the "shop front" ofof forestforest managementmanagement (Florence,(Florence. 1993). No mattermatter whatwhat measures are taken.taken, thethe socialsocial acceptabilityacceptability of production forestry mustmust depend.depend, ultimately,ultimately. onon the perceptionperception peoplepeople havehave ofof thethe harvestedharvested forest,forest. andand theirtheir confidenceconfidence inin thethe ecologicalecological sustainabilitysustainability ofof thethe forest.forest.

With regard to silviculture,silviculture. there are two basicbasic elementselements to bebe considered whenwhen aspiring to highhigh standardsstandards ofof ecologicallyecologically sustainablesustainable management (Florence,(Florence. 1993). Firstly.Firstly, silvsilviculturelicultural practicepractice must conform with the dictum that '...... aa goodgood silviculturalsilvicUltural system is not chosen but formulated asas a solution to aa specificspecific setset ofof circumstances'circumstances' (Smith(Smith 1962). ItIt follows thatthat wherewhere these circumstances areare diversediverse silviculturalsilvicultural solutions might also be diverse. ThisThis couldcould requirerequire greatergreater flexibilityflexibility in silvicultural practice,practice. andand the useuse ofof aa widerwider andand moremore innovativeinnovative rangerange of silvicultural methods than is characteristic of muchmuch presentpresent practice. The extenteX1ent to whichwhich this maymay bebe donedone willwill bebe consistentconsistent withwith thethe ecological andand structuralstructural diversitydiversity withinwithin the forests,forests. and thethe rangerange ofof 81 objectives set for the forests. TheThe latterlatter maymay includeinclude the promotion of non-timber products wherewhere appropriate.appropriate.

Secondly, silvicultural practicepractice mustmust be demonstrated toto be ecologically sustainable, that that is,is, mmaintaining'aintaining for for thethe long term,term, thethe plants, animals, communitycommunity patterns and ecological processesprocesses which characterise each of thethe forest'sforest's componentcomponent ecosystems.ecosystems. This willwill requirerequire an understandingunderstanding of community patternspatterns andand theirtheir environmental relationships, an awareness of the way limiting sitesite resourcesresources cancan affectaffect the vigour, dynamics and healthhealth of stands,stands, and anan appreciationappreciation ofof thethe extent to whichwhich thethe composition,composition, stocking andand strstructureucture ofof standsstands might be altered without jeopardizing thethe sustainabilitysustainability ofof thethe ecosystem.ecosystem.

As part of an evolutionaryevolutionary progress towards moremore sensitivesensitive and ecologically sustainable forestry, there must be continuing adjustments to waysways inin whichwhich forestsforests areare harvested. harvested. Changes thatthat should bebe designed to reduce the environmental impactsimpacts ofof harvestingharvesting andand accordaccord greater priority to forest values other than woodwood production alone. ThisThis will be consonantconsonant withwith thethe goalsgoals ofof sustainablesustainable management ofof for.estforest resources.

New sources of knowledgeknowledge whichwhich havehave traditionallytraditionally beenbeen ignored in silvicultural and harvesting practicepractice oughtought toto be tapped.tapped. ForFor example, the indigenousindigenous knowledge of locallocal peoplepeople mightmight serveserve asas aa tremendous source ofof information about thethe biologicalbiological diversity, potential uses, growth patterns of variousvarious specspecies,ies, and reareasonssons forfor poorpoor production inin somesome partsparts ofof thethe nearbynearby naturalnatural forest.forest. However,However, the skills (e.g.(e.g. communication) needed to obtain this kind of knowledge are different from those required for traditional forest inventories.inventories. Therefore,Therefore, the educationeducation of practitionerspractitioners maymay need toto bebe expandedexpanded to taketake advantage of newnew opportunities.opportunities. Here social technologies, suchsuch asas social sampling,sampling, surveysurvey design,design, interview techniques, methods ofof systematic observation, and the analysis of social stastatisticstistics may be mostmost useful (Parker,(Parker, 1989).1989). These social technologies are alsoalso equallyequally importantimportant for the success of community/farm/social forestry.forestry. 82

Economics andand ResourceResource ValuationValuation

Economics, particularly with regard to forest resources management, has been undergoing dramatic changes. ThisThis hashas to bebe reflected in forestryforestry education.education. Traditionally forestforest economics hashas tended toto focusfocus onon thethe financialfinancial viabilityviability of plantation forestry, and inin the case of natural forests it is more restricted to determining the viability of logging for timbertimber production.production. TheThe "intangibles""intangibles" havehave only been given lip services. Timber from the natural forest has alwaysalways beenbeen underpricedunderpriced as comparedcompared toto stumpagestumpage values,values, hence leadingleading to extensive exploitation (Awang(Awang NoorNoor andand Vincent,Vincent, 1993).1993).

This has changedchanged.. Today,Today, there are calls for greater economiceconomic emphasis toto be given to products and services otherother thanthan timber, and forfor thethe needneed toto givegive considerationconsideration toto thethe effecteffect ofof increasingincreasing scale of resource use. For example,example, that utilizationutilization of non-timbernon-timber goods isis economically viable compared to otherother forms ofof landland useuse was shown in a studystudy byby PetersPeters etet a/.(1989) al. (1 989) inin aa PeruvianPeruvian tropicaltropical forest.forest. In thethe calculation of the netnet presentpresent value of fruit, latex and timber underunder two different conditions ofof selectiveselective cutting in one hectarehectare of forest, fruit and latex were foundfound to account forfor upup toto 98%98% of thethe totaltotal netnet present value of the forest.forest.

There are some constraints inin doing this kindkind ofof analysis,analysis, especially when we have to deal with non-timbernon-timber goodsgoods andand servicesservices that do notnot havehave monetisedmonetised markets.markets. SeveralSeveral economic tools,tools, however,however, have been developeddeveloped recently toto overcomeovercome this.this. Shadow pricing is one of them.them. It has been usedused in cost/benefitcost/ benefit analysis,analysis, notnot onlyonly toto valuevalue goods and services for which therethere areare nono monetisedmonetised markets but also toto priceprice non-timbernon-timber goodsgoods andand timbertimber withwith monetisedmonetised marketsmarkets onon theirtheir truetrue valuevalue (Salleh(Salleh andand ManokaranManokaran 1993).1993).

For long term forestry, an approach to valuationvaluation of allall goodsgoods and servicesservices is beingbeing developeddeveloped through the conceptconcept ofof "emergy""emergy" (embodied energy) (Nilsson(Nilsson and Sundberg,Sundberg, 1990).1990). Through thisthis 83 concept, which isis inin the realmsrealms of ecologicalecological economics,economics, all forestforest goods and services could be valued in terms of energy, not money as inin traditional economics, and then compared with other commodities through energyenergy flows,flows, sincesince short-termshort-term monetarymonetary values may bebe unreliable in predictingpredicting long-term vvalues.alues. EcologicalEcological economicseconomics attemptsattempts to overcomeovercome somesome of thethe basic difficulties perceivedperceived in traditionaltraditional economics, such as the possibilitypossibility ofof substitutionsubstitution ofof resourcesresources thatthat could becomebecome scarce,scarce, asas wellwell as thethe functionfunction ofof thethe marketmarket place.place. ItIt may be too earlyearly to judgejudge the role ofof ecologicalecological economicseconomics in forestry but the emergyemergy conceptconcept holdsholds muchmuch promise.promise.

Social SciencesSciences

Forestry profession has now woken up toto thethe newnew realities.realities. It needs public approval in thethe conduct of itsits practicespractices for itit toto survive.survive. There are at least two aspects that warrant attention in this area. Firstly,Firstly, foresters must learn more how toto communicate with the public at large inin "selling" thethe wayway theythey conductconduct theirtheir profession. VeryVery often itit isis notnot that what they do isis wrong,wrong, butbut moremore aa mattermatter ofof howhow thethe publicpublic perceive their actions.actions. They may be thethe custodiancustodian of thethe nation'snation's resources, but they are notnot devoiddevoid of public accountability. Therefore,Therefore, public relation is something forestersforesters mustmust learnlearn toto master.master.

Secondly, many areas ofof new forestryforestry (e.g. community forestry, farm forestry,forestry, socialsocial forestryforestry andand agroforestry)agroforestry) requirerequire directdirect people'speople's participation. TheyThey usuallyusually formform partsparts ofof developmentdevelopment projectsprojects whichwhich usually attempt to address a number of complex issues that may include deforestation, environmental degradation,degradation, and ruralrural poverty.poverty. Their success depends not only onon thethe understandingunderstanding ofof thethe biophysicalbiophysical conditions underunder which they willwill bebe implemented,implemented, butbut alsoalso thethe social,social, economic and culturalcultural contextcontext withinwithin whichwhich theythey havehave toto operate.operate. Traditionally trained foresters withwith limitedlimited socialsocial sciencessciences education education are generallygenerally handicapped forfor this task.task. TheThe infusioninfusion ofof disciplines such asas anthropology, political science, andand sociology must be increasedincreased to prepare thethe new forestry professionals for for thethe realityreality ofof thethe worldworld in which they willwill work.work. 84

CONCLUSIONS

In relationrelation to thethe revisionrevision ofof forestryforestry curriculacurricula inin responseresponse toto users'users needsneeds BurchBurch (1989) (1989) hashas succinctlysuccinctly expressedexpressed the situation when he stated the following:following:

" Professional forestryforestry education programmes have a dualdual responsibilityresponsibility---to---to retain thethe continuity in their core subject matter while adapting toto changing needs by altering the mix and nature of course offeringsofferings.. ThisThis dualdual responsibilityresponsibility is greatly affected byby changeschanges inin ourour knowledge base thatthat makes some practicespractices outdated and confirmsconfirms others. AlsoAlso therethere areare changeschanges inin thethe naturalnatural systems that we manage.manage. Finally, therethere areare natural changeschanges inin thethe human perceptions ofof the values, benefits and needsneeds soughtsought fromfrom naturalnatural systems."systems."

The revision must be done in the nationalnational context while beingbeing sensitive to international concerns. InIn meeting thethe demand,demand, we should take accountaccount of the longlong time required for humanhuman resourcesresources development. TheThe newnew forester cannot be producedproduced at the speed that many would like.like.

REFERENCES

Awang Noor, A. and Vincent, J.R. 1993.1993. ComparativeComparative economiceconomic analysisanalysis of forestforest revenuerevenue systemssystems inin PeninsularPeninsular Malaysia.Malaysia. Report for Osborn Program Workshop (unpublished).(unpublished). 9 pp.

Boyle, T.J.BT.J.B.. 1992.1992. BiodiBiodiversityversity challenges toto forest scientists. Journal of TropicalTropical ForestForest ScienceScience 5:5: 216-231.216-231.

Burch, W.R.W.R . 1989.1989. Putting curriculumcurriculum developmentdevelopment intointo its socialsocial ecological context--acontext--a frameworkframework forfor askingasking questions.questions. In Parker,Parker, J.K. andand Burch,Burch, W.R.,W.R., eds.eds. TheThe SocialSocial SciencesSciences in AsianAsian Forestry Curricula: IssueIssuess to consider for CurricuCurriculumlum Development. Publication ofof TropicalTropical ResourcesResources Institute,Institute, YaleYale School ofof ForestryForestry andand EnvironmentalEnvironmental Studies.Studies. NewNew Haven,Haven, Connecticut. 32 pp.pp. 85

Dixon, R.K.R.K. 1986.1986. OpportunitiesOpportunities forfor MPTSMPTS biotechnologybiotechnology researchresearch networking, pp.pp. 5-14.5-14. In Adams, N.A.NA and Dixon,Dixon, R.K.,R.K., eds.eds. Forestry Networks. Proceedings of the First Network Workshop of the Forestry/FuelwoodForestry /Fuelwood ResearchResearch andand DevelopmentDevelopment ProjectProject (F(F/FRED) /FRED) held 24-2724-27 SeptemberSeptember 1986 in Bangkok,Bangkok, Thailand.Thailand. Winrock International.International.

DixonDixon,, R.K. and Marx,Marx, D.H.D.H. 1987.1987. Mycorrhizae.Mycorrhizae. InIn Durzan,Durzan, D. andand Bonga, J., eds.eds. TissueTissue Culture Methods in Forestry.Forestry. MartinusMartinus Nijhoff Publication,Publication, TheThe Netherlands.Netherlands.

Florence, R.G. 1993. Forestry in transition in Australia: From the primacy of wood production towards ecologically sustainable development. PaperPaper presented at 14th Commonwealth ForestryForestry Conference heldheld 13-1813-18 SeptemberSeptember 1993,1993, in KualaKuala Lumpur,Lumpur, Malaysia. 39 pp.pp.

Graham, L., Coulson, R.N. andand Lovelady,Lovelady, C.N. 1988. Intelligent geographic informationinformation systems.systems. ProceedingsProceedings ofof ResourceResource Technology 88, International Symposium on Advanced Technology in NaturalNatural ResourceResource Management,Management, FortFort Collins,Collins, Colorado,U.S.A.

Hoffer, R.R. 1988. Remote sensingsensing fromfrom space - two decades of change.change. Proceedings of Resource Technology 88, International Symposium on AdvancedAdvanced TechnologyTechnology inin NaturalNatural ResourceResource Management, Fort Collins,Collins, Colorado,Colorado, U.S.A.U.S'A

Kemp, R.H. and Chai, L. 1993. Conservation and implications ofof lossloss ofof biodiversity with particularparticular referencereference toto forestforest management.management. Paper presented to 14th14th CommonwealthCommonwealth ForestryForestry ConferenceConference held 13-18 September 1993,1993, in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.Malaysia. 1313 pp.pp. 86

Lantican, C.B. 1990.1990. Advanced technologytechnology outlook and its significance on education systemssystems and scientists'scientists' resources,resources, pp.pp. 83-88.83-88. In Stevens, MM.E.,.E., Bhumibhamon, S. and Wood, H.,H., eds. ResearchResearch Policy for CommunitCommunityy Forestry Asia-Pacific Region. ProceedingsProceedings of aa SeminarSeminar heldheld 8-118-1 1 January January 19901990 inin Bangkok,Bangkok, Thailand.Thailand. Regional CommunitCommunityy ForestryForestry TrainingTraining Center,Center, Bangkok.Bangkok.

IVIcNeely,McNeely, J.A.,J.A., Miller,Miller, K.R., Reid,Reid, W.V.,W.V., Mittermeier,Mittermeier, R.AR.A., and Werner, T.B. 1991. ConservingConserving thethe world's biological diversity.diversity. IUCN,IUCN, Gland,Gland, Switzerland; WRI, C, WWF-US andand thethe WorldWorld Bank, Washington, D.C. 193 pp.pp.

NNilsson,il sson, P.O. andand Sundberg,Sundberg, V.V. 1990.1990.1ntegration Integration of of ecological ecological economic economic perspective into forest researchresearch and practice -- PartPart 2:2: Views on the usefulnessusefulness of ecologicalecological economicseconomics inin forestry. PaperPaper presented at the XIXXIX 1UFROIUFRO WorWorldld Congress, held 5-115-11 August 1990, in Montreal, Canada.Canada.

ParkerParker,, J.J. K. 1989.1989. StrategicStrategic considerationsconsiderations for forestryforestry curriculumcurriculum revisionrevision and development. InIn Parker,Parker, J.K.J.K. andand Burch,Burch, W.R.W.R. The Social Sciences in Asian Forestry Curricula: Issues toto consider for Curriculum Development.Development. PublicationPublication ofof Tropical ResourcesResources Institute,Institute, Yale School ofof ForestryForestry andand EnvironmentalEnvironmental Studies.Studies. New Haven, Connecticut. 32 pp.pp.

Peters, C.M.,CM., Gentry,Gentry, A.H.A.H. andand Mendelsohn,Mendelsohn, R.R. 1989.1989. ValuationValuation of aa tropical forestforest inin PeruvianPeruvian Amazonia.Amazonia. NatureNature 339:655-56.339:655-56.

Salleh, M.NM.N.. and Manokaran, N. 1993. Mechanism for prioritisation andand management of tropical forest for conservationconservation.. Paper presented at 14th CommonwealthCommonwealth Forestry Conference, held 13- 18 September 1993,199q, in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.Malaysia. 1313 pp.pp.

Smith, D.M. 1962. The practice of silviculture, 8th ed.ed. JohnJohn WileyWiley andand Sons. 527pp. 87

Solbrig, O. (ed.) 1991.1991. From genes to ecosystems:ecosystems: a research agenda for biodiversity.biodiversity. IUBS,IUBS, Paris.Paris.

Rao. Y.S. 1990. Community forestry research:research: anan Asia-PacificAsia-Pacific Overview,Overview, pp. 10-15.10-15. In Stevens,Stevens, M.E.,ME., Bhumibhamon,Bhumibhamon, S.S. andand Wood,Wood, H.,H., eds. ResearchResearch PolicyPolicy forfor CommunityCommunity ForestryForestry Asia-PacificAsia-Pacific Region. Proceedings of aa SeminarSeminar heldheld 8-118-11 JanuaryJanuary 19901990 inin Bangkok, Thailand.Thailand . RegionalRegional CommunityCommunity ForestryForestry TrainingTraining Center, Bangkok.Bangkok.

Richardson, S.D. 1988. Changing perceptions of forestry-someforestry-some implications for researchresearch education.education. PaperPaper presentedpresented at FAOFAO Expert Consultation of the Asian Network on ForestryForestry EducationEducation held 15-17 June 1988, in Bangkok, Thailand. 19 pp.pp.

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APPENDIXAPPENDIX 7

INTEGRATIONINTEGRATION OF UNIVERSITY COURSES ININ EXCHANGE OF FORESTRY STUDENTS IN EUROPE UNDER THE ERASMUS/SILVA-NETWORK SCHEME

by

Michel Becker 1 and Pieter SchmidtSchmidt 2 2

SUMMARY

The European Community ActionAction SchemeScheme forfor thethe MobilityMobility of University Students (ERASMUS)(ERASMUS) was established inin 1987.1987. ItsIts main aim is toto motivatemotivate westernwestern EuropeanEuropean students toto spendspend threethree toto twelvetwelve months of their study time at aa higherhigher educationeducation institution in an EC country which isis notnot thethe student'sstudent's homehome country.country.

Students interested in the programme apply for a grantgrant whichwhich compensates them for the additionaladditional costscosts ofof studystudy abroad.abroad. They enroll at the host institution without paying tuition fees there. GradesGrades obtainedobtained at the host institution mustmust be fully recognizedrecognized and integratedintegrated in the degree or diploma atat home.home.

1 Professor, University ofof Freiburg,Freiburg, FederalFederal Rep.Rep. ofof Germany.Germany.

2 2 Associate Professor,Professor, Agricultural UniversityUniversity ofof Wageningen,Wageningen, The Netherlands.Netherlands. 89

SILVA-NetworkSILVA-Network isis anan Inter-University Cooperation Programme under thethe ERASMUSERASMUS scheme.scheme. Despite aa low budget and a looseloose institutional structurestructure it hashas succeededsucceeded inin linkinglinking moremore thanthan twentytwenty forestry education institutions atat universityuniversity level locatedlocated in fourteenfourteen European countries andand in organizing the exchange of more than 6060 forestry students during the 1993/941993/94 academicacademic year.year. Differences in curricula, course structures and exam regulations make it difficult for a foreign student atat a hosthost universityuniversity toto tailortailor a studystudy programmeprogramme to his/herhis/ her requiredrequired shape.shape.

INTRODUCTION

The ERASMUSERASMUS Scheme

1. General Introduction

The EuRopean CommunityCommunity ActionAction SchSchemeeme forfor the Mobility of University StudentsStudents (ERASMUS)(ERASMUS) waswas establishedestablished inin 1987.1987.

ERASMUS isis not simplysimply anan acronymacronym butbut recallsrecalls to mindmind Erasmus Desiderius ofof Rotterdam,Rotterdam, aa famousfamous Dutch scholar, writer, and humanist whowho lived from 14661466 toto 1536.1536. ErasmusErasmus workedworked inin the Netherlands, France, England,England, Italy,Italy, Germany,Germany, andand Switzerland.Switzerland. ItIt waswas usual in the middle ages forfor students not to enroll and study atat aa single university but ratherrather to movemove overover thethe Euro-peanEuro-pean continentcontinent fromfrom oneone university or abbeyabbey to another,another, endeavouringendeavouring toto comecome intointo personalpersonal contact withwith prominentprominent scientists and teachers ofof their time, such as Erasmus. Travelling waswas exhausting,exhausting, expensive, and often dangerous inin the middlemiddle ages;ages; therefore,therefore, studentsstudents neededneeded sponsors, and theythey usedused to movemove in groups, often covering large distances onon foot. Communication betweenbetween scholars,scholars, onon thethe other hand,hand, waswas easyeasy inin medieval European academicacademic societysociety forfor everybody spoke Latin in addition toto theirtheir mothermother tongue.tongue. 90

Thus, the ERASMUS scheme'sscheme's acronymacronym indicatesindicates thethe mainmain aimaim of the programme, namely to support student mobility in Europe. It triestries toto stimulate the exchange of students and toto accelerate thethe integration of the peoplepeople ofof thethe Europe.Europe. Originally only aaimedimed at the 1212 membermember countries of the EuropeanEuropean CommunityCommunity (EC),(EG), thethe ERASMUSERASMUS scheme has since been expanded to assist students from EFTA countries (European Free Trade Association, i.e. Austria, Finland, IIceland,celand, Norway, Sweden and Switzerland) to attend for some part of their degree a universityuniversity or equivalent establishment in an EC-country.EC-country.

The ECEC hashas establishedestablished furtherfurther programmesprogrammes whichwhich supportsupport mobility and exchangeexchange ofof studentsstudents andand scientists,scientists, e.g.e.g. fromfrom easterneastern Europe or from developing countries. These instruments will not be dealtdealt with in this paper.paper.

Under the ERASMUS scscheme,heme, thethe ECEC providesprovides thethe necessary finance toto MemberMember States. TheThe basisbasis forfor the distributiondistribution of thethe ERASMUS budget, budget, amounting amounting to to a a totaltotal of aboutabout 4545 MillionMillion ECUECU (European CurrencyCurrency UnitUnit,, roughlyroughly equivalent toto the US$),US$), amongamong member states is primarily the proportion of 18 to 25 year-olds coupled with thethe proportionproportion of all students enrolledenrolled at higherhigher educationeducation institutions in each ECEC country.

ERASMUS grants grants may may bebe usedused toto stimulatestimulate four typestypes ofof activities:

- Student mobility - Joint developmentdevelopment of curriculacurricula - Teacher mobility - Organization ofof intensiveintensive programmes.programmes.

This paper concentratesconcentrates on on student student mobility.mobility. Joint curricula is anan attemptattempt toto encourageencourage parallelparallel developmentdevelopment of curriculacurricula soso so so making it easier for students to integrate their studies abroad with those at their home institution.institution. Teacher Teacher mobilitymobility motivates lecturers to go to 91 a foreignforeign universityuniversity and teachteach therethere forfor aa lengthylengthy period.period. Intensive programmes are specialspecial courses taughttaught overover oneone toto four weeks by lecturerslecturers fromfrom different universities and open to studentsstudents fromfrom differentdifferent countries.

The somewhat complicated organisationalorganisational andand administrativeadministrative structurestructure of the ERASMUSERASMUS scheme willwill not be explainedexplained inin anyany detail.detail. ItIt is necessary,necessary, however,however, to introduceintroduce thethe Inter-UniversityInter-University CooperationCooperation Programmes (ICPs). An ICPICP maymay bebe defineddefined asas aa cooperatingcooperating groupgroup of at leastleast twotwo departmentaldepartmental unitsunits fromfrom differentdifferent countriescountries inin aa specialspecial discipline - such as forestry. Formally,Formally, rectorsrectors oror presidents presidents declaredeclare inin a Letter of Intent thatthat theirtheir universityuniversity isis willing toto participateparticipate inin aa certaincertain ICP.ICP. ButBut whatwhat makes ICPs workwork are thethe activitiesactivities developed by faculties, departments, study coursescourses or howeverhowever andand whateverwhatever thethe disciplinesdiSCiplines may be organized andand namednamed (in the following, the term departmentdepartment will bebe used).used). Usually,Usually, anan ICPICP isis coordinatedcoordinated byby aa universityuniversity teacherteacher based in oneone ofof the the participating participating departments. departments. ThisThis programmeprogramme coordinator cooperatescooperates withwith thethe ICP-representatives ICP-representatives of thethe otherother departments involved.involved. He/sheHe/she preparesprepares thethe yearlyyearly applicationsapplications forfor fundsfunds to be addressed to the ERASMUS Bureau in Brussels as well as periodicperiodic reports; the coordinator also initiates meetings of thethe ICP-ICP­ representatives.

2. ERASMUS Students

In thethe initial phase 1988/89,1988/89, nearlynearly 12,00012,000 studentsstudents werewere awarded an ERASMUS grant. The number has risenrisen toto 70,00070,000 inin thethe period 1992/93.1992/93. ItIt isis expected that moremore thanthan 100,000100,000 studentsstudents willwill make use of the scheme in 1993/94;1993/94; thisthis figurefigure maymay bebe comparedcompared withwith a total of 8 to 99 millionmill ion studentsstudents at higherhigher educational institutionsinstitutions in the EC. Students receive mobility grants either through an existing ICP or individually, the latterlatter beingbeing knownknown asas "free"free movers".movers". InIn practice,practice, onlyonly aa small number of awards is open for studentsstudents who applyapply directlydirectly toto thethe nationalnational ERASMUS agencies. As a rule,rule, mobility grantsgrants areare awardedawarded to students enrolled at departments participating inin Inter-UniversityInter-University Coope-Coope- 92 ration Programmes.Programmes. InterestedInterested studentsstudents havehave toto applyapply to to the the ERASMUS ERASMUS represrepresentativeentative of their department.

It is thethe tasktask ofof thethe ICPICP representativesrepresentatives toto inform students ofof their department about thethe mobility scheme,scheme, to givegive advice to students interested inin studies abroad,abroad, toto help themthem selectselect a suitablesuitable hosthost university andand to initiateinitiate thethe contactcontact withwith thethe representativerepresentative of thethe partner department_department. The representativesrepresentatives alsoalso coach studentsstudents from partner departments during theirtheir staystay atat thethe hosthost university.university. Quite often, however, a specialspecial supervisor is alsoalso involved. StudentsStudents atat thethe receivingreceiving department can also be important rolerole inin helping guests to settle in and to adapt toto theirtheir newnew surroundings.surroundings.

These are the mainmain regulationsregulations ofof thethe ERASMUS ERASMUS scheme:scheme:

1 . The scheme is open to all types of higher education institutions and to allall subjectsubject areas.areas. ItIt isis openopen alsoalso forfor PhDPhD students,students, eveneven though byby farfar thethe majoritymajority ofof participantsparticipants areare undergraduates.undergraduates.

2. Grants are awarded to nationalsnationals of ECEC andand ofof EFTAEFTA MemberMember States. However, students from EFTA countriescountries get fundingfunding only for studyingstudying inin anan ECEC country.country.

3. A student cancan onlyonly profitprofit onceonce from from ERASMUS ERASMUS funding.funding.

4. A studentstudent will be awardedawarded with a grantgrant onlyonly afterafter he/shehe/she hashas been enrolled in the homehome countrycountry forfor atat leastleast oneone year.year.

5. The duration of staystay atat thethe hosthost universityuniversity mustmust normallynormally bebe between three and twelve months.months.

6. The student stays enrolled at the homehome university,university, paying the usual tuition fees; he/she alsoalso enrollsenrolls atat thethe hosthost university,university, gaining the advantagesadvantages of student status there, but withoutwithout paying tuition fees.fees. 93

7. The stay must be confined to the period from 1st1st July to 30th30th of SeptemberSeptember of thethe followingfollowing year.year. ForestryForestry studentsstudents andand scientists regard this a somewhat restrictiverestrictive and unnecessary for itit makesmakes forfor difficulties,difficulties, e.g. collection ofof field data for a thesis over one growinggrowing season.season.

Student mobilitymobility grantsgrants do do notnot covecoverr total costs of studystudy abroad, but only compensate for any additional costs, especially higher costs of living,living, traveltravel expenses,expenses, and all costs of anyany foreignforeign languagelanguage preparation. TheThe sumssums providedprovided toto students varyvary from countrycountry toto country because they areare fixedfixed in part byby thethe nationalnational ERASMUSERASMUS agencies andand in partpart byby thethe individualindivid ual universities.universities. Usually thethe funds available areare not sufficient to covercover allall needs.needs. InIn thisthis eventevent aa nationalnational agency may decide to limit the number of students supported. However,However, thethe tendencytendency seems toto be to limitlimit paymentspayments for each grantee in order toto include a highhigh numbernumber ofof participants.participants.

InIn Germany, forfor example, thethe maximum amount payable per month and studentstudent isis theoreticallytheoretically fixedfixed atat aboutabout 340340 ECUECU perper monthmonth but in reality the grants awarded areare onlyonly aboutabout 150150 ECU.ECU. According to the ERASMUSERASMUS Annual Report for 19921992 the average ERASMUS student grant paid by allall thethe nationalnational agenciesagencies was 192192 ECU per monthmonth inin 19901990/91./91.

SILVA-Network

2.1 Development of the Network

Of moremore thanthan 23002300 Inter-UniversityInter-University CooperationCooperation ProgrammesProgrammes currently under the roofroof ofof ERASMUSERASMUS three are formed by forestryforestry education institutions. SILVA-NetworkSILVA-Network waswas thethe firstfirst toto be founded and isis by farfar thethe largest.largest. Of the two others, one is a cooperationcooperation of fourfour professional forestry schoolsschools inin GermanyGermany andand Greece,Greece, whereaswhereas the third encompasses ssixix universities organizing intensive courses on shortshort rotation forestry. The examples show thatthat thethe ERASMUS schemescheme allows 9494 different typestypes of cooperationcooperation and thatthat it does not onlyonly covercover universitiesuniversities..

After the start of ERASMUS inin 1987 mostmost forestryforestry departmentsdepartments of universitiesuniversities in ECEC MemberMember StatesStates examinedexamined the programmeprogramme and judged itit toto bebe veryvery ambitious.ambitious. EvenEven beforebefore thethe inceptioninception ofof ERASMUS ERASMUS itit waswas commoncommon practicepractice to hosthost studentsstudents fromfrom otherother countries,countries, toto encourage students who wwishedished to seek study opportunitiesopportunities abroad, to inviteinvite colleagues from from otherother departmentsdepartments or or toto support themthem in organizing field study tours etc.etc. ThereThere waswas alsoalso somesome early experience with Joint StudyStudy ProgrammesProgrammes ofof thethe ECEC thatthat ranran fromfrom 19761976 to 1987.1987. So inin principal thethe aimsaims ofof ERASMUS,ERASMUS, toto further student mobility and thethe exchange of lecturers,lecturers, and especially thethe offer of fundsfunds forfor thesethese purposes, were well received. However, the specific aims of the scheme seemed hard to meet,meet, whilewhile thethe formalformal requirementsrequirements lookedlooked likelike· generating a lot of administrative inconvenienceinconvenience.. SpecificSpecific requirementsrequirements include:include:

Formal declarationsdeclarations by universities are required in order to enter an ICP.

Activities must be planned in detail one year beforebefore the beginbegin of the funding period.period.

Departmental planning planning must must be be tunedtuned inin timetime with that ofof partner departments.

Detailed applicationsapplications forfor grants must be presentedpresented to thethe ECEC administration.

Financial statements asas wellwell asas reports on activitiesactivities must bebe submitted everyevery year. 95

Student mobilitymobility mustmust be organizedorganized inin a wayway thatthat gradesgrades obtained at a host department areare fully recognized andand cancan bebe integrated in the degree or diplomadiploma atat thethe homehome department.department.

This requires (beside of open mindedminded examiners) thethe harmonization ofof curricula and exam regulations or a transfer system for credits obtainedobtained abroad.abroad.

Despite such scepticism andand reservationsreservations several EC forestry departments showed an earlyearly interestinterest inin ERASMUSERASMUS programmeprogramme andand began to contactcontact othersothers in order toto ascertainascertain prerequisites for cooperation. Eventually the Forestry Department of the UniversityUniversity ofof Wageningen inin the Netherlands statedstated thatthat itit was willing to carry thethe administratiadministrativeve burdenburden ofof coordinating anyany forestry ICP thatthat might be established,established, this came to bebe knownknown asas thethe SILVA-Network. SILVA·Network. In 1989,1989, 9 forestryforestry departmentsdepartments fromfrom 77 ECEC countriescountries formedformed SILVA-NetworkSILVA·Network and presented the first funding application for thethe studystudy year 1990/91. This was at a time when most ICPs only had two member institutions. InIn 1991, the number of forestryforestry departmentsdepartments rose to 15.15. Today, SILVA-NetworkSILVA·Network links 21 forestry departments from 14 countries, of which 99 areare ECEC MemberMember StatesStates andand 55 belongbelong toto thethe EFTA.EFTA. CountriesCountries where SILVA-NetworkSI LVA·N etwork departments areare located areare shownshown inin thethe mapmap onon page 8. The NetworkNetwork is nownow managingmanaging the fourthfourth yearyear (1993/94)(1993 /94) ofof student exchange. As yet forestry education institutions from Denmark and SpainSpain areare missing,missing, butbut universities fromfrom these countriescountries willwill probably participate in thethe studystudy yearyear 1994/95.1994/95. TheThe totaltotal numbernumber ofof departments participating would then be expected to bebe 25.25.

2.2 How the Network worksworks

SILVA·NetworkSILVA-Network is directeddirected at intinternationalernational forestry education onon university lelevelvel within the ERASMUS programme.programme. It includincludeses all forestry subjects, from botanybotany andand silviculture to forest policy oror woodwood technology. Teaching and researchresearch atat thethe departmentsdepartments involvedinvolved covercover aspects of forestryforestry inin polarpolar regionsregions asas wellwell asas inin densely densely populated populated 96

Central Europe, in Mediterranean regions and in the tropics. ThisThis greatgreat variety opens up the possibilitypossibility for mobilemobile forestryforestry students to addadd specific elements toto thethe studystudy programmesprogrammes offered at theirtheir homehome departments. One might considerconsider SILVA-NetworkSILVA-Network asas thethe nucleusnucleus ofof an InternationalInternational Forestry University.University. But beforebefore falling intointo rapturesraptures aboutabout the possibility of such anan idealideal institutioninstitution at some stage inin thethe distant future, it beholds usus toto looklook atat howhow thethe SILVA-NetworkSILVA-Network functions today.

Organization, coordination, finance

Since its foundation,foundation, SILVA-NetworkSILVA-Network hashas been coordinated by the DepartmentDepartment of ForestryForestry atat thethe AgriculturalAgricultural UniversityUniversity Wageningen,Wageningen, The Netherlands. The yearly budget aavailablevailable forfor thethe administrationadministration andand coordination of this groupgroup ofof nownow 2121 departmentsdepartments amounts toto aboutaboU1 20,000 ECU. ThisThis is, underunder westernwestern EuropeanEuropean conditions,conditions, not eveneven enough money to paypay thethe salarysalary ofof oneone employee.employee.

Therefore, SILVA-Network neitherneither boastsboasts an impressive office facility nor a permanentpermanent staff.staff. The EC financefinalice awarded isis helpful and itit isis necessary, however whatwhat makesmakes thethe networknetwork workwork isis not in the firstfirst instanceinstance money,money, but the activityactivity of the coordinating teamteam inin Wageningen, thethe commitment of the representativesrepresentatives and of a usuallyusually group of lecturers in every participating department, and not at least the growing interest of forestry students to movemove (which(which againagain motivatesmotivates members ofof the teaching staff to involveinvolve actively in the ERASMUSERASMUS programme)programme).. The main elementselements holding the networknetwork togethertogether andand developing it areare meetingsmeetings ofof thethe representatives,representatives, organized once oror twicetwic.e a a yearyear in different countries and hostedhosted by oneone ofof thethe departments. A considerable partpart ofof thethe ERASMUSERASMUS funding mentioned above is usedused toto covercover traveltravel expensesexpenses inin connectionconnection withwith thesethese meetings. This externalex1ernal finance isis vital as traveltravel budgetsbudgets of thethe departments are small and the representativesrepresentatives dodo not havehave access to individual ERASMUSERASMUS funds. 97

The SISILVA-Network LVA-Network meetings have different functions. Generally, they areare necessarynecessary toto bringbring thethe representativesrepresentatives togethertogether for directdirect exchange of information, for discussion ofof difficultiesdifficulties met,met, for planningplanning of future activities,activities, also, and not at least, for mutual motivation through personal contacts.contacts. The individualindividual departments presentpresent themselves, their curricula and specific capacities on these occasions. The representatives contactcontact eacheach otherother inin order to findfind adequateadequate suitablesuitable host departments and tutors for studentsstudents interestedinterested in a studystudy periodperiod abroad. TheThe meetingsmeetings supportsupport thethe coordinatorcoordinator inin preparing thethe applications for fundingfunding andand inin takingtaking decisionsdecisions onon futurefuture activities.activities.

The coordinatorcoordinator andand thethe individualindividual representativesrepresentatives distributedistribute written informationinformation to thethe otherother departments, departments, coveringcovering institutionalinstitutional structure, study and research subjects, course programmes, duration of courses, start and duration of lecturelecture terms,terms, languageslanguages used, costs ofof living, examexam regulationsregulations etc.etc.

The teachers in thethe departmentsdepartments are askedasked every year toto propose thesis subjects suitable for foreignforeign students.students. BasedBased on thethe proposals the coordinator compiles a listlist vvhichwhich is availableavailable to thethe representatives andand toto students who intend to dodo thesisthesis researchresearch ab-ab­ road. Even thoughthough it isis evident that thesis projects must be shaped in direct contactcontact betweenbetween an individualindividual student and his/herhis/ her instructor,instructor, these listslists stimulate interestinterest and ideas and help students to identifyidentify anan institution inin which they would likelike toto stay.stay.

More instruments of information, coordination, and motivation have been proposedproposed andand shallshall bebe developed,developed, e.g.e.g. aa SILVA-Network SILVA-Network Newsletter and a standard questionnaire to interviewinterview students on theirtheir experiences. 98

Languages

Teaching at the departmentsdepartments forming SILVA-NetworkSILVA-Network isis in 1010 different languages. Only few forestry departments also offer courses in a foreign language, mainlymainly EnglishEnglish inin non-Englishnon-English speakingspeaking countries.countries.

It isis expected thatthat guest-studentsguest-students mastermaster the languagelanguage spokenspoken at their hosthost department.department. TheyThey areare stimulatedstimulated to improveimprove languagelanguage knowledge following coursescourses eithereither at home or immediately afterafter arrivingarriving in thethe host country. The ERASMUS fundingfunding comprises a modest budget to financefinance languagelanguage preparationpreparation ofof students.students. PositivePositive experienceexperience hashas been reported with informalinformal waysways ofof "language"language training",training", e.g.e.g. when SILVA-Network studentsstudents beganbegan theirtheir staystay abroadabroad withwith fiefieldld work in the forest together with aa groupgroup ofof hosthost students.students.

In practice, the command of foreignforeign languages is one importantimportant factor influencinginfluencing thethe flowflow ofof studentsstudents withinwithin SILVA-Network.SILVA-Network. Obviously, the decisiondecision to studystudy abroadabroad forfor somesome monthsmonths isis muchmuch easiereasier forfor students who already master a foreignforeign languagelanguage spokenspoken atat SILVA-SILVA­ Network departments; for many of these students the wish toto improve languagelanguage command isis oneone strong motivemotive toto participateparticipate inin thethe exchange. Students with poor command ofof aa relevantrelevant foreign language are rather hesitant to apply for anan ERASMUSERASMUS grant. Furthermore, it is noticed thatthat there isis aa preferencepreference forfor forestryforestry departmentsdepartments wherewhere teachingteaching isis inin aa language commonly on thethe curriculumcurriculum ofof mostmost highhigh schoolsschools inin westernwestern Europe, especially English and French. Departments with "lesser known languages", suchsuch as Greek and Portuguese, maymay send more students abroad than theythey hosthost (even(even thoughthough thethe departmentsdepartments inin LisbonLisbon andand Thessaloniki provedproved toto be quite attractive for a sufficientsufficient number of foreign forestryforestry students).students).

Communication betweenbetween individualindividual representativesrepresentatives oror lecturerslecturers from thethe SILVA-NetworkSILVA-Network departments is in differentdifferent languages. DuringDuring meetings and in documentsdocuments distributeddistributed toto allall membermember departments,departments, English is the jointjoint language.language. 99

Student mobility andand otherother activitiesactivities

Students spending a period of up to 12 months at a departmentdepartment in another country broadenbroaden their their views,views, experienceexperience culturalcultural variety,variety, makemake friends, improve their·their commandcommand of aa foiforeign eign languagelanguage etc.etc. UnderUnder ERASMUS, however,however, therethere is the specific requirementrequirement thatthat activitiesactivities atat the hosthost universityuniversity shallshall bebe integratedintegrated in thethe regularregular programmeprogramme necessary to obtainobtain thethe degreedegree atat thethe homehome department.department.

From the start of SILVA-Network,SILVA-Network, andand still today, it has proved to bebe veryvery. difficultdifficult forfor forestryforestry studentsstudents to identifyidentify a setset ofof coursescourses and examinations at a host department fitting intointo the curriculum followedfollowed atat home.home. These are some of the reasons,reasons, most of which maymay bebe groupedgrouped asas::

study years beginbegin atat differentdifferent times;times;

lecture periods are organizedorganized inin trimesters,trimesters, semesters,semesters, or inin other sequences;sequences;

most lectures, seminars, practicals areare not concentrated on aa few days or weeks, but run over one trimester up to 1818 months;

students may "be.be admittedadmitted toto courses onlyonly if they havehave successfully participated in certaincertain fundamentalfundamental prerequisiteprerequisite courses timetabled in an earlierearlier study period;

exam regulatregulationsions differ and are sometsometimesimes veryvery strict,strict, prohibiting students from moving to the nextnex1 yearyear beforebefore they have completed and passed the exams of the precedingpreceding one;one; examinations areare notnot provided immediately after thethe end of a course;

curricula differ considerably in regard to kind,kind, weight,weight, number,number, sequence of study subje,cts,subjects, alsoalso inin regardregard to the classification 100

of subjects as compulsory, eligible,eligible, or optional;optional; eveneven atat the time when only aa fewfew forestryforestry departmentsdepartments formedformed SILVA-Network,SILVA-Network, itit was impossibimpossiblele toto find a common core inin theirtheir curricula.curricula.

These problems hahaveve been discusseddiscussed duringduring most meetings of the SILVA-NetworkSILVA-Network representatives.representatives. Different strategies havehave beenbeen proposed, if not to resolveresolve the problems at least to reduce them.

Harmonization ofof curriculacurricula wouldwould help, but with more than 20 departments involvedinvolved this task seemsseems to bebe almost impossible.impossible. ThereThere isis also. the argument that an alignment of teaching programmes would be contrary to aim of providing additional subjects and knowledge through study abroad. Because ofof thethe realisation ofof thisthis itit was decideddecided that the SISILVA-Network LVA-Network shouldshould concentrateconcentrate the exchange of students on thosethose wishing to work for their thesis abroad. A forestry student who wants to write a thesisthesis atat aa foreignforeign departmentdepartment chooseschooses thethe thesisthesis subjectsubject following contact with aa universityuniversity teacherteacher atat thethe hosthost department.department. He/she will go to aa placeplace wherewhere the thesis subject forms a central part of researchresearch andand where an expert is availableavailable to coachcoach thethe foreignforeign student. Field or lab work, data processing and reporting isis donedone atat the host department, whichwhich grades the studystudy accordingaccording toto its ownown standards. The student returns homehome withwith thethe thesisthesis andand aa grade.grade. ThisThis foreign grade eventuallyeventually must be transformedtransformed into thethe systemsystem usedused inin the homehome department.department. InIn addition,addition, studentsstudents maymay attendattend coursescourses andand pass examinations at the host department. ResultsResults are administrated in a similar way to the thesis. The decision to concentrate onon thesisthesis work has made it possible to startstart thethe programmeprogramme after aa relativelyrelatively short period of preparation.preparation.

During each of the firstfirst twotwo yearsyears ofof SILVA-NetworkSILVA-Network aboutabout 1010 students were sent to otherother departments.departments. Since then the numbernumber ofof forestry students awarded ERASMUSERASMUS grants has increased considerably, to aboutabout 3535 inin 1992/931992/93 andand probablyprobably toto moremore thanthan 6060 inin 1993/94.1993/94. Whereas aa majority of allall ERASMUSERASMUS students go abroad duringduring theirtheir third study year, most of the forestry students move to a foreign depart- 101

ment in their fourth or .fifth studystudy year,year, as usually thesis work is done at the end of studystudy time.time.

At thethe moment, no uniform system exists toto evaluate student'sstudent's experiencesexperiences inin thethe SILVA-Network.SI LV A-Network. Recently,Recently, thethe representativesrepresentatives havehave decided to translatetranslate andand adaptadapt anan evaluationevaluation questionnairequestionnaire usedused inin thethe Netherlands.

As far as the authorsauthors cancan determine,determine, thethe results inin terms of grades given to SILVA-NetworkSILVA-Network students are clearlyclearly aboveabove average.average. On the basis of oral andand writtenwritten reportsreports givengiven by studentsstudents on their returnreturn home their reactions have been very positive.positive. Often it is not so muchmuch the professional knowledge obtainedobtained thatthat hashas pleasedpleased thethe studentsstudents asas the experience of being copecope alonealone inin aa differentdifferent culturalcultural surroundingsurrounding enjoying the contact withwith differentdifferent views,views, bothboth onon sciencescience andand life;life; thethe cooperation withwith newnew people,people, especiallyespecially studentsstudents and teachers; and the feeling of a rapidrapid developmentdevelopment ofof theirtheir ownown personalities.personalities. Even in the few cases where thethe educationeducation receivedreceived was was notnot aallll thatthat might be wished, e.g. because of insufficientinsufficient coaching byby thethe hosthost department,department, the stay as aa whole,whole, includingincluding thethe personal enrichment, is usually judgedjudged positively.

SILVA-Network activities activities are are not not limited limited to to thethe support of student mobility. TheThe exchangeexchange of uniuniversityversity teachers isis being coordinated. HoweverHowever,, duedue toto money shortage soso farfar ononlyly a fewfew colleagues have received ERASMUS financefinance for for this this purpose. purpose. Attempts are also being made to develop intensiveintensive lecture and seminar units with the participation ofof teachersteachers fromfrom differentdifferent departments.departments. It is proposed that subjects notnot integratedintegrated inin normalnormal curricula,curricula, e.g.e.g. forestforest developmentdevelopment inin environmentally sensitsensitiveive areas oror agroforestry, wwillill be presented at such seminarsseminars at anan advancedadvanced level.level. AsAs intensiveintensive programmesprogrammes areare restrictedrestricted to a few weeks durationduration,, they facilitatefacilitate the attendance of stu-stu­ dents from different countries atat the same time and may become a "second leg"leg" of thethe SILVA-NetworkSILVA-Network in addition to thethe thesisthesis work.work. 102

3. Summarizing Conclusions

The EC ERERASMUSASMUS schemescheme oHersoffers grantsgrants toto studentsstudents whowho want to stay betweenbetween threethree and twelve months at a hosthost universityuniversity abroad. There are specific requirementsrequirements regarding organization andand quality of studentsstudents mobility: ERASMUS covers covers aa large number of cooperatingcooperating groups of higherhigher educationeducation institutionsinstitutions inin differentdiHerent disciplines,disciplines, called Inter-UniversityInter-University Cooperation ProgrammesProgrammes ,(ICPs).~ICPs) . It requires thatthat grades obtainedobtained by students during ththeireir stay atat a host department mustmust be recognizedrecognized andand integratedintegrated intointo thethe degreedegree oror diploma atat the homehome department. The aim is not simply toto support students toto move but also to establishestablish networksnetworks of cooperatingcooperating institutionsinstitutions based in differentdiHerent countries. One may alsoalso identifyidentify the integrationintegration ofof westernwestern EuropeEurope andand the better understandingunderstanding of peoplepeople fromfrom differentdiHerent nationsnations andand culturescultures as a general aimaim ofof thethe ERASMUSERASMUS programme.programme.

SILVA-Network iiss aa cooperatcooperatinging group ofof 2121 (in(in nearnear future:future: 25)25) forestry departments located in 9 ECEC countries andand 55 EFTAEFTA countries. ItIt started asas anan ERASMUSERASMUS ICP inin 1989.1989. On the basisbasis of fourfour yearsyears experience with thethe SILVA-NetvvorkSILVA-Network aa fewfew generagenerall conclusionsconclusions cancan be drawn regarding theth e prerequisites and methods for achieving international cooperation betweenbetween higherhigher forestryforestry schools:schools:

1. A stablestable andand activeactive regionalregional networknetwork ofof moremore thanthan twentytwenty forestry departments can be started and maintainedmaintained with a lowlow budget and with a looseloose institutional structure.structure. However,However, itit seems that this is only possible if there iiss a strong commitment of a small group ofof staffstaH members in every department involved,involved, ifif one department iiss readyread y to coordinatecoordinate thethe group,group, andand ifif allall members give support to the coordinator. ItIt seemsseems thatthat SILVA-SILVA­ Network has nearly reached the limits possiblepossible withwith thethe avai-avai­ lable funding and currentcurrent structure.structure. 103

2. Regular meetings of representativesrepresentatives ofof all departments involvedinvolved are essential.essential. TheThe mainmain functionsfunctions of thesethese meetings are mutual information exchange,exchange, developmentdevelopment of of rules for thethe network, decisions regardinregarding'g thethe admission of new departmentsdepartments,, preparationpreparation of of applicationsapplications forfor funds and ofof reports, and motivationmotivation through personal contact. If communication is onlyonly byby mailmail thesethese benefitsbenefits willwill not bebe effectively providedprovided.. As a consequence,consequence, sufficient travel fundsfunds are necessary to keep a networknetwork operating.operating.

3. During the first years of SILVA-Network,SILVA-Network, most forestry studentsstudents hosted by departments abroadabroad concentratedconcentrated onon thesisthesis work. ThiThiss happened mainly because of the considerable differencesdifferences of curricula, lecture periods, and exam regulations in force atat the individualindividual departments,departments, creating difficulties for foreignforeign students to tailor aa studystudy programmeprogramme toto theirtheir particular requirements. TheThesissis workwork inin another country mainlymainly attractsattracts top students;students; thisthis experienceexperience motivatesmotivates supervisorssupervisors at hosthost departments toto accept the additionaladditional work ofof tutoringtutoring foreignforeign students, toto integrateintegrate themthem in existingexisting teams,teams, to provideprovide laboratorylaboratory facilities etc. Sometimes,Sometimes, however, lack of finance for field work oror equipmentequipment hindershinders thesisthesis workwork abroadabroad becausebecause ERASMUS does does notnot offer research funds for students.students.

4. InIn regard toto grading ofof theses,theses, cooperationcooperation ofof thethe supervisorsupervisor at the host department asas examinerexaminer withwith aa universityuniversity teacherteacher atat the student's home department asas co-examinerco-examiner has proved to be a reasonable solution.

5. The participation ofof foreign studenstudentsts inin lectures atat a hosthost department isis easier ifif blockblock seminars, intensiveintensive courses, oror summer schools of a few weeks duration each are offered. One approach followed by SILVA-NetworkSILVA-Network iiss to motivatemotivate lecturerslecturers from differentdifferent departmentsdepartments toto createcreate intensiveintensive programmesprogrammes mutually, preferably on subjects not currently taught inin membermember 104

departments. However,However, thethe preparation of suchsuch ambitiousambitious additional programmes demandsdemands aa lotlot of time andand workwork andand ERASMUS fundingfunding forfor this purpose is inadequate. Therefore, it seems moremore promisingpromising to modify course units of short duration that alreadyalready existexist atat somesome departmentsdepartments andand toto integrateintegrate lecturers fromfrom otherother universities.universities.

6. Strict examexam regulationsregulations areare formalformal obstaclesobstacles forfor foreignforeign students who want to gaingain gradesgrades during their stay of aa fewfew months at a host department. ButBut examinersexaminers in SILVA-Network departmentsdepartments apparentlyapparently have developed aa flexible exam practice forfor ERASMUSERASMUS students. According to examples quotedquoted by thethe representatives,representatives, tests havehave beenbeen organized out of scheduleschedule forfor guestguest studentsstudents oror ERASMUS ERASMUS students werewere allowedallowed toto present their thesis in aa foreignforeign language.

7. The majority of departmentsdepartments involved practice some kind ofof credit system.system. ItIt wouldwould bebe helpfulhelpful toto harmonizeharmonize thesethese systems or at least to makemake them moremore compatible.compatible. ExperiencesExperiences fromfrom aa Course Credit Transfer System pilot project ofof thethe EuropeanEuropean Community probably willwill helphelp inin achievingachieving thisthis aim.aim.

8. Student experienceexperience ofof the the SILVA-NetworkSILVA-Network hashas provokedprovoked very positive responses. 105

Sources of information

This paper is based mainlymainly onon unpublishedunpublished documents,documents, personal information fromfrom SILVA-NetworkSILVA-Network representativesrepresentatives and students,students, andand onon personal knowledge ofof the authors.authors. Beside of thesethese sources,sources, thethe following publicationspublications havehave beenbeen used:used:

ANONYMOUS, 1993.1993. Bildung und Europa. In: EG-Informationen 2/1993, "Studieren inin Europa"Europa" p.3p.3 ff.ft.

Commission of thethe EuropeanEuropean Communities,Communities, 1991.1991. ERASMUSERASMUS undund LlNGUA-LeitfLINGUA-Leitfadenaden fOrfür AntragstellerAntragsteller 1992/93. Brussels.

Commission of thethe EuropeanEuropean Communities,Communities, 1993.1993. ERASMUSERASMUS andand LINGUA ActionAction IIII DirectoryDirectory 1992/93.1992/93. Brussels.Brussels.

SCHMIDT, P., 1993. AA student'sstudent's niche in the SSILVA-Network.ILVA-Network. Hinkeloord Occasional PapersPapers 1, Department of Forestry,Forestry, AgriculturalAgricultural University, Wageningen/NL. 1919 p.p.

SCHMIDT, P., 1993.1993. The SILVA-Network. In: ETFRN-NewsletterETFRN-Newsletter6/1993. 6/1993. 5 p.p.

TEICHLER, U.et aI.,al., 1991.1991 . Student Mobility within ERASMUSERASMUS 1988/89. ERASMUS MonographsMonographs No.12, Kassel/FRG. 61 p.

TEICHLER, U., 1991.1991. ExperiencesExperiences ofof ERASMUSERASMUS Students.Students. ERASMUSERASMUS Monographs No. 13,13, Kassel/FRG.Kassel/FRG. 77p.77p. 106

APPENDIX 88

CONTINUING PROFESSIONALPROFESSIONAL FORESTRYFORESTRY EDUCATION:EDUCATION: A SURVEY OF ISSUESISSUES

by

E.P. BachelardBachelard' 1 and D.M. GriffinGriffin 22

ABSTRACT

The increasingincreasing realisation that the managementmanagement of virtually anyany natural resource cannotcannot be effecteffectiveive unlessunless itit occursoccurs inin thethe contextcontext of the much wider ecosystem, including humanhuman beings,beings, within which itit isis locatedlocated has lleded to dramaticdramatic changeschanges in the practice of forestry,forestry, with a corresponding impact on the forestry profession.profession. SoSo manymany disciplinesdisciplines areare now brought to bear on the management of forests that some have doubted whether the forestry professionprofession inin thethe traditionaltraditional sensesense cancan survive.survive. This paper argues thatthat there is a necessary continuing core of knowledge, an 'expert'expert knowledge', requiredrequired ifif forestsforests areare toto bebe managedmanaged effectively.effectively. It isis thisthis knowledge and the ability to integrate information of diverse origins thatthat must be maintained in the continuingcontinuing educationeducation ofof professionalprofessional foresters.foresters. As specialisation of role or change inin specialisationspecialisation occurs withinwithin aa careercareer

Professor of Forestry, DepartmentDepartment ofof Forestry,Forestry, TheThe AustralianAustralian NationalNational UniUniversity,versity, Canberra. 2 Pro-Vice-Chancellor and Chairman, Board of the Faculties, The Australian 2 Pro-Vice-Chancellor and Chairman, Board of the Faculties, The Australian National University, Canberra.Canberra. 107 there is alsoalso needneed forfor thethe availabilityavailability ofof coursescourses relatingrelating toto specialisedspecialised topicstopics.. TheThe paperpaper concludesconcludes withwith aa discussiondiscussion ofof higherhigher orderorder skillsskills and attributes appropriate to forestry education and which might form aa basisbasis for validation.validation.

INTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTION

In thisthis paperpaper wewe havehave beenbeen askedasked to addressaddress the questionquestion of vavalidationlidation of degreesdegrees and coursescourses inin forestryforestry withwith particularparticular referencereference to continuing education. HoweverHowever inin somesome partsparts of the world the definition of forestry as a professionprofession and thethe rolerole ofof forestersforesters areare increasinglyincreasingly beingbeing called intointo question.question. This is particularlyparticularly evidentevident in thethe USAUSA wherewhere thesethese questions have been debated vigorouslyvigorously inin symposiasymposia (e.g.(e.g. SAFSAF 1991)1991) and in mostmost issuesissues ofof thethe JournalJournal ofof Forestry Forestry overover thethe lastlast severalseveral years.years. In Australia, almostalmost all the independently identifiableidentifiable StateState forest servicesservices havehave recently becomebecome incorporatedincorporated withinwithin broader-basedbroader-based landland managementmanagement agencies due to public and political concerns about thethe wayway in which the forests were being managed.managed. TheseThese changeschanges havehave importantimportant implicationsimplications for future forest management, thethe rolerole of forestersforesters in that management, and hence the future directions of forestry education.education.

Since validation ofof any activity can only bebe consideredconsidered in thethe context of whatwhat isis beingbeing validated,validated, byby whom, whom, andand forfor whatwhat purposepurpose wewe briefly review thethe way in which forestry hashas evolved and where it maymay bebe heading in the futurefuture beforebefore addressingaddressing whatwhat may be anan appropriateappropriate education for it.it. Although conditions underlying the requirementsrequirements of forest management differ betweenbetween places,places, e.g. developed andand developingdeveloping countries, and at differentdifferent times, we focus here on recentrecent developments in Australia and,and, toto some extent thethe USA, inin the belief that some of thethe prinCiplesprinciples we address are also relevant to other countries.countries. 108

Forestryforestry as a ProfessionProfession

Forestry as a profession developed relativerelativelyly recentlyrecently - in Europe in the earlyearly 1800s1800s (Plochmann(Ploch mann 1992),1992), inin thethe USAUSA inin thethe latelate 1800s1800s (VVatkins(Watkins 1992), andand in Australia inin thethe earlyearly 1900s (Carron(Carron 1985).1985). In all these places the stimulusstimulus forfor thethe developmentdevelopment ofof professionalprofessional forest services waswas the need to rehabilitate forests whichwhich had been degradeddegraded byby past uncontrolled exploitation for agricultural purposespurposes andand woodwood productsproducts.. Controls on the use of the forestsforests byby empoweredempowered forestforest servicesservices did not comecome easilyeasily andand the pioneerspioneers of professionalprofessional forestryforestry were menmen ofof energy and vision whowho fought tenaciouslytenaciously againstagainst influentinfluentialial vested interestsinterests andand a largelylargely disinterested public.public.

Although the primary objectives of the developingdeveloping forest servicesservices were the rehabilitationrehabilitation of degradeddegraded lands,lands, andand maintenancemaintenance ofof sustainedsustained yields of timber for human use, the role of thethe forestsforests inin providingproviding nonnon-wood-wood values such as water, wildlifewildlife habitat, recreationrecreation waswas alsoalso recognised.recognised. The importantimportant rolerole of thethe forestsforests inin providingproviding multiplemultiple valuesvalues waswas formallyformally enshrenshrinedined in legislation inin the USA in 1960 withwith thethe passage by Congress of the Multiple Use-Sustained YieldYield Act.Act. InIn thisthis ActAct multiplemultiple use waswas defineddefined as "the managementmanagement of all the variousvarious renewablerenewable surface resourcesresources of the national forests so that they are utilized in thethe combinationcombination that will best suit the needsneeds ofof thethe AmericanAmerican people".people". In Australia, a document outliningoutlining multiple use practices (Forwood 1974)1974) was praised by a highlyhighly respectedrespected observer of, and participant in, forestry practices throughoutthroughout the world as a model for thethe applicationapplication ofof multiplemultiple useuse principlesprinciples (see(see WestobyWestoby 1987).1987).

InIn considering thethe application ofof multiple use principles itit was recognised thatthat not all forestforest usesuses andand valuesvalues are compatible with one another and that multiple use may havehave to bebe practicedpracticed overover sufficientlysufficiently large areas toto allow forfor periodic adjustments in use toto conform to changing needs and conditions.conditions. The US ActAct alsoalso requiredrequired thatthat "consideration"consideration be given to the relativerelative values of the various resources and not necessarilynecessarily toto 109 the combinationcombination of uses that will givegive thethe greatestgreatest dollar return or.or thethe greatest unit-output".unit-output".

To foresters throughout the world, the conceptconcept ofof multiplemultiple useuse management appeared to offer the best solutionsolution to the task of providing the community with the multiplemultiple goodsgoods andand valuesval ues of the forests in perpetuity. It was not long,long, however,however, beforebefore multiplemultiple use as practiced came underunder firefire from an emerging groupgroup of o fenvironmentalists environmentalists inin thethe USUS andand inin AustraliaAustralia (see(see Barney 1974, RoutleyandRoutley and RoutleyRoutley 1975).1975). The principal cause of criticism was the charge that undue dominance was being given to timber production at the expense of all other values. TheseThese criticismscriticisms werewere exacerbated,exacerbated, andand made more apparent to aa moremore environmentallyenvironmentally conscious public, byby thethe intensificationintensification ofof forest practices, including clear falling, at a timetime whenwhen greater demands were being placedplaced onon thethe forestsforests forfor non-woodnon-wood values, values, particularly recreationrecreation,, by an increasingly affluent and mobile population.

In Australia, in thethe early 1970s,1970s, thethe largelarge scale clear fallingfalling of areas of nativenative forestsforests associated wwithith a developingdeveloping woodchipwoodchip industry,industry, andand anan acceleration of the replacement of nativenative forests with fastfast-growing-growing softwood plantations added, immeasurably, toto ththee concerns being expressed by the environmentalists. Although forestersforesters could point to the future benefits of building a viable softwood resourceresource and industries based upon it, and the conversion, byby clearclear falling, of previouslypreviously unutilisableunutilisable native forestsforests debilitateddebilitated byby fire and pastpast logginglogging practicespractices toto vigorousvigorous naturallynaturally regenerated regrow1hregrowth,, these arguments were nnotot accepted by thethe public.public.

The validity of the foresters' arguments has largely been justified by the reliancereliance Australians, including environmentalists, nownow place on timber supplies from plantation forests, and by the fact that innumerableinnumerable enquiries into the environmental effects of woodchipping inin nativenative forestsforests havehave beenbeen unable to identifyidentify anyany long-term,long-term, deleteriousdeleterious effectseffects (RAC(RAC 1992).1992). 110

Nevertheless, the the scalescale ofof the operationsoperations and thethe apparentapparent disregard to otherother forestforest valuesvalues was, to say the least,least, insensitiveinsensitive andand the devasdevastatedtated appearanceappearance of of largelarge clear-felledclear-felled areas areas was was usedused toto greatgreat advantage byby the environmentalistsenvironmentalists at at publicpublic meetings andand throughthrough the mediamedia.. Although, progressivelyprogressively since the 1970s1970s forestforest managementmanagement practices hahaveve improimprovedved enormously, both in the softwood plantationsplantations andand inin native forestsforests., thisthis has not reducedreduced criticisms byby environmentalists,environmentalists, andand forestry and forestersforesters inin AustraliaAustralia have never regainedregained thethe trusttrust of the public in forest management.management.

More recently in thethe USA,USA, multiplemultiple useuse managementmanagement has beenbeen criticised (Behan 1990)1990) on the grounds that it iiss multiple use by 'adjacency', i.e.i.e. single uses are dominant on any given area at any given timetime and is, inin reality, a momosaicsaic of single uses. BehanBehan claimsclaims thatthat "multiple"multiple useuse hashas always held more promise than ourour professionprofession could deliver"deliver" and hehe arguesargues for aa 'paradigmatic shift' to multiple use byby ''multiplicity'.multiplicity'. InIn thisthis paradigm, forests would be recognisedrecognised asas single,single, interactive systems in which all components are interconnected,interconnected, andand that alterationalteration to anyoneanyone componentcomponent as,as, for example, cutting a singsinglele tree, wiwillll influenceinfluence allall other other components. components. This viewview has muchmuch inin commoncommon withwith principles onon sustainablesustainable developmentdevelopment (interpreted as ecologically sustainable development inin Australia), biodiversity, andand applicationapplication of thethe 'precautionary'precautionary principle'principle' recently endorsed by mostmost countriescountries at thethe UnitedUnited NationsNations ConferenceConference onon EnEnvironmentvironment and DevelopmentDevelopment (UNCED)(UNCED) in RioRio inin 1992.1992.

How wellwell multiplemultiple use byby multiplicitymultiplicity andand thethe severalseveral principlesprinciples endorsed at Rio can be implemented will dependdepend on the way in which they are interpreted in different places;places; on the extenteX1ent and nature of community demands on thethe forests;forests; itsits willingness toto pay for the manifold products and values;values; and onon thethe ecologicalecological andand silvicultura]silvicultural requirementsrequirements ofof thethe forestforest systems.systems. 111

The Future of ForestForest ManagementManagement

Westoby in his mmanyany contributions to thethe philosophiesphilosophies underlying,underlying, and the practices of, forest management throughout the worldworld (see(see Westoby 1987) has repeatedly emphasised ththee vviewiew that "forestry is not aboutabout trees;trees; it isis aboutabout people.people. It is about treestrees only soso farfar asas theythey serve thethe needsneeds of people". We believe thatthat,, contrarycontrary toto the viewview promulgatedpromulgated by manymany environmentalists, foreforesterssters have devoteddevoted themselvesthemselves toto thethe serviceservice ofof the public. One of these services waswas woodwood production in accordance with governmentally determineddetermined policies.policies. While inin Australia the forestersforesters response to environmentalenvironmental concerns waswas slow,slow, theythey havehave sincesince thethe 1970s1970s adapted their practicespractices veryvery substantiallysubstantially to helphelp meetmeet environmentalenvironmental concerns and havehave attempted to maintainmaintain a continuing dialogue with the environmental movement. UnfortunatelyUnfortunately thethe polarisationpolarisation between forestry and the more extreme environmental llobbyobby hhasas notnot beenbeen breached;breached; indeed, ifif anything, thethe riftrift isis widening.widening.

It isis becoming apparentapparent thatthat thethe differencesdifferences betweenbetween foresters and the environmental lobbylobby is not so much a matter of practice but a matter ofof policy and the environmentalists havehave cleverly, but mistakenly, attributedattributed the formulation of policypolicy toto thethe forestforest services.services. It is not.not. In democraticdemocratic societies, at least, natinationalonal or State policies are determineddetermined andand enactedenacted byby governments onon their evaluation of the perceived needs of the community. While foresters through their knowledge and expertise, must be activeactive participants, and even assumeassume a leadership role, in the formulationformulation of forest policies they do not,not, inin themselves,themselves, setset it.it. They must, however, be in aa position to implementimplement thosethose policiespolicies onceonce defined.defined.

One possible advantage of the incorporation ofof forest servicesservices into multidisciplinmultidisciplinaryary departments as has happened in Australia recently is that it should helphelp allayallay thethe unjustifiedunjustified concernsconcerns thatthat forestforest policiespolicies areare bothboth made and implementedimplemented byby forestforest services.services. 112

Forest Education

It isis clearclear fromfrom thethe precedingpreceding discussion thatthat forestryforestry isis notnot only about trees.trees. It isis aboutabout thethe wholewhole forestryforestry environmentenvironment andand individualsindividuals trained to manage the foreforestst resource may require anan increasingincreasing numbernumber of diverse skills.skills. Quite clearly no oneone individualindivid ual cancan possesspossess allall thethe skillsskills required forfor modernmodern forestforest management,management, andand it is essentialessential that modern forest managers work as members of a team. HoweverHowever inin aa paper delivered in 1971, Westoby (see Westoby 1987) cautions thatthat thethe establishment of multidisciplinary teams is not inin itself any answer toto thethe problemsproblems ofof fragmentation andand integration.integration. He quotes Coombs (1971)(1971) who stated:stated: "Look at what happens when a collection ofof specialistsspecialists ofof virtually anyany brandbrand is put together inin an operational agency -- suchsuch as a bilateral aid agency, aa specialized internationalinternational agencyagency oror aa national national ministry.ministry. In short order each subgroup of specialistsspecialists creates its own box on the chart, spawns its own sacred doctrines and beginsbegins displayingdisplaying aggressiveaggressive tribal tendencies of thethe most unscientific sort".sort".

In contrast to thethe multidisciplinarymultidisciplinary approach,approach, WestobyWestoby describesdescribes aa metadisciplinary approachapproach whichwhich hehe definesdefines asas trainingtraining anan expertexpert withwith a solid grounding in a given area of expertise and with a general knowledge of a problemproblem area.area. He thus becomes a specialistspecialist in terms of his expertexpert knowledge, andand aa generalistgeneralist in in termsterms ofof aa setset of problems toto which hehe becomes committed. In thethe metadisciplinary approach,approach, itit isis thethe common problems to which the team members are committed that help them bridge the intellectualintellectual barriersbarriers ofof expertexpert knowledge.knowledge.

This appears toto us toto be a most applicable framework inin whichwhich toto consider the training ofof forestforest managers.managers.

The 'expert knowledge' requiredrequired ofof forestforest managersmanagers is,is, inin ourour view,view, expertise in managementmanagement ofof aa complex natural resource,resource, thethe forest.forest. They 113 need to bebe 'generalists''generalists' in aa rangerange ofof disciplinesdisciplines pertainingpertaining toto forestforest management.

The primary role of forest managers isis toto integrateintegrate a broad range of relevantrelevant informationinformation so that they cancan produceproduce andand implementimplement practicalpractical management plans within an approved policy to bestbest meetmeet thethe needsneeds ofof the community. DependingDepending onon circumstances,circumstances, thethe forest policypolicy maymay require the forestsforests to bebe managedmanaged forfor wood,wood, forfor water,water, forfor recreation,recreation, forfor preservationpreservation or a combination ofof thesethese andand itit isis the foreforestst manager's responsibilityresponsibility toto fulfilfulfil thesethese government and community requirementsrequirements as economicaeconomically,ll y, and with as little impact onon thethe environment,environment, asas possible.possible. Uses of the forests may vary widely atat differentdifferent places and at different timetimess but it isis importantimportant toto appreciate that, for any use, fforestsorests mumustst bebe managedmanaged.. EvenEven allocation of areas for a purposepurpose suchsuch asas wildernesswilderness will requirerequire sensitivesensitive managementmanagement on aspectsaspects such as firefire control,control, invasioninvasion by exoticexotic weeds,weeds, control of recreation, and intrusion by scientistsscientists andand other visvisitors.itors. HenceHence thethe rangerange of relevantrelevant skills which the forestforest managermanager must call uponupon isis extremelyextremely broad, and requiresrequires aa specialisedspecialised training.training.

Traditionally foresters have been trained to havehave an appreciation ofof the basic physical and biologicalbiological sciencessciences pertainingpertaining toto forestforest ecosystems,ecosystems, a knowledge of the sciences, technologietechnologiess and economies which underpin both wood productionproduction andand environmentalenvironmental management,management, andand aa professionalprofessional experience of forest policiespolicies andand economiceconomic andand managementmanagement systems.systems. Forest managers need not bebe expertexpert inin allall thesethese differentdifferent fieldsfields butbut theythey must have sufficient understanding of them to formulate and supervisesupervise the implementation of appropriate managementmanagement plans; to be ableable to communicate 'meaningfully withwith experts in other disciplines as the needneed arises; andand toto bebe ableable toto determine determine whenwhen thatthat expertexpert adviceadvice isis required.required.

The complexitycomplexity ofof forestforest managementmanagement inin traditionaltraditional areasareas hashas increasedincreased duedue toto changing demands on the forestsforests and onon technologicaltechnological 114 developments in many areas including management systems, e.g.e.g. computercomputer simulation, geographical informationinformation systems.systems.

There are furtherfurther requirementsrequirements forfor foresters toto developdevelop theirtheir communication skills,skills, especially with with thethe public,public, andand to havehave greatergreater expertise in areasareas thatthat wewere,re , atat bestbest,, peripheralperipheral to to the the mainstream mainstream of of forestry forestry education asas,, for example, agroforestry, land rehabilitationrehabilitation,, urban forestryforestry,, eX1ensextensionion foreforestry,stry, community forestry,forestry, business management, environmental law,law, conflictconflict resolution, andand aa better appreciation ofof thethe role of forestry inin aa nationalnational andand internationalinternational context.conteX1. HowHow cancan allall thesethese requirementsrequirements be met?

One suggestion (Wallinger 1991) iiss toto eX1endextend thethe formalformal trainingtraining to seven yearsyears withwith thethe first four years to baccalaureate lelevelvel being technical training followed by aa threethree yearyear coursecourse leadingleading toto thethe professional professional qualification ofof DoctorDoctor of Forestry. ThisThis isis unlikely to be adopted by mostmost countries on economic and 'efficiency' grounds,grounds, and wewe also question the value of it in the absence of priorprior oror concurrentconcurrent professionalprofessional experience.experience.

In developing a curriculum for a four-yearfour-year baccalaureatebaccalaureate trainingtraining in forest management, we believe each educational institutioninstitution needs toto ask -

* what are the basic underlying skskillsill s andand knowledgeknowledge required. These will differ indifferent places atat different timestimes and the corecore curriculum mustmust bebe reviewedreviewed regularly.regularly.

* to whatwhat depthdepth mustmust thesethese skillsskills bebe imparted.imparted.

* to whatwhat extenteX1ent cancan thethe skillsskills beingbeing impartedimparted bebe 'generic','generic', i.e.i.e. skillsskills common to moremore thanthan oneone specialty,specialty, e.g.e.g. plantationplantation forestry,forestry, agroforestry,agroforestry, landland rehabilitation.rehabilitation. 115

* whetherwhether itit isis desirable or possible toto provide optionaloptional streamstream for greater specialisation.

After resolvingresolving these questions anan attemptattempt sshouldhould bebe made to impart the underlying knowledgeknowledge andand skillsskills withinwithin thethe firstfi rst threethree years of the course to allowallow thethe studentsstudents thethe timetime andand intellectualintellectual spacespace toto integrateintegrate these in thethe formulationformulation ofof managementmanagement plans paying due regardregard toto biological, political, socialsocial andand economiceconomic demands.demands. As far as possible, aa 'case-study' approach should be adopted so that students become familiarfamiliar with 'real-life' problems. StudentsStudents shouldshould alsoalso bebe requiredreq uired to present their management plansplans,, at leleastast toto their pepeerer group, but moremore wwidelyidely if possible to help develop their communication skills. AA curriculumcurriculum basedbased alongalong theseth ese lineslines is,is, wewe believe, suitablesuitable forfor thethe basicbasic training of forest managers but inin view of the raterate ofof technologicaltechnological changechange andand thethe developingdeveloping demands onon the forests, further oror continuingcontinuing educationeducation ofof forestersforesters isis now now essential. essential.

Continuing Education

We have already referred toto increasing requirements forfor expertise in disciplinary areas previously considered peripheral to forestryforestry per se.se. In addition, new concepts suchsuch as thosethose relatingrelating to biodiversitybiodiversity and ecologically sustainable development, and advances in technology in many disciplinary areas all require forest managers to update, or acquire,acquire, new skills. Clearly not all forest managersmanagers require furtherfurther training in all areas of interest but all forest managersmanagers requirerequire that training inin somesome areas. ThisThis cancan bebe providedprovided inin severalseveral waysways namelynamely --

* further formal trainingtraining,, by either course work or research,research, at educational institutionsinstitutions leading to aa postgraduatepostgraduate qualificationqualification atat graduate diploma,diploma, mastermaster or doctoraldoctoral level.level. 116

• formal or informalinformal in-service trainingtraining rangingranging fromfrom instructioninstruction atat basic skill levelslevels for new graduates or more specialised training inin areas of need.need.

• short courses on specific topics to bebe delivereddelivered byby specialistsspecialists from universities,universities, government agencies, industry,industry, or elsewhereelsewhere alone or in combination.combination.

Courses must be selected carefucarefullyll y on the basis of identified need and, in ourour viewview mostmost further educationeducation willwill bebe ofof greatestgreatest value for people who can,can, throughthrough theirtheir ownown professionalprofessional experience,experience, appreciateappreciate how the subjectsubject mattermatter relatesrelates toto theirtheir presentpresent oror futurefuture responsibilities.responsibilities.

Validation of CoursesCourses

Validation of courses hashas muchmuch inin commoncommon wwithith competency-basedcompetency-based education and training (CBET) inin so far as they are both concernedconcerned with educational outcomes.outcomes. CBET isis an areaarea ofof increasingincreasing interestinterest in thethe Australian government bureaucracybureaucracy in vviewiew of its concern aboutabout 'effectiveness''effectiveness' and 'efficiency''efficiency' of trainingtraining atat allall levels,levels, including professional training. An advantageadvantage claimed for CBETCBET quite apart from itsits perceivedperceived vavaluelue inin assessing vocationavocationallylly relevant competencies, isis that comprehensive descriptions of professional practice can also improve the public image of a professionprofession and itsits relationshiprelationship with clientsclients by providingproviding the foundation forfo r aa greatergreater levellevel ofof accountability.accountability.

In view of the developingdeveloping interestinterest inin CBETCBET in Australia,Australia, Nelson and Trevitt (1993) have reviewed the relevant literature from Australia,Australia, USAUSA and the UKUK andand proposedproposed aa frameworkframework forfor considerationconsideration by forestersforesters of thethe relativerelative meritsmerits of thethe concept.concept. WeWe draw on thisthis reviewreview for this section of our paperpaper.. 117

Competency may be based on several approaches, namelynamely the task approach, the attributes approach, or anan integrated task/attributes approach.

The task approach dependsdepends on on identification identification of the duties (tasks) required of a position andand thethe requirements for thethe competentcompetent performance of these tasks.tasks. This approachapproach has beenbeen criticisedcriticised on the grounds that itit ignores higher skills and and tendstends toto reproducereproduce the occupationoccupation as itit existsexists rather than adaptingadapting forfor thethe future.future.

The attribute approachapproach emphasises thethe importanceimportance ofof higher order skills andand attributesattributes underlyingunderlying competentcompetent performance. NelsonNelson andand TrevittTrevitt list as examplesexamples ofof higherhigher orderorder skills: skills:

the abilityability toto accumulate knowledge;knowledge; - the abilityability toto extend thethe mind;mind; -the abilityability toto organise; -the abilityability toto think critically andand solve problems; - the abilityability toto innovateinnovate andand thinkthink creatively.creatively. and, examplesexamples ofof attributesattributes include:include:

levels of knowledge; flexibility and and adaptability adaptability to to varied varied and and changing changing socialsocial andand occupational environments;environments; personal qualities such asas motivationmotivation andand energyenergy levels;levels; attitudes conducive to accumulating knowledge, extending the mind,mind, problemproblem solving,solving, innovating,innovating, thinkingthinking creativelycreatively and criticallycritically,, effectiveeffective leadership andand interpersonal communication.

Criticisms of of this this approach approach toto competencycompetency include thethe factfact thatthat thethe higher order skills andand attributesattributes may be difficult to to define define and and assess, assess, and 118 that thethe presencepresence ofof thesethese skillsskills andand attributesattributes doesdoes notnot guaranteeguarantee .competentcompetent performance inin the workpworkplace.lace. Hence anan integrated tasktask/attribute/attribute approach maymay havehave moremore toto offer and is thethe oneone beingbeing advocated by thosethose interestedinterested inin developingdeveloping CBETCBET for allali professionsprofessions inin Australia.Australia.

The whole concept ofof CBETCBET hashas beenbeen criticised,criticised, particularly by highhigherer education authorities, on the grounds thatthat itit cannotcannot satisfactorilysatisfactorily incorporateincorporate higher order skills and attributesattributes and becausebecause of perceivedperceived difficulties in defining the corecore competenciascompetencies in a profession as diverse as forestry. NeverthelessNevertheless thisthis isis what we attempt toto do in determining the core subjects in our forestryforestry curricula.curricula. Professional forestersforesters in Australia who were exposedexposed to thethe conceptconcept reactedreacted moremore positivelypositively andand believed,believed, ifif properly constructed, it couldcould bebe usefullyusefully applied to theirtheir roles.roles.

Nelson and TrevittTrevitt presentedpresented a generalisedgeneralised frameworkframework forfor thethe forestry profession withinwithin whichwhich more specific modules could be developed. This encapsulate'sencapsulates much much ofof our earlierearlier discussion and givesgives aa formalformal structure wwithinithin wwhichhich education, particularly concontinuingtinuing education, could be considered.considered.

The "wider environment" componentcomponent of the frameworkframework indicates the way in which forestforest policypolicy isis determineddetermined by society after consideration of the nature of thethe resourceresource,, and thethe political, economic, social and ecological objectives. Forest management objectives are determined on the basisbasis ofof this policy.policy.

Attainment of the managementmanagement objectives iiss determined by both individualindividual and teamteam actions.actions. IndiIndividualsvid uals wiwillll bring theirtheir existingexisting abilities,abilities, based on past training, to theirtheir rolerole inin fulfillingfulfilling the objectivesobjectives butbut asas conditions change or demandsdemands increase, theythey may havehave toto developdevelop additional abilities.abilities. This may be through experienceexperience oror furtherfurther education,education, most probably by both.both. NotNot all all individuals individ uals needneed toto have have thethe samesame abilitiesabilities 11911 9 and it isis thethe sumsum ofof abilitiesabilities whichwhich willwill determinedetermine the competency ofof the whole sector.sector. In somesome situations,situations, team actions will bebe requiredrequired eithereither through interinter -- oror intraintra -- disciplinary collaboration, andand thethe total ofof individualindividual and team competenciescompetencies should be aimed at providingproviding sociallysocially acceptableacceptable forest management.management.

While this frameworkframework does not,not, in itself,itself, provide a measuremeasure of competency oror validationvalidation ofof educationeducation atat anyany level,level, itit doesdoes helphelp identifyidentify thethe stages in the educational process. ForestForest agencies,agencies, andand thethe individualindividual staffstaff themselves, must be conscious ofof thethe needneed forfor thethe development ofof different abilities· over time,time, andand appropriateappropriate educationaleducational opportunitiesopportunities must bebe available. Validation of thethe successsuccess of thesethese coursescourses can only bebe .determined by evaluationevaluation of how well theythey havehave achievedachieved their objectives using competencycompetency basedbased assessmentassessment or somesome otherother evaluationevaluation process.process. 121

REFERENCES

Barney, D.R.D.R. (1974). TheThe LastLast Stand,Stand, GrossmanGrossman Publishers,Publishers, N.Y.,N.Y., 185pp.185pp.

Behan, R.W. (1990)(1990).. MultiresourceMultiresource forestforest managementmanagement: : A paradigmaticparadigmatic challenge for professional forestry. J. For.For. 88(4),88(4}, 12-18.12-18.

Carron, LL.T T. (1985).(1985) . A HistoryHistory ofof Forestry Forestry inin Australia.Australia. ANU Press,Press, Canberra, 355pp.355pp.

Forwood (1974).(1974) . Report of PanelPanel 3.3. MultipleMultiple Use of ForestForest Resources.Resources. AGPS, Canberra, 68pp.

Nelson, R.A.RA and Trevitt, A.C.F.A.C.F. (1993).(1993). Competency-based education and training: AA basis basis forfor the the Australian Australian forestryforestry professionprofession? ? Aust.Aust. For.For. . (in press).

PlochmannPlochmann,, R. (1992).(1992). The forestsforests ofof centracentrall EuEurope.rope. AA changing vview.iew. J. For.90(6}For. 90(6),,12-16. 12-16.

RAC (1992).(1992). ForestForest and Timber InquirInquiry.y. FinalFinal Report Vol. 11.. AGPS,AGPS, 570pp.

Routley, RR.. andand Routley, V.V. (1975).(1975). TThehe Fight for the Forests (3rd Edition). Res. Sch. Soc. Sciences, Australian National University,University, Canberra,Canberra, 407pp.

SAF (1991). Forest resourceresource management in thethe 21st21st century:century: Will forestry educateducationion meet tthehe challenge? Symp.Symp. Proc.,Proc., Denver,Denver, Colorado.,Colorado., Oct. 30-Nov.2, 1991. Soc.Soc. Amer.Amer. Foresters,Foresters, Md.Md.

Wallinger, R.S.R.S. (1991). Creating and educating a 21st21 st centurycentury forestforest resources profession. InIn SAFSAF (1991),(1991), pp.pp. 30-38.30-38. 122

Watkins, T.H.TH (1992).(1992). FatherFather of the forests. J. For. 90(1),90(1). 12-15.12-15.

Westoby, J.e.J.C. (1987). The Purpose of Forests. BasilBasil Blackwell Ltd., Oxford, UU.K.,.K., 343pp. 123

APPENDIX 99

REFRESHER AND IN-SERVICE FORESTRYFORESTRY TRAINING: RESPONDING TO THE CHALLENGES OF MAINTAININGMAINTAINING QUALITY FORESTRY FACULTY, GOVERNMENT,GOVERNMENT, AND INDUSTRIAL PERSONNEL

by

J.M. HiggsHiggs' 1

SUMMARY

The science and practice ofof forestryforestry areare evolving.evolving. AsAs aa result,result, thethe technical competency of practisingpractising forestryforestry personnelpersonnel who relyrely solely upon basics learned in traditional education programs cancan suffer.suffer. Refresher andand in-service trainingtraining offeredoffered asas an adjunct toto long-termlong-term forestry education programmesprogrammes areare vitalvital mechanismsmechanisms forfor maintainingmaintaining aa technologically current forestry workforce.workforce. These short-termshort -term programmes must be keyed to the particulars of employees in their onon-­ the-job circumstances. And, becausebecause the successsuccess of these programmes relies uponupon substantivesubstantive exchangeexchange andand coordinationcoordination withwith forestryforestry sector as aa whole,whole, forestryforestry educators,educators, theirtheir programmesprogrammes andand institutionsinstitutions benefit.

INTRODUCTION

Few places remainremain onon thisthis EarthEarth wherewhere resourceresource basedbased development, competitive markets,markets, and evolvingevolving technologies areare notnot altering the science and practicepractice ofof forestry.forestry. All segments -- from thethe halls, laboratories, and forestsforests of governmentgovernment activities to the

, International ForeForestrystry EducationEducation andand TrainingTraining Coordinator,Coordinator, United States Forest Service,Service, Washington,Washington, DC,DC, USA.USA. 124 concessions, mills, and factories of industrialindustrial activitiesactivities -- showshow ampleample evidence ofof the many changes. AndAnd thisthis evolutionevolution continuescontinues at anan increasing pace. The challengeschallenges forfor andand responsibilitiesresponsibilities of forestryforestry educators to designdesign andand implementimplement effectiveeffective education and training programs havehave nevernever beenbeen soso great.great. .

Training and education areare playingplaying anan integral rolerole in this ongoing evolution.evolution. Educationally-drivenEducationally-driven researchresearch is a significant stimulus and contributorcontributor toto newnew conceptsconcepts andand procedures.procedures. Trained andand educated graduates areare carriers of the latest technologiestechnologies and practices as theythey enterenter thethe workforce. workforce. Specialized Specialized short-termshort-term programmes,programmes, designed to provideprovide refresherrefresher and in-servicein-service training, strive to keepkeep currently employed forestforest resourceresource plannersplanners and practitioners upup to date on the latestlatest developments.developments.

Long-term programmesprogrammes are are atat thethe forefront.forefront. AsAs aa centre for research,research, education and thethe transfertransfer of technology,technology, university programmes in forest resourceresource managementmanagement and utilizationutilization provide leadership at the professionalprofessional level.level. As a centre for technical educationeducation and competency-focusedcompetency-focused training, technical collegescolleges andand trainingtraining centers provide leadership at the technical level.level.

Short-term programmesprogrammes are are the the primary methods forfor the development and deliverydelivery ofof refresherrefresher and in-servicein-service training to thosethose already employed.employed. TheseTh ese programmes benefitbenefit fromfrom the inputinput andand leadershipleadership ofof both formalformal universityuniversity andand technicaltechnical trainingtraining centrecentre programmes and personnel. However,However, informalinformal contributors,contributors, suchsuch asas resource-based industries,industries, the manufacturers of relevant equipment and supplies, associated activities,activities, asas wellwell asas thethe general public, can also playaplay a significant role.role.

This paper aims to promotepromote greatergreater attentionattention to thethe needneed throughout thethe forestryforestry sectorsector forfor refresherrefresher andand in-servicein-service trainingtraining asas aa means of maintaining quality forestry faculty, government andand industrialindustrial personnel. The potential role in this tasktask ofof thethe formalformal forestryforestry education 125 community will bebe highlighted.highlighted. MechanismsMechanisms for the developmentdevelopment and direction ofof relationshipsrelationships betweenbetween long-termlong-term andand short-termshort-term forestryforestry programmes in serviceservice of thisthis goalgoal willwill bebe described.described.

THE STANDARDS OF FORMAL EDUCATIONEDUCATION AND TRAINING

Ideally, aa forestryforestry education or training programme proves itsits usefulness by contrcontributingibuting to societysociety throughthrough itsits successfulsuccessful graduates.graduates. A primary function of this success isis the useuse the graduate makes of the education or training in competing forfor entry,entry, andand thenthen succeedingsucceeding inin aa relevant career.career.

This linkage between education and training programmesprogrammes andand the world ofof workwork isis aa prime prime contributor contributor toto the the development development andand presentation of programme content, duration, etc. Typically, this linkagelinkage provides thethe core ofof standardsstandards byby whichwhich programmesprogrammes areare bothboth developed andand evaluated.evaluated.

A relativelyrelatively complecomplexx question isis oftenoften askedasked asas aa generalgeneral rule.rule. Were the knowledge andand skills providprovideded by the education/education/ trainingtraining programme functionally useful toto the programme's graduate as he/she competed forfor the opportunityopportunity toto performperform and/orand/ or performedperformed taskstasks assigned by anan employer?employer?

THE WORLD OF WORK

An employee-employeremployee-employer relationship isis functionallyfunctionally successfulsuccessful when thethe skillsskills anan employeeemployee bringsbrings toto thethe workplaceworkplace matchmatch thethe employer's needsneeds for those skills.skills.

Whenever a new employee is hired, or an existing employee isis promoted, thethe employeremployer acts onon thethe beliefbelief thatthat the employeeemployee possessespossesses at least the minimum levellevel of skills, often referred to as entryentry levellevel skills,skills, necessary to successfully perform the tasks ofof thethe newnew position.position. 126

This concept of entryentry levellevel skills is important in a numbernumber of contexts:

* for the generalgeneral forest labourer itit provides aa descriptiondescription ofof thethe minimal skills requiredrequired to gaingain eniploymentemployment atat thethe lowestlowest level.level.

* for thethe school-leaverschool-Ieaver jobjob applicant it providesprovides a description ofof the skillsskills required for thethe moremore technicallytechnically sophisticatedsophisticated position.

* for each current employee it provides a description of thethe next lelevelvel of skills required in order to be promoted.

* for the forestry employer itit provides a description ofof thethe minimalminimal skills required of anan employeeemployee atat each successive level of employment, e.g.,e.g., fieldfield work,work, juniorjunior forester,forester, seniorsenior manager,manager, director, etc.etc.

WORKFORCE LEARNINGLEARNING

Generally speaking, a newly hiredhired oror promotedpromoted employee initially reports to his/herhislher newnew positionposition withwith atat leastleast thethe entryentry levellevel skills,skills, asas described above.above. WithWith time, however,however, those skills can be expanded and enhanced through aa seriesseries ofof job-relatedjob-related activitiesactivities andand experiences.experiences. These activities and experiences can be formal or informal,informal, as well asas accidental oror planned.planned. TheyThey cancan include:include:

* Tasks FamiliarityFamiliarity ---- increasingincreasing comfortcomfort andand experimentationexperimentation with surroundings,surroundings, policiespolicies andand procedures.procedures.

* Informal PeerPeer TrainingTraining ---- learninglearning throughthrough observationobservation andand assistance from fellow workersworkers andand associates.associates.

* Formal Refresher/In-ServiceRefresherl in-Service Training -- organized programmes to enhanceenhance knowledgeknowledge andand skills.skill s. 127

• Introduced Technology Technology -- -- exposureexposure to to innovative innovative technologies, technologies, procedures andand or policies (which mayormay or maymay notnot includeinclude associated formal training).training).

Under ideal circumstances,circumstances, the result ofof thesethese experiencesexperiences is growth inin employeeemployee knowledge,knowledge, skills,skills, andand performance.performance. ThisThis potentialpotential for improvementimprovement providesprovides aa numbernumber ofof fundamentalfundamental benefits.benefits. Primarily,Primarily, employers areare providedprovided with anan expandingexpanding poolpool of inincreasinglycreasingly competent employees,employees, andand employees are givengiven anan expandedexpanded competitivenesscompetitiveness in their search for career adadvancement.vancement. The net result provides a basisbasis for anan overalloverall increaseincrease inin operationaloperational efficiencyefficiency and overall productivity.productivity.

The follofollowingwing illustration displays a veryvery simple scenarioscenario for the potential on-the-job learninglearning aa forestryforestry employeeemployee mightmight experience.experience.

FigFigureure One - SIMPLIFIEDSIMPLI FIED WWORKFORCEORKFORCE LELEARNINGAR NING CURVE Employee Skills LEARNING ELEMENTSELEMENTS

(New TechnoTechnology).logy )

(Formal Training)

(Informal(In formal Training)

(Tasks Familiarity) Time Entry LevelLevel 128

CAREER LEARNING

Over time, an employee's acquisition ofof skills and knowledge while on the job accumulates. This accumulation, when combined with ambition and opportunity, cancan generategenerate a seriesseries of promotions.promotions. EachEach promotion toto a positionposition ofof higherhigher responsibilityresponsibility contributes toto that employee's career path.

FiguFeFigure Two - SIMPLIFIED EMPLOYEEEMPLOYEE CAREERCAREER PATHPATH

Employee's Skills ~ "PPositionosition 55

/ "POsitionPosition 44

~ Position 33 ~ }LEARNING)LEARNING ELEMENTS ~"POsition°Position 22

"------Time Entry Level (Position(Position 1)1)

Each new position in an employee's advancement, from the first one out through the close of career, providesprovides the opportunity forfor itsits own new and unique learning curve as illustrated in Figure 1. AdvancementAdvancement from position to positionposition alongalong aa careercareer pathpath generatesgenerates a succession of individual learninglearning curves. EachEach segmentsegment inin thatthat careercareer pathpath providesprovides thethe same general opportunities for an on-the-jobon-the-job learninglearning basedbased uponupon thethe same general learning elementselements illustratedillustrated inin FigureFigure 1.1. 129

REFRESHER AND IN-SERVICEIN-SERVICE TRAININGTRAINING

The elementary concept, the entry level skills acquired by long-long­ term programmeprogramme graduates,graduates, waswas mentionedmentioned earlier,earlier, (illustrated(illustrated at thethe junctionjunction ofof thethe XX andand YY axes axes of of the the Workforce Workforce Learning Learning Curve).Curve). It represents the intimateintimate relationship thatthat shouldshould exist between curriculum development for long-term forestryforestry educational programmes and the knowledge and skillsskills expected by potentialpotential employersemployers of those programmes' graduates.graduates.

. But more important to the focusfocus ofof thisthis paper,paper, bothboth curvescurves illustrateillustrate thethe potential rolerole forestryforestry educatorseducators can,can, andand indeedindeed should,should, have in thethe developmentdevelopment ofof short-termshort-term trainingtraining programmesprogrammes for thethe forestry sector.sector.

PostPost-employment-employment promotion promotion learninglearning is is aa factfact in the forestry work world.world. ItIt Isis importantimportant fromfrom the lowestlowest to thethe highesthighest levelslevels ofof responsibility, in industry,industry, governmentgovernment andand universityuniversity segmentssegments ofof thethe forestry sector. ThisThis learning learning takestakes placeplace inin thethe uniqueunique circumstancescircumstances specific toto eacheach individualindividual forestry employer'semployer's organizationorganization andand management. Short-termShort-term refresherrefresher andand in-servicein-service training should bebe aa vital contributorcontributor toto post-employment/promotion post-employment/ promotion learning.learning. But mostmost importantly,importantly, thethe forestryforestrv educatorseducators areare aa logicallogical sourcesource forfor short-termshort-term refresher and in-servicein-service training.training.

A need, fundamental to these responses, is the task of makingmaking forestry organizations and industriesindustries aware of the opportunities to work with, andand benefitsbenefits ofof workingworking with,with, forestryforestry educatorseducators inin order toto manage their employers'employers' workplaceworkplace learninglearning curve.curve.

Employer Awareness Awareness - -TheThe firstfirst opportunityopportunity lies lies inin thethe invitationinvitation to educate forestryforestry employersemployers regardingregarding thethe featuresfeatures andand manageabilitymanageability of thethe curve.curve. EachEach elementelement isis manageablemanageable and cancan benefitbenefit fromfrom employer attention.attention. OnceOnce informed,informed, forestryforestry employersemployers shouldshould welcomewelcome the ideas,ideas, expertise andand innovationsinnovations resident inin formal forestry 130

education/training programmesprogrammes as as they they acactt to taketake advantageadvantage of improvements inin employeeemployee on-the-jobon-the-job learning.learning.

FFormalormal shortshort-term-term trainingtraining offers thethe best opportunity for on-on­ going functional interactioninteraction betweenbetween the forestryforestry educationeducation community and the employeremployer of itsits graduates.graduates. This opportunity centers upon the Design and delivery of jjob-specificob-specific short-term training programmes andand activitactivities.ies.

Refresher TrainingTraining is often calledcalled for wherewhere standards,standards, regulationsregulations or safetysafety requirementsrequirements callcall forfor regularregular reinforcementreinforcement andand monitoring of aa particularparticular llevelevel of performanceperformance oror competence.competence. Examples wowoulduld include employees involvedinvolved with with qualityquality controlcontrol oror emergency responseresponse (fire,(fire, etc.) responsibilities,responsibilities, whewherere standardsstandards of performance andand qualityquality ofof serviceservice areare vital.vital.

In-Service TrainingTraining isis often calledcalled forfor whenwhen site-specificsite-specific alterations in procedures or objectives need to bebe introduced and cancan benefit from a highlyhighly focusedfocused short-term trainingtraining programme.programme. ExamplesExamples wouwouldld include employeesemployees with shifting responsibilitiesresponsibilities oror thethe i ntroductionintroduction of a newnew technique oror piecepiece ofof equipment.equipment.

An additadditionalional opportunity to participateparticipate with the organizationsorganizations and industriesindustries that employemploy forestryforestry programmeprogramme graduatesgraduates existsexists inin the introductionintroduction of newnew technology.technology. TheThe researchresearch functionfunction of forestryforestry education oftenoften involvesinvolves the development ofof newnew technology.technology. However,However, this developmentdevelopment doesdoes notnot guaranteeguarantee delivery.delivery. SomeSome educationaleducational ininstitutionsstitutions llackack an activeactive extensionex1ension programme.programme. SomeSome educationaleducational institutions'institutions' research mandates do not automatically includeinclude responsibility for for thethe transfer ofof new technology.technology. FForor these and aa number of otherother legitimate reasons, the introduction of new technology isis often llefteft toto thethe manufacturer andand sales forceforce ofof some newnew equequipmentipment or procedure. 131

New Technology deliverydelivery isis calledcalled forfor whenwhen innovationsinnovations inin equipmentequipment,, methods and/or policies would benefit a forestryforestry organization or induindustriesstries employees with their productivity or efficiency. This iiss not limited to technology developeddeveloped by a training institution, but can includeinclude anyany innovationinnovation relativerelative toto thethe organizationsorganizations involved.involved. Examples would include forestforest nurserynursery practices,practices, GIS,GIS, thinthin sawsaw blades,blades, etc.

CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIESOPPORTUNITIES

In order to successfullysuccessfully respondrespond to thethe aboveabove challengeschallenges and opportunities, educators have toto enrich theirtheir classroomclassroom andand laboratorylaboratory activities withwith anan involved knowledge ofof thethe world in whichwhich theirtheir employees, theirtheir ideasideas andand innovations areare expectedexpected toto function. Of equal iimportancemportance is the need to develop rapport and an atmosphereatmosphere of mutual confidence with forestryforestry employers.employers.

To ensure thatthat this rapport with the forestry sector is truly effectieffective,ve, therethere needsneeds toto be aa two-waytwo-way exchangeexchange betweenbetween all thethe potential producers and all the potential consumers of information wwithith relevance toto forestry educationeducation inin general,general, and to refresherrefresher and in-in­ service training in particular. The following diagramdiagram illustratesillustrates aa modelmodel for thisthis exchange.exchange. The institutions include both privateprivate and public,public, government and nonnon-government-government and educationally focusedfocused activities.activities.

Figure 3 illustratesillustrates the generalgeneral functionalfunctional categoriescategories whereinwherein informationinformation,, technologytechnology andand policypolicy direction reside and shouldshould bebe sought. The arrowsarrows illuillustratestrate thethe potential forfor exchangeexchange andand purposefullypurposefully include dual pathways between eacheach ofof thethe categories.categories. InIn essence,essence, thisthis chart emphasizes that forestry education must stay connected with,with, andand attentive to,to, a number of distinctlydistinctly different sources ofof direction and support. ThTheseese sources are vivitaltal if programmes hope to remainremain current and in step with the forestry sector andand community.community. 132

FjgureFigure Three FORESTRY INFORMATION EXCHANGE AND FEEDBACK SYSTEM

EDUCATION AND TRAINING~TRAINING

FOREST / ~ FOREST RESOURCE PRESERVATION/ MANAGEMENT / UTILIZATION

PUBLICS

TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENTDEVELOPMENT ANDAND EXCHANGEEXCHANGE

SpecificSpecifiC mechanismsmechanisms available available to to forestryforestry education for thethe development and exchange of technoltechnology,ogy, policy and informationinformation are many and include:include: •

• Formal seatsseats onon vavariousrious publicpublic andand priprivatevate sector boards of directors.directors.

• Establishment and use of advisory boards.boards.

• Public hearings and communitycommunity meetings.meetings.

• Various survey and questionnairequestionnaire mechanisms.mechanisms.

• Fact-finding workshops andand conferences,conferences,

• Various public mediamedia focusedfocused activities.activities. 133

• Professional and associatedassociated scientific and legal, documentation,documentation, meetings, and organizationorganization memberships.memberships.

• Exchange of personnel.personnel.

Any and/or all all ofof thethe aboveabove representrepresent opportunitiesopportunities to promotepromote exchanges vitalvital to developdevelop and maintainmaintain thethe relevancerelevance of forestryforestry trainingtraining programmes. Results varyvary with time and circumstances.circumstances. However, the impact onon the planning, decision-making,decision-making, implementation,implementation, monitoring andand evaluation,evaluation, both within the forestry education community and the sectorsector atat aa whole, whole, isis significant significant andand growing.growing. In spitespite ofof difficulties many education-focused forestry programs,programs, includingincluding thethe oneone with which this author is associated, make use of this principle and find value and relevance in these exchanges.

CONCLUSION

Refresher andand inin-service-service trainingtraining should be fundamental tools employedemployed byby thethe forestryforestry educationeducation community.community. These tools need to bebe sharpenedsharpened byby aa dedicateddedicated efforteffort toto connectconnect forestry educationeducation institutionsinstitutions toto thethe entireentire spectrumspectrum ofof responsibilities responsibilities within the forestry sector. ThisThis connectionconnection requires requires functionalfunctional exchangeexchange throughout thethe forestryforestry sector.sector. The key to successsuccess lieslies inin aa mutualmutual appreciation among forestryforestry educators,educators, employers,employers, and theirtheir variousvarious partners of the valuevalue of training and education andand aa commitment byby allall involved toto coordinatecoordinate and cooperate to provideprovide thethe bestbest trainingtraining programmes possible.possible. It isis aa keykey availableavailable toto forestry forestry educatorseducators everywhere. 134

APPENDIX 1010

POSTGRADUATE LEVEL EDUCATION ININ THE ASIA-PACIFIC REGIONREGION

by

I.S.I.S. Ferguson 1 1

SUMMARY

Some of the factors influencinginfluencing postgraduate education in the Asia-Pacific RegionRegion areare reviewed, especiallyespecially thethe challenges posedposed by sustainable forestforest management andand by changeschanges inin public sectorsector management. TheThe needsneeds forfor professionalprofessional developmentdevelopment educationeducation areare also reviewedreviewed and thethe developmentdevelopment ofof specialist optionsoptions at thethe University ofof Melbourne outlined, including the useuse ofof block-releaseblock-release teaching forfor AustralianAustralian students.students. ContinuingContinuing educationeducation needsneeds areare discussed both forfor thethe professionprofession andand forfor specialspecial interestinterest groupsgroups andand members of the public. Postgraduate research training is reviewed, withwith special reference to the importance of industryindustry linkages,linkages, and collaboration with other disciplinesdisciplines andand researchresearch institutions.institutions.

1 Professor, University ofof Melbourne,Melbourne, Parkville,Parkville, Victoria,Victoria, Australia.Australia. 135

INTRODUCTION

Global concern about wisewise resourceresource use hashas promptedprompted allall governmentsgovernments to examineexami ne theirtheir forestryforestry practices.practices. TheThe InternationalInternational TropiTropicalcal Timber Agreement illustrates ththeseese concerns, and has lleded toto thethe adoption of targettarget byby membermember countriescountries that,th at, byby thethe yearyear 2000,2000, allall tropical timbertimber inin internationalinternational tradetrade shouldshould be fromfrom forestsforests managed on a sustainablesustainable basis.basis.

FergusonFerguson and Munöz-ReyesMunoz-Reyes Navarro (1992) estimatedestimated the additional resourcesresources requiredrequired toto enable membermember countries toto achieve the ITIOITTO targets. TableTable 11 summarises thethe majormajor items for thethe producerproducer countries ofof thethe AsianAsian RegionRegion who are members ofof ITTOITIO and representrepresent mmostost of the major producers ofof tropicaltropical timber in the Region, including India,India, IndIndonesia,onesia, Malaysia, PaPapuapua NewNew Guinea,Guinea, Philippines, andand ThThailand.ailand. 136

TABLE 1: Additional resources (US$ million/yr)million/yr) neededneeded to achieve ITTOIno goals and targetstargets

ItemItem Additional resources

1. Securing the permanent forest estateestate National forest inventory 9.4 Legislation andand policy 4.4 2. ImplementingImplementing sustainable foreforestst production Sustainable woodwood andand non-wood production 5.0 3. ImproImprovingving resource utilisation Utilisation andand technical informationinformation 2.5 4. ImprovingImproving the social and political environmentenvironment SocialSocial research 2.6 Political awareness 0.6 5. Preparing Strategy plans CollaborativeCollaborative study teams 1.5

6. Total 26.0

Source: FergusonFerguson andand Munöz-ReyesMunOZ-Reyes NavarroNavarro (1992)(1992)

Estimates of this kind need to treated with great suspicion, even by their authors. SomeSome havehave argued thatthat thesethese estimatesestimates areare farfar too low;low; others, that they are too high.high. Nevertheless,Nevertheless, the orderorder ofof magnitudemagnitude highlighthighlightss an enormous tasktask toto bebe undertaken,undertaken ,whether whether by by the the yearyear 20002000 or some time thereafter.thereafter. InIn thethe AsianAsian RegionRegion atat least,least, thesethese targetstargets areare believed to be capable of being funded fromfrom additionaladditional timbertimber revenuesrevenues that mightmight bebe capturedcaptured byby thethe producer producer countriescountries (Ferguson(Ferguson andand Munoz-Reyes Navarro, 1992). All but ththee last three items in Table 1 havehave direct implications for forforestryestry education and forfor pospostgraduatetgraduate educationeducation in particular.

HowHow relevant are these target items for otherother countries inin thethe Asia-Pacific Region?Regi'on? DevelopmentsDevelopments atat thethe UNCEDUNCED ConferenceConference atat RioRio dede Janeiro inin 19921992 suggest that sustainablesustainable forest management is likely to 137 become th~the subjectsubject ofof aa moremore specificspecific andand binding binding international international agreement by thethe endend ofof the the Century. Century. ConcernsConcerns overover sustainable sustainable development, climate change and biodiversity are currently prominent in thethe continuing debates, SustainableSustainable forestforest managementmanagement isis seenseen as an important mechanism forfor contributingcontributing toto thethe resolutionresolution ofof these these issuesissues (Holdgate,(Hold gate, 1993).1993). Thus,Thus, thethe itemsitems enumeratedenumerated inin TableTable 11 areare transferabletransferable to otherother relativelyrelatively resource-richresource-rich countries in thethe regionregion althoughalthough thethe emphases and relativerelative amounts of additional resourcesresources requiredrequired differ.differ.

National forest inventoriesinventories provideprovide anan example ofof an item where both the problem and the technology havehave changed so much that most countries in the RegionRegion faceface somewhatsomewhat similarsimilar challenges.challenges. As with thethe tropical timbertimber countriescountries enumerated enumerated above, above, eveneven countriescountries likelike AustraliaAustralia do not have national forest inventories equal to the task being asked of them today.today. DataData onon speciesspecies abundance,abundance, distributionsdistributions andand habitathabitat requirements areare lacking or inadequate.inadequate. Data on catchment properties are poorly developeddeveloped and lacklack integrationintegration withwith forestforest data.data. DataData onon recreation and other 'minor'minor' forestforest productsproducts areare alsoalso deficient.deficient. WithoutWithout these data, national planning ofof llandand and forestforest use toto provideprovide aa permanent forest estate with a systemsystem of protectionprotection parksparks andand reserves,reserves, associated buffer zoneszones andand corridors, special use andand timbertimber production zones, cannot respond asas well as they shouldshould toto thesethese global concerns.

These deficiencies in national inventories affect the implementation of sustainablesustainable forest management, especially inin relation to riskrisk assessment where rare and endangered species are concerned (Burgman et aI.,al., 1993). The saving grace in the developeddeveloped countriescountries isis that the demarcation of aa permanentpermanent forestforest estateestate isis largelylargely completecomplete and its status secure. The regional planning and codes of forest practice being implernentedimplemented in AustraliaAustralia and elsewhereelsewhere also representrepresent majormajor advancesadyances towards achievingachieving sustainablesustainable forestforest management,management, eveneven though based on scantyscanty datadata inin somesome cases.cases.

For the relatively resource-poor countries, where fuelwood and simple building materials dominate thethe pattern of demand for woodwood products, the situationsituation differsdiffers markedlymarkedly inin the sense that the priorities lie 138 principally in achieving effective public particparticipationipation through consultation, involvementinvolvement in planning or inin some casescases in management, either jointly with the responsibleresponsible agency or onon aa fullyfully delegateddelegated basis.basis. On the IndianIndian sub-continentSUb-continent andand elsewhere,elsewhere, local populationspopulations oftenoften derive a wide array of non-woodnon-wood goodsgoods andand servicesseNices fromfrom locallocal forests,forests, includincludinging pharmaceuticals,pharmaceuticals, honey, nuts, fruits,fruits, resins,resins, tanninstannins and oils.oils. The value of thesethese products,products, althoughalthough notnot tradedtraded formallyformally inin marketsmarkets and thereforetherefore notnot shownshown inin officialofficial economiceconomic statistics,statistics, oftenoften exceedsexceeds thatthat ofof timber.timber. EffectiveEffective publicpublic participationparticipation thusthus involvesinvolves gettinggetting locallocal popupopulationslations toto appreciate thatthat ththey,ey, albeit withwith thethe assistanceassistance of government agencies and non-governmentnon-government organisations,organisations, need toto expand, protect andand utiliseutilise the forest resource to provideprovide a sustainablesustainable supplysupply of allall forestforest products.products. TheTh e problemsproblems inin thesethese countriescountries thereforetherefore tend to bebe moremore relatedrelated toto people,people, theirtheir participationparticipation inin socialsocial forestry,forestry, the efficient and equitableequitable allocation of property rights, and thethe transfertransfer of appropriate technology.

Lastly, all of these pressures areare proceedingproceeding in an era in which ininstitutionalstitutional management, and public sectorsector managementmanagement inin particular,particular, are undergoingundergoing radical change in responseresponse to aa shift to moremore decentralised and contestablecontestable management units,units, and changes in informatinformationion technology. Among otherother things,things, thisthis hashas placedplaced newnew andand urgent pressures on many forest agencies in the Region toto improve their financial management andand valuationsvaluations ofof standing timber and otherother goods andand services.seNices.

Postgraduate Education

WhWhileil e postgraduate education is not numernumericallyically the larlargestgest itemitem of educationeducation that flowsflows fromfrom thesethese changes,changes, itit is oneone ofof thethe mostmost importantimportant because it is concerned with equippequippinging the best of thethe current middle-level managersmanagers andand youngyoung scientists with improvedimproved skillsskills toto manage or conduct research.research.

Postgraduate education ththereforeerefore has toto ttakeake account of three nneedseeds in the Asia-PacificAsia-Pacific Region:Region: 139

(1) professional development to enable forest and project managers andand professional staffstaff toto handle the veryvery differentdifferent demands of sustainable forest management, socialsocial forestryforestry andand forest product utilisationutilisation today;today;

(2) continuing education to prepareprepare foresters,foresters, forestforest scientists,scientists, industrialists and and interestedinterested members members of of the the publicpublic for thethe changes in public sectorsector andand forestforest management,management;

(3) postgraduate reseresearcharch trainingtraining toto supply the scientistsscientists ofof thethe future for all sectorssectors ofof thethe forestryforestry andand forestforest industries.industries.

In the time and underund er thethe circumstancescircumstances availableavailable to prepareprepare thisthis paper,paper, it hashas notnot beenbeen possiblepossible toto surveysurvey thethe currentcurrent statusstatus ofof postgraduate educationeducation inin the Region.Region. TheThe followingfollowing observationsobservations thereforetherefore reflect my personalpersonal experienceexperience ofof needsneeds inin severalseveral countriescountries in the RegionRegion and somesome of approachesapproaches adopted at thethe UniversityUniversity of Melbourne. ManyMany of these approaches may be foundfound elsewhereelsewhere inin Australasia and Malaysia,Malaysia, at least.least.

Professional DevelopmentDevelopment

Professional developmentdevelopment ofof existingexisting forest managersmanagers isis anan essential process inin both developed and developing countries and is likely to focusfocus onon fourfour principalprincipal goals:goals:

1. the development, refinementrefinement and implementation of environmentally sound sound andand economically efficient codes ofof forest practice;practice;

2. the developmentdevelopment and implementationimplementation of managementmanagement plans that try toto satisfysatisfy thethe relevantrel evant demands. InIn the case of public forests,forests, they mustmust encompassencompass all forestforest uses,uses, includingincluding thosethose whichwhich have no direct market value such asas thethe conservationconservation ofof flora,flora, fauna and ecosystems,ecosystems, the maintenancemainte.nance of quantity and qualityquality of water, and the provision of opportunitiesopportunities for recreationrecreation or subssubsistenceistence throughthrough traditional uses of minor forestforest products;products; 140

3. thethe development of policy andand planningplanning atat aa nationalnational level;level;

4. thethe developmentdevelopment of moremore cost-competitivecost-competitive and completecomplete utilisation of wood and other products and, where appropriate, furtherfurther processing of them.

The developmentdevelopment ofof codes of practicepractice isis in some ways the easiest ofof these because itit drawsdraws onon field experience at at aa locallocal or compartment level andand integratesintegrates itit with research findings andand common-sense measures.measures. For For publicpublic forests, or forfor privateprivate forestsforests covered byby codes,codes, thesethese measuresmeasures areare essentially a matter of managing the forestforest environmentenvironment sensitively, asas far as possiblepossible avoidingavoiding soilsoil erosion and compaction andand providingproviding appropriateappropriate habitathabitat forfor animalsanimals and local reservesreserves to protectprotect endangeredendangered fauna and flora species and water quality. Furthermore,Furthermore, thesethese codescodes areare notnot generallygenerally regardedregarded asas documents thatthat are fixed forever. Indeed, periodic rereviewview andand adjustment isis generally anan essential part.part. WhileWhile therethere isis scope for professional development to raiseraise the standards involved, it is principallyprincipally a matter of exchangingexchanging informationinformation andand experience,experience, especially relating to thethe implementationimplementation of sanctions.

Although managementmanagement plansplans havehave been a standard requirement in manymany organisationsorganisations forfor aa longlong while,while, the historhistoryy of effective completion and implementationimplementation has beenbeen chequered.chequered. The process of periodic inventory,inventory, estimationestimation ofof results,results, and development and analysis of strategiesstrategies was soso slowslow asas toto be be self-defeating. self-defeating. ImprovementsImprovements inin information technologytechnology enable speedingspeeding upup of thethe processprocess andand incorporation inin normalnormal businessbusiness operations.operations.

InI n pine plantations and other forestsforests dedevotedvoted predominantly to wood production,production, thethe charactercharacter ofof thethe managementmanagement planplan hashas changed.changed. It isis nownow generallygenerally a formalformal part ofof thethe strategicstrategic businessbusiness plan of the organisation and reviewed at least every three toto five years. It is linked to,to, oror includes,includes, shortershorter termterm harvestharvest plansplans asas wellwell asas wellwell asas providingproviding thethe longer-termlonger-term analysis.analysis. Increasingly,Increasingly, it is linkedlinked toto financialfinancial valuationvaluation of thethe estateestate forfor auditaudit purposespurposes basedbased onon aa continuing continuing inventoryinventory process. Continuing inventoryinventory entailsentails annual or periodic re-inventoryre-inventory ofof 141 those partsparts thatthat havehave beenbeen thinnedthinned andand delineationdelineation andand measurementmeasurement of those areas clear-felled. Using growth and yield models derived from re-measurement ofof aa separate system of permanent plots, the entireentire array of old andand newnew inventoryinventory plotsplots can bebe broughtbrought forwardforward to reflectreflect the currentcurrent statusstatus ofof thethe forestforest estate.estate. This providesprovides a current inventoryinventory base both for valuationvaluation of standingstanding timber and for thethe simulationsimulation of alternative future strategiesstrategies (Lewis(Lewis and Ferguson,Ferguson, 1993).1993). The detailed technologies involved are formidable;formidable; encompassingencompassing geographicgeographic information systems, and advanced inventory, biometrical, financial and accounting techniquestechniques andand areare beyondbeyond anan undergraduateundergraduate syllabussyllabus toto adequatelyadequately cover in any butbut anan introductoryintroductory manner.manner.

For public nativenative forests, some ofof thethe samesame technologiestechnologies areare involved in regionalregional managementmanagement plans but thethe requirementsrequirements areare veryvery different and less well-integrated at present. Firstly, the inventory needs to encompassencompass otherother forestforest usesuses besidesbesides wood and thatthat introducesintroduces a different set of sampling and inventory problems, some ofof which,which, suchsuch as speciesspecies diversity, have been little explored.explored . ExperienceExperience toto date in Australia, suggests that the level of detail needed is about a 1:251:25 000000 scale for geographic information systems. Few organisations anticipated such a level of detail initially and hence much more work remainsremains to bebe done in developingdeveloping the basicbasic topographictopographic andand forestforest typetype overlays.overlays. Secondly, these uses are often unpriced or non-marketnon-market inin charactercharacter andand hence pricingpricing andand valuationvaluation isis aa problem,problem, notwithstandingnotwithstanding some some useful useful research in this area.area. ThisThis greatlygreatly complicatescomplicates thethe developmentdevelopment of planning models becausebecause ofof thethe incompleteincomplete information.information. It isis alsoalso another reason for ensuensuringring public involvement in the development ofof strategstrategiesies to reduce the possibilitypossibility of conflictconflict atat thethe regionalregional planningplanning level.

In a sense, thethe rolerole ofof thethe forestforest managermanager inin public native forests is todaytoday moremore ·that that of aa facilitatorfacilitator andand integratorintegrator whowho presentspresents alternatives andand ensures theythey areare evaevaluatedluated asas farfar asas iiss possible. Not only dodo managersmanagers havehave to bebe proficientproficient inin the technologiestechnologies ofof geographic information systemssystems and planning models,models, they havehave to be able to communicate thethe useuse and limitations of these tools to the public. It is simply not possiblepossible toto developdevelop adequatelyadequately the skillsskills neededneeded to 142 manage thethe technologytechnology and publicpublic involvementinvolvement required forfor thisthis planning at anan undergraduateundergraduate level.level. StaHStaff need ththee benefitbenefit of fieldfield experience, maturity and then professional development at a llaterater stagestage of their career.career.

Conceptually, llong-acceptedong-accepted norms such asas sustainedsustained yieldyield whwhichich have dominated forestry education have become marginal toto the process. Sustained yieldyield focuses on achieving some static level ofof harvesting thatthat can be maintainedmaintained in perpetuity, oftenoften takentaken ttoo bebe coincident wwithith providing the maximummaximum yield of timber possible on a sustained basis.basis. Sustainable forestforest managemenmanagementt isis notnot about timber alone; itit is about tryingtrying toto satisfysatisfy thethe public'spublic's demandsdemands forfor allall forestforest uses, inincludingcluding those which have no direct marketmarket value suchsuch as the conservation ooff flora,fl ora, faunafauna andand ecosystems,ecosystems, thethe maintenancemaintenance ofof quantity and quality of water,water, andand thethe provisionprovision ofof opportunitiesopportunities forfor recreation oror subsistencesubsistence throughthrough traditiontraditionalal usesuses ofof minorminor forestforest products. It acknowledges thatthat oneone oror moremore ofof thethe non-woodnon-wood usesuses maymay have primacy over timber production in somesome areasareas toto the pointpoint where no timber production isis allowed oror it may necessitate major modificatmodificationion of harvestingharvesting and silvicultural practices in others in order to maintainmaintain those other values. Public involvementinvolvement iiss needed toto guide and ensure that the planning and management process addresses public demands and perceptionsperceptions ofof needsneeds appropriately.appropriately. DemandsDemands forfor improvedimproved utilisationutilisation are alsoalso evidentevident throughoutthroughout thethe resource-richresource-rich countries,countries, especially fforor wood fromfrom publicpublic nativenative forests.forests.

ThThee situatsituationion in social forestry is clearly very differentdiHerent because the concern isis more forfor communalcommunal andand privateprivate investmentinvestment andand projects.projects. The developmendevelopmentt and transfer of appropriate technology thereforetherefore playsplays a muchmuch largerlarger role.role. Here,Here, the needneed isis moremore forfor thethe developmentdevelopment or strengtheningstrengthening ooff communication and sociologicalsociological skillsskills andand aa criticalcritical view of appropriateappropriate agro-forestryagro-forestry technologytechnology andand thethe best means to trtransferansfer it.it.

AlmostAlmost all universities in the Asia-Pacific Region now have sosomeme inintroductiontroduction toto manymany ifif notnot allall ofof thesethese matters.matters. NotNot allall havehave thethe facilitiesfacilities or expertiseexpertise for intensiveintensive professionalprofessional development courses,courses, however,however, 143 because thesethese areare generallygenerally associatedassociated withwith substantialsubstantial postgraduatepostgraduate research programs andand thethe facilitiesfacilities thatthat gogo withwith them.them.

The UniversityUniversity ofof MelbourneMelbourne PostgraduatePostgraduate DiplomaDiploma inin ForestForest Science, a courseworkcoursework programmeprogramme of,of, oror equivalentequivalent to,to, oneone full-timefull-time academic year,year, isis nownow offeredoffered inin anan arrayarray ofof professionalprofessional development specialisations. ThoseThose inin ForestForest PlanningPlanning andand FarmFarm ForestryForestry exemplifyexemplify some of the current optionsoptions especiallyespecially designeddesigned forfor AustralianAustralian students. Farm Forestry is to bebe delivereddelivered onon aa block-releaseblock-release teaching basisbasis atat some five regionalregional centrescentres acrossacross Australia.Australia. Each subject entailsentails priorprior reading andand sometimessometimes assignments,assignments, an intensiveintensive five-tofive-to ten-dayten-day residentialresid ential course onon oneone oror twotwo subjects,subjects, andand aa follow-upfollow-up assignmentassignment or exercise preferablypreferably basedbased onon locallocal problemsproblems oror planning.planning. TheThe FarmFarm FForestryorestry program is sponsoredsponsored by thethe CommonwealthCommonwealth Department of Primary IndustriesIndustries and EnergyEnergy andand will,will, like manymany otherother specificspecific professional developmentdevelopment options,options, havehave a finitefinite life.life. Professional development optionsoptions forfor overseasoverseas studentsstudents includeinclude SustainableSustainable Forest Management, Agro-forestry, and ConservationConservation Biology.Biology. OverseasOverseas students areare encouragedencouraged to developdevelop assignmentsassignments around materialmaterial from their ownown countriescountries andand toto participateparticipate inin thethe block-releaseblock-release teachingteaching whereverwherever possiblepossible in order toto intinteracteract withwith lolocalcal students. TheThe specialisations offeredoffered wi willll varyvary overover timetime accordingaccording toto the needs of sponsoring organisations.organisations.

The situation is a little different in relrelationation to the forest industries bec13usebecause wewe find that manymany peoplepeople inin thosethose industriesindustries comecome fromfrom disciplines other thanthan forestry.forestry. TheThe GraduateGraduate DiplomaDiploma inin Forest InIndustriesdustries iiss therefore open toto a wider range of backgroundsbackgrounds andand includes specialisations inin ForestForest ProductsProducts andand ForestForest Harvesting.Harvesting. ThereThere has ttoo be greater flexibilityfl exibility in tailoring the content of the coursework to thethe background of theth e studentstudent butbut thethe programmeprogramme isis otherwiseotherwise onon aa similar basbasisis ttoo that describeddescribed forfor thethe PostgraduatePostgraduate DiplomaDiploma inin ForestForest Science. Some outlines of the aarrayrray ofof professionaprofessionall dedevelopmentvelopment opoptionsti ons wilwilll be provided separatelyseparately or can bebe obtainedobtained fromfrom thethe author.author.

InIn both thesethese Diploma programmes,programmes, all students are encouragedencouraged toto undertakeundertake one subject in the formform ofof aa researchresearch or specialspecial projectproject 144 that involvesinvolves individualindividual reading, sometimes datadata collectioncollection andand/or/ or analysis and reporting. This is to provideprovide somesome exposure to researchresearch and isis aa preparationpreparation for those who gogo onon toto pursuepursue aa researchresearch degree.degree. Students who achieve satisfactory results are allowed to transfer into aa Master of Forest or Wood Science programme by research.research. They can then complete thethe Master'sMaster's thesisthesis inin aa minimumminimum of one calendar year or, in thethe casecase ofof especiallyespecially giftedgifted students,students, a Doctor of PhilosophyPhilosophy by research over three years.yea rs. Overseas studentsstudents areare encouragedencouraged toto workwork on data or problemsproblems from theirtheir ownown country,country, wherewhere practicable.practicable.

Continuing EducationEducation

Continuing education courses fall into two categories. There are those for people such as teachersteachers and interestedinterested membersmembers ofof thethe publicpublic about forestry or forestryforestry issuesissues that are essentiallyessentially conductedconducted asas a public service,service, albeit at aa price.price. TheseThese needneed littlelittle elaboration.elaboration. TheThe experience of the UniversityUniversity of Melbourne over the lastlast two yearsyears hashas been that well-plannedwell-planned and publicisedpublicised SummerSummer SchoolSchool coursescourses havehave attracted much interestinterest and havehave beenbeen usefuluseful inin promoting thethe departments andand University,University, as wellwell as providing a smailsmall but much-neededmuch-needed source of discretionary fundsfunds forfor departments.departments.

The other category is directed towards the needs of the forestryforestry and forestforest industries.industries. In the casecase ofof forestry,forestry, we havehave tried, so farfar without success, to interestinterest the InstituteInstitute ofof ForestersForesters of AustraliaAustralia in taking the initiativeinitiative in this area and contractingcontracting the conduct of thethe courses out.out. The feature thatthat characterisescharacterises aa professionprofession is thethe transmission of a body of knowledgeknowledge aboutabout thethe technologytechnology it appliesapplies and a commitment toto aa setset of common goalsgoals andand ethics,ethics, regardingregarding thatthat the application ofof thatthat technologytechnology (Ferguson, (Ferguson, 1990).1990). IfIf therethere isis toto bebe anan argument for continuationcontinuation of aa profession,profession, itit lies inin itsits demonstrateddemonstrated competence toto apply the technologytechnology ratherrather than inin thethe exclusiveexclusive possession of knowledge.knowledge. It isis mymy personalpersonal viewview thatthat anyany professionalprofessional organisatorganisationion ought to be initiating periodic shortshort coursescourses (of(of 3 to 5 days) and ought toto requirerequire thatthat membersmembers undertakeundertake somesome quantumquantum ofof thatthat further educationeducation asas a demonstration ofof theirtheir commitment toto maintainingmaintaining competencecompetence.. 145

As inin manymany universitiesuniversities in thethe Region,Region, thethe UniversityUniversity ofof Melbourne's DepartmDepartmentent of Forestry aims to conduct atat leastleast two shortshort courses per year forfor forestforest managersmanagers and/orand/or forestforest scientists. The topics are normally of a specialisedspecialised nature, often taking advantage of visitingvisiting staff, andand thesethese havehave included included aa rangerange from from morphometrics morphometrics toto recreationrecreation inin recentrecent timestimes.. TheThe changeschanges inin publicpublic sector management, in particular, will provide a focus for shortshort coursescourses ofof thisthis kindkind forfor somesome time.time. ManyMany of the topics such as financial accounting, legal aspects of contractingcontracting out, business management,management, and performance monitoring andand incentives,incentives, lielie outside thethe mainstream ofof expertise inin forestryforestry schooschoolsls and require invinvolvementolvement of experts from thesethese fields.fields.

Postgraduate Research Training

Postgraduate research training is an essential componentcomponent of any major research university. However, as the presentpresent AustralianAustralian system shows, not all universitiesuniversities can aspire to bebe majormajor researchresearch universities,universities, with strong programmesprogrammes ofof excellence.excellence. ResearchResearch training is the most expensive part,part, per caput, of thethe AustralianAustralian Higher EducationEducation systemsystem and probably ofof anyany others.others. GivenGiven thethe needneed forfor expensiveexpensive facilitiesfacilities andand one-on-one tuition inherent inin postgraduatepostgraduate researchresearch training,training, thisthis isis hardly surprising. HHowever,owever, it needs to be restated because there is a school ofof thought,thought, atat leastleast inin Australia,Australia, thatthat arguesargues forfor equalequal allocationallocation of research funds to allall universitiesuniversities without realisingrealising thatthat veryvery substantialsubstantial additional funding and timetime isis requiredrequired toto establishestablish staffstaff expertise,expertise, facilities and accommodation.

Because of the diversitydiversity ofof forestryforestry inin thethe Asia-PacificAsia-Pacific Region,Region, itit isis virtually impossible to indicateindicate particularparticular areasareas ofof postgraduatepostgraduate research that need strengthening, otherother thanthan toto reiteratereiterate thethe general lack of researchresearch on thethe non-woodnon-wood goodsgoods andand services,services, socialsocial forestryforestry andand forest policy. Conservation biology, hydrology,hydrology, recreation,recreation, otherother 'minor''minor' forest products, socialsocial forestry,forestry, agro-forestry andand policy (for(for somesome ofof thethe latterlatter seesee FAO Regional Office forfor AsiaAsia and Pacific,1992)Pacific, 1992) allall needneed greatergreater attention but that isis notnot toto argueargue thatthat otherother existing existing areasareas ofof researchresearch should bebe neglected.neglected. TheThe broaderbroader scopescope ofof disciplinarydisciplinary areasareas involvesinvolves also makesmakes closeclose collaborationcollaboration withwith relevantrelevant departmentsdepartments such asas 146 botany, biochemistry, businessbusiness management, economics, engineering,engineering, sociology, statisticsstatistics andand zoologyzoology essentialessential to avoid duplication. The span isis now so wide that no universityuniversity department ofof forestryforestry in Australia oror NewNew Zealand can affordafford to maintainmaintain exclusiveexclusive andand independentindependent specialisation in all areas.areas. NorNor wouldwould it be academically desirable toto do so becausebecause forestforest managersmanagers needneed exposureexposure toto workingworking withwith peoplepeople fromfrom other disciplines.disciplines. They wiwillll havehave toto utilise people in other disciplines in a goodgood dealdeal of thethe researchresearch andand inventoryinventory neededneeded toto achieveachieve sustainable forestforest management. JointJoint supervisionsupervision ofof postgraduatepostgraduate researchresearch involvinginvolving aa co-supervisorco-supervisor fromfrom the otherother disciplinediscipline is aa common method ofof achievingachieving this.this.

A commoncommon trendtrend is toto require an increasingincreasing amount ofof preparatory coursework,coursework, up to oneone year,year, prior to commencingcommencing thethe research topic.topic. Some MastersMasters programmes, of course,course, areare basedbased entirely on courseworkcoursework butbut thesethese representrepresen t¡professional professional developmentdevelopment and do not constitute,constitute, inin mymy view,view, an adequate training for the conduct of research.re search. The completioncompletion of aa thesisthesis basedbased onon independent independent supervised research remains the critical element.element. WhileWhile this sometimessometi mes shrinks to aa minorminor dissertationdissertation relativerelative to thetile courseworkcoursework inin somesome institutions, I am notnot convincedconvinced thatthat thisthis isis alwaysalways wise,wise, eveneven atat thethe Master's level. TheThe disciplinediscipline of conducting and reporting aa substantialsubstantial piece of researchresearch has much to commendcommend it,it, notnot leastleast inin sortingsorting outout those who areare preparedprepared to continuecontinue thethe hardhard intellectualintellectual grind ofof personal research.research.

Another trend in AustraliaAustralia is for majormajor researchresearch universitiesuniversities to create a Graduate School at the central level with responsibilities for all Masters andand Doctor of PhilosophyPhilosophy programmes. ThisThis is principally a device to improve co-ordination of coursework offeringsofferings across faculties and to improve servicesservices and accommodation forfor postgraduatepostgraduate studentsstudents but itit highlightshighlights thethe growinggrowing importanceimportance ofof postgraduatepostgraduate education.education.

No mentionmention ofof postgraduate researchresearch trainingtraining wouldwould bebe complete without referencereference to thethe importanceimportance ofof forestryforestry andand forestforest industryindustry linkageslinkages andand support.support. PostgraduatePostgraduate researchresearch trainingtraining is expensiveexpensive and demanding of the individualsindividuals in timetime andand intellectualintellectual 147 effort. Those problems are muchmuch reducedreduced wherewhere industryindustry sponsorshipsponsorship of the researchresearch is available. Not only does ththisis reduce the burden of cost toto thethe universityuniversity butbut itit ensuresensures thatthat therethere isis anan interestinterest inin thethe outcome and inin thethe potentialpotential application of it,it, andand aa correspondinglycorrespondingly greater possibility of employment for thethe postgraduate.postgraduate.

Having said this, employers rightly deploredeplore the tendencytendency forfor persons withwith recentrecent postgraduatepostgraduate degrees,degrees, especially DDoctoroctor ofof Philosophy degrees, toto expect to be able to pursuepursue thethe samesame areaarea ofof research in theirtheir employmentemployment forever.forever. In applied researchresearch, , aa greatergreater flexibility isis essential and this isis an added reasonreason for more courseworkcoursework preparation prior to aa substantialsubstantial researchresearch project.project.

In Australia, industry linkages havehave been greatly assisted by the Commonwealth GovernmentGovernment's's program for specially funded centres of research exceexcellencell ence suchsuch as thethe Co-operativeCo-operative ResearchResearch Centre for Hardwood Fibre and PaperPaper ScienceScience involvinginvolving thethe CSIROCSIRO DivisionDivision ofof Forest Research, the Monash UniversityUniversity Australian Pulp and PaperPaper InstInstitute,itute, the UniversityUniversity of Melbourne's DepartmentDepartment ofof ForestryForestry andand thethe Pulp and PaperPaper Manufacturers'Manufacturers' FederationFed eration of Australia. TTwowo other centres with relevance to forestryforest ry havehave beenbeen establishedestablished -- thethe TemperateTemperate HardHardwoodwood Forestry Centre inin Hobart and the TropicalTropical Forest Ecology Centre in Queensland.Queensland. HHowever,owever, collaborativecollaborative endeavours such as thosethose between the VictorianVictorian DepartmentsDepartments of Conservation and NaturalNatural Resources, and of Agriculture,Agriculture, thethe RuralRural WaterWater Corporation,Corporation, CSIROCSIRO DivisionsDivisions of Forestry and Forest Research,Research, the UniverUniversitysity of Melbourne Department of ForestryForestry and private companies have also beenbeen successful in attractingattracting fundingfunding forfor thethe TreesTrees forfor ProfitProfit ResearchResearch Centre,Centre, which isis principally concernedconcerned withwith researchresearch into tree-growingtree-growing onon saline-affected irrigationirrigation areas.areas. MaMajorjor research projectsprojects stand a better chance of gaininggaining industryindustry support if collaborative teams are formedformed toto utilise the best expertise available across thethe several rresearchesearch institutionsinstitutions..

In a largelarge countrycountry likelike AustraliaAustralia withwith disparatedisparate forestforest areas,areas, some flflexibilityexibility in the locationlocation ofof appliedapplied researchresearch isis essentialessential onon thethe part of the university,university, subject to aa minimumminimum periodperiod ofof residenceresidence andand 148 appropriate supervisory arrangements while away from the university.university. These arrangements havehave provedproved toto bebe veryvery successfulsuccessful recentlyrecently because they often entailentail co-operationco-operation with industryindustry partnerspartners who contribute heavily to the work inin fundsfunds oror inin kind.kind.

InIn conclusion, every university believes thatthat itsits owownn particular system ofof postgraduatepostgraduate educationeducation is the mostmost appropriate,appropriate, andand Melbourne iiss no exception.exception. In thethe longlong run,run, however,however, thethe realreal testtest isis whether:

(1) graduates find employment readily or progress in employment better, (2) professional development and continuing education programmes areare responsive to to changing needs and gaingain support from membersmembers of the professionprofession and others, and (3) research programmes gain support from organisations engaged inin forestry andand forestforest industriesindustries andand otherother funciing funding agencies.agencies.

Melbourne performance will be so judgedjudged in contcontinuinginuing periodic internalinternal and externaleX1ernal reviews.reviews. 149

Literature Cited

Burgman, M.M. A.,A., Ferson,Ferson, S. and Akçakaya,Akc;akaya, H.H. R.R. 1993.1993. Risk Assessment inin Conservation Biology. Chapman & Hall,Hall, London.London.

FAaFAO Regional Office for Asia and Pacific, 1992. Report of the regionalregional expert consultation on forestryforestry developmentdevelopment andand research policypolicy implications inin Asia and thethe Pacific.Pacific. FAaFAO RegionalRegional Office for AsiaAsia andand Pacific,Pacific, RAPARAPA Publication 1993.1993.

Ferguson, I.S.I.S. 1990. Green andand gold forever? M.R.JacobsM.R.Jacobs MemorialMemorial Oration,13th BiennialBiennial Conference, InstituteInstitute ofof ForestersForesters of Australia, Australian Forestry 52(4): 253-6.253-6.

Ferguson I.S. and J.Munöz-ReyesJ.fy1unoz-Reyes Navarro, 1992. ReResourcessources needed byby producer countriescountries toto achieveachieve sustainablesustainable managementmanagement by thethe yearyear 2000.2000. Commissioned for ITTOITIO ExpertExpert Panel, 2 March, 1992,1992, ITTO,ITIO, Yokohama.Yokohama.

Holdgate, M.,M., 1993.1993. People, the environment andand forestry:forestry: conflict or harmony. Keynote address to 14th14th CommonwealthCommonwealth Forestry Conference, Kuala Lumpur, SeptemberSeptember 1993.1993.

Lewis N.B. and I.S. Ferguson, 1993. Management of Radiata Pine. Inkata Press, Butterworth-Heinemann, North Ryde,Ryde, Australia.Australia. 424pp. 150150

APPENDIX 1111

THE PROFESSIONAL AND TECHNICAL FORESTRY EDUCATION NETWORKNETWORK ININ THE ASIA-PACIFIC REGION:REGION: - Present Working Inter-institutional linkageslinkages and ProspectsProspects -

by

M. KashioKashio 1 1

INTRODUCTION

The developing countries in the tropics ofof thethe Asia-PacificAsia-Pacific Region are confronting a seriousserious environmental crisis resulting fromfrom land degraddegradationation and 'deforestation.deforestation. TheThe annualannual deforestation rate during 1976-1976- 80 was 2.0 million haha,, which accelerated to 3.9 million ha during 1981-901981-90 according to thethe findingsfindings ofof FAO'sFAO's globalglobal project,project, "Forest"Forest ResourcesResources Assessment 1990 PrProjectoject (FRA(FRA 1990)".1990)". FrequentFrequent floods,floods, droughts,droughts, andand land­land- sslides;lides; soil erosion and siltation; and damage to and lossloss ofof biodiversitybiodiversity have become more widespread than at any prepreviousvious timetime.. TheThe rural people living in or around thethe forestsforests have beenbeen vicvictimized,timized, marginalizedmarginalized andand furtherfurther impoverished as a consequence.

1 Regional Forest Resources Officer, FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific (FAO/RAPA),(FAO /RAPA), Bangkok,Bangkok, Thailand.Thailand. 151

In contrast, somesome countriescountries inin thethe temperatetemperate zonezone suchsuch asas China,China, Japan and KoreaKorea havehave increasedincreased or maintainedmaintained the samesame levellevel ofof forestforest llandsands as before.before. In China, the current annualannual afforestation rate iiss 4 mmillionillion ha, and the total forest areaarea reached 129129 millionmill ion ha in 1991. ThisThis accountsaccounts forfor 13.6313.63 % ofof thethe totaltotal landland area area asas againstagainst 12.98 12.98 % % in in 1989.1989. InIn Japan, the forestforest covercover remainsremains unchangedunchanged atat 6767 %% ofof thethe totaltotal landland area.area. InIn Korea, the forest coverage decreadecreasedsed slightly fromfrom 6767% % inin 19751975 to 6565 %% inin 1991,1991, due to thethe conversionconversion ofof forestsforests toto otherother landland usesuses throughthrough urbanization,urbanization, industrialization, and thethe developmentdevelopment ofof leisureleisure and recreationalrecreational facilities.facilities. In these countries, however, the natural forests were degraded or converted to otherother ·landIand usesuses inin historichistoric timestimes and theirtheir presentpresent forest cover hashas been achieved by continuous tree planting efforts over a llongong periodperiod.. Thus,Thus, thethe percentages of man-made forests are high, as highhigh asas 4040 %% inin Japan.Japan.

A substantialsubstantial and significantsignificant increaseincrease has beenbeen observedobserved inin thethe reforestation effortsefforts made by the developingdeveloping countries of thethe RegionRegion inin recent years. AccordingAccording to to the the FRAFRA 19901990 Project, the totatotall forest plantations inin 17 developing countries ofof thethe tropicaltropica l zonezone inin thethe RegionRegion waswas estimatedestimated to bebe 32.1532.15 millionmillion haha inin 1990,1990, withwith anan annualannual increaseincrease ofof 2.12.1 millionmill ion haha during 1981-90.1981-90. In India, forest plantations cover 18.818.8 million ha,ha, with 1.751.75 million ha plantedplanted duringduring 1990-92.1990-92. The forestforest plantationsplantations inin Indonesia,Indonesia, Myanmar andand Thailand hhaveave reached 8.75 million ha,ha, 335,000335,000 ha andand 756,000 ha respectively.respectively. ThisThis trend will bebe furtherfurther enhancedenhanced towardstowards thethe turn of thethe century,century, accordingaccording toto aa reviewreview ofof thethe national forestryforestry development policiespolicies andand implementationimplementation [programmes.programmes. Major speciesspecies involved differdiffer fromfrom oneone countrycountry toto another,another, accordaccordinging toto ggrowingrowing conditions and objectives,objectives, but brieflybriefly speaking, fast-growingfast-growing species such as eucalypts and acacias are very popularpopular inin thethe developingdeveloping countriescountries ofof thethe RegionRegion (Kashio, 1993).1993). 152

A majormajor efforteffort to promotepromote treetree growinggrowing inin ruralrural areasareas has been made in almost every country in order to compensatecompensate for deforestation in the naturalnatural forests.forests. One importantimportant aspectaspect isis thatthat suchsuch reforestationreforestation programmes are often combined with componentscomponents of:of: i) communitycommunity or social forestry with the people'speople's participationparticipation withwith the aim ofof improvingimproving fuelwood and fodderfodder supplysupply andand otherother aspects aspects ofof ruralrural livelihood,livelihood, ii)ii) involvement ofof thethe privateprivate sectorsector (for industrialindustrial plantations), andand iii) rehabilitation of degradeddegraded forestsforests andand wastelands.wastelands. Many countries areare promoting forest plantationsplantations toto compensate forfor the shortageshortage of forestforest products traditionally derivedderived fromfrom naturalnatural forests.forests.

Between 1990 andand 2000 demographicdemographic growthgrowth in the developingdeveloping countries of the Region is estimated toto be 472472 million;million; if ononlyly thethe 1616 tropicaltropical countries (excluding China, Iran and Singapore)Singapore) areare considered,considered, thethe increase will bebe 290290 million.million. Since more than 60 % of the populations of these countries are engaged in agriculture,agriculture, thethe increasingincreasing scarcityscarcity of agricultural land will intensifyintensify the loss ofof forestforest land.land.

Shrinkage in thethe areaarea ofof naturanaturall forestsforests hashas ledled toto callscalls forfor politicalpolitical and socialsocial countermeasurescountermeasures inin the developingdeveloping countries of thethe Region,Region, resulting in logging or log export bans, review of conventional forestforest policiespolicies and managementmanagement systems, and demands for naturenature conservationconseNation andand environmentalenvironmental protection measures.measures.

The eighth WorldWorld Forestry Congress, held inin Jakarta,Jakarta, IndonesiaIndonesia inin 19719788 underunder thethe ththemeeme "Forestry for People", triggeredtriggered communitycommunity forestryforestry programmes in these countries. AgroforestryAgroforestry waswas highlightedhighlighted asas the mostmost promising technical solution to accommodate the forestry and agricultureagriculture sectors. 153

At the same time,time, concernconcern was expressed byby manymany forestryforestry expertsexperts that conventionalconventional forestryforestry educationeducation systemssystems atat thethe professionalprofessional levellevel hadhad toto changechange andand improveimprove toto meetmeet thethe demandsdemands forfor aa newnew typetype ofof foresterforester whowho could exploitexploit recentrecent developmentsdevelopments in areasareas suchsuch asas computer-basedcomputer-based remote sensing technology,technology, geographic informationinformation systemsystem (GIS),(GIS), biotech-biotech­ nology, community forestry andand agroforestry.agroforestry. Accordingly, many attempts have been made toto reorientate forestry education and research systems but the changes still havehave a lonlongg way to gogo toto reachreach thethe desireddesired level,level, mainlymainly because human resourcesresources developmentdevelopment requiresrequires time.time. Moreover, such changes in the forestry sector havehave to incorporateincorporate thethe globalglobal developmentdevelopment concept ofof "environmentally"environmentally soundsound andand sustainable sustainable development".development".

This paper intendsintends to brieflybriefly introduceintroduce the historicalhistorical background,background, specific objectivesobjectives andand activities ofof the Asian Network on Forestry Education (ANFE). It reviewsreviews major issues and changes in forestry education inin thethe Region, describesdescribes the intinter-institutionaler-institutional linkages and considersconsiders ththee prospectsprospects of FAOFAO activitiesactivities in the Network.Network. It also trietriess to make some suggestsuggestionsions to mitigate constraints.

ASIAN NETWORKNETWORK ONON FORESTRYFORESTRY EDUCATIONEDUCATION

ThThee FAO Regional Office for AAsiasia and the Pacific (RAPA) organizedorganized an ExpertExpert ConsultationConsultation on ForestryForestry EducationEducation inin JuneJune 19881988 inin Bangkok.Bangkok. The Consultation was attended by deansdeans ofof forestryforestry collegescolleges oror universitiesuniversities from 1212 countries. TheThe ConsultationConsultation emphasizedemphasized thethe needneed forfor establishingestablishing a regionalregional frameworkframework to enhanceenhance cooperationcooperation in forestryforestry educationeducation and recommended the the establiestablishmentshment of of an "Asian"Asian NetworkNetwork onon ForestryForestry Education" (ANFE).(AN FE). ThisThis networknetwork waswas createdcreated soonsoon afterafter thethe ConsultationConsultation and itit hashas sincesince beenbeen serviced by the ForestryForestry Section of RAPA asas' part of itsits its regular programme. 154

The specific objectives ofof the Network were accepted toto be asas follows:

1)1 To reorient forestry education andand ensure thatthat itit isis inin lineline withwith thethe changes takingtaking placeplace inin thethe widerwider system;system;

2) To compilecompile aa comprehensivecomprehensive data bank ofof existingexisting forestryforestry educationeducation curricula, toto enable their widespreadwid espread sharing,sharing, andand to monitor future curriculumcurriculum development;development;

3) To encourageencourage compatibility ofof curricula so as toto maintainmaintain thethe standard and quality of forestry education offered by thethe institutions inin the Region; Region; and

4) To promotepromote informationinformation sharingsharing andand exchangeexchange ofof experienceexperience among membermember institutions for mutualmutual benefitbenefit and collectivecollective self-self­ reliance.reliance. (Rao,(Rao, 1990)1990)

During 1988-89 thethe Network Network facilitatedfacilitated two two wo workshopsrkshops onon curriculumcurriculum development in collaboration with Yale University andand withwith fundingfunding supportsupport from USAIDUSAID (Rao,(Rao, 1990).1990). The proceedings ooff the first ConsultationConsultation were published in 19891989 and havehave beenbeen widelywidely disseminated.disseminated.

The Network convened the second Consultation in June 1990, in BangkokBangkok,, to review the progress of curriculumcurriculum development and to examine the linkageslinkages betweenbetween thethe unfoldingunfolding environmentalenvironmental crisis andand forestryforestry education. TheThe ConsultationConsultation notednoted thatthat untiluntil recently,recently, andand eveneven yet, forestry education was geared to imparting the ecological and biological disciplines which underpinunderpin naturalnatural and plantation forest management. However,Howeve r, the curricula were not broad-basedbroad-based and the holisticholistic naturenature ofof thethe protection,protection, 155 produproductionction and social roles of forestry was not givengiven adequateadequate focus in some universities.universities.

The Consultation strongly recommendedrecommended the creation of aa regionalregional project'Project to strengthen forestryforestry education institutionsinstitutions and improveimprove professional foreforestrystry educationeducation systems.systems. ToTo thisthis endend theythey recommendedrecommended adopting thethe formatformat usedused byby thethe technicaltechnical cooperationcooperation amongamong developingdeveloping countries (TCDC) netwnetwork.ork. TheThe experts drafted a regional project proposalproposal and FAOFAO hashas triedtried toto find internationalinternational fundingfunding toto provideprovide support,support, unfortunately witwithh no successsuccess as yet.

As mentioned above, the ANFE'sAN FE's activactivityity hhasas been run from ourour section usingusing the RAPARAPA Regular ProgrammeProgramme budget.budget. However,However, thethe budgetbudget and staff time that we couldcould allocateallocate forfor thisthis activityactivity has has beenbeen veryvery limited.limited. Maintaining regular correspondencecorrespondence with the Network members for informa­informa- tion exchange andand organizingorganizing NetworkNetwork meetingsmeetings everyevery 2-32-3 years to monitor progress is thethe maximum thatthat wewe cancan do.do. Though the progress and recom­recom- mendations of the NetworkNetwork areare alwaysalways reported atat thethe Asia-PacificAsia-Pacific ForestryForestry Commission (APFC)(APFC) meetings held every 2-3 years,years, continuouscontinuous andand effectiveeffective support to the membermember countries cannot bebe givengiven unlessunless there is an extraeX1ra financial support.support. Thus,Thu s, it hashas beenbeen concludedconcluded that thethe regionalregional projectproject approach wouldwould bebe thethe bestbest way to enhance the forestry education support programme.

FORESTRY SCHOOLS IN THE REGIONREGION

Through thethesese ConsultationsConsultations and NetworkNetwork ininvestigationsvestigations some basic facts have become clear. ThereThere areare approximatelyapproximately 120120 forestryforestry schoolsschools oror institutionsinstitutions inin 17 countries of thethe Region,Region , withwith 34 institutionsinstitutions inin JapanJapan alone.alone. Among the developingdeveloping countries,countries, therethere areare 2727 inin thethe Philippines;Philippines; 1515 eacheach inin China andand India; 99 inin Indonesia;Indonesia; andand 33 inin Vietnam.Vietnam. The remaining countriescountries 156 have onlyonly oneone facultyfaculty ofof forestryforestry each.each. The following countries as yet have no facilities for professionalprofessional levellevel forestryforestry education: Bhutan,Bhutan, Cambodia, Cook Islands,Islands, DemocraticDemocratic RepublicRepublic ofof Korea,Korea, Fiji,Fiji, Iran, Laos,Laos, Maldives,Maldives, Solomon Islands,Islands, Tonga, Vanuatu,Vanuatu, andand WesternWestern SamoaSamoa (Srivastava,(Srivastava, 1989).

Despite thethe efforts of the Network,Network, accurate information onon the forestry technical schools oror vocationalvocational trainingtraining schoolsschools isis notnot yetyet available.available. Questionnaires sent have not been fully replied toto and there seems to be aa confusion in definition as to howhow toto identifyid entify forestryforestry relatedrelated subjectssubjects beingbeing taught inin schools ofof horticulturehorticulture andand agriculture.agriculture.

InIn thethe developing countriescountries of the Region, there are some old and well establishedestablished forestry schoolsschools inin China,China, India,India, Indonesia,Indonesia, Pakistan,Pakistan, PhilippinesPhilippines,, andand Thailand.Thailand. SomeSome ofof themthem havehave beenbeen playingplaying anan importantimportant role as educational centrescentres notnot onlyonly inin their own country but alsoalso forfor neighbouring countriescountries thatthat hahaveve no forestry education facilities, e.g.e.g. thethe IndiIndianan ForestForest College inin DehraDehra Dun.Dun. In thethe casecase ofof thethe PacificPacific islandisland countriescountries,, Australia offers extensive services in this fieldfield and the facilities are well established in termsterms ofof staffstaff andand laboratories.laboratories.

One remarkable dedevelopmentvelopment has beenbeen aa rash since thethe 1970's of new forestry schooschoolsls or formal forestryforestry degreedegree programmesprogrammes inin agriculturalagricultural universities, e.g. thethe Faculty of Forestry inin the Universiti PertanianPertanian Malaysia, and the Forestry Department in the University of Technology of Papua New Guinea. TheThe pressingpressing demanddemand forfor forestersforesters inin thesethese countries,countries, especially thothosese trainedtrained inin communitycommunity forestry and agroforestryagroforestry,, was a drivingdriving forceforce in thethe establishmentestablishment of thesethese newnew schools.schools. ThTheyey contrast withwith the olderolder schools, severalseveral ofof which have not yetyet instituted degree courses or extensiextensiveve research programmesprogrammes inin agroforestry,agroforestry, integrated landland useuse planning, or forestryforestry extension.extension. 157

Another interestinginteresting development hashas beenbeen the establishmentestablishment isis the collaborative programmes between forestry educationeducation institutions,institutions, forfor example that which linkslinks the faculty of forestry at Kasetsart University, Thai­Thai- lland,and, thethe faculty ofof forestryforestry atat UniversitiUniversiti PertanianPertanian Malaysia,Malaysia, and the College of Forestry of the UniversityUniversity of the Philippines atat LosLos Banos.Banos. TheThe aim of this academic link isis toto fosterfoster collaborationcollaboration throughthrough exchangingexchanging researchresearch andand education information, and by organizingorganizing scientificscientific meetingsmeetings (Ruangpanit,(Ruangpanit, 1990). TheyThey encourageencourage staffstaff and students to teach and to study in otherother ininstitutions.stitutions. TheThe mostmost recentrecent jointjoint scientificscientific meetingmeeting underunder this programme was the International SymposiumSymposium onon MultipurposeMultipurpose TreeTree SpeciesSpecies (MPTS)(MPTS) for Rural Livelihood, held inin ManilaManila inin MayMay 1993.1993.

The continuous growth in the trainingtraining programmes offered by the Regional Community Forestry Training CenterCenter (RECOFTC),(RECOFTC), whichwhich isis attached to FacultyFaculty ofof ForestryForestry ofof KasetsartKasetsart UniversityUniversity underunder thethe financialfinancial support ofof thethe AsianAsian DevelopmentDevelopment BankBank (ADB)(AD B) andand thethe SwissSwiss Government,Government, also illuillustratesstrates the current direction of forestry educateducationion in thethe Region.Region. This centre provides 4-6 month training courses on varvariousious subjects relating to community forestry and forest resourceresource managementmanagement for the foresters in service in developing countries, not only in Asia but also in Africa.

MAJOR ISSUES Major issues recognized by the NetworkNetwork activitiesactivities. include:include: 1)1) The fragmentationfragmentation of knowledgeknowledge aboutabout modernmodern technologicaltechnological advantages creates problems of excessive specializationspecialization andand is anan obstacle to collaboration inin the long-rangelong-range development of forestry education. 158

2) There is a need to realign and redefine the tradititraditionalonal disciplinarydisciplinary boundaries in fforestryorestry ededucation,ucation, and this should be reflected in the improvement of present curricula or sometimessometimes reorganizationreorganization of departments.

3) Forestry schools must keep abreastabreast ofof developmentsdevelopments inin forestryforestry policies, laws, strategies, andand programmesprogrammes which affect the people; but they seemseem to bebe showingshowing somesome reluctancereluctance inin thisthis respect.respect.

4) There is no comparability in the number of credits, teaching hours, or time spent on practical work forfor theth e BachelorBachelor ofof ForestryForestry inin thethe different institutions.institutions. This cancan causecause problemsproblems forfor applicantsapplicants seeking to enter internationally recognized forestry faculties fforor their post-graduate work.

5) The rearrangement ofof curriculacurricula to include community forestry andand agroforestry iiss stistillll inadequate. The importance of socsociologyiology and economics relatingrelating to these subjects is gradually being rerecognized,cognized, but is notnot yetyet wellwell reflectedreflected inin thethe curricula.curricula.

6) Environmental coverage in forestry education in response to global issues of tropical forests and forestryforestry shouldshould bebe strengthened.strengthened.

7) Mechanisms forfor the exchange of informationinformation and experienceexperience onon shared problems and common approachesapproaches areare stillstill weak.weak.

8) Computer literacyliteracy shouldshould bebe a requirementrequirement for bothboth facultyfaculty members and students.students. 159

GAPS AND CHALLENGES

ForesForestrytry schooschoolsls which provideprovide professionalprofessional levellevel educaeducationtion areare now being called upon to produceproduce aa newnew typetype ofof forester,forester, aa "natural"natural resourceresource professional", whowho hashas commandcommand both the old and modernmodern technologies,technologies, and has the knowledge and tools toto pursuepursue technicaltechnical andand socialsocial solutionssolutions whwhichich reflectreflect socialsocial realityreality andand desiresdesires (Burch(Burch andand Bopp,Bopp, 1990).1990). It isis accepted globally that a healthyhealthy forestforest ecosystem is vital for thethe healthyhealthy development of otherother sectors.sectors. This philosophy mustmust be adopted in eacheach country. While many countrcountriesies maymay have a specific demand for timber, rural communitiescommunities alsoalso expect foresters ttoo provideprovide various kinds of forestryforestry services, iincludingncluding ensuring water supply,supply, soilsoil conservation, fodder and fuelwood supply, etc. It seems that there are many difficult gaps betweenbetween them, but the wide range of skills and knowledge necessary are a challengechallenge for forestryforestry education.education. Forestry schoolsschools areare hardhard pressed toto carry the burden and a sharing of responsibilityresponsibility oror diversificationdiversification shouldshould bebe sought.sought.

One good example can be seenseen in community forestry and the associated agroforestry.agroforestry. This field covers a wide spectrum ofof disciplinesdisciplines and hashas a multi-disciplinarymulti-disciplinary nature, ranging from natural science to socialsocial and economic science. TraditionalTraditional forestryforestry schools are not able to cover these subjects in theirtheir researchresearch andand trainingtraining programmes.programmes. Staff recruitment and preparation of necessary equipment and laboratorieslaboratories require significant funds for facultiesfaculties oror universities.universities. There is aalsolso the typical responseresponse lag between demanddemand and supply wherewhere humanhuman resourcesresources developmentdevelopment isis rrequired.equired.

However, whenwhen we consider other disciplines at universitiesuniversities itit cancan be readilyreadily suggestedsuggested thatthat trainingtraining programmesprogrammes inin geography,geography, geology,geology, horticulture, agronomy, sociology, anthropology, etc., can produceproduce graduates thatthat have thethe potential toto workwork inin communitycommunity forestryforestry andand 160 agroforestry programmes if first given some practical training inin forestry.forestry. They areare "ready"ready toto acceptaccept it".it". Such arrangements require flexibility inin organizing and integrating the curricula in forestry and neighbouring subject areas. ExtensiveEX1ensive discussions to examine ways toto reorganize thethe educationeducation systems in collegescolleges oror universitiesuniversities areare essential.essential. ItIt may taketake timetime but. must be done.done.

It is also a characteristic of universities thatthat they are more involved with theory than with the practicalpractical application of what they teach - a case of knowingknowing how a tree growsgrows but notnot howhow toto growgrow aa treetree inin thethe field.field. Theoretical studies are mandated toto university staffstaff asas researchers,researchers, but at thethe samesame timetime theythey areare teachersteachers toto guideguide studentsstudents inin thethe practicalpractical implications ofof relevantrelevant researchresearch results.results.

Richardson (1990) discusseddiscussed thesethese pointspoints fromfrom a differentdifferent angle when he stated, "A feature of the ideal uniuniversity,versity, therefore,therefore, isis thethe freefree flowflow of ideasideas among faculty andand students;students; and emphasis on learning rather than knowing (how,(how, rattlerrather thanthan what,what, toto learn).learn). It isis mymy impressionimpression that too many universities nowadays are preoccupied with protecting societysociety fromfrom incompetentincompetent professorsprofessors andand fromfrom intellectuallyintellectually inadequateinad equate studentsstudents whowho undoubtedly exist. TheyThey do this by confiningconfining disciplinediscipline within departments and pigeon-holing specialisms withinwithin disciplines".disciplines". He continued, "ButBut fewfew attempts are made to integrate the separate disciplinesdisciplines intointo aa wholewhole farmfarm system. IntegrationIntegration isis leftleft toto thethe individualindividual leastleast able to do itit - since he is furthest away from the sourcesource - the farmer".farmer".

FAO's RESPONSERESPONSE

InIn thethe Region FAOFAO operatesoperates manymany forestry forestry projectsprojects at eithereither countrycountry or regionalregional basis.basis. Some country projectsprojects areare focussedfocussed onon forestryforestry education butbut there areare nono regionalregional projects focussing uponupon thisn.thisn. 161

However.However, many other projectprojectss which have different objectives also have anan educational and trainingtraining component includingincluding researchresearch aspects.aspects. The regional projects,projects. suchsuch asas "Improved"Improved ProductivityProductivity ofof Man-madeMan-made ForestsForests through ApplicationApplication of TechnologicalTechnological AdvancesAd vances in Tree BreedingBreeding andand Propagation (FORTH°(FORTIP - RASRAS/91/004),/ 91 / 004). "Forestry ResearchResearch SupportSupport Programme forfor AsiaAsia andand thethe PacificPacific (FORSPA(FORSPA - -GCP/RAS/134/ASB),GCP/RAS/134/ASB). "Regional WoodWood Energy DevelopmentDevelopment Programme inin AsiaAsia (RWEDP(RWEDP -- GCPGCP/RAS/131/NET), / RAS / 131 / NET). anandd "Asia-Pacific"Asia-Pacific AgroforestrAgroforestryy NetworkNetwork (APAN(APAN -- GCPGCP/RAS/133/JPN)" / RAS / 133/ JPN) " have have strongstrong componentscomponents ofof manpowermanpower development,development. including scholarship programmes,programmes. researchresearch support funding programmes,programmes. short training courses,courses. etc.etc. FAO willwill continue to supportsupport itsits membermember countries through thesethese activities.activities.

RAPA willwill continue the ANFEAN FE NetworkNetwork supportsupport activitiesactivities byby enhancing its capacity (a(a newnew RegionalRegional Forestry Officer will join RAPARAPA in January 1994).1994) . WeWe willwill further improveimprove the information database of forestry training institutionsinstitutions ofof thethe Region,Region. inin closeclose collaborationcollaboration withwith FAO,FAO. Rome,Rome. and otherother internationalinternational andand bilateralbilateral aidaid agencies.agencies. We will assistassist thethe curriculum dedevelopmentvelopment ofof regionalregional foreforestrystry institutionsinstitutions.. We willwill alalsoso trytry toto realise aa regionalregional project on forestry education by seeking donors. 162

CONCLUSIONS

In the rapidly changing forestry climate that characterises developing countries foresters are confrontingconfronting newnew challengeschallenges andand opportunities. TheyThey shouldshould be able to handlehandle a wider range of subjects such as socio-economic, environmental andand culturalcultural issues,issues, inin additionaddition toto technical and administrative capabilitiescapabilities in in forestry. forestry. They shoshoulduld bebe fullyfully aware ooff thethe specific characteristics and requirements ofof loclocalal communitiescommunities and harmonizeharmonize these conditions with a long term forest managementmanagement plan. TheTheyy are also required to command the state of artart technologiestechnologies suchsuch asas GIS, remote sesensing,nsing, biotechnology,biotechnology, etc.etc. Thus, their profession willwill be thatthat of an integrated resourcesresources managermanager inin forestforest lands.lands.

ForestryForestry schooschoolsls areare responsible for for producingproducing aa new type ofof foreforesterster fromfrom theirtheir educationeducation andand trainingtraining institutes.institutes. ThThee rigid traditional boundaries and narrowly confinedconfined disciplinesdisciplines inin forestryforestry education need to be broken to ensureensure the free flowflow of idideaseas andand knowledge.knowledge. ThisThis direction may inviteinvite a revolution inin facultiesfaculties of forestryforestry ofof universities,universities, but whenwhen thethe stem of a tree isis gettinggetting rotten,rotten, howhow we can bother about a shape of a branch. Gradually,Gradually, steadilysteadily andand bravelybravely would seemseem to be the strategy that is called for.for. 163

REFERENCES

Burch, W.R. and Bopp,Bopp, J.J. 1990.1990. On the EdgeEdge - New Realities,Realities, NewNew Foresters andand OldOld Institutions.Institutions. A resourceresource paper submitted to thethe second consultation ofof ANFE,ANFE, JuneJune 1990,1990, Bangkok,Bangkok, Thailand.Thailand.

Kashio, M. 1993. A Briefing Note on the State of Forestry and FAO Forestry Programmes and Activities in the DevelopingDeveloping CountriesCountries ofof thethe Asia-Asia­ Pacific Region. A paper submitted to the second Project Advisory Committee meeting - RAS/91/004.RAS/91/004. 26-2826-28 OctoberOctober 1993,1993, Manila,Manil a, Philippines.

Rao, Y.S.Y.S. 1990.1990. State of ForestryForestry inin thethe Asia-PacificAsia-Pacific Region.Region. A paperpaper submitted toto thethe secondsecond consultationconsultation of ANFE,ANFE, JuneJune 1990,1990, Bangkok, Thailand.Thailand.

Richardson, S.D. 1990. ForestryForestry EducationEducation inin thethe Asia-Pacific.Asia-Pacific. AA resourceresource papepaperr submitted to thethe secondsecond consultationconsultation ofof ANFE,ANFE, JuneJune 1990,1990, Bangkok, Thailand.Thailand.

Ruangpanit, N.N. 1990.1990. Forestry Education in Thailand and the Asia-PacificAs ia-Pacific Region, CountryCountry reportreport submittedsubmitted toto the second consultationconsultation of ANFE, June 1990,1990, Bangkok, Thailand.Thailand.

Srivastava, P.B.L.P.B.l. 1989.1989. Forestry EducationEducation in thethe Asia-PacificAsia-Pacific Region.Region. RAPA Publication:Publication: 1989/12.1989/12. FAO/RAPA,FAO/RAPA, Bangkok,Bangkok, Thailand.Thailand. 164164

APPENDIX 12

TEACHINGTEACHING ECOLOGICALLY BENIGN LOGGING METHODS IN THE PROFESSIONAL AND TECHNICAL-LEVEL FORESTRY SCHOOLSSCHOOLS OF THE ASIA-PACIFIC REGIONREGION

by

Dennis P.P. DykstraDykstra' 1

SUMMARY

If environmentally benignbenign logginglogging methods areare toto be adopted widely inin thethe Asia-PacificAsia-Pacific Region,Region, foresters must assume the primaryprimary leadershipleadership rolerole inin promotingpromoting these methods. YetYet many foresters do not really believe tnatthat environmentally soundsound practices are possible at aa levellevel of cost thatthat willwill permitpermit anan economicallyeconomically viableviable forestforest industry.industry. Contrary toto conventionalconventional wisdom,wisdom, several recent studies havehave demonstrated that such practices can, in fact, result in lower operating costs than conventional logging operations.operations. TheThe keykey isis thatthat forestersforesters bebe trained in these methods and that they insistinsist that they applied. Thus,Thus, the most importantimportant stepstep thatthat cancan bebe takentaken toto introduceintroduce environmentallyenvironmentally benign logging methods is to teachteach thesethese methodsmethods to everyeve!}' forestryforestry student in everyeve!}' universityuniversity andand technicaltechnical instituteinstitute inin thethe Asia-Pacific Asia-Pacific Region. This paper provides some general guidelines on environmentally sound practices inin the fivefive basicbasic activitiesactivities ofof logging:logging: harvest planning; road layout,layout, construction,construction, andand maintenance;maintenance; felling;felling; extraction; and transport. AA series series ofof fieldfield exercisesexercises isis suggestedsuggested toto help studentsstudents understandunderstand the principlesprinCiples ofof environmentallyenvironmentally soundsound logging.

1, Forestry Officer,Officer, ForestForest HarvestingHarvesting andand TransportTransport Branch,Branch, Food and Agriculture OrganizationOrganization ofof the the UnitedUnited NationsNations (FAO), (FAO), Rome,Rome, Italy. 165

INTRODUCTION

Many foresters,foresters, often includingincluding thosethose responsibleresponsible for thethe education ofof forestryforestry studentsstudents inin universitiesuniversities andand technicaltechnical institutes, institutes, consider timber harvestingharvesting toto bebe aa subjectsubject thatthat shouldshould notnot bebe discusseddiscussed inin polite society. AlthoughAlthough nearly nearly all all forestersforesters recognizerecognize thatthat harvestingharvesting operations areare essentialessential if incomeincome isis toto bebe generatedgenerated fromfrom forestryforestry investments,investments, there isis a tendency toto treattreat thethe harvestingharvesting operationoperation inin thethe way the farmer treats thethe slaughterhouse,slaughterhouse, hidehide itit awayaway inin the hopehope thatthat itit wwillill not disturb thethe customers.customers.

There are at leastleast twotwo consequencesconsequences ofof thisthis tendency.tendency. First, harvesting operations seldomseldom getget thethe professionalprofessional attentionattention theythey requirerequire and therefore are often poorly planned,planned, improperly executed,executed, andand inad-inad­ equately supervised.supervised. Second, forestry students frequently have little appreciation for thethe positivepositive benefitsbenefits ofof timbertimber harvestingharvesting andand onlyonly aa vague, uncomfortable sense sense ofof thethe veryvery realreal environmentalenvironmental hazardshazards thatthat are associated withwith harvestingharvesting operations.operations.

If industrial forestry is to contributecontribute asas itit shouldshould toto sustainablesustainable development, then timber harvesting operations mustmust be,be, onon thethe whole,whole, environmentally benign. OtherwiseOtherwise the environment will deteriorate overover time,time, the economic viability of the forest industry will collapse, and thethe potential of forestry asas aa sustainedsustained providerprovider ofof renewablerenewable resourcesresources willwill be lost. Of course, these things can happen anyway; whenwhen forests are cleared for agriculture or pasturepasture oror urbanurban expansionexpansion theirtheir potentialpotential asas sources of economiceconomic developmentdevelopment andand environmentalenvironmental servicesservices alsoalso ceases. ButBut whenwhen forestryforestry itselfitself causescauses thethe valuevalue ofof forestsforests toto decline,decline, thenthen surely something is wrong in the practicepractice ofof ourour science.science.

ItIt shouldshould be evident from the simple mathematics of populationpopulation growth that, over time, forest operations must inincreasinglycreasingly accommodate bothboth environmentalenvironmental requirementsrequirements andand changingchanging socialsocial needs. In many placesplaces thethe EarthEarth isis alreadyalready uncomfortablyuncomfortably crowded,crowded, and in perhapsperhaps 40 yearsyears there wwillill be twice as manymany peoplepeople to feed,feed, 166 twice as manymany who willwill needneed housing,housing, and inin allall likelihoodlikelihood twicetwice as many who willwill dependdepend onon fuelwoodfuelwood forfor thethe preparationpreparation ofof theirtheir meals.meals_ If the demand for wood products growsgrows atat eveneven a fraction of thethe groW1hgrowth in population duringduring thisthis period,period, therethere will bebe anan enormousenormous increaseincrease in the frequency and extentextent of timbertimber harvestingharvesting operations,operations, especially in tropical countries wherewhere the greatest population growthgroW1h will occuroccur andand where major forest areas remain_remain. ForestersForesters have moral and proprofessionalfessional obligations to ensureensure that thesethese operationsoperations are done inin waysways thatthat willwill maximize benefits to society whilewhile minimizing anyany associatedassociated environmental hazards.hazards_

To meetmeet these obligations foresters must under stand, first, that timber harvestingharvesting operationsoperations can bebe environmentallyenvironmentally sound,sound, and,and, second, that the educationeducation ofof forestersforesters andand forestryforestry technicianstechnicians mustmust include training inin thethe properproper planning,planning, execution,execution, supervision,supervision, andand assessment of timber harvestingharvesting operations.operations_ This will notnot guaranteeguarantee automatically that forest operations will become environmentally sound_sound. However, unlessunless forestersforesters and and forestryforestry technicianstechnicians knowknow howhow to recognize environmentallyenvironmentally soundsound forestforest practices,practices, andand unlessunless theythey insistinsist thatthat thethe operatorsoperators underunder theirtheir supervisionsupervision followfollow suchsuch practices,practices, itit isis virtually certain that the professionprofession of forestryforestry willwill fail to meetmeet itsits obligations to society.society_

Three key principles are essentialessential for the applicationapplication of anyany science inin a a sociallysocially responsibleresponsible way:way: learning what must bebe done,done, learninglearning howhow toto do itit properly, and thenthen insistinginsisting thatthat it be donedone properly or not atat all.all. These principlesprinciples are embodied in the medicalmedical practitioner's imperative,"Do no harm", and they must also become an indispensable partpart of forestryforestry ifif itit is toto fulfilfu lfil its promisepromise inin modernmodern society_society. 167

CONDITIONS FORFOR SUSTAINABILITYSUSTAINABILITY

If forests are toto be managed sustainably, twotwo conditions must be imposed onon activities associated withwith the utilizationutilization of products fromfrom thothosese forests.forests. One conditioncondition arisesarises from the recognitionrecognition thatthat thethe multiple resources ofof the forest interact in complex ways. TheThe otherother condition specifiesspecifies the fundamental requirement for what foresters have long referredreferred to as "sustained yieyield".ld ". TheseTh ese two conditions cancan bebe sum-sum­ marized as follows:

1. The activities mustmust bebe carried out in a way that willwill minimizeminimize environmental impacts and will conform to the principle thatthat allall resources should be maintained as part ofof a healthy,healthy, dynamicdynamic ecosystem.

2. The activities mustmust leaveleave thethe forestforest inin a conditioncondition thatthat willwill promote its rapid recoveryrecovery to the pre-harvestpre-harvest state or to some other state thatthat iiss silvsilviculturally,iculturally, ecoecologically,logicall y, andand socsociologicallyiologically desirable.

The first condition impliesimplies thatthat timbertimber harvesting,harvesting, for instance,instance, must not compromisecompromise in a substantialsUbstantial wayway thethe ability of forests to provideprovide the multitudemultitude of benefitsbenefits for whichwhich theythey areare appreciatedappreciated thethe world over.over. TheseTh ese benefits includeinclude the production of aa tremendoustremendous varvarietyiety of non-timber forest products; provision of habitat for wild plants and animals; protection of watershed values;values; maintenance of biodiversity; regulation of the locallocal climate; protection andand improvementimprovement of soils;soils; and provisionprovision for humanshumans ofof aa widewide rangerange ofof cultural,cultural, spiritual,spiritual, and recreationalrecreational benefits.benefits.

The second condition indicates that utilization actiactivitiesvities must be undertaken inin a wayway thatthat willwill maintainmaintain thethe forestforest asas aa continuously continuously productive entity.entity. ToTo assure the continued production of timber,timber, forfor example, harveharvestingsting must follow a plannedplanned cycle ofof entriesentries andand fallowfallow periods, and each entry must generate or release the future crop trees 168 while protecting residual trees and seedlings fromfrom damage.damage. Thus the harvesting operation must be part ofof aa plannedplanned managementmanagement regimeregime which is designeddesigned to perpetuateperpetuate the production of timber from thethe forest. ThiThiss condition aalsolso implies thatthat thethe forest itself must bebe protected so that itsits integrityintegrity asas aa productiveproductive unitunit isis maintained.maintained.

LOGGING DAMAGE IN ASIA-PACIFICASIA-PACIFIC TROPICALTROPICAL FORESTSFORESTS

Beginning in the 1950s, a series ofof comprehensivecomprehensive studiesstudies has quantified thethe nature and extent of damage associated withwith logging operations in the tropics of the Asia-PacificAsia-Pacific Region (Nicholson 1958 andand 1979, Wyatt-Smith and Foenander 1962, FoxFox 1968, Marn and Jonkers 1982).1982). OnOn thethe basisbasis ofof these these andand similarsimilar studiesstudies inin temperatetemperate forests,forests, it seems clear that the degreedegree of damagedamage incurredincurred during logginglogging ofof tropical forestsforests isis significantlysignificantly moremore severesevere than would be expected, for instance, inin temperate mixed forests.forests. In some casescases,, logginglogging damage is so extensive thatthat the fallow period requiredrequired for the forestforest toto recoverrecover may be two or three times longer than anticipated in management plans (Poore 1989). EvenEven wherewhere thisthis isis notnot thethe case, case, thethe severesevere mechanicalmechanical damage commonlycommonly inflictedinflicted during during logging logging on on halfhalf oror more of thethe forest's residualresidual treestrees willwill certainlycertainly interfereinterfere withwith thethe environmentalenvironmental services and other non-timber values of tropical forests.forests.

Even more alarming is evidence from severalseveral studies that the degree of damage is increasing over timetime asas logginglogging operationsoperations become increasingly mechanized andand rely to a greatergreater extentextent onon horsepowerhorsepower ratherrather than on technicaltechnical competence (Fox(Fox 1968, Nicholson 1979).1979). ThereThere is a common tendencytendency among loggersloggers inin thethe tropicstropics toto useuse machinesmachines that are overpowered, toto employ machine operators who have not had adequate training,training, andand toto permitpermit crewscrews toto workwork withoutwithout sufficientsufficient supervisory control.

In spitespite of thethe ratherrather dismaldismal recordrecord ofof logginglogging operationsoperations inin tropical forests,forests, the situationsituation isis notnot hopeless.hopeless. At leastleast threethree recentrecent studies (Marn(Marn andand JonkersJonkers 1982,1982, HendrisonHendrison 1989,1989, andand SchmittSchmitt 1989)1989) 169 have demonstrated conclusively that harvestingharvesting operationsoperations whichwhich areare adequately planned and supervisedsupervised can easily meet the conditions forfor sustainability listedlisted earlier.earlier. Furthermore, such operations have thethe additional benefitbenefit of reducingreducing harvestingharvesting costscosts byby aa substantialsubstantial marginmargin as compared to conventionalconventional operations.operations.

Why, then, if they are both environmentally benign and also less expensive, are suchsuch logginglogging methods not more widely used? There are probably two principalprincipal answersanswers toto thisthis question.question. First, foresters areare often willingwill ing to accept poorpoor logginglogging practicespractices becausebecause theythey don't reallyreally believe that environmentally sound practices are possible at a levellevel of cost thatthat willwill permitpermit anan economicallyeconomically viableviable forestforest industry.industry. This isis because they have seldom witnessed harvesting operations that cancan truly be described as "environmentally sound", and because conventionalconventional wisdom isis thatthat environmentalenvironmental protectionprotection alwaysalways costscosts moremore..

The secondsecond answeranswer isis that,that, althoughalthough environmentallyenvironmentally soundsound operations cancan bebe lessless expensiveexpensive thanthan conventionalconventional operations,operations, thesethese savings are due to better planningplanning,, better supervisory control, and betterbetter utilization of felled timber (for instance,instance, by leavingleaving fewer lost logs in the forest and byby crosscuttingcrosscutting stemsstems inin waysways thatthat achieveachieve higherhigher loglog values). To obtainobtain thesethese savings,savings, therefore, it iiss necessarynecessary to havehave technically competent planners,planners, loggers,loggers, andand supervisors.supervisors.

ThusThus,, the discussion has come fullfull circle.circle. The education of forestry sstudentstudents inin uniuniversitiesversities and technicaltechnical institutes seldomseldom emphasizes trainingtraining in environmentallyenvironmentally benign logging methods because logging isis consideredconsidered aa "less"less professional"professional" aspectaspect ofof forestryforestry (FAO(FAO 1988)1988).. ConcessionairesConcessionaires do not adoptadopt environmentallyenvironmentally benign logging methods because they are unable to hire personnel with the necessary training toto implementimplement thesethese methods,methods, andand becausebecause environmentallyenvironmentally benign logging methods are not adoptedadopted,, lloggingogging continues toto be a "less professional" aspect of forestry. 170

THE WAY OUT

The way out of thisthis traptrap isis toto ensureensure thatthat allall forestryforestry students,students, both inin universities and in technical institutes,institutes, receive adequate trainingtraining inin thethe properproper planning,planning, execution, supervision, andand assessmentassessment ofof timber timber harvesting operationsoperations.. BecauseBecause logging cancan bebe eithereither anan effectiveeffective tool or a terribly destructivedestructive force, this kind of training isis essentialessential for evel)levery forestryforestry student, not justjust thosethose whowho havehave aa specialspecial interestinterest in industrialindustrial forestry.

The specificspecific details of what should be includedincluded inin coursescourses onon environmentally benign logginglogging methodsmethods willwill necessarilynecessarily vary somewhat from countrycountry toto countrycountry andand between between universitiesuniversities andand technicaltechnical institutes. AsAs prerequisites,prerequisites, studentsstudents shouldshould previouslypreviously havehave hadhad somesome instruction in silviculture, ecology, soils, hydrology and economics. ThisThis background wwillill permit them to understandunderstand the concepts upon whichwhich environmentally sound harvesting practices are built, rather than simply'simply' llearningearning thethe methods 'by rote.rote.

PRINCIPLES OF ENVIRONMENTALLYENVIRONMENTALLY SOUNDSOUND HARVESTINGHARVESTING

The keykey toto environmentallyenvironmentally sound harvesting is to utilizeutilize thethe best current knowledge asas it applies to five critical activities: (1) harvest planning; (2) roadroad layout,layout, construction,construction, andand maintenance;maintenance; (3)(3) fellingfelling operations; (4) extraction; and (5)(5) transport.transport. In addition,addition, it isis alsoalso essentessentialial toto periodicallyperiodicall y carry outout post-harvestpost-harvest assessmentsassessments in'in' orderorder toto provide feedbackfeedback to to thethe logging crews about the qualityquality of thethe operations. Some general guidelines relating to thesethese activitiesactivities areare providedprovided in the sections that follow.follow. AA moremore detaileddetailed treatmenttreatment ofof thesethese ideasideas is currently under preparationpreparation atat FAOFAO andand willwill bebe availableavailable withinwithin the next year or soso asas partpart ofof aa "Model "Model CodeCode ofof Forest Forest Practices". Practices". 171

Harvest Planning

ComprComprehensiveehensive harvestharvest planning isis essentessentialial iinn orderorder ttoo properproperlyly sesett ththee stage so that sustainablesustainable harvestingharvesting practices can be followed,followed. and alsoalso to reconcilereconcile thethe needneed forfor greatergreater technicaltechnical controlcontrol duringduring harvesting with the needneed toto simultaneouslysimultaneously reducereduce harvestingharvesting costs.costs. Many lloggingogging operatorsoperators believebelieve that environmental proprotectiontection can only be achievedachieved through costlycostly measuresmeasures thatthat reducereduce profitability.profitability. ThThisis isis simpsimplyly not true.true. EExperiencexperience byby concessionairesconcessionaires whowho ththoroughlyoroughly planplan theirtheir operationsoperations andand whowho thenthen carrycarry outout thethe operationsoperations asas plannedplanned hashas demonstrateddemonstrated conclusivelyconclusively ththatat ththeseese procedures not onlyonly improveimprove operaoperationalti onal control andand minimize environmental iimpacts,mpacts. but also redureducece costs and increaseincrease profitsprofits substantially.substantially.

TheThe harvesting pplanlan should specify thethe equipment to be usedused and the timing ofof operations,operations. and should include contingency plansplans for seveseverere storms andand otheroth er extremeextreme events.events. ItIt shouldshould considerconsider thethe possible complementaritycompl ementarity ofof harvesting non-timber forest products (for(for exaexample,mpl e. cucuttingtting rattanrattan or tapping resinsresins prior to thethe timbertimber harvest,harvest. oror collecting fuelwoodfuelwood afterafter thethe harvest).harvest). Local communities should bebe consulted about potentialpotential schedulingscheduling problems or opportunitiesopportunities (for(for instance,instance. to ttakeake advantage ofof labourlabour availabilityavailability durduringing slackslack agricuagriculturalltural periods). The time ofof normalnormal onsetonset ofof thethe rainyrainy seasonseason shouldshould bebe coconsidered,nsidered. as should theth e time of seedfallseedfall in areasareas.(such'(such as deciduodeciduousus forests)forests) wherewhere seedseed isis notnot producedproduced year-round.year-roung. In somesome cases,cases. harvestingharvesting operoperationsati ons mmayay neneeded to bebe scheduledsched uled to avoidavoid breedingbreed ing seasons of primatesprimates oror otherother sensitivesensitive animals.animals.

The harvesting pplan,lan. iincludingncluding a completed topographic mapmap sshowinghowing the treestrees to be harvested and the transportattransportationion system,system. should be provided to the foreman of the harvesting crew.crew. The foreman is then responsibleresponsible forfor eensuringnsuring thatthat thethe pplanlan iiss carriedcarried outout andand thatthat everyevery membermember of thethe crewcrew isis familiarfamiliar withwith thethe requirementsrequirements andand workingworking procedures.procedures. AA thoroughthorough understandingund erstanding of whatwhat is to bebe donedone andand thethe 172 standard ofof work expectedexpected is perhapsperhaps thethe mostmost importantimportant singlesingle requirement for a successfulsuccessful operation.

Forest RoadsRoads

RoRoadsads are unquestionably thethe most problematicproblematic features of timber harvesting operations.operations. TheThe majormajor partpart ofof soilsoil erosionerosion resultingresulting from timber harvestingharvesting - more than 90% in some studiesstud ies - is associated with roadsroads (FAO(FAO 1977).1977). Nevertheless, exceptexcept inin cases wherewhere largelarge waterways can be used, roads are essential notnot only forfor industrial timber extractioneX1raction but alsoalso toto provideprovide accessaccess forfor managementmanagement andand controlcontrol purposes. In some cases forestforest roadsroads maymay eveneven formform partpart ofof the planned network of public roadsroads andand theythey cancan thusthus bebe anan essentialessential partpart of the developmentdevelopment infrastructure.infrastructure.

Building roads involves removing vegetatiovegetationn and rearrearrangingranging the soil so that itit isis moremore compatiblecompatible withwith the passagepassage of vehicles. SuchSuch actions are almost alwaysalways accompanied by increasedincreased rates of erosion. To minimize the increaseincrease in erosionerosion andand reducereduce itsits destructivedestructive effects,effects, the generalgeneral principle isis thatthat both the totaltotal lengthlength of roadsroads andand thethe surface area disturbed through road construction shouldshould bebe minimizedminimized (FAO 1977,1977, HamiltonHamilton 1988).1988). Related ideasideas areare that areas of highhigh erosion risk should bebe avoided,avoided, roadsideroad side ditchesditches and properlyproperly spacedspaced cross-drains should be used to channelchannel water away from the road,road, fillfill slopes and cutbanks should bebe revegetatedrevegetated as soon as possible after construction, and roads should bebe keptkept awayaway fromfrom streamsstreams exceptexcept where crossingscrossings areare necessary.necessary.

Felling Operations

In itselffellingitself felling approximatelyapproximately mimics naturalnatural treefallstreefalls and isis often considered to bebe relativelyrelatively benignbenign fromfrom anan environmentalenvironmental perspectiveperspective (Hamilton 1988).1988). From aa silviculturalsilvicultural perspective,perspective, however,however, fellingfelling damage in tropical forest can be soso extremeeX1reme that itit interferesinterferes wwithith the attainment ofof silviculturalsilvicultural objectivesobjectives (Nicholson(Nicholson 1979).1979). Most felling 173 operations inin thethe tropics are performed by unskilled workers whowho are not closely supervised and are given little or nono incentiveincentive toto minimizeminimize damage through carefullycareful ly controlledcontrolled directionaldirectional felling.felling. Uncontrolled felling can causecause considerableconsiderable damagedamage toto advanceadvance regenerationregeneration andand residual trees,trees, andand can also reduce efficiency in the subsequent skidding operation.operation. WhenWhen feasible,feasible, directionaldirectional felling is thus an importantimportant stepstep toward thethe protectionprotection ofof bothboth timbertimber andand nontimbernontimber values. values.

In addition to directingdirecting thethe fallfall ofof thethe tree,tree, damagedamage fromfrom fellingfelling operations can be reduced by cuttingcutting climbers well in advance of the operation Soso that they are less likely to pull overover nearbynearby trees;trees; byby fellingfelling trees so that they fall away from streams;streams; and by orienting thethe crownscrowns of felled treestrees asas muchmuch asas possiblepossible soso thatthat anyany damagedamage isis concentrated.concentrated. To maximize the vovolumelume (and value)value) of wood recoveredrecovered fromfrom eacheach tree,tree, cutters shouldshould also be trained to follow proper cross-cutting procedures.procedures. This requires thatthat the entire bole be measuredmeasured priorprior toto cross-cutting and that loglog lengthslengths conformconform toto rnill mill requirements.requirements.

Extraction Operations

Most logging in tropicaltropical forestforest isis donedone withwith ground-skiddingground-skidding systems which cause damage two waysways inin tropicaltropical forestforest operations:operations: (a) the skidders tend to wanderwander throughthrough thethe forestforest searchingsearching forfor felledfelled trees, thus causing a proliferation ofof skidtrailsskidtrails and resultingresulting inin excessiveexcessive damage to residualresidual treestrees andand advanceadvance regeneration;regeneration; (b)(b) thethe skiddersskidders cause soilsoil disturbancedisturbance andand soil compaction, thus increasingincreasing thethe potential forfor erosion and retarding both regeneration and the growth of residual trees.trees. Both of these problems can be reduced substantially by comprehensive pre-harvest planningplanning andand by a systemsystem ofof operationaloperational control to ensureensure that thethe planplan isis followed.followed.

As a general rule, articulated skidders are preferable to crawler tractors for loglog extractionextraction inin tropicaltropical forests.forests. Unlike crawler tractors,tractors, which aarere general-purpose machines designed especially for construction work, skidders have been developeddeveloped explicitly for loglog 174 skidding and their design permits logs to be partially suspended above the soisoill so that soil disturbance andand compactioncompaction areare reduced.reduced. On the other hand their rubber tyrestyres exert greater ground pressurepressure on the soilsoil than do thethe widewide trackstracks of crawlercrawler tractors.tractors. WhenWhen operatingoperating on wet soils high-flotation tyres should be used toto reduce thethe dangerdanger ofof ruttingrutting and soil compaction.

The followingfollowing guidelinesguidelines are usefuluseful forfor reducingreducing damagedamage associated with extractioneX1raction operationsoperations inin tropicaltropical forests:forests:

1. The skiddingskidding equipment shouldshould be appropriateappropriate for the operation, without the excessive powerpower capabilitiescapabilities that increasingly seemseem toto be substitutedsubstituted forfor technicaltechnical skill.skill. The bladeblade width should not normally exceed 3 m andand thethe skidderskidder should have aa winch withwith atat least 3030 mm of wire rope and an arch that will suspend thethe frontfront end of the load off the ground to avoidavoid ploughingploughing by thethe logslogs asas theythey areare beingbeing skidded.skidded. Where appropriate,appropriate, low-ground-pressure skidders can be used toto reducereduce soil disturbance and soil compaction, particularlyparticularly onon steeper slopes or permanentlypermanently damp soilssoils (Buenaflor(Buenaflor andand Heinrich 1980). AnimalAnimal skiddingskidding isis alsoalso aa feasiblefeasible alternativealternative in many areas, and the use of draught animalsanimals suchsuch asas elephants,elephants, carabao and oxen has been shown to significantlysignificantly reducereduce soilsoil disturbance, soil compaction, and damage to residualresidual trees.trees. AnimaAnimall skidding isis particularlyparticularly advantageousadvantageous forfor silviculturalsilvicultural improvement operationsoperations suchsuch asas thinnings.thinnings.

Cable yarding or aerial logginglogging withwith equipmentequipment suchsuch asas heavy-heavy­ lift helicopters have thethe potential to substantially reducereduce road re-re­ quirements andand soil disturbance in steepersteeper areas, but suchsuch systems require skilled crews and even so are likely to be more costly thanthan groundground skiddingskidding (Nicholson(Nicholson 1979).1979). Nevertheless, there hashas recentlyrecently beenbeen increasedincreased interestinterest in using thesethese systems to reduce damage in tropical forests, especially where operations have moved out of the lowlandslowlands intointo hillhill forests.forests. It 175

is likely that thethe applicationapplication ofof suchsuch systemssystems willwill increaseincrease substantially duringduring the nextnext fewfew yearsyears asas environmental environmental pressures intensify.

2. Skidtrail locations should bebe clearlyclearly flagged onon thethe groundground andand laid out usingusing thethe topographictopographic planningplanning mapmap (which(which showsshows thethe location of eacheach treetree toto bebe harvested),harvested), a compass,compass, and aa clinometer.clinometer.

3. Blading of skidtraiskicitrailsls withwith thethe skiddeskidderr oror crawcrawlerler bladeblade shouldshould be minimminimized.ized. In somesome tropicaltropical forests,forests, bladingblading ofof skidtrailsskidtrails hashas been prohibited entirely exceptexcept whenwhen necessarynecessary to maintainmaintain safety (Ward(Ward andand KanowskiKanowski 1985).1985). Guidelines developed by French researchers for West Africa andand South AmerAmericaica stipulastipulatete that skidtrailskidtrail construction should bebe limitedlimited toto hand-cuttinghand-cutting ofof brush byby labourerslabourers (Schmitt(Schmitt 1989).1989). Such proceduresprocedures willwi ll reduce overall costs and willwill protect soils byby leavingleaving thethe vegetativevegetative mat inin place.place.

4. Skidding eqUipmentequipment should remainremain onon thethe skidtrailsskidtrails atat allall times.times. It is unnecessarily destructive ttoo drive the skidderskidder to everyevery log;log; by sstayingtaying on the skidtrail and pulling the wincwinchh linlinee out to thethe llogog a significant reductreductionion in soil disturbance andand soil compaction can bebe achievedachieved (Hendrison(Hendrison 1989).1989). Damage to residual trtreesees isis also likely to be reducedreduced byby thisthis practice.practice.

5. Choker settesettersrs shoushouldld bebe employed to pre-set chokers, llocateocate the best approach to the log,log, and pull the winch lineline out to the llogog while the skidder remainsremains onon thethe skidtrail.skidtrail.

6. LLandings,and ings, which are identified during thethe pre-harvestpre-harvest planningplanning stage, shoushouldld be located on slightly sloping ground, preferablypreferably on ridgetopsridgetops or openopen areasareas awayaway fromfrom streamsstreams andand gullies.gullies. TheyThey should be asas smallsmall asas possiblepossible consistentconsistent withwith thethe needneed to sort and storestore logs temporarilytemporaril y and to provide for the loading 176

of trucks. AdequateAdequate drainagedrainage shouldshould bebe providedprovided around land-land­ ings toto dispersedisperse runoffrunoff waterwater intointo thethe surroundingsurrounding vegetation.vegetation.

7. Skidding operationsoperations should bebe suspendedsuspended altogetheraltogether duringduring exceptionally wetwet weather.weather. Skidding during such periodsperiods increasesincreases erosionerosion and otherother damage,damage, reducesreduces operatingoperating efficiency, increases accident ratesrates,, and may double or tripletriple operating costscosts (DeBonis(DeBonis 1986).1986).

8. After the harvestingharvesting operationoperation hashas beenbeen completed,completed, .adequate.adequate drainage in the formform ofof waterwater barriersbarriers andand drainagedrainage ditchesditches should bebe provided for skidtrailsskidtrails and landings, and they should be leftleft inin aa statestate thatthat willwill facilitatefacilitate theirtheir rapidrapid revegetation.revegetation.

Long-Distance Transport

Most long-distancelong·distance transporttransport ofof logs from tropical forestsforests toto processing facilities is eeitherither byby truck oror byby water.water. For the most partpart these are relatively low-impactlow-impact operations.operations. HoHowever,wever, improperimproper maintenance of roads can lead to excessiveexcessive erosion as well as safety problems. Operators should avoid usingusing earthearth roadsroads andand landingslandings altogether when they areare wet.wet. Roads thatthat are to be usedused during thethe rainy season should be properlyproperly drained and provided with a rock base and gravel or latentelaterite surface.surface. WhenWhen concentrationconcentration areasareas areare locatedlocated near streams (e.g., where water transport is being used) fifilterlter strips of live vegetation should be maintained adjacent to thethe streamsstreams to reducereduce siltation.

FIELD EXERCISESEXERCISES FORFOR STUDENTSSTUDENTS

If they are to obtainobtain aa firmfirm understandingunderstanding of thethe principlesprinciples ofof environmentally benign logging methods, it is essential that studentsstudents spend time inin the fieldfield watching operationsoperations andand makingmaking assessmentsassessments ofof the environmentalenvironmental impactsimpacts resultingresulting fromfrom thethe variousvarious activities.activities. They 1lshouldshould alsoalso bebe assignedassigned exercisesexercises inin which theythey learnlearn the principles of 177 harvest planning and road design. TheseThese exercisesexercises shouldshould includeinclude aa field component inin whichwhich thethe studentsstudents transfertransfer theirtheir designsdesigns toto thethe field.field. If possiblepossible thisthis shouldshould bebe donedone inin connectionconnection withwith anan actualactual harvestharvest (e(e.g.,.g., on a training forest or inin collaborationcollaboration with aa commercialcommercial timbertimber concession).

Making post-harvest assessments of environmental impacts and silvicultural outcomes of completedcompleted harvestingharvesting operationsoperations cancan bebe oneone of the bestbest waysways possiblepossible for studentsstudents to becomebecome proficientproficient atat judgingjudging the quality ofof harvestingharvesting operations. AA series series ofof one-dayone-day fieldfield exercisesexercises can be an excellent learning process. EachEach ofof these should be done by a team ofof severalseveral students working together. WhereWhere possible,possible, moremore than one teamteam shouldshould carry out thethe samesame typetype ofof exerciseexercise butbut inin different areas so thatthat resultsresults can bebe compared.compared. Field exercises thatthat might bebe incorporatedincorporated intointo suchsuch aa seriesseries couldcould includeinclude thethe following.following.

1. Conducting logging-road traversestraverses to measuremeasure roadroad grade,grade, surface width and condition, frequency and condition ofof crosscross drains, size andand conditioncondition of roadside ditches,ditches, widthwidth and condi­condi- tiontion ofof fillfill areas,areas, cutcut banks,banks, andand thethe roadsideroadside clearingclearing area.area.

2. Visiting stream crossings to assess theirtheir conditioncondition and estimate thethe associatedassociated streamstream impacts.impacts.

3. Following skidtrails to measuremeasure skidtrailskidtrail grade,grade, surface surface widthwidth and degree of compaction, and the frequency and condition of water barriers constructed after the skiddingskidding operationoperation waswas completed.

4. Making line transects through aa harvestedharvested areaarea toto assessassess thethe frequency andand depth of soilsoil disturbancedisturbance resultingresulting fromfrom thethe operation. A separateseparate transecttransect throughthrough anan unharvestedunharvested "control" area will provide a basisbasis forfor comparison.comparison. 178

5. Running lineline transects through a harvested area to determine the frequencyfrequency and severityseverity of damagedamage toto residualresidual treestrees andand seedlings of commercialcommercial species.species. Again, a separateseparate transecttransect through an unharvestedunharvested "control" area will provide a basis for comparison.

After the field work for these exercises has been completed, the students should analyze the data in ththee classroom and then present the results as partpart ofof anan overall discussiondiscussion on thethe exercises. RegardlessRegardless of whether the students will ever be directly involved inin thisthis typetype of work, they wiwillll acquire from such exercises an understanding ofof thethe problemsproblems and an appreciation for thethe fundamentalfundamental principles of environmentallyenvironmentally benign logging methods.methods. 179

LITERATURE CITED

Buenaflor, V.V. andand R.R. Heinrich.Heinrich. 1980. 1980. FMCFMC TrackedTracked Skidder Skidder Logging Study inin Indonesia.Indonesia. Working Paper No.No. 7, Project FO:INS/78/054, FAO, Rome. 103103 pp.pp.

DeBonis, J.N.J.N. 19861986.. HarvestingHarvesting tropical forestsforests inin Ecuador.Ecuador. Journal of Forestry 84(4):84(4): 43-46.43-46.

FAO. 1977. Guidelines for WatershedWatershed Management.Management. Conservation Guide 1, FAO, Rome.Rome. 293293 pp.pp.

FAO. 1988.1988. internationalInternational Survey Survey ofof ForestForest Harvesting Training NeedsNeeds in DevelopingDeveloping Countries:Countries: Regional Report,Report, Asia/Pacific.Asia/Pacific. Forest HarveHarvestingsting andand TransportTransport Branch, FAO,FAO, Rome.Rome. 66 pp.pp.

Fox, J.E.D.J.E.D. 1968. Logging damage and the influenceinfluence of climberclimber cutting prpriorior to logginglogging inin thethe lowlandlowland dipterocarpdipterocarp forest of Sabah. MalaysianMalaysian ForesterForester 31(4):31 (4): 326-347.326-347.

Hamilton, L.S.L.S. 1988. MinimizingMinimizing the adverse impacts of harvestingharvesting in humid tropical forests.forests. In: LugoLugo,, A.E., J.R.Clark, andand R. D. Child, Editors, Ecological Development in the HumidHumid Tropics.Tropics. Winrock InternationalInternational InstituteInstitute forfor AgriculturalAgricultural Development,Development, Morrilton, Arkansas, U.S.A. p.191-235.p.191-235.

Hendrison, J. 1989.1989. Damage-ControlledDamage-Controlled LLoggingogging in Managed Tropical Rain Forests in Suriname. SeriesSeries on the Ecology and Manage-Manage­ ment of Tropical RainRain ForestsForests inin Suriname,Suriname, WageningenWageningen Agri-Agri­ cultural University, Netherlands.Netherlands. 204 pp.

Jonkers, W.B.J.W.B.J. 1987. Vegetation Structure,Structure, LoggingLogging Damage and Silviculture in a TropicalTropical RainRain Forest in Suriname. NumberNumber 33 iinn thethe series,series, Ecology and Management of TropicalTropical RainRain Forest in Suriname, Wageningen AgriculturalAgricultural University,University, Netherlands.Netherlands. 172 pp. 180

Marn, Harald Mattsson,Mattsson, andand Wybrand Wybrand Jonkers. Jonkers. 1982.1982. Logging damage in tropical highhigh forest.forest. InIn:: Srivastava, P.B.L., et al., Editors,Editors, Tropical Forests -- Source of EnergyEnergy through Optimisation & Diversification. Proceedings of anan internationalinternational conferenceconference held 11-15 November 1980 at PenerPener bitbit UniversitiUniversiti Pertanian,Pertanian, Serdang, Selangor,Selangor, Malaysia.Malaysia. p.p. 27-38.27-38.

Nicholson,Nicholson, D.I.D.1. 1958.1958. AnAn analysisanalysis of logging damagedamage inin tropicaltropical rain forests, North Borneo.Borneo. MalayanMalayan ForesterForester 21(4):21 (4) : 235-245.235-245.

Nicholson, D.I.D.1. 1979. The Effects ofof Logging and TreatmentTreatment on the Mixed DipterocarpDipterocarp ForestsForests of South-EastSouth-East Asia.Asia. Report FO:MISC/79FO:MISC/79/8,/ 8, FAO,FAO, Rome.Rome. 65 pp.

Poore, D.D. 1989. No TimberTimber WithoutWithout Trees.Trees. EEarthscan,arthscan, London.London. 252 pp.pp.

Schmitt, L.L. 19891989.. EtudeEtude desdes PeuplementsPeuplements NaturelsNaturels enen Fore'Foret t Dense Guyanaise: Compte RenduRendu dede Mise enen ApplicationApplication des Traitements SylvicolesSylvicoles sursur Iele DispositifDispositif dede Paracou.Paracou. Centre Technique Forestier TropiTropical,cal, DépartementDepartement du Cirad,Cirad , Nogent-Nogent­ sur-Marne, France.France. 51 pp.

Ward, J.P.,J.P., andand P.J.P.J. Kanowski.Kanowski. 1985. Implementing controlcontrol of harvesting operations in northnorth QueenslandQueensland rainforests.rainforests. In: Shepherd, K.K. RR.,., and H.H. V.V. Richter,Richter, Editors,Editors, ManagingManaging thethe Tropical Forest. ProceedingsProceedings from from aa workshop workshop held held atat Gympie,Gympie, Australia, 11 July to 1212 AugustAugust 1983.1983. Development StudiesStudies Centre, Australian National University,University, Canberra.Canberra. p.p. 165-186.165-186.

Wyatt-Smith, J., and E.C. FoFoenander.enander. 1962.1962. DamageDamage toto regenerationregeneration as a result of logging. MalayanMalayan ForesterForester 25(1):40-44. 25(1):40-44. 181

APPENDIX 1313

NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS IN FORESTRY EDUCATION

by

C.C. ChandrasekharanChandrasekharan 1 1

SUMMARY

The scope of forestryforestry hashas expandedexpanded reflecting the fact that thethe importanceimportance ofof many non-woodnon-wood forest products has increased,increased, leading toto new interfaces with relatedrelated disciplines.disciplines. This adds toto the complexitycomplexity of forestry and consequently ofof forestryforestry educationeducation.. However, in most cases forestry educationeducation and trainingtraining programmes,programmes, particularlyparticularly inin developingdeveloping countries, have not given adequateadequate attentionattention toto non-wood forest products. Thus more consideration needs toto be given to curriculumcurriculum balance,balance, to thethe availability of specific study programmes and electives related to the subject area, to course contents, to entryentry requirementsrequirements and the pre-requisites forfor student selection, to the appointmentappointment ofof appropriatelyappropriately qualifiedqualified teachingteaching staff, and to the availability of teaching materials andand relatedrelated facilities.facilities. The situation calls for appropriate modifications and adjustments in the system of forestry education and training.training. In-service trainingtraining can effect immediateimmediate to shortshort termterm improvementsimprovements andand initiateinitiate urgenturgent developments. developments. More fundemental changes, changes, however, however, are are required required to to produceproduce long termterm improvement and to ensure support for sustainable development.development. There are constraints to be faced, but with reasonablereasonable and rational efforts they can be surmountedsurmounted..

1 Chief, Non-Wood Products and Energy Branch,Branch, Forest Products Division, FAO, Rome,Rome, Italy.Italy. 182

INTRODUCTION

Non-wood forest products (NWFP)(NWFP) playplaya a crucial role in the dailydaily life and welfare of people all over the world. TheyThey covercover aa widewide range:range: food,food, fodder, fibre,fibre, fertiliser,fertiliser, flosses,flosses, organic constructionconstruction materials,materials, non-woodnon-wood ligno-cellulosicligno-cellulosic products,products, naturalnatural dyes,dyes, tannin,tannin, gums, resins,resins, latexlatex and other excudates, waxes, essential oils,oils, spices, edible oils, medicinalmedicinal extracts,extracts, phyto-chemicals, aroma-chemicals,aroma-chemicals, decorative articles, horns,horns, bones, pelts, plumes, hides and skins. These productsproducts areare derived fromfrom a variety ofof sources - plants (palms, grasses, herbs, shrubs, trees) andand animalsanimals (insects,(insects, birds, .reptiles, reptiles, largelarge animals).animals). Different partsparts ofof a plant or animalanimal oftenoften provide different products, simultaneously and/orand/or at differentdifferent times.

Non-wood forest products exhibitexhibit considerableconsiderable variation variation in in theirtheir use.use. Some of them areare consumedconsumed immediatelyimmediately on harvestharvest (e.g.(e.g. fruits, fodder, wild meat) or after primary processing (e.g. edible nuts, bamboobamboo products). Some others go through a series of downstream processing or refinements to meetmeet thethe marketmarket specificationsspecifications and standards,standards, adding value to thethe product allall alongalong thethe way,way, asas for exampleexample phyto-chemicals,phyto-chemicals, food additives and flavourings. AA large large numbernumber ofof NWFPNWFP appear as ingredients of varying proportion inin a largelarge numbernumber of itemsitems ofof ourour everydayeveryday useuse suchsuch asas medicines, perfumes, suntansuntan lotionslotions,, nail polish, mouthmouth wash,wash, hair conditioners, cosmeticcosmetic products,products, cheese,cheese, chewingchewing gum,gum, softsoft drinks,drinks, peanutpeanut butter, breakfast cereals, golf balls, paints,paints, corrosioncorrosion inhibitors, insecticides, fungicides and a hosthost ofof others.others.

As plantsplants andand animalsanimals showshow regional,regional, subregionalsubregional and locallocal variations due to differences in habitat conditions, so the nature and utility of the NWFPNWFP varies.varies. Thus the NWFP whichwhich are important in a specific specific localitylocality are usually aa restrictedrestricted number. InIn spitespite ofof this,this, however,however, thethe rangerange of activitiesactivities relatedrelated toto theirtheir production,production, management,management, processingprocessing andand 183 marketing is highly complexcomplex requiringreqUiring adequateadequate technology,technology, supportsupport infrastructure, researchresearch facilitiesfacilities and and skilledskilled manpowermanpower.. The technologytechnology currently in useuse inin thethe areaarea ofof NWFPNWFP variesvaries betweenbetween countries, and even within countries, rangingranging fronnfrom crude to appropriate and sophisticated.sophisticated.

COMPLEX NATURENATURE OFOF NWFP-RELATEDNWFP-RELATED ACTIVITIESACTIVITIES

NWFP areare comprisedcomprised of differentdifferent productproduct groups involving different specific technologies, approaches, regulations and controls in the different aspects of their development. NWFP-relatedNWFP-related activities present a picture of considerable complexity.complexity.

Resource Management and Development

Foresters have beenbeen developingdeveloping andand refiningrefining silviculturalsilvicultural techniquestechniques of managingmanaging tropical forestsforests forfor overover 100100 years.years. TheseThese systems,systems, however,however, have beenbeen specificallyspecifically designeddesigned toto maximize thethe production of commercial timber. SilviculturalSilvicultural systemssystems for non-wood resourcesresources inin forests such asas wildwild fruits, edible nuts, mushrooms, gums and latex which can be developed in combination with timber, have received muchmuch lessless attention.attention. This is not to say that such systems are unknown oror dodo not exist. ManyMany indigenousindigenous oror other local communitiescommunities in the tropics havehave developed theirtheir own form of 'silviculture''silviculture' for managingmanaging theirtheir non-timbernon-timber resource.resource. Jointly,Jointly, indigenousindigenous silvicultural practices andand conventional forestryforestry cancan contributecontribute inin designingdesigning or improving systems wherein non-wood forest products cancan bebe managedmanaged along withwith woodwood in an integratedintegrated manner, thusthus increasingincreasing overall productivity. Often non-woodnon-wood products cancan be harvested in an environmentally soundsound manner,manner, withoutwithout cuttingcutting down plants or destroying forests. 184

Many of the plants providing NWFP areare foundfound onlyonly inin thethe biologicalbiological rich and ecological complex primary forests. SomeSome of themthem can only thrive within natural habitats and do notnot lend themselves to domestication of any sort. ThoseThose speciesspecies thatthat cancan bebe growngrown inin plantations,plantations, as pure or mixed crops, are heavily dependantdependant onon regular infusioninfusion ofof germgermplasm plasm fromfrom wildwild gene reservoirs (wild(wild relatives).relatives). 1n-situIn-situ geneticgenetic conservation in areas with the greatest number of plant varieties of known economic value, asas wellwell as those with potential,potential, shouldshould bebe partpart ofof integrated integrated forestforest management. management.

Controlled eX1ractionextraction of NWFP maymay often bebe compatible withwith the objectives of management ofof natural forestsforests thatthat formform partpart of a system of protected areas, especially from the buffer zones around these. ElsewhereElsewhere the practice of managing natural forests for wood production alone will have to change.change.

An importantimportant considerationconsideration whenwhen contemplatingcontemplating managementmanagement ofof natural forestsforests is whether and toto what eX1entextent NWFP productionproduction could be or should be domesticated in order to increaseincrease yields and ease collection. Wherever feasiblefeasible domesticationdomestication ofof plants yielding NWFP,NWFP, involving their genetic improvement and growing them underunder intensiveintensive cultivation, is often considered asas a means of ensuring controlled production and economic success. Intensive cultivationcultivation can take place underunder monoculture,monoculture, mixedmixed cropping oror agroforestryagroforestry systems.systems.

Harvesting Systems

Harvesting ofof non-woodnon-wood forestforest products,products, whetherwhether fromfrom thethe wildwild oror from cultivated sources, differs fromfrom thethe harvest ofof woodwood in terms of thethe tools and equipmentequipment used,used, thethe technologytechnology involved,involved, the necesarynecesary pre-pre­ harvest preparation and post harvestharvest treatment and thethe requirementrequirement ofof intermediateintermediate processing. HarvestingHarvesting doesdoes notnot normallynormally involveinvolve aa whole treetree 185 or plant,plant, butbut onlyonly partsparts thereof.thereof. It varies fromfrom collection of nuts, buds and leavesleaves toto tappingtapping ofof latex,latex, harvestingharvesting ofof palmpalm hearts,hearts, honeyhoney hunting,hunting, extraction of wax andand gatheringgathering ofof decorativedecorative plantplant materials.materials.

The harvesting techniques vary considerably forfor thethe variousvarious NWFP.NWFP. For edible nuts it involves collecting raw nuts, cleaning, drying and grading; for fibresfibres itit involvesinvolves cuttingcutting relevantrelevant partsparts ofof thethe plantplant (leaves,(leaves, branches),branches), removing thorns and hard coating,coating, boiling,boiling, beatingbeating andand separatingseparating fibres,fibres, dressing or treating,treating, dryingdrying andand bundling;bundling; for somesome latex products it involvesinvolves makingmaking incisionsincisions onon thethe treetree trunk,trunk, treatingtreating asas necessarynecessary with acid to enhanceenhance exudation,exudation, collecting thethe crudecrude exudate,exudate, boilingboiling it toto pastypasty consistency, finally cooling it into balls or blocks for packing and transport; inin thethe casecase ofof somesome medicinalmedicinal tuberstubers itit involves diggingdigging up the plantplant material (ensuring that some reproductive materialsmaterials are left in the ground),ground), slicing, dehydrating, gradinggrading andand packing. TheThe cyclecycle ofof harvestingharvesting alsoalso varies from a few weeks for tender shoots to longer periods in the casecase of mature fruits oror rhizomes.rhizomes.

Since in mostmost casescases the volumevolume ofof anan individualindividual NWFPNWFP harvestedharvested is small, and extractiveextractive in nature,nature, little attentionattention is givengiven toto developingdeveloping harvesting techniques.techniques. The harvestingharvesting standard of manymany non-woodnon-wood products are poorpoor andand rudimentary,rudimentary, andand hencehence wasteful,wasteful, destructive and unsustainable. Furthermore, generally little effort is made to harmoniseharmonise thethe harvest of woodwood with that of non-wood products. TheThe collectorscollectors areare mostlymostly unskilled and untrained inin scientificscientific methods.methods. They are often exploited by middlemen whowho control access to the market,market, or byby thosethose whowho controlcontrol access to the resource.resource. ThusThus thethe millionsmillions ofof NWFPNWFP collectorscollectors havehave nono adequate incentive forfor practisingpractising properlyproperly controlledcontrolled andand sustainablesustainable harvesting. In most cases post-harvest care is also poor andand wastagewastage isis high. Wastage, inin terms of loss ofof quantityquantity oror deteriorationdeterioration inin quality,quality, occurs duringduring duringduring collection,collection, transporttransport andand storage.storage. Planning andand 186186 controlcontrol of harvesting operations,operations, the introductionintroduction of more efficient harvesting methodsmethods and systems, reduction of harvestingharvesting waste and keeping overall costscosts of operations at the lowestlowest possiblepossible levellevel areare allall essential.essential.

Value Addition Through Processing

Non-wood forestforest productsproducts areare oftenoften subject toto aa seriesseries of downstream processing operations leading to progresivelyprogresively moremore refinedrefined products. PrimaryPrimary andand downstreamdownstream processingprocessing ofof NWFP adds valuevalue toto thethe product, providesprovides local employment and helps to retain valuevalue inin thethe countrycountry of origin. SuchSuch processingprocessing entailsentails aa rangerange ofof technologiestechnologies andand equipment.equipment. The following are indicative ofof thethe range:range: simple distillation for essential oils involving passing ofof steam throughthrough a charge of fresh or partially withered grass or leaves andand condensing the vapours; makingmaking ornamentalornamental baskets, bags, etc. from palmpalm leaves,leaves, rattan and bamboo at cottagecottage level;level; fairlyfairly sophisticated processingprocessing ofof wattlewattle bark for producing tannin; and highlyhighly sophisticated facilitiesfacilitiesfor for prodproducing ucing medmedicinal icinal preparations/pharmaceuticals preparations/pharmaceuticals and perfumes.perfumes.

Most processing of non-wood productsproducts forfor local use,use, whether herbal medicine or straw baskets, isis done in very smallsmall family units employing persons withoutwithout anyany training,training, oftenoften workingworking onon aa part-timepart-time basis.basis. They are low-return activities.activities. Their survivabilitysurvivability is poor for theythey tendtend to bebe abandoned as wages riserise andand asas alternativealternative employmentemployment opportunitiesopportunities increase. WithWith regardsregards to those goods processedprocessed with modern technology in comparatively larger establishments, becausebecause mostmost ofof thethe products are exported therethere is . heavyheavy stress on qualityquality andand onon reliabilityreliability ofof supply.supply. However, due to the lacklack ofof technology,technology, skilledskilled manpower,manpower, managementmanagement expertise, capital for investment,investment, marketing informationinformation and mechanisms,mechanisms, coupled withwith inadequateinadequate information on resourceresource availability, such 187 sophisticated downstreamdownstream processingprocessing is is very very insecureinsecure and and soso in most developing countries is only carriedcarried outout toto aa veryvery limitedlimited extent.extent.

It isis necessary toto knowknow thethe needsneeds ofof specificspecific markets,markets, includingincluding product specifications and thestandardsthestandards required,required , before deciding to embark on export oriented production. AlthoughAlthough addingadding valuevalue locallylocally isis important,important, attempting to produce end-userend-user commodities without adequate preparation or studies will be risky.risky. Before launchinglaunching onon actualactual productionproduction,, pilot trials are necessary.necessary.

Trade and End-UsesEnd-Uses

Non-wood forest products have been tradedtraded over longlong distancesdistances forfor many centuries, whilewhile woodwood products have only become major international commodities comparatively recently. TheThe ancientancient Egyptians,Egyptians, for example,example, imported gum arabic from SudanSudan and usedused it for preparation of colours forfor painting and mummifying.

Because of the variety of non-wood forest products, rangingranging from fruits and food to aroma chemicalschemicals and phyto-pharmaceuticals,phylo-pharmaceuticals, thethe marketsmarkets for themthem showshow correspondingcorresponding variation,variation, beingbeing tradedtraded inin ruralrural subsistencesubsistence economieseconomies,, locallocal village markets,markets, large city (national) markets andand international markets.markets. Some of the productsproducts meetmeet bulkbulk demandsdemands (e.g.(e.g. edible nuts, resin) and others reach specific niches (special(special types of honey,honey, aroma chemicals).chemicals). Some non-wood productproduct areare not tradedtraded butbut onlyonly collected and consumed.

General quality standards for internationallyinternationally traded productsproducts areare established byby the International OrganizationOrganization forfor Standards.Standards. In this regard, specifications andand regulations byby food andand drugdrug administrations administrations andand consumer protection groupsgroups ofof importingimporting countriescountries areare oftenoften rigidrigid inin respectrespect 188 of itemsitems such asas medicinalmedicinal extracts, phytochemicals, foodfood colourantscolourants andand additives, essentialessential oilsoils andand fragrances.fragrances. Quality specifications,specifications, sanitary regulations, packaging standards (and(and lacklack of adequate knowledge aboutabout consumer preferences andand competingcompeting products)products) oftenoften becomebecome aa non-tariffnon-tariff barriers essentially denyingdenying somesome countriescountries accessaccess toto internationalinternational markets.markets. There is no wayway ofof copingcoping withwith thisthis situationsituation exceptexcept through improvingimproving efficiency and production standards.standards.

For various reasons therethere has been an erosion of the international market share of NWFPNWFP overover the the years.years. Prices have generallygenerally fallen,fallen, considerably inin some casescases.. IndeedIndeed for certaincertain commodities prices have crashed. Apart from inadequateinadequate promotionpromotion,, competition from synthetic substitutes are often the cause of this trend.trend.

The new attitude of green consumerism,consumerism, resulting fromfrom concernconcern for environmental conservation and consequentconsequent preference forfor naturalnatural products, products, is providing to bebe anan advantageadvantage for itit isis leadingleading to renewedrenewed acceptance of NWFPs. AnAn exampleexample isis the emerging popularity of aroma therapy which isis a fast growing areaarea of naturalnatural therapy requiringrequiring highhigh qualityquality essentialessential oils.oils. The United Kingdom alonealone usesuses essentialessential oils worth US$US$ 1515 million annuallyannually for aroma therapytherapy.. AtAt thethe beginningbeginning ofof thisthis centurycentury plantplant derivedderived materials constituted about 99%99% of the ingredients ofof perfumeryperfumery products.products. WithWith the emergence of petrochemical industry this proportion was reduced by 1950 to onlyonly 15%.15%. TheThe recent recent upsurgeupsurge ofof preferencepreference forfor naturalnatural productsproducts hashas seen the proportion increaseincrease to about 25%25% and it couldcould reachreach 50%50% byby thethe beginning ofof thethe 21st21 st century.century.

If technologytechnology isis improvedimproved,, collection and trade channels rationalized and mademade efficient,efficient, and appropriateappropriate processing developed,developed, it~ will undoubtedly be possible to effect a positive changes that willwill encourageencourage thethe sustainable developmentdevelopment of non-wood forest products. 189

Research and Development NeedsNeeds

The poor trading situation for NWFPNWFP in most producing countriescountries isis partly attributable to inadequateinadequate current technologytechnology andand hencehence therethere hashas to bebe concernconcern overover thethe lacklack ofof researchresearch support.support.

There is a tremendous need for research intointo all aspects of the technologytechnology entailedentailed inin exploitingexploiting NWFP.NWFP. Such research should cover,cover, among othersothers things:things: enhancing knowledge about the NWFPNWFP resource;resource; methods of inventoryinventory for differentdifferent NWFP;NWFP; gathering scientific data on thethe nature of the products; prospecting,prospecting, screening,screening, evaluatingevaluating andand classifyingclassifying plant species; techniquestechniques of domesticationdomestication and cultivation,cultivation, includingincluding aspects of monoculturemonoculture andand agroforestry;agroforestry; onon-farm-farm experimentation;experimentation; species introduction trials;trials; plant breedingbreed ing and genetic improvement; improving of agronomic practices;practices; improving harvesting methods and practicespractices toto reduce wastages and damages and toto increaseincrease yield;yield; adaptation of imported technology;technology; improvements in processingprocessing,, packaging andand distribution of products; and product diversificationdiversification including improvement of quality. AnAn aspectaspect toto be be stressed stressed herehere isis thethe importanceimportance ofof research- research­ extension linkages and the dissemination of research information.

Development ofof a NWFP industryindustry dependsdepends on how far the various products succeed inin the market place.place. Therefore,Therefore, toto bebe effectiveeffective researchresearch institutions needneed,, among other things:things: competentcompetent scientists,scientists, supportsupport staffstaff and research managers; the abilityability toto conduct continualcontinllal strategic evaluation of market conditionsconditions andand opportunities,opportunities, as it relates to research; opportunities to bebe autonomousautonomous andand self-financing;self-financing; andand meansmeans to interactinteract directly withw~h producersproducers andand usersusers andand hencehence influenceinfluence productionproduction andand marketing. 190

Institutional SupportSupport

One of thethe majormajor illsills afflicting the NWFP sector isis institutionalinstitutional neglect in relation to policy, strategy andand plans, legal rights andand arrangements, incentives, development of skills, health and safety considerations, access to information, controls and regulations related to production andand marketingmarketing authorizations,authorizations, andand streamlined supportsupport fromfrom public administration. In most forest policies non-woodnon-wood forestforest productsproducts get, at best, a mentionmention inin passing,passing, but clearclear objectivesobjectives and targets are not laidlaid down, nor are strategies for development outlined. This lacuna leads to the lack of appropriateappropriate plans,plans, programmes and projectsprojects relatedrelated toto NWFP,NWFP, and inadequacy of investment.investment. BecauseBecause ofof this,this, therethere isis hardly any emphasis on developing and maintainingmaintaining a databasedatabase onon NWFP.NWFP. There have been initiatives toto improve the situation in some countries, butbut aa lotlot more needs to bebe done,done, andand urgently.urgently.

Participation ofof the locallocal communitiescommunities in thethe productionproduction andand management of NWFP calls forfor appropriate provision regarding legal rights and organizationalorganizational supportsupport toto encourageencourage long termterm investmentinvestment andand improvements.improvements. ApartApart from from this, this, otherother economic economic incentives incentives are are alsoalso needed.needed. Rational policy interventionsinterventions are necessarynecessary to ensure access to credit andand markets and remunerativeremunerative prices for thethe product.product.

Constraints andand IssuesIssues

The situation with regard to NWFP in mostmost countries is riddled with constraints and problems. TheseThese include:include: lack of a clearclear definitiondefinition andal)d classification ofof NWFP;NWFP; lack ofof basicbasic information;information; inadequate resource development, managementmanagement and conservation;conservation; lack of adequate integration of management ofof woodwood andand non-wood products;products; deforestationdeforestation and land degradation; wasteful and inappropriateinappropriate harvestingharvesting practices;practices; lack ofof 191 incentives forfor introducingintroducing and implementing soundsound technology;technology; hurdleshurdles inin the development ofof organizedorganized people'speople's participationparticipation andand entrepreneurship;entrepreneurship; unscientific and uncontrolled system of NWFPNWFP collection and the influence of exploitative middlemen; lacklack ofof marketmarket orientation,orientation, supplysupply fluctuationsfluctuations and inadequateinadequate adherenceadherence to quality;quality; lack ofof competitivenesscompetitiveness in thethe international marketmarket duedue toto weaknessesweaknesses inin thethe chainchain ofof NWFP NWFP managementmanagement and utilization; inadequateinadequate processingprocessing andand storagestorage technologytechnology and and facilities;facilities; inadequateinadequate research, lacklack of appropriate extension facilities, lack of facilities for skillskill developmentdevelopment andand trainingtraining inin areasareas relatedrelated toto NWFP; NWFP; lacklack ofof adequate investment, an appropriate policy and strategystrategy for developmentdevelopment of NWFP; andand inadequacyinadequacy ofof institutionalinstitutional support. TheseThese callcall forfor actionaction onon many interrelated fronts.

THE WAY AHEADAHEAD

The constraints mentioned above have meant that it has not beenbeen possible forfor most countries to realiserealise the full potentialpotential and benefitsbenefits of NWFP. ThisThis inin spitespite ofof thethe factfact thatthat severalseveral investigationsinvestigations on the rolerole of NWFP in different parts of the world havehave indicated thatthat theirtheir relativerelative socio-socio­ economic contribution,contribution, inin comparisoncomparison withwith thatthat ofof timber,timber, isis significantsignificant and becoming increasinglyincreasingly important. Accordingly,Accordingly, in in the the UNCED UNCED Agenda Agenda 21 21 and ForestForest PrinciplesPrinciples (1992),(1992), NWFP have been identified as an important area requiring concerted actionaction in orderorder to capturecapture theirtheir potentialpotential forfor contributing toto economiceconomic development,development, employmentemployment andand incomeincome generation inin an environmentally sound and sustainablesustainable manner.manner. 192

IMPLICATIONS ONON FORESTRYFORESTRY EDUCATIONEDUCATION

The above discussion on the problemsproblems and potentialspotentials of NWFPNWFP provides a backcloth to reviewreview the needneed for makingmaking suitablesuitable modificationsmodifications and improvementsimprovements inin thethe systemsystem ofof forestryforestry educationeducation andand training.training. Forestry education, like other institutional aspects related toto forestry,forestry, has notnot provided adequate attention to NWFP,NWFP, especiallyespecially inin the developingdeveloping countries.

Forestry educationeducation inin thethe past was, andand in manymany casescases still is, weighed in favour ofof timbertimber management,management, timber technology and timber utilisation. TheThe multiplemultiple functionsfunctions ofof thethe forestsforests areare generallygenerally recognised,recognised, but withoutwithout muchmuch influenceinfluence onon thethe educational educational systemsystem except in thethe industrialised countries.countries. SomeSome effortsefforts havehave beenbeen mademade inin recentrecent years,years, inin some countries, to introduce courses in social forestry, agro-forestry, forestforest economics and environmentalenvironmental sciences.sciences. But, at best, NWFPNWFP receive only superficial treatmenttreatment in most developingdeveloping countries.countries. The emergingemerging importanceimportance ofof NWFPNWFP wouldwould implyimply thatthat thethe pastpast neglect cancan no longer continue and amends have to be mademade soon to meetmeet thethe newnew demands.demands.

In aspects related to inventory, conservation, expansion, management andand utilizationutilization ofof resources, whatwhat isis being applied toto wood cannot be applied straightforwardly to non-woodnon-wood products.products. Also, what is applicable toto one non-wood forest product will not,not, inin mostmost cases,cases, bebe suitable for another. Thus,Thus, developmentdevelopment ofof NWFPNWFP callscalls for diversediverse skillsskills and a multidisciplinary approach: involving agronomy,agronomy, biology,biology, ecology, entomologyentomology,, ethnobotany, farming systems,systems, food technology,technology, fibre technology, information systems, mycology,mycology, nutrition, plantplant geneticsgenetics,, phyto­phyto- chemistry, polymer chemistry, rural sociology and other disciplines hitherto not involvedinvolved inin forestry.forestry. 193

Incorporating subjects rerelatedlated toto NWFP,NWFP, in anan appropriateappropriate andand balanced manner, in forestry education and tratraining,ining, with a viewview to widenwiden the skill base of thethe profession,profession, will necessitatenecessitate adjustments in the existing systems. AlsoAlso thethe lacklack ofof adequate scientific information and knowledge on NWFP emphasisesemphasises thethe need for appropriate linkages between education and research inin thisthis importantimportant area.area.

It hashas toto bebe stressedstressed herehere that wood and non wood do notnot represent anyany sort ofof dichotomydichotomy ofof interests,interests, butbut areare complementary complementary components in an integrated whole.whole. ForestryForestry education has toto acceptaccept and promote this complementarity.complementarity.

Types and LevelsLevels of ForestryForestry EducationEducation and Training

There are differentdifferent types and levelslevels ofof forestryforestry educationeducation andand training underunder universityuniversity andand non-universitynon-university systems,systems, coveringcovering specialist,specialist, professional, technical and vocational requirements - both pre-servicepre-service and in-service. TheseThese could bebe combinedcombined inin manymany differentdifferent ways to meetmeet the specific needs of societysociety andand thethe organisation,organisation, industryindustry or enterpriseenterprise asas relevant.

Forestry education and training normally take place, depending onon its typetype and level, after primary, secondarysecondary oror higherhigher education.education. Therefore, the entry points, other pre-requisites,pre-requisites, and the duration of the different typestypes of forestry educationeducation and training, couldcould also be adjusted accordingaccording toto needs. In addition, research,research, extension and disseminationdissemination ofof informationinformation (aimed at different target groups) involveinvolve components of educationeducation andand training.

The inherent flexibility in thethe systemsystem ofof educateducationion andand trainingtraining ought to makemake itit amenableamenable toto thethe necessarynecessary adjustmentsadjustments to modifymodify itsits scope,scope, 194 nature and content.content. This, of course,course, would involveinvolve proper planningplanning andand implementation measures.measures.

Some Conceptual Aspects

Conceptually therethere are differences andand similarities between education and training, even though these terms are often usedused together and/orand/ or synonymously. synonymously.

Education provides one with thethe capacitycapacity toto learn.learn. It involvesinvolves the transfer of facts,facts, the instruction of howhow toto findfind moremore facts,facts, thethe learninglearning ofof how to useuse thoughtthought toto judgejudge factsfacts andand thethe assemblingassembling ofof thesethese intointo knowledge. TheThe termterm higherhigher educationeducation isis usedused to meanrnean education at the university or equivalentequivalent levellevel to produceproduce personnelpersonnel of managerial/managerial/ professional levellevel capablecapable of of makingmaking policy policy decisionsdecisions.. As an attribute of human resource, educationeducation is relatedrelated to expertiseexpertise and experience,experience, and thethe combined effectseffects ofof thesethese influenceinfluence attitudes.attitudes.

Training, normally, is related to specific skills cocoveringvering the technical and operationaloperational aspectsaspects withinwithin defineddefined fields.fields. Accordingly, training is imparted with a view to produce technicaltechnical and vocational personnel toto be capable of translating plans into goodsgoods andand services.services.

It is difficult, howeverhowever,, toto drawdraw aa clearclear boundaryboundary betweenbetween educationeducation and training. ThereThere isis considerableconsiderable overlapoverlap andand oneone isis notnot exclusiveexclusive ofof thethe other.other. TheThe extentextent ofof overlapoverlap willwill dependdepend toto somesome extentextent on thethe levellevel ofof technologytechnology and and thethe relatedrelated levelslevels ofof skillsskills inin thethe particularparticular fieldsfields of discipline. 195

Suggestions for Enhancing the Content of NWFP inin ForestryForestry EducationEducation andand Training

The situation of, and problems with, forestry education andand trainingtraining are quite different in different countries. Therefore,Therefore, enhancing the content of NWFP inin forestryforestry educationeducation andand trainintraining'g willwill havehave toto bebe donedone withinwithin the overall contextcontext in the country and be aimed to meet its specific needs. TheThe suggestions for different levels of educationeducation andand training,training, asas givengiven inin TableTable 1, are onlyonly indicative of thethe improvements/changes that would bebe needed,needed, considering the general situation existing in mostmost developingdeveloping countries.countries.

Some Institutional IssuesIssues

Theoretically, incorporating instructionsinstructions onon NWFP and balancingbalancing thethe content of forestryforestry educationeducation and trainingtraining shouldshould notnot posepose seriousserious problems. However, therethere areare several issues toto be addressedaddressed inin thatthat regard: who are the clientele requiring thethe servicesser/ices of personnelpersonnel trained inin NWFP?; whowho shouldshould initiateinitiate actionaction toto incorporate aa strongstrong component of NWFP inin forestry education and training?:training?; whowho should be involvedinvolved inin designing thethe needed changes?;changes?: whatwhat shouldshould precedeprecede -- developmentdevelopment ofof NWFP or education andand trainingtraining inin NWFP?.NWFP? If the importanceimportance ofof thethe rolerole and contribution ofof NWFPNWFP are recognised, then it is vitalvital toto havehave clearclear policypolicy support for itit - in thethe nationalnational forestforest policiespolicies asas wellwell asas inin educationaleducational policies. The need for considerationconsideration underunder educationeducation policypolicy isis speciallyspecially relevantrelevant forfor higher education, since it is imparted by universities, and hence outside the normal purviewpurview ofof thethe forestryforestry sector.sector.

Higher education is notnot intendedintended toto satisfysatisfy vocationalvocational needs,needs, nornor should itit place its emphasisemphasis onon the productionproduction feed stock for fillingfilling vacancies in government bureaucracies. ItIt should inculcate entrepreneurship, it it shouldshould helphelp toto develop an enquiring mind; it shouldshould 196 promote capacitycapacity ofof leadingleading opinionopinion ratherrather thanthan followingfollowing~. it. But public sector monopoly in forestryforestry often becomes the bane of innovationinnovation in allall aspects of the discipline, including forestryforestry education.education. A policy in favourfavour of involving the private sector in forestryforestry can helphelp toto changechange thethe s~uation.situation. The mission expectedexpected ofof universitiesuniversities - education, innovation, research and extension -- can become effective inin respect of forestry when there isis greater involvement of the privateprivate sector.sector. Lack of facilitiesfacilities and trained teaching staffstaff areare relatedrelated institutionalinstitutional constraints.constraints.

Another policy related issue, whichwhich follows fromfrom the neglect being meted. out to NWFP,NWFP, is the lack of analyses ofof jobsjobs and skill needs related to it,it, whichwhich wouldwould facilitatefacilitate thethe developmentdevelopment of appropriate curriculum forfor the different coursescourses oror levelslevels ofof instruction.instruction.

Issues Related to Curricula

Curriculum construction and improvement is a continuing process in developing edUcationeducation and training.training. Often it maymay bebe necessary,necessary, in thethe absence of detailsdetails ofof skillskill needsneeds (as(as isis thethe casecase withwith NWFP),NWFP), to startstart withwith aa provisional curriculum and refine it~ by stages. ThisThis isis preferable to delaying action whilewhile awaitingawaiting forfor fullfull detailsdetails toto become become ayailable. ayailable.

InIn termsterms of theirtheir naturenature andand orientation,orientation, curriculacurricula cancan bebe so constructed and structured at all levels of education and training that they can be capable of supportingsupporting policy objectives and needs. ForFor professional education, for example, curricula accordingly can can bebe generalistgeneralist vsvs specialist,specialist, conservative vsvs radical,radical, packagedpackaged vsvs open/flexible,open/flexible, ready toto use vsvs ready to innovate,innovate, oror aa mixturemixture ofof these.these.

Usually thethe undergraduateundergraduate curriculum tends to bebe more general and post graduategraduate curriculumcurriculum moremore specialised.specialised. With economic growth andand 197 technological changes .therethere is increasingincreasing need for specialisationspecialisation in allall disciplines and professions,professions, includingincluding forestry.forestry. Furthermore, there havehave been numerous attempts toto satisfysatisfy thethe needneed forfor increasinglyincreasingly complexcomplex professional skills withoutwithout compromising the broader purposes of education. In some countries, first degrees require thethe choice of an option which may range from aa socialsocial sciencescience toto an an ultra-narrow ultra-narrow specialisation. specialisation. Some institutions have attempted aa "multi-disciplinary" approach. approach. SomeSome havehave advocated what is described asas "meta-disciplinary""meta-disciplinary" education - which aimsaims to impartimpart particularparticular expertiseexpertise together with a generalgeneral knowledgeknowledge of aa problem area - thatthat ifif itit isis successfulsuccessful producesproduces isis aa specialist in terms of his expert knowledge but a generalistgeneralist within the field to which hehe appliesapplies thatthat expert knowledge. ThisThis conceptconcept hashas anan obviousobvious appealappeal inin forestry. ItIt can be argued that itit isis moremore cost-effectivecost-effective thanthan establishingestablishing multi-disciplinarymulti-disciplinary teams of experts, and that it can provide managerialmanagerial andand entrepreneurial,entrepreneurial, asas well as scientific,scientific, skills.skills.

Thus, in a four-yearfour-year undergraduate programme, itit isis possible to offeroffer general or compulsory coursescourses for allall studentsstudents duringduring thethe firstfirst andand secondsecond years (or(or upup toto four four semesters), semesters) ,with with specialised specialised programmes,programmes, sub-sub­ programmes and/orand/or tracks according to thethe optionsoptions chosenchosen byby studentsstudents during thethe remainingremaining periodperiod ofof thethe undergraduate undergraduate years.years. InIn somesome universities severalseveral differentiateddifferentiated forestryforestry study programmesprogrammes areare offeredoffered starting with the third year (or the fifth semester) - forest managementmanagement,, forestforest product technology,technology, forestryforestry planningplanning andand economics,economics, environmentalenvironmental conservation andand so on.on. InIn such cases, it is possible withoutwithout muchmuch difficultydifficulty to incorporateincorporate aa programme(s)programme(s) oror sub-programme(s)sub-programme(s) relatedrelated toto NWFP,NWFP, and to includeinclude somesome subjectssubjects relevantrelevant to NWFPNWFP as electives alongalong withwith other study programmes. TheThe curriculumcurriculum couldcould alsoalso emphasiseemphasise the educational role of researchresearch and enableenable specialisationsspecialisations based on researchresearch (e.g.(e.g. on specifics of NWFP). IncreasingIncreasing the numbernumber ofof optionsoptions inin thethe finalfinal semesters 198198 can broaden the scope and content of education to meetmeet the challenging requirementsrequirements at sectoral interfaces.interfaces.

ItIt is also possible to provideprovide flexibilityflexibility and makemake modifications as needed inin the course content (both theoretical andand practical)practical) ofof specificspecific programmes to satisfy certain requirements of particular disciplinary areas or interfaces.interfaces. For example,example, courses on forestry planning can includeinclude particular eexamplesxamples of NWFP, suchsuch asas developingdeveloping medicinalmedicinal plantsplants oror gumsgums and resins.resins. Course contents areare continuously modifiedmodified toto reflect thethe changing perceptions of the need and are meant to be adaptedadapted to locallocal situations, ethos andand culturalcultural environments.environments. But such modificationsmodifications areare subject to constraintsconstraints ofof finance,finance, time,time, teachingteaching staff,staff, backgroundbackground of students, and motivation. ThisThis alsoalso raisesraises the need that teachersteachers shouldshould be able to integrate the teaching - rather than compartmentalising the teaching by disciplines or specificspecific subjects.subjects.

Yet another possibility to widen the exposure of students (to NWFP) isis by encouraging practicalpractical workwork experienceexperience (e.g.(e.g. harvestingharvesting NWFP) and considering it as a complement to the academic curriculum.curriculum. TheseThese cancan bebe sandwiched between academic sessionssessions.. ButBut in most developing countries facilities and employer willingness for suchsuch apprenticeshipapprenticeship dodo notnot exist.exist.

It isis easy to suggestsuggest thatthat specialisationsspecialisations should be offeredoffered andand taken as post graduategraduate (Masters(Masters and PhD) programmes; but inin practicepractice itit isis not easy.easy. Actually, the mostmost seriousserious problemproblem ofof professionalprofessional forestryforestry education inin developing countriescountries is inin the fieldfield ofof postpost graduategraduate programmes, duedue to severalseveral practical problems such as lack ofof financialfinancial resources, lack of facilities, lack of qualified experts toto guide thethe specialised programmes and inadequateinadequate policypolicy support.support. Since the numbernumber ofof participants in thethe postpost graduategraduate programmesprogrammes areare small,small , itit tendstends to bebe uneconomical and this acts as a disincentive.disincentive. Emphasis,Emphasis, therefore,therefore, hashas toto 199 be on incorporating NWFPNWFP in general courses andand special programmesprogrammes up to andand includingincluding thosethose ofof professionalprofessional (under(under graduate) level, by adding to, and balancing, the curriculum content.content. ImprovedImproved teaching methods, video presentationspresentations and improved information technology havehave made itit possiblepossible to add toto thethe contentcontent ofof educationed ucation withoutwithout extendingextending itsits duration.

Addition of a wider range of subjects, such as the diverse groups of NWFPNWFP inin all its relatedrelated aspects,aspects, will broaden the naturenature ofof forestryforestry education. ThisThis willwill provideprovide thethe studentsstudents withwith betterbetter capabilitycapability forfor planningplanning and policy analysis,analysis, it will also qualify them for entry to a much widerwider rangerange of professionsprofessions thanthan hitherto.hitherto.

CONCLUSION

There are no conceptualconceptual problemsproblems inin appropriatelyappropriately incorporatingincorporating NWFP inin forestryforestry educeducationation andand trainingtraining programmesprogrammes,, adding to the multi-multi­ disciplinary contentcontent ofof forestryforestry education.education. This cancan bebe donedone throughthrough balancing the curriculum, improving the curriculum contents, encouraging practical on-the-jobon-the-job training, promoting thethe educationaleducational rolerole ofof researchresearch and so on.on. There areare,, however, practical and institutional difficulties toto bebe addressedaddressed,, relating to financial resources,resources, facilities, trained teaching staff, teaching materialsmaterials,, controls andand regulationsregulations,, institutional flexibility, motivation and incentivesincentives and policy support.support. This has toto be done in a rationally phasedphased manner.manner. 200

REFERENCES

Anon, 1990.1990. Proceedings ofof the InternationalInternational Conference on ForestryForestry Education, University ofof Tuscia, Viterbo, Italy, 17-2217-22 September 19901990..

Benveniste, G., 1969. Metadisciplinary or Interdisciplinary:Interdisciplinary: The Experience of the Professional School CommitteeCommittee at Berkeley.Berkeley. In!.Int. Dev.Dev. Rev.Rev . .1111.

Chandrasekharan, CC.,., 1993. Issues Involved in the Sustainable Development ofof NonNon-Wood-Wood ForestForest ProductsProducts.. Paper forfor thethe Expert Consultation on Non-Wood Forest Products for English-SpeakingEnglish-Speaking AfricaAfrica,, Arusha, TanzaniaTanzania,, 17-2217-22 Oct. 1993.1993.

FAOFAO,, 19721972.. ReportReport ofof the World ConsultationConsultation on ForestryForestry EducationEducation andand TrainingTraining.. FAO, Rome.

FAO, 1982. ReportReport onon CourseCourse Planning, Management andand Development at the Centre for ForestryForestry EducationEducation Development forfor the Asia and South West Pacific Regions.Regions. GCP/RAS/066(SWE),GCP jRASj066(SWEj. FAO, Rome.

FAO, 19881988.. ForestryForestry ExtensionExtension CurriculaCurricula.. ForestryForestry PaperPaper 85.85. FAO, Rome.

FAO, 19911991.. Non-WoodNon-Wood ForestForest ProductsProducts:: TheThe WayWay Ahead.Ahead. ForestryForestry Paper 97. FAO,FAO, Rome.Rome.

FAO, 1993. Development ofof Non-Wood Forest Products inin LatinLatin AmericaAmerica and the CaribbeanCaribbean.. FO:LAFC/93/12.FO:LAFCj 93j I2. PaperPaper forfor discussiondiscussion atat thethe 18th Session of thethe LatinLatin AmericanAmerican andand CaribbeanCaribbean ForestryForestry Commission, Maldonado, Uruguay,Uruguay, 6-106-10 Dec.Dec. 1993.1993. 201

Richardson, S.D., 1990. Forestry Education in the Asia Pacific. FAO/RAPA Asian Network, JuneJune 1990.1990.

Richardson, S.D.,S.D., 1991. Forestry Education inin Indonesia,Indonesia, SomeSome IssuesIssues and Options.Options. FAO/G01FAO/GOI 19911991 Study onon ManpowerManpower DevelopmentDevelopment Planning, Field Document No.No.2, 2, Jakarta.Jakarta.

TemuTemu,, A.BAB.,., 1991.1991. Long Term Plan forfor the Institute of Forestry atat the Chittagong University. 1991 UNDPUNDP/FAO:BGD/80. /FAO:BGD/80. Development of Professional Education in the ForestryForestry SectorSector ofof Bangladesh.Bangladesh. FAO, Rome.

UNESCO, 1982.1982. World Guide to HigherHigher Education,Education, UnescoUnesco Press,Press, Paris.Paris.

WHO, 1991.1991. Guidelines forfor thethe Assessment Assessment of Herbal MedicinesMedicines.. Programme on Traditional Medicines.Medicines. WHO,WHO, Geneva.Geneva. 202

APPENDIX 1414

INTEGRATING MULTIPLE LAND-USE APPROACHESAPPROACHES INTO FORESTRYFORESTRY EDUCATION WITH EMPHASISEMPHASIS ONON WAYSWAYS TO TRAIN TEACHING STAFFSTAFF AND FOCUSFOCUS ONON FIELDFIELD EXERCISESEXERCISES AND THE DEVELOPMENTDEVELOPMENT OFOF INSTRUCTIONALINSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALSMATERIALS

by

A.B. TemuTemu 11

SUMMARY

Agenda 21 of thethe EarthEarth SummitSummit (Rio(Rio dede Janeiro,Janeiro, JuneJune 1992)1992) considered education as the vehicle for providingproviding "Environmental"Environmental and ethical aawareness,wareness, vvaluesalues andand attitudes, skills and behaviour needed for sustainable development". IntegratingIntegrating multiple land-useland-use (MLU)' approaches intointo forestry education is anan appropriateappropriate responseresponse to Agenda 21. However,However, independentindependent action in forestry education may not bring aboutabout thethe desireddesired resultsresults withoutwithout complementarycomplementary actions in AgricultureAgriculture,, Animal Science and WildlifeWildlife Management,Management, given the needneed for collective responsibility of all land use disciplines inin thethe managementmanagement of the environment. EducationalEducational programmesprogrammes havehave an important role to play inin wideningwidening interdisciplinaryinterdisciplinary boundaries.boundaries.

The objectives of forestry education should be re-examinedre-examined in the light of sustainable environmentalenvironmental management.management. Curricula shouldshould bebe reviewed toto reflectreflect realreal world situations.situations. Human and otherother resourcesresources should be strengthenedstrengthened for properproper implementationimplementation ofof thethe curricula.curricula.

1 Co-ordinator, EducationEducation Programme,Programme, InternationalInternational CentreCentre for Research inin Agroforestry (ICRAF),(ICRAF), Nairobi,Nairobi, Kenya.Kenya. 203

In the short term,term, teachingteaching staffstaff cancan bebe strengthenedstrengthened throughthrough colloquia, shortshort courses,courses, researchresearch internshipsinternships and staffstaff exchangeexchange programmes. In thethe longlong term,term, considerationconsideration cancan be given to thethe establishment of postgraduate programmesprogrammes withwith MLUMLU orientation,orientation, andand MLU research fellowships.fellowships.

JointJOint effortsefforts byby universitiesuniversities and otherother institutionsinstitutions can bebe expectedexpected in the developmentdevelopment of teaching materials. Field research and development projects areare essentialessential componentscomponents ofof teachingteaching materialsmaterials and good sourcessources ofof experiencedexperienced staff.staff.

To achieve all these, educators in each country should initiateinitiate efforts towards the developmentdevelopment of aa policypolicy environmentenvironment whichwhich cancan promote strongstrong inter-disciplinary linkagelinkages,s, andand thethe integrationintegration of education,education, researchresearch and field practicepractice inin allall fieldsfield s relatedrelated toto land-use.land-use.

INTRODUCTION

Unintegrated land use approaches inin education,education, inin research and inin development activitiesactivities are partly reresponsiblesponsible forfor the currentcurrent mismanagement and eveneven abuse of landland resourcesresources world-wide.world-wide. SlashSlash and burnburn agricultureagriculture andand overgrazingovergrazing continuecontinue toto shrinkshrink forestforest areas,areas, reduce land productivity andand threatenthreaten thethe environment.environment. The Rio summit inin 1992 noted that these actions threatenthreaten thethe survivalsurvival of many lifelife forms.forms. It calledcalled forfor thethe maintenancemaintenance ofof biodiversity,biodiversity, rehabilitationrehabilitation of degraded areas and the practicepractice ofof sustainablesustainable agriculture.agriculture. •

For sustainable changeschanges toto occur in thethe managementmanagement of landland resources, therethere must bebe fundamentalfundamental changeschanges in educationeducation andand research programmesprogrammes and inin attitudes. Education programmes in allall disciplines relating to land useuse needneed to incorporateincorporate MultipleMultiple LandLand UseUse (MLU) approaches into their teaching. Forestry education has hitherto focussed onon the sustainable management of specially demarcateddemarcated forest areas. Pressures onon forestforest resourcesresources nownow demand forestry expertise at the villagevillage level,leve), toto developdevelop woodwood resources resources there.there. EnvironmentalEnvironmental 204 consciousness and the need to maintainmaintain biodiversitybiodiversITY hashas also affectedaffected traditionaltradITional forestryforestry practicespractices significantly.significantly. It followsfollows therefore, thatthat a review of thethe objectives andand contentscontents ofof forestryforestry educationeducation is appropriate andand opportune.opportune.

INTERACTION OF EDUCATION, RESEARCH ANDAND STAKEHOLDERSSTAKEHOLDERS

Educators and researchers inin forestry,forestry, (and(and II believe in many other land useuse disciplinesdisciplines especially inin developing countries)countries) tendtend toto Ignore,ignore, consciously or otherwise,otherwise, the rolesroles of stakeholdersstakeholders in shaping their programmesprogrammes andand activities.activities. EducationEducation andand researchresearch areare mutuallymutually supporting systems and itIT isis convenientconvenient to discussdiscuss thethe duoduo together.together. Linking them provides the opportunity to ensureensure that actions taken in education and researchresearch are complementary andand interactive.interactive.

Figure 1 presents an oversimplified impressionimpression of the interactions which shouldshould occuroccur betweenbetween educators,educators, researchersresearchers andand stakeholders. The latter includes all interest groups and individuals, but most especiallyespecially the farmingfarming community.community. TheThe forestryforestry professionalprofessional mustmust learn to interactinteract withwith thesethese groupsgroups andand individualsindividuals in a wayway thatthat promotes sustainablesustainable land management.management. One importantimportant questionquestion isis whether oror not the knowledge,knowledge, skills andand attitudesattitudes learnedlearned atat thethe forestry schoolschool areare adequateadequate forfor thisthis task.task. IfIf thethe answeranswer isis affirmative,affirmative, itit is wellwell andand good.good. TheThe follow-upfollow-up questionquestion would bebe "Why"Why areare landland resources and the environmentenvironment so badlybadly threatenedthreatened today?" If thethe answer to the formerformer questionquestion is notnot affirmative,affirmative, then answers toto the following questions need toto bebe processedprocessed in collaboration withWITh stakeholders: a) Do we needneed additional objectivesobjectives ofof forestryforestry education?education? b) Do the existingexisting curriculacurricula adequatelyadequately address thethe concept of sustainable land use? If not, how best can we incorporate landland use approaches into existingexisting programmes?programmes? c) What resourcesresources are neededneeded toto implementimplement thethe additionaladditional objectives and/or approaches?approaches? 205

Figure 1. InteractionInteraction among ForestryForestry Education,Education, ResearchResearch andand Stakeholders

STAKEHOLDERS

Short Extension Courses aterials

EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS RESEARCH INSTITUTIONS

40I~ • Curriculum developmentdevelopment && reviewreview 'It''-'llJ~l • Development!Development/ Review of researchresearch agendaagenda ' ",i~ • Technology teatlng.testing, adaptionadaptlon && adoptionadoption 206

THE EDUCATION AND RESEARCHRESEARCH GAPSGAPS

InIn many developing countries, lossloss ofof thethe productive capacity of land often proceedsproceeds fromfrom slashslash andand burnburn activities,activities, through farmingfarming and livestock grazing to semi-aridsemi-arid and arid conditions. This implies that incremental reductionreduction of forestforest areasareas is followed by anan almostalmost proportional rise in thethe areasareas underunder cropcrop andand livestocklivestock production.production. HoweverHowever,, thisthis doesdoes not happen because somesome agriculturalagricultural and grazinggrazing lands degrade each year and fallfall intointo semisemi aridarid andand aridarid conditions.conditions. Education and researchresearch institutions,institutions, andand activities,activities, havehave beenbeen developeddeveloped along strict disciplinary lines,lines, not taking into considerationconsideration the amountamount of land falling out ofof purepure agriculture,agriculture, forestryforestry andand animalanimal grazinggrazing intointo "transitional" uses. Figure 2 presentspresents these areas inin conceptualconceptual form,form, showing the continuous flowflow ofof landland out ofof conservationconservation and productionproduction areas.areas. TheThe "transitional"transitional"" uses must bebe addressedaddressed by both education and research institutionsinstitutions toto save themthem fromfrom degradation.degradation. ThisThis requiresrequires additional inputs intointo educationeducation programmesprogrammes andand research.research.

STAFF TRAINING ANDAND ATTITUDESATTITUDES

A close analysisanalysis ofof forestryforestry curriculacurricula aroundaround thethe worldworld showsshows that many of them havehave several of the following subjects: LandLand useuse LawLaw and Policy,Policy, LandLand useuse Planning,Planning, SustainableSustainable Land Management,Management, Soils and Water Conservation, Resource EconomicsEconomics,, Environmental Forestry, Social/CommunitySocial/ Community ForestryForestry andand Agroforestry.Agroforestry. All All thesethese subjects subjects relate relate closely to multiple landland use.use. WithWith aa littlelittle extraextra effort,effort, thethe contentscontents andand delivery of these subjects could bebe improvedimproved toto incorporateincorporate multiplemultiple land useuse concepts.concepts. However,However, other factors which can affectaffect thethe effectiveness ofof teachingteaching also need to bebe evaluated.evaluated. Firstly,Firstly, wewe needneed toto be satisfiedsatisfied that teachingteaching objectivesobjectives are beingbeing achieved.achieved. TableTable 11 presents aa six-stepsix-step listlist ofof teachingteaching objectives.objectives. While it may be easy to achieve stepssteps 11 and 2, the didacticdidactic aspects (steps 3 through 6) are harder to achieve. They should be emphasized in forestry education. 207207

FigureFigure 2.2. Education and Research Gaps

FOREST AREA

Y)

LIVESTOCK AREA AREA ARID LAND

Notes: Forest area ever shrinkingshrinking Transitional areas everever expandingexpanding 208208

Table 1. The six-step teaching objectives

STEP TEACHINGTEACHING DESCRIPTION I I OBJECTIVE I I

1 ImpartingImparting knowledge Familiarity wtthwith terms, facts, classification of subject matter,matter, abstraction, theories,e.t.c.theories,e.l.c.

2 Comprehension Ability to manipulate and present materialin own words and illustrationsillustrations

3 Application Relating knowledgeknowledge andand skills to new situations. Extrapolation of universal principles.

4 Analysis Recognizing relationships, packaging knowledge in own order.

5 Synthesis Combining elementselements of subjectsubject matter to form a whole.whole. Ability to relate and deduce

6 Evaluation Setting criteria and using them toto judge thethe qualityquality ofof materialmaterial (Modified from:from: Schoultz,1990)~choultz, 1990) 209

Secondly, in developing countriescountries manymany coursescourses areare taughttaught atat theoretical level,level, without adequateadequate presentationpresentation of locallocal casecase studies.studies. Lack of relevantrelevant publicationspublications and/orand/ or teachingteaching aidsaids andand equipmentequipment strongly affect the effectivenesseffectiveness with which a course is received.received. ThisThis delimits the practicalpractical utilizationutilization ofof thethe learnedlearned concepts.concepts. ProductionProduction andand/or/ or acquisitionacquisition ofof relevant relevant teachingteaching materialsmaterials andand equipmentequipment needneed strengtheningstrengthening.. Special attattentionention should be given to thethe developmentdevelopment andand/or/ or acquisition acquisttion ofof suitable suttable MLUMLU fieldfield trainingtraining facilities.faciltties. Contacts with research sites, fieldfield attachmentattachment ofof students,students, graduategraduate intenshipsintenships andand outreach programmesprogrammes (e(e.g..g. exhibitions, demonstrations, e.t.c.e.t.c. in collaboration with industry)industry) are goodgood examplesexamples for strengtheningstrengthening field practicum.

Thirdly, the educator'seducator's exposure to MLU concepts and his/her attitudes are quite important. We cannot expect serious re-orientationre-orientation of education programmes without substantialsubstantial changes in thethe vehiclesvehicles delivering them.them. ServingServing academic staffstaff need short training programmes inin MLUMLU approaches as proposedproposed inin TableTable 2.2.

Table 2.2. Short termterm strategystrategy forfor trainingtraining academicacademic staffstaff

! SCALE I TRAINING APPROACH LOCAL NNATIONALATIONAL REGIONAL GLOBAL AwarenessAwareness forumsforums •••*** •*** •• ***••• •**• ThemThematicatic colloquiacolloquia •••*** ••** • ShonShort coursescourses ••** •••*** ***• •• **•• Staff research •••*** •••*** **•• • Staff exexchangechange •••*** •*** •• •**• •

·***Very··Very intensive ••** Regular ** OccasionalOccasional 210

As a longlong termterm staffstaff trainingtraining strategy,strategy, the following could bebe considered: a) Research fellowshipsfellowships inin MLU subjects for serving staffstaff b) Post graduate fellowships for young staff c) Initiation and support for post graduate programmes with MLU components.components.

Other efforts such as recruitment of staff with field experience, using researchers as guest/guestl shortshort-term-term lecturers and overall improvement of thethe teachingteaching environmentenvironment (incentives,(incentives, facilities,facilities, etc.)etc.) should be made.made.

LastlyLastly,, the graduatesgraduates of forestryforestry programmesprogrammes shouldshould havehave access to the ruralrural communities.communities. All too often,often, the number of foresters trained is based on thethe needs of thethe forestforest departmentdepartment toto manage forestforest land, with no considerationconsideration of thethe needsneeds of rural communities. Forestry education plans should take thisthis into consideration. Forestry professionals should be trained inin adequate numbersnumbers to serveserve thethe ruralrural communities.communities.

THE FORESTRYFORESTRY CURRICULUM

Roche (1992) correctlycorrectly points outout thethe needneed to identifyidentify teachableteachable and researchableresearchable elements inin subjects like socialsocial andand communitycommunity forestry. Huxley (1993) cautionscautions againstagainst what what he he calls calls perpetuation of unproven hypotheses. AA number of subjectssubjects havehave gainedgained currencycurrency through internationalinternational fora and media,media, but littlelittle attentionattention hashas beenbeen paidpaid to thethe newnew principlesprinciples andand oror concepts concepts theythey represent. represent. IncorporatingIncorporating them intointo anyany degreedegree programmeprogramme requiresrequires thoroughthorough analysis.analysis. Firstly,Firstly, itit is necessary toto identifyidentify the core courses whichwhich definedefine thethe professionalprofessional forestry degree.degree. This would be the same irrespective ofof thethe location of such a degree programme,programme, andand maymay constituteconstitute about about 60% 60% toto 70% 70% ofof thethe whole programme.programme. TheThe rest of itit should bebe composedcomposed ofof regionallyregionally andand nationally relevant courses. This serves toto define the forestry degree in 211 a generic way, and may be used as an instrument for evaluating forestry curriculacurricula..

This argumentation differsdiffers from that givengiven byby RocheRoche (1992)(1992) who tried to outline a special forestry curriculum for developing countries. A professional forester,forester, like any other professional, should be recognized by the contents of the education programmeprogramme he/shehe/ she underwent,underwent, andand itit must be independent of thethe geographicalgeographical locationlocation ofof thethe programme.programme.

ICRAF'S INITIATIVEINITIATIVE ININ MLUMLU EDUCATIONEDUCATION

In 1992,1992, ICRAFICRAF established an education programme,programme, whosewhose objective isis "To strengthen the capacity of universitiesuniversities and colleges in developing and delivering multi-disciplinarymulti-disciplinary landland useuse education."education." TheThe programme uses the mechanismsmechanisms availableavailable toto educationaleducational institutionsinstitutions to supportsupport activitiesactivities suchsuch asas developmentdevelopment andand reviewreview ofof curricula, curricula, exchange of teaching staff and post graduategraduate students,students, development ofof teachingteaching materials, andand running of colloquiacolloquia andand workshops.workshops. PostPost graduate fellowships are available for students wishwishinging toto carry out their researches inin MLU subjects.subjects. SeniorSenior fellowshipsfellowships areare alsoalso availableavailable for lecturerslecturers and professors to carry outout MLUMLU research,research, and forfor researchersresearchers to contributecontribute toto educationeducation programmes.programmes. Institutions whose graduategraduate programmes havehave MLUMLU componentscomponents may may applyapply forfor equipmentequipment to support their programmes.programmes.

The above-mentioned activities are operationaloperational within AfricaAfrica through thethe AfricanAfrican NetworkNetwork forfor AgroforestryAgroforestry EducationEducation (ANAFE)(ANAFE) co­co- ordinated by the programme and supportedsupported financiallyfinancially by the SwedishSwedish International DevelopmentDevelopment AuthorityAuthority (SIDA). Plans are underwayunderway toto secure support for similar activities inin Southeast Asia and Latin America. 212

CONCLUSION

The globalglobal initiatives onon multiplemultiple landland use,use, environmentalenvironmental management and maintenance of biodiversity expand the mandates ofof land use disciplines, and especially forestry. Forestry educators should respondrespond to this by reviewing the objectives of their programmes and thethe competencies requiredrequired ofof forestryforestry professionals.professiJ;lnals.

Forestry curricula should be adapted to meetmeet the diverse needs of thethe local,local, regionalregional andand global communities.communities. The integrity of thethe forestry profession globallyglobally cancan be maintainedmaintained through a genericgeneric description ofof the corecore 'courses, courses, while adequate roomroom isis made for courses to meet regionalregional andand nationalnational objectives.objectives.

Strong links shouldshould bebe developeddeveloped betweenbetween educationeducation andand research. International Agricultural Research CentresCentres (IARCS)(IARCS) in particular, should establish mechanisms to ascertain that visible effort is made to transform theirtheir researchresearch findingsfindings intointo educationaleducational materials.materials.

Additional resources areare needed toto meet thethe costs of training of teachingteaching staffstaff inin multiplemultiple landland useuse approachesapproaches and toto developdevelop teaching materials, especially relevant case studies to support theoretical treatise.treatise. SpecialSpecial emphasis is needed on the didactic aspectsaspects of teaching objectives.objectives. 213

REFERENCES

Huxley, P.P. 1993.1993. A new looklook atat AgroforestryAgroforestry EducationEducation andand Training.Training. A paperpaper presentedpresented atat thethe International International Mini-WorkshopMini-Workshop onon Professional Education and TrainingTraining inin Agroforestry,Agroforestry, Taxco,Taxco, MexicoMexico.. 3-73-7 May,May, 1993.1993.

Roche, L. 1992.1992. The profession of forestryforestry nownow andand inin thethe yearyear 2000. 2000. Comm. For.For. Rev.Rev. Vol. 71(1)71 (1) pppp 13-18.13-18.

Schoultz, . H. V.v. 1990. Curriculum development philosophy. lDIn Granholm, H. (Ed.) Proceedings of aa regionalregional workshopworkshop onon revision and implementation of a draft syllabussyllabus for Community Forestry project planning,planning, andand Management.Management. FTP-SADCCFTP-SADCC pppp 56-60. 214

APPENDIX 15

PROFESSIONAL FORESTRYFORESTRY EDUCATIONEDUCATION WITH PRIVATE OR PUBLIC FINANCING.FINANCING. STRENGTHS, WEAKNESSES AND STANDARDS OF QUALITY

by

H. PeredoPeredol 1

SUMMARY

An historical analysis of the development of the ChileanChilean higherhigher education leads to the conclusion that the system is no longer serving the 'realreal needsneeds of thethe country.country. ItsIts administrationadministration isis inoperativeinoperative and the quality of itsits institutionsinstitutions isis veryvery variable.variable. TheThe provisionprovision of forestryforestry vocational educationeclikation within this generalgeneral framework, both with andand without statestate financialfinancial support,support, isis discusseddiscussed in terms ofof thethe strengths,strengths, weaknesses and performance quality standards. TheThe conclusionconclusion is that the system as a whole needs to bebe regulatedregulated to ensureensure its suitability,suitability, quality and appropriateappropriate size. In addition,addition, strategiesstrategies are proposed that are considered to be essentialessential if Chilean forestryforestry educationeducation isis toto meet the minimum requirementsrequirements for internationalinternational recognition.recognition.

THE HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM AS A WHOLE

Academic discussion inin Chile gradually became ideological after the ReformReform ofof thethe 1960s.1960s. Developments duringduring Allende'sAllende's popularpopular government were suddenly interrupted byby thethe comingcoming toto power of the Military Government whichwhich leadlead toto the most traumatic and important

1 Universitad Austral de Chile, Valdivia,Valdivia, Chile.Chile. 215 processes of changechange experiencedexperienced byby thethe ChileanChilean universityuniversity system.system. Deep structural and functional changes werewere introducedintroduced encompassing: a) lossloss ofof autonomyautonomy byby thethe universities,universities, with thethe virtualvirtual military occupation leading to removalremoval ofof pluralismpluralism andand freefree discussion,discussion, thethe continuous dismissaldismissal of "unsuitable""unsuitable" staff and a reduction inin enrolmentenrolment and vacancies (mainly due to the expulsion of students and the closing of universityuniversity faculties followingfollowing thethe 1973 coupcoup d'etat);d'état); b) changes in university funding, whichwhich leadlead to the introduction of university registration fees1fees' andand encouraged thethe hiring out ofof universityuniversity servicesservices and consultancies inin order to increaseincrease the proportion of totaltotal fundsfunds generated internally; andand c)c) academicacademic andand pedagogical pedagogical changes, which did not havehave anyany substantialSUbstantial influenceinfluence eithereither on the academicacademic structurestructure or in the pedagogicalpedagogical practicespractices atat thethe universities,universities, but impactedimpacted onon thethe academic suitability ofof the staff,staff, which wawass subject subject to dismissaldismissal or recruitment inin thethe basisbasis of their observanceobservance or resistance to the imposed legislation.legislation.

An educationaleducational policy toto complementcomplement thesethese administrativeadministrative measures only emerged in 1981.1981. This consisted of the following four Decrees, eacheach with with thethe forceforce of law,law, thatthat werewere adoptedadopted by thethe Legislative whichwhich atat that time comprised four members of the MilitaryMilitary Junta, all subordinate in rankrank to thethe then HeadHead ofof State.State.

1) The first Decree specified norms about existing universitiesuniversities and established procedures to simplify the creation ofof newnew ones.ones. ItIt gave universities thethe exclusive rightright to award academic titles such as Bachelor,Bachelor, Master,Master, PhDPhD and professionalprofessional titles,titles, whichwhich

Annual registration fees variedvaried with the field ofof specialization,specialization, amounting to betweenbetween 20 000 and 60 000 $ ch.ch. inin 1981.1981. TheThe annual minimumminimum wage wage in in that that year year did did not not reach reach 58 58 000000 $$ ch.,ch., which was the income of at least 50% of the adult population (National Statistics Institute,Institute, 1982).1982). 216

according toto regulations,regulations, requiredrequired aa previous Bachelor's Degree in a related disciplinediscipline (such(such as inin the case of Forestry Experts).

2) the secondsecond DecreeDecree establishedestablished norms relatedrelated toto universityuniversity funding, comprising: a)a) directdirect GovernmentGovernment funding; b) indirectindirect Government funding,funding, thethe amountamount ofof which depended on the number of students in the top 2020 000000 scores inin thethe ScholasticScholastic Aptitude Test who enrolled in the first year of each institution;institution; c) a Government loan to pay all or partpart ofof thethe registrationregistration feesfees of those students whowho appliedapplied for this support; and d) Government fundingfunding availableavailable per per coursecourse andand aimed at developing scientific and technologicaltechnological research andand the supporting universityuniversity infrastructure.infrastructure.

These three funding sources were available toto the old and new universities andand to vocationalvocational institutesinstitutes resulting from theirtheir restructuring. TheThe lastlast fundingfunding source was open to allall higherhigher education institutions.institutions.

3) the third DecreeDecree made vocational institutesinstitutes legallylegally responsibleresponsible for vocational trainingtraining leadingleading toto titlestitles thatthat did not requirerequire a Bachelor's Degree.Degree.

4) the fourth Decree established thethe technical tradetrade schools with two main objectives: meeting the country's growing demand forfor post-secondary trainingtraining and creating a system of articulationarticulation within higher education which providedprovided for thethe progressiveprogressive specialization of the studentsstudents concerned.concerned.

PRESENT STATUS OFOF THE HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM ASAS A WHOLE

Two years after the newnew legislationlegislation for higherhigher educationeducation waswas enforced, the MilitaryMilitary GovernmentGovernment redesignedredesigned the tertiary educationeducation 217 systemsystem. .. The existing eight traditionaltraditional universitiesuniversities were maintained;maintained; 1212 new derived ununiversitiesiversities were created (originating from the transformationtransformation or mergingmerging ofof thethe regionalregional centrescentres ofof somesome traditionaltraditional universities); three private universitiesuniversities were established,established, as werewere fourfour vocational institutes stemming from the traditional universities and their regionalregional centres.centres.

Between 1983 and 1987 there was a period of implementation of change, of adjustmentadjustment andand ofof reviewreview atat bothboth existingexisting andand plannedplanned institutions.institutions. From 1987,1987, there was thethe sharpestsharpest increaseincrease inin number andand quality of higher educationeducation institutionsinstitutions ever recorded in the country.country.

The original concept of vocational institutesinstitutes has beenbeen completely nullified since almost allall thosethose createdcreated inin 19811981 withwith statestate funding have nownow becomebecome universities. The samesame appliesapplies to approximately a third ofof thethe privateprivate vocationalvocational institutes.institutes. EnrolmentEnrolment toto these hashas shownshown aa studentstudent preferencepreference in the order:order: traditional universities, derivedderived universities,universities, new privateprivate universitiesuniversities and,and, last,last, vocational institutes.institutes.

Total current enrolmentenrolment inin higherhigher educationeducation is:is: 53%53% universities,universities, 16% vocationalvocational institutes and 3131% % technicaltechnical trade schools. There is now an inverted work pyramid, with a clear disproportion betweenbetween the large number of planners and supervisors and a considerably smaller number of executiveexecutive and supervised staff.staff. AsAs suchsuch itit does not complycomply withwith recognised internationalinternational standards inin this regard.regard . Even more significant isis thethe fact thatthat inin spitespite ofof allall thethe changeschanges made,made, theoreticallytheoretically aimedaimed atat enhancing the coverage of higherhigher education,education, whichwhich upup toto 19811981 waswas the monopoly ofof traditionaltraditional universities,universities, onlyonly 7%7% ofof thethe nationalnational populationpopulation with lower incomes hashas accessaccess to higherhigher education.education.

The resourcesresources committed by thethe newnew higherhigher education education legislationlegislation never materialized, so that the beneficiary institutionsinstitutions hadhad toto rely on other options toto alleviatealleviate theirtheir situation.situation. This has resulted both in academic staff devotingdevoting an increasingincreasing proportion of their time toto paid 218

consullancyconsultancy work andand toto lowlow moralemorale consequent on low wages. In turn, this hashas reducedreduced bothboth thethe qualityquality ofof educationeducation delivereddelivered and thethe standard ofof facilities availableavailable for education andand research.research. FeeFee increasesincreases have not been a solution either,either, since they have a heavy social impact especially on the lowerlower incomeincome groups.groups.

VOCATIONAL FORESTRYFORESTRY EDUCATIONEDUCATION ININ THISTHIS CONTEXTCONTEXT

Vocational forestryforestry educationeducation inin ChileChile isis nono exception toto the general trend, sincesince thethe Expert/TechnicianExpert/ Technician ratioratio is inverted inin thethe institutions with state funding. TheThe FAOFAO advocates a ratios of 1:3 forfor thethe planning levelslevels and 1:51:5 for the implementation ofof forestry management,management, and the actual ratioratio achievedachieved inin Sweden is 1:3.1:3. In Chile the professional ratio basedbased onon allall trainingtraining institutionsinstitutions isis 1:1.1.1: 1. 1.

In order to analyze objectively the behaviour of the institutions, with or without statestate funding, a pattern integrating traditional approaches used in previousprevious surveyssurveys of this kindkind waswas chosenchosen (Figure(Figure 1).1).

Figure 1.1. Components of the evaluationevaluation patternpattern

CONTEX1"CONTEXT COST PERPEA STUDENTSTUDENT SIZE OF STUDENT COMMUNITY CURRICULUM STRUCTURESTRUCTURE TEACHING STAFFSTAFF QUALITY IMPLEMENTATION INSTITUTIONAL AIMS AND BACKGROUND

COMMITMENT ENTRY INSTITUTIONAL INVOLVEMENT STUDENT CALIBRE INSTITUTIONAL INVOLVEMENT !HIGHEREDUCATION OUAUTY STUDENT CAliBRE TEATEACHINGCHING METHODSMETHODS HIGHER EDUCATION 0UAl.ITY ENTRY TESTTEST LEARNING EFFICIENCYEFfiCIENCY ••______.. ADMISSIONADMISSrON EXAMINATIONS .I I DROP-OUT RAJESRATES ""% OF GRADUATESGRADUATES '"% WITH EMPLOYMENT GRADUATE FOLLOW-UPFOlLOW·UP RESULTS Modified presentationpresentation ofof thethe originaloriginal (Ramirez(Ramirez andand Toro,Taro, 1990)1990) 219

This pattern presentspresents fourfour setssets of of indicators: indicators: context, context, takingtaking intointo account costcost perper student,student, sizesize ofof thethe studentstudent community,community, curriculumcurriculum structures, qualityquality of teaching staff,staff, implementation,implementation, institutionalinstitutional aimsaims and background;background; entry,entry, mainlymainly relatedrelated toto studentsstudents intelectualintelectual calibrecalibre (acccording to marks scored in the entry tests),tests). admission examinations, averageaverage marksmarks atat secondarysecondary school;school; commitment,commitment, including issuesissues such as institutionalinstitutional involvement,involvement, teaching methods,methods, learninglearning efficiency; andand resultsresults,, comprissingcomprissing issuesissues suchsuch as drop-out and studentstudent "mortality""mortality" rates,rates, all-roundall-round developmentdevelopment ofof students,students, ratesrates of employment ofof graduates.graduates.

Of thethe aboveabove indicators,indicators, thethe mostmost attractiveattractive forfor educationeducation evaluation expertsexperts isis the entry indicator,indicator, closelyclosely followedfollowed byby results;results; while the commitment indicator isis thethe leastleast studied. In this regard, we will analyseanalyse them followingfollowing thisthis sequence.sequence.

Entry analysis.analysis. - SelectionSelection requirementsrequirements basedbased onon thethe ScholasticScholastic Aptitude TestTest and average marks at secondary schoolschoo l areare appliedapplied byby all all state-funded institutioninstitutionss in both levelslevels ofof professionalprofessional education.education. TheThe aptitude test isis heldheld atat nationalnational levellevel andand consistsconsists ofof aa generalgeneral partpart aimed at evaluating mathematical skills, langulanguageage fluency andand knowledge ofof Chile's history and geography;geography; and aa specific specific part evaluating knowledgeknowledge ofof a selected subject, such as mathematicsmathematics or biology inin thethe casecase ofof vocational vocational forestryforestry institutes.institutes. SomeSome institutesinstitutes regard both partsparts atat thethe samesame timetime asas aa selectionselection criterion.criterion.

Universities andand vocationalvocational institutes withoutwithout statestate fundingfunding do not ask for a minimum mark inin the ScholasticScholastic AptitudeAptitude Test,Test, considering a passpass asas sufficient.sufficient. In mostmost cases,cases, thethe averageaverage marksmarks atat secondarysecondary school andand aa personalpersonal interviewinterview areare alsoalso included.included.

After 23 years of continuous evaluationevaluation ofof thethe selectionselection criteriacriteria analyzed above, it has been foundfound out that irrespectiveirrespective of the entry test score of aa candidatecandidate (the(the minimumminimum score is 450)450) hishis chancechance ofof succeeding isis over 60%.60%. ThisThis increasesincreases inin directdirect proportionproportion to the score 220

(a( a score ofof 600-700600-700 will havehave a 78%78% success rate;rate; a scorescore ofof 700-800,700-800, 90%;90%; and scoresscores overover 800,800, 100%).100%).

Results analysis.- This is anan issueissue that is hardlyhardly everever studied in the institutions analyzed, and isis particularly neglected byby state-fundedstate-funded institutions due to the higherhigher immobilityimmobility within thethe system.system. The survival and graduationgraduation ratesrates helphelp evaluateevaluate thethe teaching-learningteaching-learning processprocess andand introduce the relevantrelevant adjustments.adjustments. FollowFollow-up-up actions are eveneven moremore important since they endorse the validity of the professional profiles andand these, inin turn,turn, influenceinfluence thethe changeschanges neededneeded inin thethe curricula.curricula.

The lack of this kind of survey has seriously blurredblurred thethe profiles of the forestryforestry professionalprofessional studies inin the country and has led to anan increase need forfor retrainingretraining of forestryforestry technicians.technicians. Although thethe first evidence inin this regard was reportedreported byby thethe ForestryForestry EducationEducation Commission in 1972, andand confirmedconfirmed by FAOFAO inin 1988 with thethe establishment of training requirements for forestry management inin LatinLatin America, the training of technicias continues to be the mainly carried out by the forestryforestry experts.experts.

Context analysis.analysis. TheThe cost cost per per student student has has graduallygradually increasedincreased in all state-funded institutionsinstitutions due due to to thethe new funding policy for higherhigher education inheritedinherited fromfrom thethe MilitaryMilitary Government,Government, a policy thatthat hashas beenbeen maintained by the current Government and their are no plans for change in the near future. This means that annually there is an increasingly largelarge percentage of students applying for loansloans from thethe UniversityUniversity LoanLoan Service,Service, whichwhich isis unable to meetmeet thethe growinggrowing demand.demand. InIn somesome instances a measure thatthat has been adoptedadopted toto offset thethe lacklack of state funding isis to raiseraise tuitiontuition fees,fees, but usuallyusually this has rresultedesulted in a drop inin enrolment on thethe correspondingcorresponding courses.courses.

In all institutionsinstitutions without state funding,funding, cost per student is higher than inin state-fundedstate-funded institutions,institutions, thisthis differencedifference exceedingexceeding 40%40% inin somesome universities. StudentsStudents inin thesethese institutionsinstitutions have nono accessaccess toto university 221 loans, a fact thatthat isis ofof nono importanceimportance soso longlong asas almostalmost allall ofof themthem belong to thethe middlemiddle andand upperupper socio-economicsocio-economic groups.groups.

InI n all the institutionsinstitutions examinedexamined curriculum structure andand programmes atat undergraduateundergraduate levellevel werewere not, andand areare stillstill not,not, relatedrelated to reality;reality; encompassingencompassing too manymany unimportantunimportant subjectssubjects andand givinggiving excessiveexcessive' priority to informationinformation trasfer rather than to education.education. The curricula ofof thethe twotwo oldestoldest universities,universities, whichwhich gavegave riserise toto thethe variousvarious forestry courses inin thethe country,country, were originally adapted from European institutionsinstitutions.. Some minor isolatedisolated changes have been introduced without any significant effecteffect onon the core curriculum.curriculum. TheThe remainingremaining universities, whether derived or private,private, havehave used these as a model, introducing, in turn, otherother minorminor modifications.modifications. The subjectsubject isis consideredconsidered thethe basicbasic element of the curriculumcurriculum,, which must comply with certaincertain prerequisitesprerequisites usually established byby the teacher in charge of the corecore subject.subject. ThisThis produces a curriculumcurriculum networknetwork withwith prerequisitesprerequisites ofof veryvery little,little, if any,any, relevancerelevance,, without goals established by thethe teacher ofof thethe subjectsubject and,and, in general, characterised by badly coordinated contents with, inin mostmost cases, disconnected or fragmentaryfragmentary sequence of facts andand ideas.ideas.

These shortcomings werewere alsoalso pointedpointed outout by thethe ForestryForestry Education Commission in 1972,1972, subsequentlysubsequently reassertedreasserted by FAOFAO inin 1988 and, todaytoday,, have become not only aa ChileanChilean problem,problem, but aa characteristic ofof higher agricultural education throughout LatinLatin America.America.

Of the two institutionsinstitutions concerned about these issues,issues, only the Southern UniversityUniversity hashas a ForestryForestry EducationEducation OfficeOffice thatthat formallyformally addresses them,them, butbut,, at present, lacks a presidentpresident due to insufficientinsufficient institutional support. The topictopic hashas beenbeen addressedaddressed inin thethe ConcepciónConcepci6n and Southern universities of Chile only because of the interest shown by certain individuals. Paradoxically, the the ideaidea ofof a modernmodern andand distinctdistinct approach toto training future forestryforestry professionals is becoming increasingly important.important. 222

At the postgraduate level, only the UniversityUniversity of Chile and the Southern University of Chile have developed regular Master's courses, and these have not yetyet beenbeen totallytotally consolidated.consolidated. TheThe programmeprogramme proposed by the SouthernSouthern University,University, whichwhich hashas beenbeen keptkept unchangedunchanged since its creation, has notnot managedmanaged to acquireacquire aa permanentpermanent criticalcritical mass ofof students. On the other hand,hand, the University of Chile's course has gonegone throughthrough ups and downs, with long periods of inactivity. Both courses are based on a flexible curriculumcurriculum structure,structure, which endsends withwith thethe submission andand defence ofof a thesis. BothBoth ofof themthem suffer fromfrom thethe same shortcoming as the undergraduateundergraduate curricula, whichwhich is why they are being thoroughly revised.revised.

The traditional,traditional, derived andand private uniuniversitiesversities have all developed occasionaloccasional postgraduatepostgraduate coursescourses basedbased onon specialized oror postgraduate activities. In this regard, the national trend isis to keepkeep bothboth categories of courses concurreconcurrently,ntl y, with specspecialial emphasis on occasional activities. AccordingAccording to postgraduates projections, national demand in thethe short term will notnot bebe enoughenough toto developdevelop furtherfurther regularregular courses.courses. NorNor do other universitiesuniversities have thethe critical mass of postgraduates, oror adequate research facilities, needed to initiateinitiate them.them.

With regard to thethe qualityquality ofof teaching teaching staff,staff, therethere isis evidence,evidence, both inin LatinLatin AmericaAmerica andand nationally,nationally, thatthat therethere hashas beenbeen insufficientinsufficient qualified teachingteaching staffstaff in both instancesinstances to meet such anan upsurgeupsurge inin demand. Consequently,Consequently, itit is commoncommon to findfind recentrecent graduatesgraduates or professionals withoutwithout teaching experienceexperience in importantimportant professorialprofessorial chairs in state-fundedstate-funded institutions.institutions. Furthermore,Furthermore, at presentpresent itit is notnot essential to have a postgraduate degree to becomebecome aa universityuniversity teacher,teacher, although it is regardedregarded asas desirabledesirable when there isis competitioncompetition inin fillingfilling vacancies. All this hashas resulted in cosiderable mobilitymobility ofof teachingteaching staff,staff, particularly therethere has been a lossloss ofof academicacademic staffstaff fromfrom traditionaltraditional universitiesuniversities toto derived universities in the expectation, on oneone hand,hand, ofof higher wages and,and, on the other, of more rapid career prospects due to the relativelyrelatively lower academicacademic demandsdemands thatthat currently,currently, ,and,and perhapsperhaps temporarily, characterise thesethese institutions.institutions. 223

As a result of the difficult working conditions discusseddiscussed aboveabove the state-fundedstate-funded institutions takentaken as a whole havehave only slightlyslightly overover 50% of theirtheir staffstaff workingworking for themthem onon aa full-timefull-time basis,basis, withwith thethe minimum being 16%16% in Temuco Catholic University and the maximum being 100% in thethe PontificalPontifical CatholicCatholic UniversityUniversity of Chile.Chile. TheThe samesame variationvariation can bebe foundfound forfor thesethese institutionsinstitutions whenwhen analyzinganalyzing thethe proportion ofof full-timefull-time staffstaff with postgraduate qualifications. In this case, the average fallsfalls toto 40%.40%.

Furthermore, the teaching staffstaff in most of the institutions without state fundingfunding are almost exclusively part-time, forfor thethe mostmost partpart paid on an hourlyhourly basis.basis. In somesome casescases eveneven the HeadHead ofof DepartmentDepartment oror Principal have a part-time contract, inin which case,case, there is usually a full­full- time alternate or assistant.assistant. InI n privateprivate universities,universities, lecturelecturess are given in most casescases byby professionalsprofessionals withoutwithout teachingteaching experienceexperience and, increasingly, by professors from state-funded universities, aa commentary commentary on the administrativeadministrative laxitylaxity ofof thethe latter.latter. TheThe percentagepercentage of professorsprofessors invoinvolvedlved in posrgraduatepostgraduate teaching in privateprivate universitiesuniversities is notablynotably inferior to thatthat inin state-fundedstate-funded universities,universities, and researchresearch financedfinanced byby grants is almostalmost nonexistent.nonexistent.

When considering vocational institutes and trainingtraining schooschoolsls the situation is eveneven moremore sensitivesensitive becausebecause inin mostmost casescases teachingteaching responsability is delegated in newly graduated students oror toto students in their lastlast year ofof vocational education.education. ExceptionsExceptions areare thethe vocationalvocational institutes of OsornoOsorno andand AdolfoAdolfo Matthei,Matthei, wherewhere lectures,lectures, as inin thethe casecase of state-funded institutions, are given by forestryforestry experts.experts.

On aa nationalnational level,level, discussionsdiscussions on thisthis issueissue havehave becomebecome ideological with an emphasisemphasis on the political and economic dimension.dimension. This hashas resultedresulted inin a lossloss ofof thethe objectivityobjectivity neededneeded for suchsuch anan important issue.issue. AA furtherfurther factorfactor isis thethe administrativeadministrative slacknessslackness thatthat hashas developed inin traditionaltraditional universities,universities, aa slacknessslackness that leadlead toto professorsprofessors being allowed to performperform their functionsfunctions in moremore thanthan oneone higherhigher education institution, with consequent evident andand proven neglect of 224 their duties inin theirtheir homehome institution.institution. There is, therefore, aa conflict ofof distinct personalpersonal interestsinterests that reducesreduces still further the already low levellevel of objectivity inin discussionsdiscussions ofof educationeducation reform.reform. This lack of objectivity occurs inin the face of developments in the wider world, such as the fact thatthat some EuropeanEuropean countries are already advocating teaching quality standards and the annual ranking ofof universitiesuniversities on thethe basisbasis ofof results,results, as has happened inin thethe USA.USA. RecognitionRecognition that researchresearch isis anan integralintegral part of the universityuniversity is more than just a romantic interpretationinterpretation of the university's role according to Ortega y Gasset;Gasset; it addsadds weight, validity and prestige to universityuniversity teaching.

The abilityability toto implementimplement ofof degreedegree programmesprogrammes atat thethe traditional traditional institutionsinstitutions isis normally adequate and appropriate for thethe profession.profession. They all have sufficient physical space, well-resourced laboratories and up-to-date libraries withwith an averageaverage numbernumber ofof volumesvolumes thatthat is proportionate to the studentstudent populationpopulation theythey catercater for.for. TheyThey alsoalso havehave field facilities or experimentalexperimental plantsplants thatthat enable themthem to conductconduct, practical work in parallel with the teaching activities. Institutions whose field facilities are at somesome distancedistance fromfrom thethe teachingteaching centrecentre havehave included summer practical courses in theirtheir curriculacurricula toto supplementsupplement adequately the hours of theoretical teaching duringduring thethe academicacademic year.year.

For their part, the derived institutions havehave undertakenundertaken sizeablesizeable infrastructurelinfrastructural investmentinvestment either either with with their their ownown fundsfunds or withwith fundsfunds obtained from nationalnational competitionscompetitions (FONDEF),(FONDEF), thethe valuevalue of which hashas increased considerably over recent years. If this trend continues over the coming yearsyears therethere will be some equilibration ofof standardsstandards of degree programmes offeredoffered acrossacross allall thethe state-fundedstate-funded institutions,institutions, reflectingreflecting the renewedrenewed efforts of thethe traditionaltraditional institutionsinstitutions to ensureensure thatthat theythey attract the bestbest qualifiedqualified students.students.

It has not been possible toto form an objective picture of actualactual course implementationimplementation in institutionsinstitutions without governmentgovernment fundingfunding because of their reluctance to help in the matter and the extentextent toto whichwhich they disguise thethe facts. It would appear thatthat inin somesome cases,cases, particularlyparticularly 225 with regardregard to fieldfield facilities,facilities, resourcesresources are more theoretical than real or are onlyonly inin thethe processprocess ofof being being acquired. acquired .Laboratories Laboratories areare generallygenerally shared with other faculties and the lecture roomsrooms areare sometimessometimes spreadspread across a number of buildings,buildings, particularlyparticularly inin certaincertain universities.universities. ThisThis isis generally because thesethese institutions initiated their activities inin largelarge private mansions or in appartmentappartment buildingsbuildings thatthat werewere inadequateinadequate for university purposes.purposes. TheThe currentcurrent trendtrend of the olderolder universitiesuniversities is to concentrate their activities in one centre.centre. None of the private institutions with forestryforestry faculties was awarded a projectproject inin FONDEF'sFONDEF's last two national competitions.competitions.

Commitment analysis.analysis. Institutional involvement by studentsstudents is relatively easy and unavoidableunavoidable inin almostalmost allall state-fundedstate·funded institutions,institutions, since they usually follow the conceptconcept ofof thethe traditionaltraditional universityuniversity andand operate on a campus thus giving the students of all subjects the chance to interact. Isolated attempts have been mademade toto excessively professionalize some derivedderived institutions, but mostmost ofof them,them, andand particularly the traditional ones, continue to considerconsider thatthat science,science, artart and literature should coexist materiallymaterially andand spirituallyspiritually in in thethe samesame place.place.

In thethe case of private institutions it is difficult to find anan impartialimpartial way ofof assessingassessing how theythey performperform withwith regardsregards toto institutional involvement. TheThe greatgreat increaseincrease inin numbers of private institutionsinstitutions in higher education stems from politicalpolitical considerationsconsiderations and isis basedbased onon legal provisions to ensureensure theirtheir establishmentestablishment and growth.growth. Therefore,Therefore, therethere is neither a cultural need nor a regional demand forfor theirtheir creation,creation, nor do they obey any previouslypreviously formulated national development plan which might justify theirtheir creation.creation.

The greater institutional involvement of state·fundedstate-funded institutions has not resulted in a betterbetter andand moremore integratedintegrated trainingtraining ofof thethe futurefuture professionals. Students are increasingly heared to complain aboutabout thethe growing impersonal behaviour ofof the teachers in allall thethe institutionsinstitutions examined. Whereas inin the institutionsinstitutions withoutwithout state fundingfunding thethe 226 explanation couldcould be the prevailingprevail ing typetype of contract, in traditional or derived universitiesuniversities this isis unacceptable.unacceptable.

Teaching methods inin ChileanChilean universities,universities, as in Latin America and the world inin general,general, areare beingbeing questionedquestioned byby thosethose whowho havehave studiedstudied thisthis issue.issue. Unfortunately, a national critical mass sufficientsufficient toto provokeprovoke a deepdeep and lastinglasting changechange in thisthis regardregard hashas notnot yetyet beenbeen reached.reached. ThereThere seems to bebe two reasonsreasons forfor this.this. The first has already been mentioned and refersrefers to thethe lacklack ofof incentiveincentive andand commitmentcommitment byby thethe academicacademic staff. TheThe secondsecond is the factfact thatthat thethe youthyouth havehave gotgot usedused toto authoritarianism over the long periodperiod inin whichwhich thethe MilitaryMilitary GovernmentGovernment was in office.office. AsAs aa result,result, studentsstudents havehave lostlost theirtheir capacitycapacity toto defenddefend their rightright toto aa qualityquality ofof education education thatthat isis in lineline with thethe highhigh registration fees.fees.

Teaching, irrespectiirrespectiveve of of whetherwhether thethe institution doesdoes or doesdoes notnot recieve statestate funding,funding, is at presentpresent focused on training,training, with thethe emphasis being on the teacher and the transfer of information, instead of on the education of thethe studentstudent through impartingimparting knowledge,knowledge, skills,skills, ability and attitudes. Thus,Thus, there is a preferencepreference for irrelevantirrelevant contentscontents and the curricula are increasingly loaded withwith poorly designed courses, where more importanceimportance isis givengiven to attendanceattendance than to training itself.itself. As a result of this way ofof teaching,teaching, thethe evaluationevaluation ofof learninglearning effectivenesseffectiveness is defective and simplistic. SummativeSummative evaluation isis prefered toto formative evaluation, andand critical appraisal is hardly used. Rating is commonly based on scale, and both students and teachersteachers excludeexclude aa prioripriori rating based on targets.targets. CaseCase studiesstudies areare hardlyhardly usedused andand performanceperformance evaluation is virtually unknown.

CONCLUSIONS

The Chilean higher education national system as a whole isis the result of a political and ideologicalideological proposalsproposals enforcedenforced byby decreedecree onon aa society, the majority of whichwhich doesdoes notnot acceptaccept it.it. However,However, althoughalthough imposed thisthis does notnot meanmean thatthat it doesdoes notnot havehave to abideabide byby 227 internationally recognizedrecognized technicaltechnical criteria oror standards.standards. It lacks comparative validity with other systemssystems becausebecause its implementationimplementation is the resultresult aa politicalpolitical situationsituation which,which, althoughalthough perhapsperhaps desirabledesirable inin economic terms, should be seriouslyseriously questionedquestioned in termsterms ofof socialsocial costscosts..

Professional trainingtraining cannotcannot be regulated solely byby the laws of market supply and demand.demand. The criticalcritical sizesize ofof eacheach professionprofession needsneeds toto bebe defined,defined, thethe occupationaloccupational pyramidpyramid needsneeds toto bebe establishedestablished andand thethe perfomance quality standards need to be set according to recognizedrecognized internationalinternation.al levels. The legislation regulatingregulating all thesethese issuesissues shouldshould have operational control mechanismsmechanisms and the broadbroad andand effectiveeffective authority to rectifyrectify mistakes,mistakes, beforebefore theythey affectaffect thethe user.user.

Regarding vvocationalocational forestry educationeducation,, we can conclude that:

it isis impossibleimpossible toto establishestablish anan impartialimpartial comparisoncomparison betweenbetween the registrationregistration and furtherfurther performanceperformance ofof studentsstudents inin thesethese two systemssystems becausebecause different criteria are used in each type of institution. A single validated entry system as used forfor state-state­ funded universitiesuniversities should be recommendedrecommended for thethe higherhigher education systemsystem as a whole.whole.

even thoughthough itit is recognizedrecognized that resultsresults areare importantimportant inin evaluating institutional performance and checking whether the professional profiles and curricula areare relevant,relevant, no records were found inin anyany ofof thethe institutionsinstitutions examined.examined.

with regardregard toto thethe contextcontext issues,issues, therethere isis aa manifestmanifest difference in feesfees andand methodmethod ofof payment payment whichwhich masksmasks institutionalinstitutional performance efficiency and prevents objectiveobjective comparison.

in all thethe institutionsinstitutions analysed,analysed, deficienciesdeficiencies were foundfound relatedrelated toto curriculumcurriculum structurestructure andand programmesprogrammes atat undergraduateundergraduate levellevel and urgent revisionrevision of these byby specializedspecialized teamsteams isis needed.needed. 228 it would seemseem thatthat demanddemand forfor regularregular postgraduatepostgraduate courses will notnot increaseincrease significantlysignificantly in the short term, so the existing provision is adequate. The main need is for refresherrefresher courses or furtherfurther training.training. InI n bothboth cases,cases, it is advisableadvisable toto recruitrecruit qualified staff from institutions which do not provideprovide these kinds of courses,courses, so asas toto strengthenstrengthen and extendextend the scope andand quality of those thatthat exist.exist. it seemsseems irrelevantirrelevant toto continue with national discussion asas toto how to evaluateevaluate teaching staff quality, in all the aspects stated above, considering the evidenceevidence accumulated on this issueissue worldwide. Teaching accreditation should be established at thethe national level, based on criteria that are objectiveobjective and accepted as valid internationally.internationally. there appear to be clear differences in implementation between institutions with and without state funding. However, thethe lacklack of transpatencytransparency in in thethe whole system does not permitpermit moremore objective comparisons.comparisons. with regard to thethe commitmentcommitment issues,issues, it isis difficultdifficult toto evaluateevaluate institutional involvementinvolvement objectively. However,However, therethere isis nono doubtdoubt that as the otherother variablesvariables become graduallygradually regulatedregulated thisthis willwill become clearerclearer and,and, hence,hence, easiereasier to compare.compare. there are deficienciesdeficiencies in teachingteaching methodsmethods andand evaluationevaluation ofof learning effectiveness in all thethe institutionsinstitutions analysed,analysed, requiringrequiring urgent and thorough revision.revision.

The global conclusions of thethe presentpresent work would be:be: continuation withwith a freemarket approachapproach to thisthis subjectsubject requiresrequires the assumption of the attendant responsibilities. Free choice isis only possiblepossible with transparencytransparency andand objective,objective, updated comparisons. There should thereforetherefore bebe anan AnnualAnnual BulletinBulletin 229 reporting thethe level of compliance with standards of each higher education institution,institution, andand a a ranking of institutional performance. the controlcontrol ofof thethe formulationformulation of,of, andand compliancecompliance with,with, thethe proposed standards standards couldcould be be donedone byby reinstatingreinstating thethe Standing Commission on ForestryForestry EducationEducation thatthat waswas previouslypreviously answerable to the Board ofof Chancellors. Chancellors. 230

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LAVADOS,LAVADOS. I. 19921992.. La EducaciónEducaci6n SuperiorSuperior PrivadaPrivada chilena:chilena: unauna visiónvisi6n de conjunto.conjunto. In:In: Lavados,Lavados. H.H. && Pérsico,Persico. P.P. eds.eds. ---.---. ElEI procesoproceso de desarrollo de laslas UniversidadesUniversidades privadasprivadas enen Chile.Chile. SantiagoSantiago (Chile),(Chile). CorporaciónCorporaci6n de PromociónPromoci6n Universitaria:Universitaria: 1111 - 28

PEREDO.PEREDO, HH.. 1993.1993. Educaci6n Educación Forestal ProfesionalProfesional en UniUniversidadesversidades concon Financiamiento PúblicoPublico yy PrivadoPrivado enen Chile.Chile. FAO,FAO. Roma.Roma. 4444 p.p.

RAMIREZ.RAMIREZ, S. S. && TOROTORO,. C.C. 1990.1990. LaLa evaluaci6rievaluación de de lala calidad de lala educaci6neducación universitaria: bosquejo de un modelomodelo integral.integral. CPUCPU Estudios Sociales 65 (3): 37 -- 4343 232

APPENDIX 1616

PRIVATE SECTOR CONTRIBUTION TOTO FORESTRY TRAINING PROGRAMMESPROGRAMMES ININ FRANCEFRANCE

by

J . Bedel'Bedel'

ABSTRACT

Forestry training is one component of thethe agriculturalagricultural training system, which is currently undergoing reform. TheThe aim of this reform is to ensureensure that the trainingtraining and skills acquired inin order to exerciseexercise a profession areare better matchedmatched toto thethe requirements setset outout inin eacheach jobjob description. QualificationsQualifications maymay bebe obtainedobtained inin differentdifferent ways, including bblocklock release schemes andand furtherfurther trainingtraining courses.courses. The system allowsallows maximum flexibility and is able to adapt at all times to changing demand from thethe forestryforestry professions.profeSSions. These have changedchanged considerably over the lastlast 2020 years,years, andand thethe useuse ofof modernmodern techniquestechniques hashas createdcreated a demand for moremore highlyhighly qualifiedqualified skilledskilled workers,workers, andand technicianstechnicians inin particular. CompaniesCompanies areare contributingcontributing toto forestryforestry trainingtraining byby takingtaking inin trainees and taking an activeactive partpart inin thethe apprenticeshipapprenticeship schemesschemes thatthat the public authoritiesauthorities are trying toto promotepromote throughthrough variousvarious measures.measures. Forestry trainingtraining courses areare organorganisedised withwith thethe practice of a trade in view, and they combine generalgeneral training withwith specialisedspecialised technicaltechnical skills.skills. The forestry training system plays an active part inin thethe forestryforestry andand timber sector,sector, andand operatesoperates inin closeclose collaborationcollaboration withwith thethe employersemployers concerned.

1, Ecole National du GenieGenie Rural,Rural, desdes EauxEaux etet desdes ForêtsForets (ENGREF),(ENGREF). Montpellier, France.France. 233

Private sector contribution to forestryforestry trainingtraining programmesprogrammes in France

1. INTRODUCTION

Vocational forestry courses in France are set up as part of the agricultural training system, which runs a largelarge numbernumber ofof trainingtraining establishments rereachingaching aa widewide sectorsector ofof thethe public. ThisThis meansmeans thatthat to understandunderstand howhow forestryforestry training coursescourses operate, it isis necessarynecessary toto acquire some knowledge of the organisation and methodmethod of operation of the agricultural training systemsystem asas aa whole.whole. With the current reform of the system, the Ministry of Agriculture, whic~which acts as thethe supervisory authority, aims toto improve the response toto demand from the variousvarious professional sectors concerned andand inin particularparticular fromfrom thethe privateprivate sector,sector, which providesprovides mostmost of01 thethe qualifiedqualified postsposts available,available, especiallyespecially for skilled workers and technicians.technicians.

2. THE AGRICULTURAL TRAININGTRAINING SYSTEMSYSTEM

2.1 Qualifications and organisation ofof trainingtraining

FiveFive different levelslevels of training are available within the agricultural trainingtraining system. TheseThese rangerange fromfrom level 5 (the(the lowest,lowest, providing qualificationsqualifications forfor skilled workers)workers) toto levellevel 1 (engineers qualifying after 5 to 66 yearsyears ofof studystudy after after Baccalaureate Baccalaureate level).level). Each level of trainingtraining leadsleads to oneone oror moremore qualificationsqualifications whichwhich maymay bebe obtained inin three different waysways:

through school-based courses forfor studentsstudents inin secondarysecondary education (levels(levels 5,45,4 and 3) oror inin higherhigher educationeducation (levels(levels 22 andand 1); .

through sandwich coursescourses where where trainees, trainees, pupilspupils oror studentsstudents (depending on the levellevel of qualificationqualification sought) spend part ofof their time at school and partpart withinwithin aa professionalprofessional organisationorganisation 234

(private or semi-publicsemi-public company,company, governmentgovernment body,body, etc.). Sandwich coursescourses may may bebe of severalseveral types andand includeinclude apprenticeship schemesschemes in particular (see Section 5.5). Employers havehave anan essential partpart toto play in thesethese sandwichsandwich courses, and somesome (especially(especially thethe "Maison"Maison FamilialeFamiliale Rurale"Rurale" organisations, seesee SectionSection 2.3.2)2.3.2) useuse thisthis type ofof schemescheme systematically;systematically

further trainingtraining coursescourses areare aimedaimed atat adultsadults withwith workwork experience whowho are currentcurrentlyly empemployedloyed and wish to improveimprove their skills, and inin particular toto adapt toto newnew techniques.techniques. Government organisations and the Office National des ForêtsForets (French forestry office, seesee SectionSection 4.5) offeroffer theirtheir employeesemployees training sessions toto meet thesethese needs. Further trainingtraining courses may also bebe openopen toto adultsadults seekingseeking occupationaloccupational re-training,re-training, either through choice or becausebecause of the loss of a job,job, andand inin this case they leadlead toto aa vocationalvocational qualificationqualification (CAP(CAP oror BrevetBrevet Professionnel (1)). SomeSome ofof thesethese (the(the BrevetBrevet ProfessionnelProfessionnel in particular) can enableenable qualificationqualification holders toto qualify forfor professional statusstatus (forestry(forestry contractorcontractor for for example)example) and and / / or state aid schemesschemes such as low-interestlow-interest loans to investinvest inin equequipment.ipment.

2.2 Reform of aoriculturalagricultural trainingtraining qualificationsqualifications

The content of trainingtraining coursescourses leadingleading toto qualificationsqualifications hashas been undergoing reform since 1985. ThisThis beganbegan withwith levellevel 55 coursescourses and should reachreach completion by 19941994 with levellevel 3 qualifications. TheThe reformreform is beingbeing carriedcarried outout inin responseresponse toto new new developments developments inin agricultural andand forestryforestry technologytechnology andand toto changes changes inin thethe managementmanagement of natural resources. 235

Training courses and qualifications are being reformedreformed becausebecause new needs are arisingarising fromfrom:

mechanisation ofof agricultural and forestryforestry activities,activities, whichwhich requires site workers to learnlearn newnew skillsskills;

greater awareness of environmentalenvironmental issues,issues, which apply notnot only to nationalnational parksparks andand reserves,reserves, but to the rural environment as a whole;

the demanddemand forfor vocationalvocational qualificationsqualifications ofof aa higherhigher standardstandard and forfor careercareer advancement,advancement, and the need find solutionssolutions to reduce the failure raterate at school.school.

The essential objective of the reform isis toto achieveachieve aa betterbetter match between vocational training and professional activities.

With the implementation of a reformed system of training, it isis essential for a descriptive definition of each relevantrelevant activity, or "job description", to bebe drawndrawn up.up. If jobjob descriptionsdescriptions ofof thisthis type are nnademade available,available, trainingtraining coursescourses may be matched with an accuratelyaccurately defineddefined familyfamily ofof professional professional activities. A thorough knowledgeknowledge ofof thethe imperativesimperatives associatedassociated withwith eacheach trade, of thethe relevantrelevant type of labourlabour organisationorgilnisation and of thethe skills required at eacheach stagestage inin thethe productionproduction processprocess isis essential in defining appropriate training programmes.programmes.

The reform ofof thethe agriculturalagricultural trainingtraining systemsystem hashas twotwo further objectivesobjectives:

to ensure maximummaximum flexibility flexibility: : training training courses courses may may be be basedbased on a creditcredit system,system, especially inin thethe case ofof level 55 and 4 qualificatqualifications.ions. 10 course credits are required toto obtainobtain a qualification, and each course credit remainsremains validvalid forfor aa periodperiod 236

of upup toto 55 years. years. This systemsystem provides adults with thethe opportunity to planplan careerscareers individuallyindividually and to benefitbenefit fromfrom sandwich or blockblock releaserelease courses,courses,

to meetmeet locallocal demand: demand :The The reform reform breaksbreaks withwith previousprevious practice where a groupgroup ofof studentsstudents followedfollowed aa common,common, non-individualisednon-individual ised andand pre-setpre-set study programme over the ententireire duration of thethe coursecourse (6(6 monthsmonths to 3 years depending on the desired qualification and thethe student'sstudent's experience).experience). The qualification acquired waswas supposed toto be a guaranteeguarantee as to the acquisitionacquisition bfof a givengiven typetype ofof knowledge,knowledge, which had no particular link with a specific trade or with the skillsskills needed to exercise that trade.trade.

2.32.3 Training establishmentsestablishments

2.3.1 Status of the differentdifferent establishmentsestablishments

A greatgreat manymany establishmentsestablishments offer training inin forestryforestry activities at all the different llevels,evels, from thethe 4747 establishments running 92 different courses ofof trainingtraining

for levellevelS, 5, toto thethe 2 2establishments establishments runningrunning levellevel 1 courses (excluding those dealing with wood asas aa rawraw material and wood processing, especiallyespecially for the paperpaper pulp industry).industry).

The status ofof thesethese establishmentsestablishments variesvaries considerably:considerably:

State-run administrative establishments where thethe staff is essentially made up of governmentgovernment employeesemployees ;

Private denominational oror non-denominationalnon-denominational establishmentsestablishments (the Catholic church has beenbeen very muchmuch involvedinvolved inin thethe agricultural trainingtraining systemsystem since since it it waswas setset up in thethe 19th19th century);century) ; 237

Associations, set up by a local authority, by an individual or byby a groupgroup ofof families,families, asas inin thethe casecase ofof thethe "Maisons"Maisons FamilialesFamiliales Rurales" (see Section 2.3.2).2.3.2).

All these establishmentsestablishments provideprovide forfor and awardaward nationalnational diplomas.diplomas. TheThe quality of training isis guaranteedguaranteed by stringent procedures, despitedespite the the variedvaried status of thethe differentdifferent establishmentsestablishments.. TheThe establishments establishments allall comecome underunder MinistryMinistry of AgricultureAgriculture supervisionsupervision through twotwo differentdifferent proceduresprocedures leading to approval andand accreditationaccreditation: the approval procedure concerns thethe resources provided byby the establishment:establishment: material material facilitiesfacilities (areas(areas for practicalpractical work, workshops andand machines)machines) andand humanhuman resourcesresources (qualifications(qualifications of teaching staff).staff). the accreditation procedureprocedure concernsconcerns thethe coursecourse ofof trainingtraining itself (training(training sanctionedsanctioned byby a national diploma gained throughthrough taking upup aa Ministry-approvedMinistry-approved optionoption oror specialised specialised course).course). Accreditation is grantedgranted onon examinationexamination of of a a dossier dossier provingproving thatthat locallocal employersemployers inin thethe professionalprofessional sectorsector concernedconcerned consider that thethe coursecourse ofof trainingtraining meetsmeets a a need, need , andand thatthat they are willing to co-operate with the training establishment in various ways (by(by takingtaking inin apprenticesapprentices oror trainees,trainees, organisingorganising site visits, etc.).

The approval and accreditation procedures areare complemented by a procedureprocedure providingproviding forfor continuouscontinuous assessmentassessment of students' knowledgeknowledge and skills,skills, ofof thethe meansmeans implementedimplemented and thethe resultsresults obtainedobtained (percentage (percentage ofof studentsstudents obtainingobtaining aa qualification), and of thethe extentextent of co-operationco-operation fromfrom professional organisationsorganisations (offers of on-the-jobon-the-job training, participation ofof professionalsprofessionals inin examinationexamination panels).panels). 238

Despite their varying status, the trainingtraining establishmentsestablishments thus operate within the termsterms of a contract under flexible but solid Ministry of Agriculture supervision whichwhich is exercised throughthrough procedures which which guarantee guarantee both both quality quality andand a closeclose relationship betweenbetween the trainingtraining courses and thethe employersemployers within thethe professionalprofessional sectorsector concerned.concerned.

2.3.2 "Maisons"Maisons FamilialesFamiliales Rurales"Rurales" (MFR)(MFRl (2)(2)

A "Maison Familiale Rurale" is an association setset upup on the initiative of aa groupgroup ofof familiesfamilies toto provideprovide training.

The MFR are based on three guidingguiding principles:principles: a) They are set upup andand runrun byby families families inin association.association. Each associationassociation isis runrun by the parents of the youngyoung people in training and byby ex-students.ex-students. b) All MFR trainingtraining courses are based on thethe "sandwich"sandwich course" principle, where training sequencessequences taketake placeplace in alternation betweenbetween thethe training centre and anan employer. AsAs aa generalgeneral rulerule the companies taking partpart are run by anan ex-MFRex-MFR student and co-operate inin a "participatory" block release system, where responsibility forfor trainingtraining isis sharedshared equallyequally betweenbetween the employer, thethe training centrecentre and thethe family.family. Each party must have a sense of involvement in the content of the course,course, inin teachingteaching methodsmethods and inin the acquisition ofof the skillsskills defineddefined in thethe "job"job description" associated with the desired qualification. 239 c) Training is linked to locallocal developmentdevelopment needs,needs, and the MFR systemsystem preparesprepares young peoplepeople toto take onon technical tasks associated with the practice of aa ·tradetrade and also to take anan active part in local economic and social life.life.

The first MFR was set up inin 19351935 inin aa smallsmall ruralrural community, byby aa groupgroup of of familiesfamilies whowho werewere attemptingattempting to find a solution to the problems encountered by locallocal young peoplepeople wantingwanting toto taketake upup agriculturalagricultural trainingtraining inin a school. ThisThis explainsexplains whywhy thethe "sandwich""sandwich" systemsystem was adopted,adopted, toto enableenable youngyoung peoplepeople to carrycarry onon working on thethe familyfamily farmfarm duringduring theirtheir coursecourse ofof training.

The MFR movement has grown rapidly and hashas nownow become well established outside France,France, especiallyespecially inin the southernsouthern EuropeanEuropean countries but alsoalso inin Latin America (it isis expanding rapidly in Brazil)Brazil) and over the last few yearsyears inin AfricaAfrica (especially(especially inin thethe IvoryIvory Coast,Coast, Mali and BurkinaBurkina Faso).Faso). TheThe FrenchFrench MFRMFR AssociationAssociation has setset upup aa system system ofof active active co-operation co-operation withwith associations pursuingpursuing thethe samesame aims abroad. It aims to share the benefitsbenefits ofof experienceexperience acquiredacquired inin France,France, and cancan provideprovide grass-rootsgrass-roots associationsassociations requesting this with teachers whowho alreadyalready have a sound knowledge of thethe MFRMFR system.system. This isis aa valuablevaluable opportunity forfor many African countries where State-funded vocational agriculturalagricultural trainingtraining which is almost exclusively staffed by government employeesemployees isis encountering veryvery serious problems and doesdoes notnot extend to youngyoung peoplepeople inin ruralrural areas.areas. 240

3. RECENT CHANGESCHANGES ININ THETHE FORESTRYFORESTRY PROFESSIONSPROFESSIONS

3.1 The private sector

3.1.1 The logoinologging industryindustry (industrial(industrial timbertimber and and rounciwood)roundwoodl

Demand for industrial timbertimber (mostly (mostly fromfrom pulppulp mills)mills) is expected toto riserise considerably,considerably, and and itit is is estimated estimated that an additional quantity of somesome 1.41.4 millionmillion m3m3 will bebe requiredrequired annuallyannually over the nextnext 55 yearsyears (increase in production capacity ofof existingexisting unitsunits andand implementation of new production units).units) .

A study was carried out in 19901990 onon thethe basisbasis ofof thethe followingfollowing observationsobservations:

There have been considerable gains inin felling productivity per man-hourman·hour overover thethe lastlast 2020 years,years, andand this isis still rising. Productivity in industrialindustrial softwoodsoftwood production hashas risenrisen 5 to 10 times with the introduction of logginglogging machines,machines, andand newnew equipmentequipment is still producing furtherfurther gains.gains.

Productivity in timber extraction hashas risenrisen byby somesome 5050 % in 1515 years,years, as a resultresult ofof thethe widespreadwidespread useuse ofof cranes, improved sylvicultural techniques, the production of muchmuch longerlonger stemwoodstemwood andand technicaltechnical improvements to haulagehaulage gear.gear.

Forestry contractors are still employing largelylargely foreign and unqualified labourlabour atat the minimumminimum legal raterate ofof pay. These workersworkers areare willing to workwork underunder extremely difficult conditions, which does not encourage employers to mechanise their activitiesactivities on site. 241

Changes inin labourlabour organisation methods areare creating favourable conditions for increased mechanisation and hiring qualifiedqualified personnel.personnel.

This study,study, basedbased onon realisticrealistic assumptionsassumptions with regard toto rising industrial timbertimber production and higher labour forceforce productivity,productivity, estimatedestimated thatthat anan additional additional labourlabour force amounting toto somesome 550550 loggersloggers andand 180180 machine driversdrivers (including aboutabout 4040 for logginglogging machines) willwill bebe neededneeded eacheach year.year. The additadditionalional trainingtraining needs involved would requirerequire double thethe overall capacity ofof thethe establishmentsestablishments providingproviding trainingtraining forfor thesethese jobs.jobs. ThisThis forecast forecast hashas notnot changedchanged in spitespite ofof thethe currentcurrent forestryforestry andand timbertimber crisiscrisis inin FranceFrance,, which has merely delayed anticipated

developments.developments.

3.1.2 Management of privately held forestforest landslands

Any personperson owningowning moremore thanthan 2525 hectareshectares ofof forestforest landland is legallylegally boundbound toto drawdraw upup aa simplesimple forestforest management plan.plan. IfIf he does notnot havehave thethe requiredrequired competence, whichwhich isis usually the case,case, a forestryforestry consultant or a forestry co-operativeco-operative isis calledcalled in.in.

A forestry consultant isis usuallyusually an an engineerengineer (holding (holding a levellevel 11 qualification)qualification) whowho carriescarries outout technicaltechnical taskstasks for different clients, such asas managementmanagement plans,plans, assessments of the value of forest property, oror studiesstudies on forestryforestry andand forest-basedforest-based industries oror on thethe management of non-cultivatednon-cultivated lands.lands.

A forestryforestry co-operativeco-operative isis anan associationassociation setset upup byby thethe profession and / oror byby forestforest landland ownersowners inin orderorder toto enhanceenhance thethe useuse of forestforest resourcesresources and actact againstagainst 242242

thethe fragmentation of forestforest holdings.holdings. Co-operatives organise thethe timbertimber supplysupply offeredoffered by forestforest proprietors. TheThe aimaim isis to attract as many buyers as possible to group sales of timbertimber inin orderorder toto sell woodwood supplied by co-operative members members at at thethe bestbest possiblepossible price.price. Co-operatives dodo notnot have aa commercialcommercial rolerole only,only, as they maymay alsoalso co-ordinateco-ordinate jobjob requestsrequests (replanting,(replanting, maintenance of of young forestforest plantationsplantations etc.) by running a "job exchange" where jobsjobs offered by forest proprietors areare putput up to forestry contractors.

ForestryForestry co-operatives act act as serviceservice providersproviders having the authority to take in trainees.trainees.

3.1.3 ReforestationReforestation andand forestforest maintenancemaintenance

Reforestation isis beingbeing encouraged by funds providedprovided by the FrenchFrench governmentgovernment and administeredadministered by the Fonds Forestier NatNationalional (FFN) (2).(2), by thethe EuropeanEuropean Community (especially during during thethe 1980s),1980s). andand byby various tax relief schemes.schemes. Funds providedprovided byby thethe FFNFFN since 1945 through different schemes have proved to be particularlyparticularly effective, as they havehave resultedresulted inin thethe reforestation of several million hectareshectares ofof land.land.

The reforestation sector isis very activeactive andand involvesinvolves :

forest nurseriesnurseries forestry contractors.

The production of forest seedlings is subjectsubject to moremore and moremore stringentstringent norms.norms. Moreover, competition in this sector isis severesevere and hashas encouragedencouraged nurseriesnurseries toto rationalise andand mechanisemechanise theirtheir methodsmethods ofof productionproduction 243

in order toto cut costs. ThisThis hashas resultedresulted inin a demand forfor skilled,skilled, well-trainedwell-trained labour.labour.

Forestry contractors carrycarry out replantingreplanting work andand forest maintenance. These areare generally small businesses which rely to a large extent on sub-contracting andand piece workwork which is entrusted toto foreign,foreign, poorly-qualifiedpoorly-qualified seasonal workers. Mechanisation isis slowlyslowly making its way into thisthis sector andand equipmentequipment is improving, but forest contractors have great difficulty inin investing in machinery asas theythey have no guaranteeguarantee as to regularregular work.

3.23.2 SupervisorvSupervisory authority for activities inin the forestry and forest-basedforest-based industriesindustries

The supervisory authorityauthority for for thisthis sector is the MinistryMinistry of Agriculture, acting through variousvarious bodiesbodies atat national,national, regionalregional and departmentdepartment level.level. The technical staffstaff isis made up ofof government employees.employees. TheThe taskstasks theythey carry out are clearly defined, which means thatthat it has been possible to draw up jobjob descriptionsdescriptions and and to to set set up up courses courses preparing preparing studentsstudents forfor a first job with aa governmentgovernment body.

3.3 The Office National des ForêtsForets - ONF (3)(3)

ONF is aa publicpublic bodybody withwith anan industrial industrial andand commercialcommercial mandate, which therefore has an autonomousautonomous budgetbudget withwith accounts balanced by the salesale of products andand services.services. ItIt has two main rolesroles:

management of state forest landslands (1.78(1.78 millionmillion hectares)hectares) ; enforcement of forest regulations within municipal forest landslands and those belongingbelonging to publicpublic bodiesbodies (2.6(2.6 millionmillion hectares).hectares). 244

ONF isis thethe tenth largest public-sectorpublic-sector employeremployer inin France,France, and employs two categoriescategories ofof personnelpersonnel :

government employees (7(7 400400 including 55 700700 technicaltechnical staff)staff) permanent or temporary employeesemployees covered by privateprivate sectorsector labour lawslaws: : forest workers, loggers,loggers, fire-fightingfire-fighting personnel.personnel.

There are four categories of government employees in technitechnicalcal postsposts: : ONF technical staff,staff, forestry technicians,technicians, engineersengineers in forest and waterwater resourceresource management,management, andand GREFGREF engineersengineers (4). Technical staff and technicians are recruited throughthrough competitive examinationsexaminations andand ONFONF has set up a scheme to train first-timefirst-time employeesemployees forfor thisthis branch.branch. The other twotwo categories (engineers)(engineers) are trained byby the EcoleEcole NationalNational dudu Genie Rural Eaux et ForêtsForets -- ENGREFENGREF (5)(5) (see(see SectionSection 4.4).4.4). ONF providesprovides furtherfurther training forfor all itsits staff, includingincluding administrative personnel (see(see SectionSection 4.5).4.5) .

ONF operates as a private-sectorprivate-sector employeremployer and takestakes inin largelarge numbers of trainees, pupils andand students.students.

4. TRAINING PROGRAMMES FOR THE FORESTRY PROFESSIONS

4.1 Level 5 training programmes

There areare threethree levellevel 55 forestryforestry qualifications:qualifications : CAPACAPA (6),(6), BEPASEPA (7)(7) andand BPASPA (8).(8).

The CAPA qualificationqualification (Certificat(Certilicat d'Aptituded'Aptitude ProfessionnelleProfessionnelle Agricole) covers three specialisedspecialised forestry options. 245

The BEPA qualification (Brevet d'Etude ProfessionnelProfessionnel Agricole) covers only one specialisation, entitled "env"environmentalironmental management and protection, specialisation in forestry work".

The BPA qualification (Brevet(Brevet ProfessionnelProfessionnel Agricole) coverscovers 55 specialised forestry options, similar in title to those covered byby the CAPA.CAPA. TheThe BPABPA qualificationsqualifications are forfor thosethose intendingintending toto become self-employedself-employed contractors andand thereforetherefore includeinclude training inin businessbusiness management.management. The BPABPA is intendedintended forfor adults who havehave alreadyalready gainedgained work experience.experience.

Level 5 training programmesprogrammes are very demanding in terms 01of practical experience, experience, especially especially in in mechanisedmechanised haulagehaulage and logginglogging techniques.techniques. TheseThese cancan onlyonly bebe learntlearnt throughthrough thethe useuse of machinery run byby TrainingTraining Centres,Centres, with aa smallsmall numbernumber ofof trainees atat a timetime (the(the optimumoptimum traineetrainee // teacherteacher ratioratio isis considered to be 4 toto 22 onon oneone logginglogging machine).machine). ThisThis means that thesethese trainingtraining programmesprogrammes areare veryvery expensive expensive : apprenticeship schemes helphelp toto cut costs,costs, butbut thesethese areare limited byby variousvarious constraintsconstraints (see (see Section Section 5.5).5.5).

4.2 LeLevelvel 4 training programmesprogrammes: : BTA (9)

There is only oneone BTABTA forestryforestry qualification (Brevet dede Technicien Agricole),Agricole), whichwhich sanctionssanctions aa trainingtraining coursecourse inin forestforest management, business management andand forestry team management. This has beenbeen reformedreformed recently to taketake inin environmentaenvironmentall aspects, and was set up inin 19921992 in placeplace ofof thethe formerformer "Forestry"Forestry Production"Production" BTA.BTA. Holders 01of a BTABTA inin forestry are particularly sought after on thethe labourlabour market,market, especially byby privateprivate companies andand forestry co-operatives.co-operatives. 246

4.3 Level 3 training programmesprogrammes: : BTSA (10)(10)

There are two BTSA forestryforestry qualificationsqualifications (Brevet de Technicien SupérieurSuperieur Agricole): a) The "Forestry Production" BTSABTSA leads to both public and private sector employment.employment. b) The BTSABTSA in "market"market development,development, timber andand roundwoodroundwood option" was designed inin responseresponse toto newnew needs.needs.

4.4 LeLevelvel 22 andand 1i trainingtraining programmesprogrammes

Level 22 programmesprogrammes (technical engineering qualification for 3 or 4 years of studystudy afterafter baccalaureatebaccalaureate level)level) werewere phasedphased outout inin 19901990..

There are threethree levellevel 1 forestry diplomasdiplomas: : two ofof these,these, inin forestryforestry engineering and ruralrural engineering, are awarded by thethe "Ecole National du GenieGenie Rural, des Eaux et desdes Forèts"Forets" -- ENGREF (5),(5), thethe third (engineer(engineer inin tropicaltropical agronomy,agronomy, ruralrural forestry option) is awarded by the Ecole SupérieureSuperieure d'Agronomie TropicaleTropicale -- ESATESAT (11).(11).

4.4.1 Forestry engineering programmesprogrammes -- FIFFIF (12)(12)

Set up in 1990,1990, this course recruits studentsstudents atat BACBAC ++ 2 level,level, onon competitivecompetitive examinationexamination results.results. A fewfew students holding aa BAC ++ 44 universityuniversity degreedegree areare taken inin after examination of theirtheir dossierdossier andand anan interview.interview. The course lasts for 33 yearsyears andand includesincludes third-yearthird-year specialisation andand three three trainingtraining courses, at least one of which takes placeplace withinwithin aa company.company. 247

Four specialised optionsoptions werewere organised forfor the first cohort of students (those whowho obtainedobtained their qualification in 1993), including one business management option.

The aim of the FIFFIF programmes isis toto open up fourfour different options forfor graduatesgraduates:

University posts (recruitment of university graduates) ;

Research postsposts:: some third-year studentsstudents may apply for thethe DiplomaDiploma ofof AdvancedAdvanced Studies - DEADEA (13)(13) ; Private sector (practical(practical training course at the end of the firstfirst year,year, businessbusiness management option) Sectors other thanthan forestryforestry management,management, inin particular natural environmentenvironment engineering engineering and at tree management in areas other than forestry.forestry.

4.44.4.2.2 TrainingTraining ofof GREFGREF engineersengineers

This isis aa post-graduatepost-graduate vocationalvocational trainingtraining course.course. Some 60 students taking courses in ruralrural engineeringengineering and water and forest management (GREF) are recruitedrecruited each year atat BAC + 44 levellevel atat least,least, eithereither onon thethe strength of degree results or on passing an examination (depending on their situation on application). Recruitment is highlyhighly selective.selective. The course lasts for 27 monthsmonths andand includesincludes:

First common core yearyear Second year inin specialisedspecialised optionsoptions (VA)01A) (14).(14). The ENGREF CentreCentre inin NancyNancy runsruns a forestry optionoption VA.VA. 248

The curriculum includesincludes severalseveral practical training courses, including an on-the-jobon-the-job business course during the firstfirst year, which takestakes place as part of an "enterprise module" wwithinithin the curriculum.curriculum.

4.4.3 Training of engineers in Tropical AgronomyAeronomy

This isis alsoalso aa postgraduate postgraduate vocationalvocational trainingtraining coursecourse organised by the EcoleEcole SupérieureSuperieure d'Agronomie TropicaleTropicale (ESAT) in Montpellier. StudentsStudents are recruited at BAC + 44 oror 55 level. ESATESAT is an international establishment and takestakes in some twenty foreign studentsstudents aa yearyear (half(half thethe annualannual numbers) fromfrom developingdeveloping countries andand especiallyespecially Africa.Africa. The course lasts for 2 yearsyears withwith aa firstfirst commoncommon corecore yearyear including a 6 month practicalpractical course,course, andand aa specialisedspecialised optionoption in thethe secondsecond year,year, withwith anotheranother 6-month6-month practicalpractical course.course. Several specialised optionsoptions are available, including RuralRural Forestry for tropical regions.regions.

Teaching for for thisthis option is run onon aa modulemodule systemsystem andand includesincludes an agro-forestry module and an annual group coursecourse for allall studentsstudents inin oneone yearyear whichwhich takestakes placeplace inin aa tropicaltropical country. This layslays emphasisemphasis on woodlandwoodland managementmanagement byby ruralrural communities, on on a a systems systems analysisanalysis (agricultural(agricultural systems applied to individualindividual plots,plots, production systems applied in production units and agrarianagrarian systemssystems within the communitycommunity and the area it exploits), and on the relationship between rural community practice (agricultural, pastoral and forestry) and tree management (in(in stands, isolatedisolated trees,trees, individual oror groupgroup management).

These courses generallygenerally taketake place within aa tropical country, inin association with a project or research organisation or more rarely with private sector production 249

company (forestry contractor, sawmill etc.) oror aa serviceservice provider (consultancy).

4.5 Training of ONF personnelpersonnel

ONF (the National forestry office) functions asas aa veryvery largelarge company (see(see Section 3.3) which lays particular emphasisemphasis on achieving maximummaximum performanceperformance and productivity, andand on training forfor its its personnel. personnel. In In 1992, 1992. ONF ONF devoted devoted 7.27.2 %% of itsits totaltotal wage and salary bill (108(108 734 KF or 20 million US$)US$) to personnel training.training, placing the organisation in first place among the leadinglead ing public-sector companies. AA specialspecial trainingtraining centrecentre was set up to thisthis purpose,purpose. thethe CentreCentre NationalNational de FormationFormation ForForestièreestiere - CNFF (15) in Nancy.Nancy.

The CNFF provides several forms of trainingtraining: a} "First job" training forfor newlynewly recruitedrecruited personnel.personnel. This varies according toto thethe levellevel of knowledge ofof employees.employees. b) Vocational re-trainingre-training coursescourses forfor empemployeesloyees movingmoving toto aa different job category oror takingtaking onon newnew responsibilitiesresponsibilities withinwithin the same category. c) Courses to prepare employeesemployees for internal competitive examinations. d) Further training courses whichwhich are availableavailable by right toto allall ONFONF employees. TheseThese aim to improveimprove knowledgeknowledge and know-howknow-how among staff and therefore to increase productivity.productivity, by providing access to new means (especially information technology which has spread throughout allall levelslevels of activityactivity andand responsibility).responsibility). Training sessions areare shortshort (rarely more than a week) to avoidavoid disrupting the normalnormal coursecourse of operations within eacheach department. Further training courses are largely taught byby 250

auxiliary staff (248(248 inin 1992,1992, includingincluding 111111 ONFONF teachers)teachers) some ofof whomwhom areare businessbusiness managers managers (especially (especially fromfrom thethe service sector).sector). InIn 1992,1992, courses for technicaltechnical staffstaff alonealone amounted toto 38 665665 UFUF (16)(16) oror "training"training units"units" (number(number of sessions multiplied by the numbernumber ofof trainees),trainees), inin whichwhich 55 635635 employees took part. ThisThis givesgives anan average of 6.9 training units per employee. TheThe trainingtraining unitsunits areare classified under four main headings : forestry techniquestechniques (53(53 %% of thethe total),total), humanhuman relations (13(13 °/0),%). informationinformation technologytechnology (16 %), management (6 %) and others (12%).(12%).

5. PRIVATE SECTOR CONTRIBUTION TOTO TRAINING IN THETHE FORESTRY PROFESSIONS

Most of thethe precedingpreceding chapterschapters havehave mentionedmentioned the role ofof priprivatevate businesses inin training programmes forfor the forestryforestry professions.

Private businesses actact inin the following fields, eithereither through professional organisations oror in their own capacity

reform of qualificationsqualifications andand trainingtraining; setting up trainingtraining coursescourses; fundingfunding ofof equipmentequipment andand trainingtraining; teachingteaching inin trainingtraining coursescourses taking inin traineestrainees oror apprentices.apprentices.

5.1 Reform of qualifications and training

The various actors inin thethe privateprivate forestryforestry andand forest-basedforest-based industrialindustrial sector are representedrepresented by professionalprofessional organisationsorganisations acting on theirtheir behalfbehalf inin on-goingon-going discussionsdiscussions withwith thethe publicpublic authorities, to make problems known, to defend the interests of the professions, and toto seekseek supportsupport andand financialfinancial assistance.assistance. 251

The Ministry of Agriculture has brought these organisations into the agriculturalagricultural qualificationsqualifications reform processprocess (begun(begun inin 1985),1985), and more generally into the definition of a training policy aiming to promote thethe integrationintegration ofof qualifiedqualified peoplepeople intointo professionalprofessional sectors. As wewe mentionedmentioned in Section 2.2,2.2, professional associations are co-operating closelyclosely on the development of job descriptions.

5.2 Creation of new courses of training within a regionregion

As we mentionedmentioned inin SectionSection 2.3.1,2.3.1, any trainingtraining establishmentestablishment wishing toto set upup aa newnew coursecourse (BTA(BTA forfor example)example) has to receive accreditation.accreditation. This isis requestedrequested by drawingdrawing upup aa dossier provingproving thatthat the newnew course meets local demand or at leastleast providesprovides goodgood locallocal employmentemployment prospectsprospects forfor those who take the course. TheThe dossierdossier thereforetherefore hashas to bebe drawn up in consultation with the employers in the relevant sector. Training cancan thus be adaptedadapted to meetmeet anyany locallocal demand from thethe professionprofession: : in the UC (17)(17) or credit systemsystem described in SectionSection 2.2, three of the 10 course credits whichwhich are essential toto obtain the qualification are of a regional nature.

This approach helps to consolidateconsolidate the unityunity ofof aa professionalprofessional sector which does have some difficulty in organisingorganising itself as such, since it includes only a small proportion of all forest land owners playing an activeactive rolerole inin forestryforestry production. production. The sectorsector is veryvery keenkeen toto achieveachieve fullfull recognition onon account ofof its economic and productive capacity, in the samesame way asas thethe agricuagriculturalltural sector, which still providesprovides the frameframe ofof reference,reference, achieved recognition inin earlierearlier days.days.

In parallel, thisthis problematical situation isis reflected and reinforced by the underlyingunderlying precepts and thethe workingsworkings ofof anan administrative authority staffed by civicivill servants whowho are forfor the most part recruitedrecruited from corporativecorporative technicaltechnical institutions,institutions, andand 252 who see no reason to seek interlocutors other thanthan thosethose whowho already benefit from its fundingfunding arrangementsarrangements (which are alsoalso frequently basedbased onon thethe logic ofof productionproduction alone),alone). although these beneficiaries are are notnot very well served as theythey lacklack cohesion and lobbyinglobbying power.power.

Possible lines of study and actionaction:

The fundamental problemproblem in attempting to tackle very diverse forms of reasoning isis to identify appropriate itemsitems of information and to present these to the different categories of forest owners :information on the current economiceconomic situationsituation and economiceconomic forecasts if possible, as well as informationinformation on thethe socialsocial andand environmental issues, enabling forest land owners to gain more or betterbetter knowledge,knowledge, whateverwhatever theirtheir level,level, of the rangerange ofof costscosts and availableavailable benefits on whichwhich theirtheir decisionsdecisions onon forestforest management - or non-managementnon-management -- areare based.based.

This identificationidentification processprocess mustmust bebe undertakenundertaken toto avoidavoid "short-term" decisiondecision making and also to ensure that the sum of rationalratlonal individualindividual choiceschoices doesdoes notnot produce a globallyglobally aberrant course of action, or at leastleast one which isis regarded asas such by society asas aa whole.whole. ThisThiS impliesimplies thatthat a a coursecourse ofof actionaction basedbased onon thethe logiclogic of '"demand"demand" shouldshould bebe adoPled,adopted, which; wouldwould requirerequire: :

much greater detailcletail and accuracyaccuracy thanthan isis currentlycurrently provided for in classificationsclassifications and marketmarket surveys of the different requirements for training, information and advisory services;services ;

following on fromfrom this,this, actionsactions shouldshould bebe targetedtargeted more accuratelyaccurately whilewhile managementmanagement options andand technicaltechnical/ra trainingining coursescourses shouldshould be be betterbettw matchedmatched toto needs, more flexible and more diversifieddiversified; ; 253

actions undertakenundertaken shouldshould provideprovide all the actorsactors involved at all levelslevels with thethe opportunilyopportunity toto enhanceenhance and improve upon the content ofof the social and civic debate on the function, the role and thethe managementmanagement of forest landslands; ;

more detailed research should be undertakenundertaken on thethe impact of development policies and actions implemented upup toto thethe present.present.

The organisations involved inin aa course of action of thisthis kindkind would naturallynaturally have to understandunderstand how far they fallfall shortshort ofof requirementsrequirements and how far their rolerole needsneeds to change,change, andand thethe means to achieve thisthis shouldshould bebe mademade available.available.

ThisThis of courses brings in thethe problem,problem, which wewe shallshall gogo intointo later, of howhow toto seek seek wider-ranging wider-ranging andand moremore autonomous autonomous sousourcesrces of finance for thethe developmentdevelopment ofof thesethese means.means.

An exceptional creditcred it facilityfacility waswas releasedreleased in 19921992 to promotepromote apprenticeship schemes in forestry training centres (setting up of new coursescourses in ecoeconomicnomic or regional secsectorstors needing skilled workers;workers ; assessment of knowledge and skills acquired on the job;job ; trainingtraining forfor employersemployers ofof apprentices).apprentices).

Apprenticeship schemesschemes are are aa very efficientefficient meansmeans ofof promoting employment,employment, asas ex-apprenticesex-apprentices whowho becomebecome business managers are generally willing to take on apprenticesapprentices themselves. 254

6. OVERALL CONCLUSIONS

The agricultural training sector (and forestry training in particular) isis doingdoing well. well. NewNew training training programmes programmes werewere setset up in 1991 and 19921992 inin response toto heightenedheightened publicpublic awareness of environmental issuesissues: : thethe newnew courses includeinclude 27 BEPA courses on ruralrural managementmanagement and maintenance,maintenance, 7 BTA courses in fauna management and 2 BTSABTSA courses in the management andand protectionprotection ofof the natural environment. TheThe BTA courses in industrial forestry managementmanagement and landscapelandscape design were expanded by the provisionprovision of 2424 newnew options,options, while 35 new optionsoptions were added to thethe BEPABEPA coursescourses inin forestry.

Forestry training has changed considerably overover thethe lastlast ten years:years : the system essentiallyessentially aims to provideprovide vocationalvocational training and is organisedorganised in suchsuch asas wayway asas toto combinecombine general education of constantly increasing quality with the acquisition ofof specialisedspecialised knowledgeknowledge andand skillsskills toto enhanceenhance professional practicepractice asas farfar as possible. TheThe forestryforestry training system is supported by steadilysteadily increasing meansmeans and modern teaching methods to ensureensure thatthat all the requirementsrequirements ofof tomorrowtomorrow's's employersemployers areare met.met.

Operating inin closeclose alliancealliance withwith theirtheir environmentenvironment andand providing the meansmeans to understandunderstand it,it, forestryforestry trainingtraining establishments have openedopened upup numerous possibilities for further training, for participation in community lifelife and forfor promoting locallocal development. They seekseek the active participation of employers, involving them in training programmes, promotingpromoting the advantagesadvantages ofof apprenticeshipapprenticeship schemes and organisingorganising seminarsseminars andand conferences.conferences. The contractual system operatingoperating betweenbetween trainingtraining establishmentsestablishments and thethe administrativeadministrative authoritiesauthorities ensuresensures consistentconsistent highhigh quality inin the training provided, andand while leavingleaving establishments 255 with scopescope forfor initiative,initiative, itit alsoalso compelscompels themthem toto sustainedsustained andand enterprising efforts to secure funds. Forestry trainingtraining establishments activelyactively contribute contribute to to thethe vigourvigour of thethe professional forestry sector,sector, byby providing training resourcesresources but also byby playingplaying anan activeactive partpart inin locallocal development. development. Established throughout the country withinwithin the rapidlyrapidly changingchanging rural environment, they. are participating activeactivelyly in a processprocess which isis leadingleading toto newnew formsforms ofof rural rural and and environmental environmental resource management.management. 256

List of abbreviations

CAP Certificat d'Aptituded'Aptitude ProfessionnelleProfessionnelie -- Certificate ofof vocational aptitude BrevetBrevet ProfessionalProfessional - CertificateCertificate ofof vocational aptitude (technical)(technical) FFN Fonds Forestier National - National Forestry Fund ONF Office National des ForetsForks -- NationalNational ForestryForestry OfficeOffice GREF Genie Rural Eaux etet ForetsForks -- RuralRural Engineering,Engineering, Water and ForestForest ManagementManagement ENGREF Ecole National du Genie Rural, des Eaux et des ForetsForêts CAPA Certificat d'Aptitude ProfessionnelleProfessionnelie AgricoleAgricole BEPA BreBrevetvet d'Etude ProfessionnelProfessionnel Agricole BPA BreBrevetvet Professionnel Agricole BTA Brevet de TechniciTechnicienen Agricole BTSA Brevet de Technicien SuperieurSupérieur Agricole ESAT Ecole SuperieureSupérieure d'Agronomie Tropicale FIF FormationForrnationss d'ingenieurd'Ingénieur Forestier - Forestry engineering courses DEA DiplomeDiplôme d'Etudes Approfondies - Diploma of Advanced Studies VA Voie d'approfondissement - specialised option in 2nd.2nd. year postgraduate course CNFF Centre National de FormationFormation ForestièreForestiere -- TrainingTraining establishment run by ONFONF forfor itsits employees.employees. UF Unite de Formation - training course unitunit UC UnitéUnite Capitalisable - course credit 257

APPENDIX 1717

TRAINING FOR PRIVATE FORESTFOREST OWNERS: OPTIONS, PROSPECTS AND IMPLICATIONSIMPLICATIONS FOR VOCATIONAL TRAININGTRAINING

by

C. Giry1Giry'

SUMMARY

Private forestsforests inin France are rich and diverse,diverse, but their variedvaried nature means the resource is notnot readilyreadily exploitable.exploitable. TheThe sociologicalsociological pattern of forest ownership is also extremelyextremely varied, asas aa result it is difficult toto bringbring thethe interestsinterests ofof differentdifferent categoriescategories ofof ownersowners together,together, despite rapidrapid expansionexpansion ofof the the co-operative co-operative movement.movement. TrainingTraining andand development programmesprogrammes in in FranceFrance are are organisedorganised intointo a a layered layered systemsystem of differentdifferent structures,structures, but comparisoncomparison withwith variousvarious examplesexamples fromfrom abroad clearlyclearly showsshows thatthat thethe FrenchFrench forestforest developmentdevelopment andand trainingtraining system is not alwaysalways adequate inin view of bothboth thethe largelarge numbernumber ofof forest ownersowners andand thethe scalescale ofof forestforest resourcesresources ......

What areare thethe reasonsreasons forfor thesethese deficiencies?deficiencies ? How can thethe situationsituation be improvedimproved? ? How can vocational training be of help ??

, Head of Training Department, Institutlnstitut pour Iele DeveloppementDéveloppement ForestierForestier,, Paris, France.France. 258

The scene presented by today's forest industryindustry isis suchsuch thatthat powerful tooltoolss are required to analyseanalyse and discuss the rangerange of ideasid eas and thoughts that havehave to bebe takentaken intointo account.account. TheThe "productive"productive approach needsneeds to bebe extended and diversified,diversified, but this is hampered by twotwo majormajor difficultiesdifficulties:: the systemsystem isis basedbased on thethe logiclogic ofof technicaltechnical "supply" - generally toto productive activitactivitiesies - andand thisthis optoptionion is central toto a numbernumber ofof institutionalinstitutional issuesissues involvinginvolving professionalprofessional representation.representation. Nevertheless, several lines of thought andand actionaction remainremain open.open.

The training and development system coucouldld be improvedimproved uponupon in termsterms ofof bothboth qualityquality andand quantity.quantity. TheThe fundingfunding systemsystem forfor furtherfurther vocational training operatesoperates by specificspecific professionalprofessional sector andand failsfails to includes the majority ofof forestforest owners.owners. FundingFunding sources should becomebecome more extensiveextensive and moremore diversified.diversified.

INTRODUCTION

A recentrecent contribution toto thethe WorldWorld ForestryForestry Congress'Congress' outlinedoutlined the generalgeneral characteristicscharacteristics of privateprivate forestforest ownershipownership inin FranceFrance andand discusseddiscussed thethe keykey lessonslessons learnt fromfrom severalseveral innovatiinnovativeve forestforest awareness andand trainingtraining programmes specspecificallyifically organorganisedised for forest owners in France, in the UnitedUnited States,States, in Sweden and in Quebec.Quebec.

ThThereere is nownow fairlyfairly goodgood understandingunderstanding of thethe conditionsconditions necessary forfor the success of suchsuch operations,operations, in particularparticular the bestbest means of implementationimplementation and thethe foundationfoundation principlesprinciples thatthat ensureensure maximum performance. However,However, despitedespite this knowledge ofof whatwhat needsneeds toto be done and how best to do it,it, therethere isis stillstill much that needs toto be improved upon inin France,France, especiallyespecially when we looklook atat whatwhat hashas beenbeen attempted abroad.

'''La"La formationformation des propriétairesproprietaires forestiersforestiers sylviculteurs",sylviculteurs", M.M. Neveux,Neveux, Minutes of thethe WorldWorld ForestryForestry Congress, Congress ,1991 1991 259

What is obstructingobstructing upup thethe applicationapplication ofof soundsound principlesprinciples? ? Who or whatwhat isis preventingpreventing thethe conditionsconditions forfor successsuccess fromfrom beingbeing brought aboutabout? ? WhatWhat areare thethe factorsfactors thatthat cancan changechange thethe situationsituation? ? What are the various possibilities for vocational trainingtraining? ?

These questions form the basis of thisthis contribution.contribution. First it is necessary toto review and place into contextcontext thethe currentcurrent trainingtraining andand forest awareness system, following which thethe weaknessesweaknesses andand materialmaterial difficulties willwill bebe analysed as will the larger question of the mechanisms and factors that underlieunderlie oror perpetuateperpetuate them.them.

Our approach rests not on pessimism,pessimism, but on thethe convictionconviction that a better understanding ofof thethe hindranceshindrances and handicapshandicaps willwill enableenable us to avoid the temptation of falling back onon stockstock phrasesphrases andand piouspious hopes, thus enabling us to pinpointpinpoint wherewhere effectiveeffective actionaction cancan begin.begin.

PATTERNS OF FOREST OWNERSHIP IN FRANCE

> Forests in France are rich and diversified, butbut theirtheir variedvaried nature means thatthat resources cancan bebe difficultdifficult to exploit.

First, some keykey statistics2statistics" :

Forests covercover 2828 `)/0 % of FranceFrance (i.e.(I.e. 1/4 ofof totaltotal EECEEC forestforest land) wwithith 65 % of thisthis beingbeing underunder broadleavedbroadleaved trees and 35 % underunder conifers.conifers. The forested area has increasedincreased by 4040 %% over the pastpast 8080 years,years, largelylargely becausebecause ofof agriculturalagricultural decline.decline. Annual production iiss 2828 millionmillion cubiccubic metres.metres. Imports .account for 30 % of timbertimber consumption,consumption, withwith 8383 %% ofof thisthis timbertimber tradetrade

2 2 The followingfollowing figures and conclusionsconclusions have been given by M.M. Normandin (Station d'Economie et dede SociologieSociologie rurale,rurale, ENGREFENGREF Nancy). 260

deficit being attributable toto thethe furniture,furniture, paper and pulppulp industries. The deficit appears toto be due toto :

The nature of the forest resource, whichwhich is not only biologically didiverseverse but also extremely heterogenous, is one that presents problems in matching products to the demands of the existing processing industry, an industry that performs poorlypoorly in in relationrelation to internationalinternational competion.

Resource management and roundwoodroundwood marketingmarketing structures.structures.

Private forestsforests cover some 10 million hectares or almost 3/4 (71%)(71 %) of total forest area of France.France. The other 29%29% belong toto thethe statestate and to local authorities and areare managedmanaged byby thethe ONFONF -- OfficeOffice NationalNational des Fore'tsForets (National forestry office).office).

Private forestsforests accountaccount for 2/3 of timbertimber stocks (with broadleaved trees,trees, especially oaks,oaks, predominating), forfor 3/4 ofof annualannual increment and for 72 % of thethe totaltotal volumevolume ofof timbertimber harvested.harvested. SinceSince 1945 there has been considerable expansion in the areaarea ofof privatelyprivately owned forests, of which halfhalf isis duedue toto natural natural invasion. invasion. Coniferous forests have expanded by somesome 50%50% perper yearyear overover twelvetwelve years,years, while the area of productive forestforest hashas increasedincreased byby 3030 000000 hectares per year.

> The varied pattern of privateprivate forestforest ownershipownership inin FranceFrance

Here again we shall give only aa fewfew keykey statisticsstatistics (for more details, see appended tables).tables) . In particular, of thethe 3.83.8 millionmillion forest owners (the(the highesthighest percentagepercentage inin Europe)Europe) :

89 %, or 1 300 000 owners, own 11/4/4 ofof forestedforested landland (with(with anan average area of just over oneone hectarehectare perper property)property) ; 11 %, oror 400 000000 owners,owners, own the rest (with(with anan average area of 19 hectares per property). 261

Briefly, thethe dominant features are as follows:follows

Forested areasareas areare very unevenly distributed and are highlyhighly fragmented (3(3 parcels per ownerowner onon average).average). Ownership units,units, acquired through inheritance in 2/3 ofof cases,cases, are nearly always the same as managementmanagement units.units. ThisThis is in distinct contrast to agriculturalagricultural patterns and is something of aa handicap where resource exploitation and suppsupplyly toto induindustrystry are concerned (the(the linkage of suppliersupplier to manufacturer is very poorpoor,, inin contrast to thethe situationsituation inin thethe USAUSA oror Scandinavia).Scandinavia). Though forest ownership is distributed throughout the socialsocial scale, farmersfarmers and retired people predominate whilewhile foresters who derivederive a regularregular incomeincome from forestryforestry are few andand farfar betweenbetween.. The population of forest owners tends to be elderlyelderly and ruralrural (90 %°X) of of forest forest lands lands are are managed managed by by ownersowners ofof more than 50 years of ageage; ; 80 % of these live in the department where their forests are situatedsituated; ; 73 % livelive in communes of lessless than 55000 000 inhabitants)inhabitants) ; 86 % of those ownowninging more than 1 hectare also own other land.

The characteristics of fores'tforest managementmanagement andand exploitation stem from the followingfollowing factorsfactors:

The "intergenerational" nature of management options predominates andand usually follows a patrimonial pattern (preserve andand passpass onon toto thethe nextnext generation),generation), rather than a simple production pattern (of short-term supplysupply and income).income). We have little reliable informationinforrnation on managementmanagement means,means, butbut we do knowknow thatthat familyfamily labourlabour isis oftenoften usedused forfor thethe smallersmaller tasks while the largerlarger propertiesproperties employemploy paidpaid staff.staff. With regard to managementmanagement activactivities,ities, therethere appearsappears toto be a strong link between work load and propertyproperty size,size, although thisthis isis not systematic. 262

Owner categories are notnot easilyeasily groupedgrouped togethertogether despitedespite thethe rapidrapid expansion of co-operativeco-operative organisations

Forest owners associations (accounting forfor only 500500 000000 hectares) have been a relative failure,failure, probablyprobably because of the strong attachment to family land ownership (individual heritage), and to thethe factfact thatthat forest revenuesrevenues areare not obviouslyobviously remunerative.

By contrast, there has beenbeen aa considerableconsiderable increase,increase, notablynotably between 1985 andand 1991, inin thethe activitiesactivities ofof co-operativesco-operatives and service-providing associations ofof varyingvarying legallegal statusstatus that aimaim to provideprovide managementmanagement and marketingmarketing assistanceassistance toto ownersowners (though without joint property management).These 80 organisations, whichwhich employ some 500 people,people, bringbring together widely dispersed supplies ofof timber to matchmatch thethe particularparticular needs of industry.industry. TheyThey offeroffer a widewide rangerange ofof servicesservices (management, forestry supplies, sale of timbertimber whether felled or not) to owners of some 1.3 million hectares ofof forestforest land.land. Their main customers areare the large forest properties (33 100 to be precise, 9090 % of whichwhich areare propertiesproperties of moremore thanthan 2525 hectares), and they mainly operate as low-cost service-providers, with the help of variousvarious subsidies andand indirectindirect financial assistance.assistance.

In 1991, thesethese coco-operatives-operatives soldsold aboutabout 2020% % of privately owned timbertimber (other(other salessales were carried out byby forestforest expertsexperts andand contractors), and now rank second only toto the ONF in timber sales.

Trade union associations (17 regional unions andand 76 departmental forest owners' unions) fulfil theirtheir traditionaltraditional role of representing and protecting thethe interestsinterests ofof thethe profession,profession, butbut theythey maymay alsoalso playplay aa partpart inin certaincertain activitiesactivities suchsuch asas roadroad construction to linklink upup fragmentedfragmented forestforest areas.areas. 263

Finally, aa number of owners'owners' associationsassociations havehave beenbeen setset up.up. Their aims tend to bebe technicaltechnical andand theythey mademade considerableconsiderable contributions both to thethe launchinglaunching of thethe forest developmentdevelopment process duringduring the 1960st 960s andand toto the setting up of the forestry training and awareness programmes that we shall be describing belowbelow.. The 7777 CETEF-CETEF- CentresCentres d'Etudesd'Etudes desdes TechniquesTechniques ForestieresForestiéres (training centres in forestry techniques) and GVFGVF - Groupements de VulgarisationVulgarisation ForestièreForestiere (forestry(forestry extensionextension associations) now involveinvolve about 11 000000 people.people.

> Layered system ofof different training andand developmentdevelopment structures

The 17 CRPF organisatorganisationsions (Centres RégionauxRegionaux de la PropriétéPropriete ForestiereForestière - regregionalional forest owner centres) employemploy 264264 agents.agents. Besides settingsetting upup informationinformation networks,networks, contributingcontributing toto forestryforestry engineering activactivitiesities and conducting the study andand approval ofof simple managementmanagement plans', plan, theythey alsoalso:

support forestry association and co-operative management or salessales activitiesactivities ;

improve, publicise and develop sylvicultural and management techniques for their membersmembers (individual(individual advisory servservicesices areare becoming more and moremore common) ;

Nearly one hundred Chamber of AgricultureAgriculture forestryforestry advisorsadvisors have thethe samesame role,role, inin somesome departmentsdepartments - but not including the study and approval ofof simplesimple managementmanagement plansplans -- asas the CRPFCRPF agents, with whom they sometimessometimes co-operate.co-operate.

,3 Compulsory forfor all pplotslots with an area of 25 ha or more. 264264

The FOGEFORFOGEFOR organisations (Formation àa la Gestion Forestiere)Forestière) run training courses inin forestforest management.management.

The latter organisation isis run jointly by allall thethe organisationsorganisations working in privateprivate forestry and is described in detail byby Neveux'.Neveux4. It organises courses on three levels forfor some twenty foresters at each session:session : initiation,initiation, proficiency and execution of a study or project.

The courses alternate teaching sessions with visits to sites. TheThe basic programme provides a balancedbalanced content of technical,technical, economiceconomic and fiscal aspects. Sessions are held at weekends or evenings or at the end of the working week, and aim to provide owners with the minimum knowledge theythey require toto be able to discussdiscuss technicaltechnical mattersmatters with forestry technicians and makemake their choices on a soundsound basis.basis.

4 000 foreforesterssters hhaveave followedfollowed the basic training cycle since the FOGEFOR beganbegan its operations.operations. Eight out of ten of these have gone on to furtherfurther training.training. TheThe forestforest ownersowners involvedinvolved in this scheme are those whom developmentdevelopment organisationsorganisations oftenoften do notnot reach,reach, eithereither because of thethe size of their property oror becausebecause theythey havehave littlelittle timetime toto sparespare (see(see tables inin annex).annex).

> IDF

The IDF (Institut(Institut pourpour leIe DéveloppementDeveloppement ForestierForestier -- ForestryForestry Development Institute) empemploysloys somesome fortyforty people including 5 engineers, and runsruns regionalregional agencies.agencies. It aimsaims toto meetmeet thethe technical needs of users throughthrough applied research programmes based as far asas possiblepossible onon fundamentalfundamental researchresearch studies.studies.

Its results are communicated in journals and publications,publications, and it contributes to thethe trainingtraining of personnelpersonnel working forfor on-siteon-site

4 4 See bibliographic referencereference on pg. 258.258. 265

development organisations, whowho thenthen relay these resultsresults toto users (CRPF, ChamberChamber ofof AgricultureAgriculture forestry advisors).

> Finally, the following organisations must also be mentioned in connection withwith thisthis overviewoverview: INRA andand CEMAGREF,CEMAGREF, twotwo important research organisations which in some cases are also involved in development-type activitiesactivities : A fewfew "borderline""borderline" technical institutes suchsuch as thethe Centre TechniqueTechnique dudu Bois et de l'AmeublementI'Ameublement (technical centre forfor wood andand furniture),furniture), thethe CentreCentre National Interprofessionnel de l'Horticulture,I'Horticulture, and AFOCEL whichWhich is involved in the paperpaper industry.industry. The supervisorysupervisory authorities for thethe regional andand departmental agenciesagencies ofof thethe Ministry of AgricultureAgriculture and Forests.

An overall picture emergesemerges ofof anan institutionalinstitutional andand professionalprofessional environment involving manymany different actors, whosewhose imageimage and missionsmissions sometimes become blurred but who alwaysalways interactinteract with eacheach other,other, and who operate on the principle on attribution rather than contribution. This principle inin factfact comescomes intointo playplayas as aa regulatoryregulatory mechanism,mechanism, sincesince neither thethe professionprofession itselfitself nor thethe states!gte provideprovide anyany particularparticular co-ordinating mechanisms.mechanisms.

> Forest lands of the future: towardstowards segmentationsegmentation? ?

Before moving onon to the next topic, wewe shouldshould mentionmention somesome of the prospectsprospects for changechange which areare liableliable toto transformtransform the futurefuture structure of the privateprivate forestforest estateestate asas wellwell asas thethe behaviourbehaviour andand options of tomorrow'stomorrow's forestforest owners,owners, andand hencehence theirtheir needsneeds withswiths regard to trainingtraining andand information.information. 266

According toto aa number number of of observers observers andand researchers5,researchers' , currentcurrent changeschanges indicateindicate aa movemove towardstowards aa separationseparation ofof thethe classicclassic functionsfunctions of forests, leading to aa schemescheme wherebywhereby forests would fall intointo threethree distinct categoriescategories :

classic "top ranking" forestsforests whichwhich wouldwould bebe similarsimilar toto today'stoday's forests but which would nono longerlonger bebe heldheld upup asas the archetype for allall toto achieve;achieve; forests forfor intensiveintensive productionproduction (fast-growing(fast-growing species)species) ; ordinary forests (probably(probably thethe majority),majority), wherewhere aa moremore "natural""natural" types of sylviculturesylviculture would provideprovide thethe most appropriate formsforms of managementmanagement in a site of goodgood quality,quality, butbut whosewhose valuevalue inin other casescases wouldwould lielie in thethe enhancedenhanced landscape,landscape, inin thethe biodiversity and inin the storestore ofof carboncarbon theythey representrepresent (in(in whichwhich case a principleprinciple requirementrequirement toto bebe thoughtthought throughthrough andand promoted is thethe meansmeans ofof remuneratingremunerating those who helphelp toto produce aa qualityquality environmentenvironment and allow the communal use of forests, goods which todaytoday areare freefree ofof charge).charge).

In comparisoncomparison toto variousvarious examplesexamples fromfrom abroad,abroad, it is obviousobvious that the French system of forest development andand trainingtraining isis not alwaysalways adequate inin relationrelation toto the large number ofof forest owners and to the scale of forestforest resources.resources.

In some northern countries, where extension work isis carried outout by governmentgovernment agencies and private owners' associations, therethere is provision of one agent for everyevery 300 to 500 owners (80 in Denmark). In Japan, wherewhere the sfructurestructure of private forestry is similarsimilar inin somesome waysways toto that inin France,France, 444 specialistsspecialists advise 2229 County agents, who in turn are in direct contactcontact withwith 22 530530 000000 ownersowners andand provideprovide them with practical and theoreticaltheoretical training.training.

5 5 J. de Montgolfier.Montgolfier. ForêtForet EntrepriseEntreprise n°rf 91.91. 267

The quality aspects associated withwith these statistics are just as importantimportant butbut wewe shall nnotot gogo intointo themthem inin detaildetail herehere (incentive(incentive schemes, integration of extensionextension andand developmentdevelopment techniquestechniques in primary school programmes,programmes, etc.).etc.).

In comparison, thethe proportion ofof forestryforestry agentsagents toto ownersowners inin France, including all CRPFCRPF and ChamberChamber of AgricultureAgriculture agents,agents, isis roughly oneone toto 1010 000000 (and(and 2828 000000 hectares).hectares).

As for foresters' associations and co-operatives, these number barely 200 and they involveinvolve only some 50 000 owners at most, oror nono more thanthan 6060 c)/0% of of totaltotal forest areas.areas.

WHAT ARE THE REASONSREASONS FORFOR THESETHESE DEFICIENCIESDEFICIENCIES? ?

HOW CAN THE SITUATIONSITUATION BEBE IMPROVEDIMPROVED? ?

HOW CAN VOCATIONAL TRAININGTRAINING BEBE OFOF HELPHELP? ?

> The forestry scene is complex and requires powerfulpowerful tools for analysisanalysis

It isis clearclear fromfrom aa comparisoncomparison ofof systemssystems inin differentdifferent countriescountries that factorsfactors suchsuch asas forestforest cultureculture andand tradition,tradition, economiceconomic incentivesincentives and diversity inin socialsocial andand patrimonialpatrimonial ownershipownership patternspatterns areare ofof greatgreat importance.importance.

However, we lacklack the right tools toto analyseanalyse howhow andand whywhy these these factors combine,combine, thethe mechanismsmechanisms of decision making and the effect of official policiespolicies uponupon these.these. Furthermore,Furthermore, wewe areare unableunable toto analyseanalyse the rationale and thethe strategiesstrategies ofof thethe variousvarious institutionalinstitutional andand professionalprofessional actors which underlie the chochoicesices thatthat havehave toto bebe mademade inin thethe fieldfield ofof forestry education.education. 268

A more detailed study of thesethese aspects, of the reasons for success andand failurefailure and the financial and institutional means applied toto such operations would certainly enableenable progress to be made.made.

There isis aa real need to set up a monitoringmonitoring bodybody toto studystudy thethe way forest owner training is implemented.implemented. AA common method of analysis and presentation would allowaI/ow thethe systematicsystematic circulation of informationinformation onon forestryforestry,, soso enablingenabling the sharingsharing of experienceexperience and hence assist in producing more more imaginative imaginative recommendations.recommendations.

Internationalinternational organisations undoubtedly have an important part to play in this respect.respect

> Forms of reasoningreaso(1ing are highly diversified and mustmust allall bebe taken into account

The need to expandexpand andand diversifydiversify thethe "productive""productive" approachapproach

The figures quoted in ourour introductoryintroductory sectionsection makemake oneone essential point clearclear : owner-producers whowho are alsoalso professionallyprofessionally trained foreforesterssters areare thethe exception ratherrather thanthan thethe rule,rule, forfor the vast majoritymajority ofof owners whowho make up thethe restrest motivesmotives differdiffer widelywidely (patrimony,(patrimony, economic benefit, prestige) and depend on theirtheir particularparticular situation, attitudes,attitudes, cultural outlook, socialsocial status,status, ambitions,ambitions, andand management andand inheritance strategies, toto whichwhich has toto be added the geographicalgeographical conditions and land useuse managementmanagement issuesissues with which they are confronted.

InIn all likelihood this diversity will become greater in thethe future.future. A radical reappraisal, therefore, of the dominant "productive""productive" approachapproach inin relation toto allall categoriescategories ofof ownersowners appearsappears toto bebe essential.essential. The question is notnot only toto manage and/or sell,sell, but to expressexpress attachment to forests,forests, to transfertransfer them to thethe nextnext generation,generation, to allowallow themthem toto survive and flourish ...... and even simply to awaken an interest which is sometimes altogetheraltogether lackinglacking (a study carried out recently in the south 269 of FranceFrance showed that amongamong forestforest ownersowners in the regionregion onlyonly aa veryvery few werewere reallyreally enthusiasticenthusiastic about theirtheir forests,forests, whilewhile thethe majoritymajority showed nono interestinterest whatsoever).whatsoever).

History has shownshowrf thatthat a a well-established well-established nationalnational interestinterest inin forests and forestryforestry isis at leastleast asas effectiveeffective inin educationaleducational termsterms asas demonstrating that forestry is anan importantimportant economiceconomic sectorsector (this(this isis confirmed byby several recent opinion pollspolls on the wayway forestsforests areare perceived by the 6eneralgeneral public -- whichwhich includesincludes manymany forestforest owners).owners).

This all the moremore truetrue inin aa contextcontext whichwhich highlightshighlights thethe socialsocial and environmentalenvironmental functions ofof forestsforests andand wherewhere forestforest managementmanagement will havehave toto give.give increasing attention toto thesethese aspects,aspects, requiringrequiring energetic awareness campaignscampaigns on on communal rights and dutiesduties (especially of forestforest owners)owners) inin thisthis regard.regard.

The forestforest ownerowner trainingtraining schemesschemes that havehave beenbeen triedtried outout (whether in Norway, FranceFrance oror NewNew Brunswick)Brunswick) areare alwaysalways basedbased moremore or less on the premise of subsequent timber marketing,marketing, and neglectneglect thethe other symbolic, emotional or socialsocial keyskeys to forest ownership,ownership, although these could form aa powerfullypowerfully persuasivepersuasive set of motivations.motivations. The usual approach still rests on decision making modes which are based a priori on technical and economiceconomic aspectsaspects only,only, thoughthough thesethese cancan sometimessometimes leadjead to moremore imaginativeimaginative prospects.prospects.

In arguingarguing thatthat forestforest awarenessawareness andand trainingtraining programmesprogrammes should no longer bebe systematicallysystematically dominated byby productionproduction aspects,aspects, itit doess not mean that the need to optimise production and marketingmarketing has to be abandoned.

6 "Enseigner etet apprendreapprendre la la for-Atforet - XIXèmeXlxeme sièclesiecle et XXèmeXXeme siècle"siecle" Ed. L'Hartamattan,L'Hartamattan, Groupe d'histoired'histoire desdes forétsforets françaises.fran~aises. 270

It is quite true that any choice whichwhich is not based on thethe logiclogic of economicseconomics stillstill hashas economiceconomic consequencesconsequences thatthat can be analysed asas such.such. Indeed, thethe chances are thatthat this widerwider approach isis likelylikely to havehave an extremely positive indirect impact on the quality of the production chainchain asas aa whole,whole, inin thethe sensesense that as more and more different typestypes of forestforest ownersowners becomebecome involved,involved, theythey become more and more effective inin passing on new ideasideas andand givinggiving examplesexamples withinwithin their ownown ownerowner category, while the increasedincreased impetus and incentive to make progress contributescontributes to to meeting the classicclassic objectivesobjectives of development.

There are two majormajor factors which hamperhamper this processprocess: : thethe system operates according to the logic ofof technicaltechnical "supply""SUIDIDiV" - generally to productive activities - and this remains central to a numbnumberer of institutionalinstitutional andand professionalprofessional organisations.organisations.

The development and training systemsystem forfor privateprivate forestforest landslands isis still largely pervaded byby thethe ideaidea thatthat anan "ideal""ideal" type ofof trainingtraining existsexists toto make "ideal" owners, who implement "ideal" sylvicultural practices - and perpetuates asas aa corollary thethe myth that onlyonly thethe forestforest expertexpert cancan integrateintegrate allall relevantrelevant informationinformation and and that that onlyonly he can decide on anan "optimum" solution.solution.

Even ifif there were such a thingthing asas aa "basic "basic sylvicultural sylvicultural technique", a kind of lowest common denominator inin thisthis field, it would only bebe servingserving the interests of a unanimist approach which obliterates any alternative motivations withwith regard to the choicechoice ofof managementmanagement options.

Moreover, this approach inin itselfitself merelymerely helpshelps toto maintainmaintain thethe relative cohesioncohesion of a profession which is inin any casecase findingfinding itit difficultdifficult to organise itself (as it involves only aa small proportion of owner-producers) andand which hankershankers afterafter full recognition of its economic and productive importance, just as thethe agriculturalagricultural sector,sector, 271 which still provides the frame of reference,reference, achieved such recognition in earlier times.times.

This problem is compounded and reinforcedreinforced by the underlyingunderlying precepts and workings of anan administrativeadministrative authority staffed by civil servants whowho are forfor the most partpart recruitedrecruited fromfrom corporatecorporate technicaltechnical institutions, andand whowho see no reasonreason to seekseek interlocutorsinterlocutors other than those who already benefit from itsits funding arrangements (which are also frequently based onon the logiclogic ofof productionproduction alone),alone), althoughalthough thesethese beneficiaries are are notnot veryvery well servedserved as they lacklack cohesioncohesion andand lobbying power.power.

Nevertheless, severalseveral lineslines ofof thoughtthought andand actionaction remain open.

The fundamental problem in attempting to deal with veveryry diverse forms of reasoning isis to identifyidentify appropriate itemsitems of informationinformation and toto present these toto the different categories of forest owners:owners : information on the currentcurrent economiceconomic situationsituation andand economiceconomic forecastsforecasts ifif possible,possible, as well as information on the social and environmentalenvironmental issues,issues, enabling forest land owners to gaingain moremore oror betterbetter knowledge,knowledge, whateverwhatever theirtheir level, of thethe rangerange ofof costscosts andand availableavailable -benefits'benefits on whichwhich theirtheir decisions on forest managementmanagement -- oror non-managementnon-management -- areare based.based.

This identificationidentification process must be undertaken toto avoid"short-term" decisiondecision makingmaking andand alsoalso toto ensure thatthat the sum of rational individual choices does notnot produceproduce aa globallyglobally aberrantaberrant coursecourse of action, or atat leastleast oneone whichwhich isis regardedregarded as such by society as a whole.

This impliesimplies thatthat aa course of action based onon the logic ofof 'demand'"demand" shouldshould bebe adopted,adopted, which would requirerequire:

much greater detail and accuracy thanthan is currently provided forfor in classifications and marketmarket surveys of the different requirements forfor training, information and advisory services; 272

fol/owingfollowing on fromfrom this,this, actions should bebe targetedtargeted moremore accurately while management optionsoptions and technical trainingtraining courses should be moremore flexibleflexible and moremore diversifieddiversified andand better matched to needs;

actions undertaken should provide all the actors involved at aI/all levels with thethe opportunity to enhanceenhance and improveimprove upon thethe content of the socialsocial and civic debate on the function, the role andancj the management of forest lands;

more detailed researchresearch should be undertaken on the impact of development policiespolicies andand actions implemented upup toto thethe present.

The organisations ininvolvedvolved inin aa coursecourse ofof actactionion of thisthis kindkind would naturally have to find out howhow far they fallfall short ofof requirementsrequirements and how far their role needs to change,change, and the means to achieveachieve this should bebe mademade available.available.

ThThisis of courses brings in the problem, which we shall go into llater,ater, of howhow toto seekseek wider-rangingwider-ranging and moremore autonomousautonomous sourcessources ofof finance for thethe developmentdevelopment ofof thesethese means.means.

Need forfor qualitative and quantitative improvements in the forest training andand developmentdevelopment systemsystem

This isis not a priority for the public authorities,authorities, andand thethe meansmeans to implement itit are limited in relation toto needsneeds

For reasons whwhichich are related to those we have outlined aboveabove (relative lacklack of strength and cohesion of thethe professionprofession asas aa whole,whole, dispersal of forest ownersowners,, poor perception of politicalpolitical andand economiceconomic issuesissues -- or thethe lowlow profile given toto thesethese by public agents),agents). itit isis apparent that inin terms of funds and priorities, initialinitial forestry training is considered more importantimportant than furtherfurther trainingtraining forfor technicianstechnicians andand owners,owners, andand 273

public forest lands are given a higherhigher prioritypriority thanthan privateprivate forestsforests (the(the FOGEFOR organisationsorganisations areare a small but encouraging exception).exception) .

Nevertheless, var variousious deficienciesdeficiencies have have to to be remediedremedied (as(as noted inin general terms during previousprevious sessions)sessions) withwith regardregard toto initial initial asas well as further training for development agents, and with regard to thethe way organisations operate.operate.

Basic notions in social sciencessciences andand inin communications,communications, in group management and socialsocia/ changes,changas, and in socio-culturasocio-culturall questions should be incorporatedincorporated intointo initialinitial trainingtraining programmes,programmes, while training establishments and their students could act atat thisthis point toto strengthenstrengthen links with forestforest owners.owners.

As for further itraining,raining, whilewhile thethe relationshiprelationship betweenbetween technicaltechnical forestryforestry agents and owners needs toto be improvedimproved (see(see AICEF report mentioned in bibliographic references)references) and overall economic changeschanges require both moremore generalgeneral and moremore complexcomplex levelslevels ofof skillsskills andand understanding of technical equipmentequipment and methodsmethods (which(which impliesimplies thethe need for moremore investmentinvestment inin humanhuman andand financialfinancial resources),resources), thethe following steps need to bebe takentaken :

An overall reviewreview ofof trainingtraining forfor forestforest development development agents,agents, lleadingeading to thethe definitiondefinition of overalloverall policies,policies, specific funding and co-operation between organisations providing training.training. More importance should be givengiven toto educationaleducational methods,methods, toto communication techniques techniques and and toto providing supportsupport forfor changes in practice. SoSo far,far, thethe mainmain emphasisemphasis has beenbeen onon technical ssubjects,ubjects, which areare thethe only onesones receivingreceiving subsidies. Multimedia resourcesresources shouldshould be much more widely used, as well as what are commonly known as "open"'open' training methods. These areare byby farfar thethe mostmost appropriateappropriate for development agents as wellwell asas forestforest owners,owners, becausebecause ofof thethe diversitydiversity andand dispersion of the public concerned, and the specific difficulties which are inherent to forest training andand information.information. 274

Finally, anan important paradox should be mentioned:mentioned: although the forest development system is organisedorganised on thethe samesame lineslines asas itsits model, the agricultural system,system, the former has kept its distance from the latter so that,that, inin thethe namename ofof specificspecific needs,needs, aa furtherfurther andand unfortunateunfortunate split has hardened between the two at a time when the combination ofof changes in the rural environment,environment, lack ofof financial meansmeans and divergent interests within the forestryforestry communitycommunity demanddemand closeclose co-operationco-operation -- especially with regard toto thethe reafforestationreafforestation ofof abandonedabandoned agriculturalagricultural land.

> Funding of further trainingtraining: : programmesprogrammes do not reach the majority ofollorest forest owners,owners, asas they are based on the interests on specificspecilic branchesbranches of01 thethe forestlorest professions.prolessions.

InIn France,France, thethe only people who are likelylikely to benefitbenefit fromfrom thethe attribution ofof fundsfunds forfor trainingtraining areare thosethose whowho areare employed.employed. TheseThese havehave only recently included employeesemployees in companies employing less than 10 people.

Each of the numerous and widely dispersed providers of funds redistributesredistributes thesethese toto itsits ownown public, according toto the way itsits mutualmutual insurance system operates, and to itsits individual limitationslimitations and priorities.priorities.

The nature ofof thisthis systemsystem meansmeans thatthat practicallypractically allall forestforest owners (except institutions)institutions) areare excludedexcluded fromfrom accessaccess toto thesethese funds,funds, while many are already largely excluded lromfrom access to development schemes.

Moreover, the training schemesschemes funded byby agriculturalagricultural andand co-operative organisations (those mostmost directly involved)involved) areare more and more often linkedlinked toto regionalregional developmentdevelopment projectsprojects whichwhich integrateintegrate economic and employmentemployment imperativesimperatives more readilyreadily than landland useuse aspects. In addition, forestsforests are notnot necessarilynecessarily a prioritypriority inin thesethese projects, all the more soso asas the forestforest "professions""professions" have little lobbying power, whether at regional oror nationalnational level,level, and the organisations whichwhich represent thesethese professions areare not usually integrated wewellll into locallocal landland use strategies.strategies. 275

> For all thesethese reasons, funding sources need toto be moremore extensive and more diversified

At present,present, the fundingfunding forfor allall research, development andand training activities involving private forestsforests comescomes fromfrom a special taxtax leviedlevied on timbertimber productsproducts andand by-products.by-products. RevenuesRevenues fromfrom thisthis tax (which was cut byby 4040 °h.% inin 19921992 forfor reasonsreasons partlypartly relatingrelating to thethe method of collection) are redistributed among allall the relevant organisations inin eacheach field.field.

The creation of anan autonomousautonomous forestforest fundfund withwith less dependence onon public authoritiesauthorities (even though the latterlatter wouldwould continue to exercise legitimate supervision, and to contribute inin partpart toto the funds), where funds are derived not fromfrom productsproducts butbut fromfrom productive activities (defined(defined onon thethe basis of revenue oror extent ofof wooded areas and according to tax brackets which will have to be defined) would:would :

Broaden thethe forest taxpayer base toto nearlynearly 4 millionmillion forestforest owners whilst restricting it to production asas such. Downstream activities in thethe sectorsector wouldwould thusthus becomebecom!" autonomousautonomous asas regardsregards financialfinancial resources as well as expenditure, which would clarify the situation, while upstream activities wouldwould bebe less constrained to strictlystrictly productiveproductive activities.

Provide for more flexible, more autonomous andand moremore extensiveextensive funding forfor trainingtraining andand awarenessawareness schemes, which could thenthen be directed towards all forestforest ownersowners andand provideprovide themselvesthemselves with thethe necessarynecessary meansmeans to meetmeet highlyhighly diversifieddiversified needs.needs.

Various formsforms ofof fundingfunding derivedderived from the environmental,environmental, socialsocial and landscape enhancement functionsfunctions ofof forest lands could alsoalso bebe used in thesethese schemes.schemes. 276

CONCLUSION

It is often felt by thosethose involved in thethe forestforest sector,sector, oror by theirtheir closest partners, that the lack of a true professional corpus,corpus, backed up by a well-established productive vocavocation,tion, is a handicap.handicap. However,However, as it is unlikelyunlikely that forest ownership, withwith allall thethe richness ofof its highly diverse characteristics,characteristics, can can be be forced forced intointo whatwhat couldcould be a ratherrather restrictirestrictivelyvely uniform mould, this lack may well become an opportunity toto be mademade thethe mostmost of.of.

"True""True" forestersforesters cancan onlyonly gaingain byby thethe recognitionrecognition of their unique function,function, which can provide themthem with the means toto taketake up theirtheir rightfulrightful pplacelace as economic actors within the sector.sector.

Other forest owners wouldwould also gain the opportunity to managefTlanage theirtheir forestforestss as theythey would wish, in accordance with their own aims.

Finally, thisthis approachapproach wouldwould benefit ththee community as a whole - the citizenscitizens whowho feelfeel that FrenchFrench forestforest lands, irrespectiveirrespective of ownership, are in some way the heritageheritage ofof all.all.

A newnew andand coherentcoherent approach thus needsneeds to bebe defined,defined, inin which aa better match between thethe mission aandnd the meansmeans ofof organisations in charge of privateprivate forestforest development,development, togethertogether withwith more extensive and more balanced funding mechanisms,mechanisms, shouldshould bebe ableable toto provideprovide moremore appropriate,appropriate, well-endowedwell-endowed trainingtraining andand awarenessawareness schemes, andand thusthus developdevelop eacheach of the economic,economic, socialsocial andand environmental functions ofof forestforest lands.lands. 277

NUMBER AND AREAAREA OFOF PRIVATELY-OWNEDPRIVATELY-OWNED FOREST PROPERTIES BY SIZE OF FOREST

Number ofof Average Hectares properties AreaNea area · (hal(ha) 10001 000 ok% 1 000 ha %

< 1 ha 23602 360 64 773 8 0.30.3 1-4 ha 911 25 16891 689 17 1.9 4-10 ha 254 7 14991 499 15 5.9 10-25 ha 100100 3 14641 464 15 1414.6.6 25-50 ha 28 1 966 10 34.2 50-100 ha 14 939 10 68.2 > 100 ha 99 22410 410 25 258.0 278278

TOTALTOTAL FOREST OWNERS

1 -- 4 haha 4 - 10 ha 1717%% ~~="""=~

50 -- 100 ha 10% 10-2Sha10 - 25 ha 1515%%

25-50ha25 - 50 ha > 100, 00 haha 1010%% / 25% < 1 haha B%8%

Craftsmen & RetailersR etaiters 5% FirmsFIrms && ForestForest Assoc.Assoc. 29%

PensionersPensIon ers 21% 141(Niih----- elance Professions 7%

Workers 4411111111111110111111 7% WOthers Farmers,formerFarmerS,former FarmersFarmers 25% 279

FOGEFOR TRAINEESTRAINEES

Oo - 10 haha 2323.0%.0%

10-25ha10 - 25 ha 21.7%

25 - 100100 haha 36.6%

Farmers 21%21 % .»FAP. 02t hi oe4r s

ii ilaram0010Ì Pensioners 26%

Freelance, Retailers 32% 281

ANNEX AA ANNEXE A ANEXOAANEXO A

MEMBERSHIP OF THETHE FAOFAO ADVISORYADVISORY COMMITTEECOMMITTEE ON FORESTRYFORESTRY EDUCATIONEDUCATION COMPOSITION DU COMITE CONSULTATIF FAO DEDE L'ENSEIGNEMENT FORESTIER COMPOSICION DEL COMITE ASESOR DEDE LALA FAOFAO SOBRE ENSEÑANZAENSENANZA FORESTALFORESTAL

DecemberDecember/décembre/diciembre / decembre/ diciembre 19931993

Member Nations Present term endingending on Etats membres Designation valable jusqu'au Estados miembrosmiembros EIEl nombramientonombramiento expiraexpira elel

ARGENTINA Ing.Agr. Raul MarlatsMarlats VIVII.1994 1.1994 ARGENTINE Profesor Escuela de Bosques de lala Universidad Nacional de la PlataPlata Calle 609 y 110110 La Plata

AUSTRALIA Prof. D.M.D.M. GriffinGriffin IVIV.1994.1994 AUSTRALIE Pro Vice-ChancellorVice-Chancellor Chairman, Board of the Faculties The Australian NationalNational UniversityUniversity P.O. Box 4 Canberra A.C.TA.C.T 26012601 282

BRAZIL Dr. Martha T.B. Wallauer IV.1997 BRESIL HeadHead,, Dept. of Technical-Scientific BRASIL Information & Environmental Education Brazilian Institute for the EnvironmentEnvironment and RenewableRenewable Natural ResourcesResources (IBAMA)(IBAMA) C.P.04424C.P. 04424 Brasilia, D.F.D.F.

GANADACANADA DrDr.. John K.K. NaysmithNaysmith IIX.1997X.1997 Director, School of Forestry Lakehead University 995 OliverOliver RoadRoad Thunder Bay,Bay, Ontario,Ontario, P7BP7B 5E15E1

CHILE Sr. Juan Moya Cerpa 1.1994 CHILI Director Ejecutivo Corporaci6nCorporación NacionalNacional ForestalForestal (CONAF)(CONAF) Avenida Bulnes 285,285, Of.501Of.501 Santiago

COSTA RICA Ing. RonaldRonald VargasVargas X.1997 Director GeneralGeneral ForestalForestal Ministerio de RecursosRecursos Naturales,Naturales, EnergiaEnergía y Minas A.P.A.P.8-5810 8-5810 1.000 San JoséJose

COTE D'IVOIRED'IVOIRE Dr. Kouakou N'Dri IV.1997 Direction de lala ProgrammationProgrammation MinistèreMinistere de l'AgricultureI'Agriculture et des Ressources Animales Abidjan 283

EGYPT Dr. Mamdouh RiadRiad IV.1997 EGIPTO Under-Secretary of StateState for Afforestation c/oc/ o FAOFAO Rep.Rep. EgyptEgypt P.O. Box 100100 12311 Dokki-GDokki-Giza iza Cairo

FINLAND ProfProf.. PäiviöPaivi6 Riihinen IV.1997 FINLANDIE Department of Social FINLANDIA Economics of Forestry University of Helsinki Unioninkatu 40 B SF-00170 Helsinki 1717

FRANCE MM.. Jean Bedel VH.1997VI1.1997 FRANCIA IngenieurIngénieur en Chef du GénieGenie Rural desdes EauEauxx et des ForétsFonits Chef du DépartementDepartement "Forbts"Forets en régionsregions chaudes" ENGENGREF REF B.P.5093B.P. 5093 34033 MontpellierMontpeliier CEDEXCEDEX

GERMANY Prof. Dr. MM.. Becker 1.1994 ALLEMAGNE Arbeitsbereich HolzmarktlehreHolzmarktlehre ALEMANIA Forstwissenschaftliche FakultätFakultat UniversitatUniversität Freiburg Kaiser-Joseph Str. 239 79085 Freiburg 284

INDONESIA Mr. T.H. Madyana IV.1997IV.1997 INDONESIE Director, Forestry EducationEducation and Training Centre Jalan Gunung BatuBatu Kotak PosPos 141141 Bogor, 1600116001

ITALY Prof. E. Giordano VI.1994 ITALIE Preside della FacoltáFacolta di ScienzeScienze ForestaliForestall UniversitáUniversita della TusciaTuscia Via S. Giovanni DecollateDecollate 01100 Viterbo

JAPAN Mr.Mr. Koji MashibaMashiba 11.1997 JAPON Director, ResearchResearch andand Extension Division PrivatePrivate Forest Department Forestry Agency Ministry of Agriculture,Agriculture, ForestryForestry andand FisheriesFisheries 2-1 Kasumigaseki 1 Chome, Chiyoda-ku Tokyo

KENYA Mr. J.O.J.0. AngwenyiAngwenyi IX.19961X.1996 c/o MinistryMinistry ofof EnvironmentEnvironment && NaturalNatural Resources P.OP.O.. Box 3051330513 Nairobi

KOREA, RepublicRepublic of ProfProf.. Tai Sik Park 11.1997 COREECOREE,, RépubliqueRl!publique de Professor Emeritus COREA,COREA, RepúblicaRepublica de Department of ForestryForestry College of Agriculture Seoul National UniversityUniversity Suwon 285

MALAYSIA Mr. Tuan SheikhSheikh Ibrahim MALAISIE bin Sheikh AliAli V.1997 MALASIA Assistant Director-General Department of ForestryForestry Jalan Sultan SalahuddinSalahuddin 50660 Kuala Lumpur

MOROCCO M. SakiSa'id MessatMessat IX.IX.1996 1996 MAROC Chef, Division de l'Economie MARRUECOS ForestièreForestiere Direction des Eaux etet des ForetsForks et de lala ConservationConservation desdes SoIsSols Rabat-Chellah

NIGERIA Mr. 1.1.1.1. Ero IX.1996 Head, Education and Training DivisionDivision (Assistant Chief Research Officer) Forestry Research Institute of NigeriaNigeria P.MP.M.B..B.5054 5054 Ibadanlbadan

NORWAY Mr. Finn KristianKristian BrevigBrevig VI1.1994V11.1994 NORVEGE Director, Skogbrukets Kursinstitutt NORUEGA Honne N-2820 Biri

PHILIPPINES Dr. Armando A. Villaflor IV.1997 FILIPINAS Associate Dean Dept. of Wood Science and Technology University of the Philippines at LosLos BañosBanos CollegeCollege,, Laguna 3720 286286

SPAIN Sr. JoseJosé Javier N.N. IsasaIsasa IX.1996IX. 1996 ESPAGNE Inspector RegionalRegional ESPANAESPAÑA Instituto Nacional para lala ConservaciónConservaci6n de la NaturalezaNaturaleza (ICONA)(ICONA) Gran VíaVia de SanSan FranciscoFrancisco 35-4135-41 28005 Madrid

SWEDEN Mr. Sven-Gunnar LarssonLarsson IVV.1997.1997 SUEDE Director SUECIA SkogsmästarskolSkogsmastarskol School for ForestForest EngineersEngineers Sveriges Lantbruksuniversitet P.O. Box 4343 739 21 SkinnskattebergSkinnskatteberg

SWITZERLAND Dr. Jean-Pierre Sorg IX.1996 SUISSE InstitutInstitut Federal de Technologie SUIZA Service de Conseil et de RechercheRecherche en Sylviculture Tropicale RdmistrasseRamistrasse 101101 8092 Zurich

UNITED KINGDOMKINGDOM Prof. H.G. MillerMiller IX.1996IX.1996 ROYAUME-UNI Head, Department of ForestryForestry REINO UNIDO University of AberdeenAberdeen Cruickshank BuildingBuilding SI.St. Machar DriveDrive Aberdeen AB9 2UD

UNITED STATESSTATES OF Dr. Richard F.F. FisherFisher 1.1994 AMERICA Texas A & MM UniversityUniversity ETATS-UNISETATS-UNIS College of Agriculture and LifeLife Sciences D'AMERIQUE Dept. of ForestForest ScienceScience ESTADOS UNIDOS Room 305, Horticulture/Forest ScienceScience DE AMERICA Building College Station,Station, TexasTexas 77843-213577843-2135 287

ANNEX B

LIST OF MEETINGS OF THE FAO PANEL ON EDUCATIONEDUCATION IN FORESTRYFORESTRY AND THE FAO ADVISORY COMMITTEE ONON FORESTRYFORESTRY EDUCATIONEDUCATION

FAO PANEL ON EDUCATIONEDUCATION ININ FORESTRY*FORESTRY*

First meeting Oxford, U.K.U. K. 13 July 19561956

Second meeting Seattle, U.S.A.U.S.A. 2 & 6 September 19601960

Third meeting Vienna, Austria 8-9 SeptemberSeptember 19611961

Fourth meeting** MeridaMérida,, VenezuelaVenezuela 22-29 February 19641964

FAO ADVISORY COMMITTEE ONON FORESTRYFORESTRY EDUCATION

First session Mérida,Merida, VenezuelaVenezuela 22-29 February 19641964

First Working Group Bangkok, ThailandThailand 18-28 October 19651965 meeting***

Second sessionsession Madrid, SpainSpain 8 JuneJune 19661966

Third session Munich, Fed.Fed. Rep.Rep. 1-3 September 19671967 of Germany

* Converted into anan AdvisoryAdvisory CommitteeCommittee inin 1964.1964. ** Held jointly with thethe First SessionSession of thethe FAOFAO AdvisoryAdvisory Committee on ForestryForestry Education.Education. *** Held jointly with the FirstFirst FAOFAO Regional Seminar on Higher and Intermediate-LevelIntermediate-Level AgriculturalAgricultural EducationEducation forfor Asia and thethe FarFar East. 288

Fourth session Ibadan,lbadan, NigeriaNigeria 11-13 July 19691969

Fifth session Stockholm, SwedenSweden 27 September andand 7-8 October 19711971

Sixth sessionsession Buenos Aires,Aires, 10-11 October 19721972 Argentina

Seventh session Hyvinkiiii,Hyvinkää, Finland 14-16 August 19741974

Eighth session Rome, Italy 10-12 NovemberNovember 1976

Ninth session Jakarta, IndonesiaIndonesia 29-31 October 19781978

Tenth session Rome, Italy 29-31 October 19801980

Eleventh session Kyoto, Japan 3-4 SeptemberSeptember 19811981

Twelfth session Nairobi, Kenya 26-29 April 19831983

Thirteenth session Mexico City, Mexico 26-28 June 19851985

Fourteenth session Ljubljana, Yugoslavia 2-5 SeptemberSeptember 19861986

Fifteenth session Antalya, Turkey 20-2420-24 November 19891989

Sixteenth session Paris, France 25 SeptemberSeptember 1991 1991

Seventeenth sessionsession Bangkok, Thailand 13-15 December 19931993 289

ANNEXCANNEX C

LIST OF SELECTEDSELECTED PAPERSPAPERS PRESENTEDPRESENTED TO SESSIONSSESSIONS AND AD HOCHOC MEETINGSMEETINGS OFOF THETHE FAOFAO PANELPANEL ONON EDUCATIONEDUCATION ININ FORESTRY (1956-1964) AND THE FAOFAO ADVISORYADVISORY COMMITTEECOMMITTEE ON FORESTRY EDUCATION (1964-1993)(1964-1993)

FAO PANEL ON EDUCATIONEDUCATION ININ FORESTRYFORESTRY

Third MeetingMeeting -- Vienna,Vienna , Austria,Austria, 8-98-9 SeptemberSeptember 19611961

Costantino,Costantino, I.N.I.N. Forestry Education and Outlook inin LatinLatin America

FAO Secretariat Forestry Education and Outlook inin AsiaAsia

Glesinger, E.E. The World OutlookOutlook inin ForestryForestry andand ForestForest Products and ProfessionalProfessional Manpower Supply and Requirements in Some Regions

Heiberg, S.O.S.O. Comparison of American andand European Degrees and Diplomas in ForestryForestry

Parewicz, R.R. - Forestry Education and OutlookOutlook inin AfricaAfrica

- Progress inin Collection of Detailed Programmes of Study of Forestry Schools. 290

FAO ADVISORY COMMITTEE ONON FORESTRYFORESTRY EDUCATIONEDUCATION

First SessionSession -- Mérida,Merida, Venezuela,Venezuela, 22-2922-29 FebruaryFebruary 19641964

Fran90is,François, T.T, Manpower AssessmentAssessment and EducationalEducational Planning inin ForestryForestry and ForestForest ProductsProducts IndustriesIndustries

Freidrich, A.G.A.G. An FAOFAO Long-TermLong-Term Programme in ForestryForestry Education

Shirley, H.L.H.L. - Organization of Professional Education inin Forestry for DevelopingDeveloping CountriesCountries

- Priorities in World ForestryForestry

SisamSisam,, J.W.B.JW.B. Basic Curriculum for ForestryForestry andand ForestForest Products CollegesColleges/Faculties/Departments/ Faculties/ Departments in Developing Countries

Tortorelli, L.L. Present SituationSituation ofof HigherHigher ForestryForestry EducationEducation inin Latin America.America.

First Working Group MeetingMeeting - Bangkok,Bangkok, ThailandThailand 18-28 October 19651965

FAO Secretariat Forestry Education in Developing Countries in the Asia and FarFar EastEast RegionsRegions

Jacobs, M.R.M.R. Training for Forestry in Asia and thethe SouthSouth Pacific 291

Komkris, T.T. The Possibilities and Limits ofof Intra-RegionalIntra-Regional Cooperation for the PurposePurpose ofof AcceleratingAccelerating the Level of Education and TrainingTraining in Forestry in Asia and the Far East

Kulkarni, D.H.D.H. Intra-Regional Cooperation for Forestry Education in Asia and the FarFar EastEast

Shirley, H.L.H.L. A ProgrammeProgramme of EducationEducation in ForestryForestry forfor Tropical Countries of thethe FarFar East.East.

Second Session - Madrid,Madrid. Spain,Spain. 88 JuneJune 19661966

Carare,Carare, O.O. Current Progress in Educational Programmes at New National InstitutionsInstitutions BeingBeing DevelopedDeveloped by FAO with the FinancialFinancial Assistance of the United Nations Development Programme

Degos, G.G. Technical Training in ForestryForestry

DOrr,Diirr, H.H. Professional EduEducationcation in Austrian Forestry

Kaufert, F.H.F.H. New Scientific Developments Affecting Graduate Education and Research in ForestryForestry

Shirley, H.L.H. L. Forestry Education in a Changing World

Speidel, G.H.F.G.H.F. Establishing Graduate Education andand ResearchResearch in a Developing Country

Wyatt-Smith, J.J. Some Problems of Forestry Education at the Professional LevelLevel in Developing TropicalTropical Countries, withwith Particular Reference toto thethe University of lbadan,Ibadan, Nigeria.Nigeria. 292

Third Session - Munich,Munich. FederalFederal RepublicRepublic ofof GermanyGermany 1-3 September 19671967

Costantino, I.N.I. N. Scope for Forestry Education inin Latin America

Hilmi,HiImi, H.A. ReviewReview ofTof Textbookextbook RequirementsRequirements forfor ForestryForestry EducationEducation and Training in Developing Countries

Prats Llaurad6, J.J. Current Progress in Educational Programmes at New National Institutions Being DevelopedDeveloped by FAOFAO with thethe FinancialFinancial Assistance of the United Nations Development Programme

Richardson, S.D.S.D. ManpowerManpower and TrainingTraining RequirementsRequirements inin ForestryForestry Development Planning

Shirley, H.L.H.L. Post-graduate andand ResearchResearch Centres forfor Tropical Forestry

Speidel, G.H.F.G.H.F. University-to-University Arrangements for thethe Promotion of Forestry Education in Developing Countries.Countries.

Fourth Session - lbadan,Ibadan. Nigeria,Nigeria, 11-1311-13 July 19691969

Hilmi, H.A.H.A. World ConsultationConsultation onon ForestryForestry EducationEducation and Training

Lafond, A.A. Forestry Education inin Africa:Africa: FutureFuture NeedsNeeds of Forestry and ForestForest Industries

Prats Llaurack5,Llaurad6, J. Current Progress in FAO Programmes in the Field of ForestryForestry EducationEducation (Summary)(Summary)

Preston, S.B.S.B. The Need for Wood Technology EducationEducation inin English-speaking West AfricaAfrica 293

Richardson, S.D.S.D. Training for ForestForest IndustriesIndustries andand TimberTimber Marketing

Shirley, H.L.H.L and Forestry Education and Training in Latin Prats LJaurad6,Uaurad6, J.J. America

Wyatt-Smith, J. Review ofof thethe ForestryForestry Department,Department, University of lbadan.Ibadan.

Fifth Session -- Stockholm,Stockholm. Sweden,Sweden. 2727 SeptemberSeptember and 7-8 October 19711971

Sisam, J.W.B.JW.B. andand Review ofof thethe Committee's Committee's RecommendationsRecommendations Prats Llaurack5,Uaurad6, J.J. and of theirtheir Implementation.Implementation.

Sixth Session - BuenosBuenos Aires,Aires, Argentina,Argentina, 10-1110-11 October 19721972

Elliott, G.K.G.K. A Certificate in ForestForest ProductsProducts Technology,Technology, with Special Reference to Developing Countries - AA PossiblePossible ApproachApproach and aa Suggested Syllabus.Syllabus.

Seventh Session - Hyvinkää,Hyvinkiiii, Finland,Finland, 14-1614-16 AugustAugust 19741974

Hilmi, H.A.H.A. Review ofof thethe Committee's Committee's RecommendationsRecommendations and of theirtheir ImplementationImplementation

Mustanoja, J.J.J.J. FAO's Role inin ForestForest IndustriesIndustries Education and Training

Paavola, P.P. Formal Education andand Training for ForestForest Industries in FinlandFinland

Prats Llaurad6,Uaurad6, J.J. FADFAO ActivitiesActivities in the Field of ForestryForestry and Hilmi,Hilmi, H.A.H.A. Education and TrainingTraining 294

Ranta, J.-P. ContinuingContinuing Training and On-Job Training

Sainio, J. Training for ForestForest ProductsProducts MarketingMarketing inin Finland

Secretariat Note Assessment of of thethe Impact of thethe WorldWorld Consultation on Forestry Education andand TrainingTraining..

Eighth SessionSession -- Rome,Rome. Italy,Italy. 10-1210-12 NovemberNovember 19761976

Claver Torrente, I. ImportanceImportance of Research in Spain for & Prats Zapirarn,Zapirafn, M. Revitalizing ForestryForestry Education (Summary)

Harley, J.L. The Place of Education Institutions in Research (Summary)

Hilmi,HiImi, H.A.H.A. FAO ActivitiesActivities inin the Field of Forestry Education and Training

Lantican, D.M.D.M. Training for Forest Industries in thethe Philippines (Summary)(Summary)

Prats Llauradó,Llaurad6, J.J. Training for ForestForest Industries.Industries.

Ninth SessionSession -- Jakarta,Jakarta, Indonesia,Indonesia. 29-3129-31 OctoberOctober 1978 1978

Albin, R.H.R.H. Survey of EducationEducation and Training Requirements and Personnel Needs for Primary Mechanical Wood IndustriesIndustries inin Some Latin American Countries

Contreras Salas,Salas, M.,M., Reappraisal of Forestry Education and Eisenhauer, G.G. Training RequirementsRequirements inin LatinLatin AmericaAmerica and Hartwig,Hartwig, F.F. 295

dede Steiguer, J.E.J.E. ForestryForestry Environmental EducationEducation in North andand Merrifield, R.G.R.G. America

Forestry Department, ImplementingImplementing Forestry ProgrammesProgrammes forfor Local FAO Community DevelopmentDevelopment

Guillard, J.P.J.P. Review of the Conclusions and Recommendations of the Eighth World Forestry Congress

Lantican,lantican, D.M.D.M . ReappraisalReappraisal ofof Forestry Education andand Training Needs inin the Asia/FarAsia / Far EastEast Region

Environmental Forestry Education inin Developing CountriesCountries

Mahlberg, F.-C.F.-C. Survey of Education and Training Needs for the PrimaryPrimary MechanicalMechanical Wood IndustriesI ndustries inin Selected Countries in Asia and the FarFar EastEast Region

Mikola, P.P. Environmental Content of Forestry EducationEducation inin Europe

Miller, A.A. Conceptual Systems and thethe Teacher-Teacher­ Learning Process in Forestry Schools.

Tenth Session -- Rome,Rome, Italy,Italy. 29-3129-31 OctoberOctober 19801980

Beldi,Midi, F.F. Graduate and Post-GraduatePost-G raduate Forestry Education in HungaryHungary

Child, G.S.G.S. Training in Wildlife and National Park Management 296

Contreras Salas,Salas, M.M. Post-Graduate EducationEducation RequirementsRequirements in Latin America

Daryadi, Lukito,Luk~o, Education and Training for WildlifeWildlife andand Sumardja, EffendyEffendy A.A. National Parks Management in Tropical and van Lavieren,Lavieren, B.B. Countries

DavisDavis,, L.S.L.S. Post-Graduate EducationEducation in Forestry in North and Gardner,Gardner, J.A.F.J.A.F. America

Griffin, D.M.D.M. Post-Graduate Education in Forestry in Oceania

Hilmi,HiImi, H.A. Reappraisal ofof EducationEducation and Training Needs for ForestryForestry and ForestForest IndustriesIndustries inin AfricaAfrica

Lantican, D.M.D.M. and Post-GPost-Graduateraduate EducationEducation in Forestry in del Castillo,Castillo, R.A.R.A. Southeast AsiaAsia

Larsson, S.-G.S.-G . Introducing Ergonomics into Forestry Curricula

Nyyssonen,Nyyssönen, A.A. Post-Graduate Forestry Education inin Europe,Europe, with SpecialSpecial Emphasis onon the NeedsNeeds ofof Developing Countries

Roche, L.L. Post-Graduate EducationEducation in Forestry andand Forest Resources in Africa.

Eleventh Session - Kyoto,Kyoto. Japan,Japan. 3-43-4 SeptemberSeptember 19811981

Arap-Sang,Arap-Sang, F.K.F.K. A ReviewReview of AgroforestryAgroforestry PracticesPractices inin EastEast Africa, with Special Reference toto Agroforestry inin Kenya 297

Béldi,Beldi, F.F. Training for MechanicalMechanical Wood Industries in Eastern Europe

Deherve,Dehetve, L.L. Needs and Issues in EducationEducation andand TrainingTraining for Mechanical Forest IndustriesIndustries inin AfricaAfrica

Griffin, D.M.D.M. Education in ForestryForestry for LocalLocal CommunityCommunity Development

lmamura,Imamura, K.K. Education and TrainingTraining for ForestryForestry andand Forest Products IndustriesIndustries inin JapanJapan

Leslie, A.J. Lducation!::ducation andand Training for Mechanical Forest Industries

Manandhar, P.K.P.K. Communication and Training Support and Pelinck,Pelinck, E.E. Programme for Community Forestry Development in NepalNepal

Poore, M.E.D.M.E.D. Links Between Forestry Research, Education, Training and Extension.Extension.

Twelfth Session - Nairobi,Nairobi. Kenya,Kenya. 26-2926-29 AprilApril 19831983

Bedel, J. Note Presenting TwoTwo University Post­Post- Graduate Courses for Tropical ForestersForesters

Botero, L.S.L.S. EducationalEducational Implications of the FAO/FinlandFAO/Finland Training Course on WatershedWatershed ManagementManagement for Africa

Burley, JJ.. and Development of Curricula for Community Wood, P.J.P.J. Forestry 298

Deherve, L. Technical Education and Vocational Training inin MechanicalMechanical Wood IndustriesIndustries -- EstimateEstimate of Annual Requirements - Guidelines for aa Development PolicyPolicy forfor AfricaAfrica

Frykman, B.B. Need for ForestryForestry TeacherTeacher Training inin AfricaAfrica

GriffinGriffin,, D.M. Attitudes and ProblemsProblems UnderlyingUnderlying ForestryForestry Education

Hilmi, H.A.HA Report on thethe FAO/SIDAFAOjSIDA SeminarSeminar on Forestry Extension, Semarang,Semarang, Indonesia,Indonesia, 18-30 January 19821982

Report on the FAOFAO ManualManual on ForestryForestry Extension

- Needs for Training inin Forestry Development Planning in AfricaAfrica

Huxley, P.A.P.A. Report on the ICRAF/DSEICRAF JOSE InternationalInternational and Zulberti, EE. Workshop onon Professional Education in Agroforestry

Jerkedal, A. Evaluation of the Centre for Forestry Education Development, Los Banos,Baños, Philippines

Jingu, R.A.R.A. Assessment of Trained Manpower and Child, G.S.G.S. Requirements for Wildlife and National ParksParks Management

Juhola, A. Finnish Support to Training for Forest Industries inin AfricaAfrica 299

Lantican, C.B.C.B. The Centre for Forestry Education Development forfor the AsiaAsia andand SouthwestSouthwest Pacific RegionsRegions (CFED)(CFED)

Michaelsen, T. The Start of a Forestry TrainingTraining Programme inin Lesotho

Odera, J.A.J.A. Narrowing the Gap between Agriculture and Forestry Education for RuralRural Development:Development: the KenyanKenyan ContextContext

Owino, F.F. Forestry Education and TrainingTraining inin Kenya:Kenya: IssuesIssues and Perspectives in Forestry,Forestry, ForestForest IndustriesIndustries and Wildlife Management Training

Rukuba, M.L.S.B.M.l.S.B. Technical Forestry Education and TrainingTraining and Hopper,Hopper, R.L.R.l. Needs in Zimbabwe

Trotter,Trotter, J.A.J.A. Centre for ForestryForestry EducationEducation DevelopmentDevelopment for thethe AsiaAsia andand SouthwestSouthwest PacificPacific RegionsRegions (CFED)(CFED) -- CourseCourse Planning, Management and Development (Abstract)(Abstract)

Yavorsky, J.M.J.M. Continuing Education Needs of ProfessionalProfessional. Foresters in Selected MemberMember CountriesCountries ofof FAOFAO..

Thirteenth SessionSession -- MexicoMexico City,City. Mexico,Mexico. 26-2826-28 JuneJune 19851985

Acosta de Fortín,Fortin, I. EducationalEducational CreditCredit inin thethe Socio-Economic and Membreflo,Membrerio, B.B. DevelopmentDevelopment of Honduras

Aldrete Terrazas, V.V. - Forestry Education Prospects in MexicoMexico

-- Structure of ForestryForestry Education in MexicoMexico 300

Bostrand, L.L. Ergonomics in Forestry

Brevig, F.Kr.F.Kr. Forestry ExtensionExtension ServiceService in the NordicNordic Countries

Cooper, R.J.R.J. Development ofof Courses in Forest Products Marketing

Garrido González,Gonzalez, F.F. Forestry Education andand TrainingTraining in Latin America: ProblemsProblems andand PerspectivesPerspectives

Hermelin, J.A.J.A. 'Triple'Triple A' Rated Method to HelpHelp PrivatePrivate and Murphy,Murphy, P.J.P.J. Woodlot OwnersOwners to HelpHelp ThemselvesThemselves

Kenny-Jordan, C.B.C.B. Rural Development: A NewNew WorldWorld for Foresters, a Difficult Challenge for Teachers of Forestry

Lantican, C.B.C.B. Education and Training for ForestForest IndustriesIndustries inin thethe Philippines

Ofosu-Asiedu, A.A. Managerial TrainingTraining inin WoodWood UtilizationUtilization atat thethe and Liese,Liese, W. University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana

PayenPaveri i Anziani,Anziani, M. Training Needs for Forestry Teaching Staff in Latin America

Redhead,Redhead, J.F. and Curriculum Development in Social Forestry in Ruangpanit, Niwat Thailand

Richter,Richter, H.G.H.G. Wood ScienceScience and Technology EducationEducation inin and Fri:maid,FrOwald, A.A. Latin American Universities - PresentPresent StatusStatus and Future NeedsNeeds 301

RomeroRomero Pastor, M. Forestry Education inin Rural Schools in thethe PeruvianPeruvian Highlands

Strehlke, B.B. Issues and Trends inin Forest Worker Training

Fourteenth Session,Session. Ljubljana,Ljubljana. Yugoslavia,Yugoslavia. 2-52-5 SeptemberSeptember 19861986

Brevig, G. and F.Kr.F.Kr. ForestryForestry' EducationEducation withinwithin the General School System in Norway

de Viedma, Trends in the Development of ForestryForestry Manuel G.G. Education in SpainSpain

Guillard, J.J. Trends andand Prospects inin Education forfor the Forestry and WoodWood UtilizationUtilization Sector in France

Hilmi,HiImi, H.A. Public Education in Forestry

Special Action Programme on ForestryForestry Education for DevelopingDeveloping CountriesCountries

KyrklundKyrklund,, B.B. FAOFAO's's Training Activities in Forest Industries

Loeschau, M.A.M.A. Trends and ProspectsProspects inin ProfessionalProfessional andand TechnicalTechnical Forestry EducationEducation andand TrainingTraining inin the centrally-plannedcentrally-planned EconomiesEconomies inin Europe,Europe, with particular Reference toto thethe GermanGerman Democratic Republic

MorandiniMorandini,, R.R. Forestry Education in Italy

Murphy, P.J.P.J. Collaboration between Forestry Schools and the Forestry and ForestForest ProductsProducts SectorSector inin Canada 302

Riihnen, P.P. Forestry Education in FinlandFinland

Roche, L.L. Trends and ProspectsProspects inin ProfessionalProfessional andand Technical Forestry Education and Training in the United Kingdom

Schmitt-)Eisen,SchmithOsen, F.F. Trends and Prospects in thethe Employment and Education of Professional Foresters in Switzerland

Sim, D.D. andand Forestry Extension Curricula.Curricula. Hilmi,HiImi, H.A.H.A.

Fifteenth SessionSession -- Antalya.Antalya, Turkey.Turkey, 20-2420-24 NovemberNovember 19891989

Bedel, J.J. Some Reflections on the SystematicSystematic AnalysisAnalysis and Training of ForestersForesters

Bedel, J. and The National School of Agricultural Bousquet, B.B. Engineering and Forestry: ExperienceExperience inin Wildlife Management Training

Demet<;i,Demetgi, E.Y.E.Y. In-Service Training Programmes of the General Directorate of ForestryForestry inin TurkeyTurkey

Fleming, W.M.W.M. The Research Basis of Forest Hydrology andand Watershed Management EducationEducation

FrykmanFrykman,, B.B. Survey of Trained Forestry Personnel Requirements toto 1995 in the Near East

Gack, N.N. Forestry Extension in Sudan withwith EmphasisEmphasis on the Training and RoleRole ofof WomenWomen 303

Griffin, D.M.D.M. The ManagementManagement of Forestry Education InstitutionsInstitutions

HeinrichHeinrich.. R.R. InternationalInternational Survey of Forest HarvestingHarvesting Training Needs in DevelopingDeveloping CountriesCountries

Hilmi,HiImi, H.A.H.A. Professional ForestryForestry EducationEducation in Turkey

Laban, P.P. andand Development of International Courses on the van Leeuween, N.N. Design of Community Forestry

Özen,Ozen, R.R. Education forfor ForestForest ProductsProducts andand ForestForest Product Engineering in Turkey.Turkey.

Sixteenth Session -- Paris,Paris. France,France. 2525 SeptemberSeptember 1991 1991

Ellefson, PaulPaul V.V. Forest Resource Policy andand Administration:Administration: A Teaching Challenge in UniV€rsityUniversity Professional Forestry Schools

Giordano,Giordano, E.E. Suggestions forfor the Realization of the Declaration of the International Conference on Forestry Education,Education, Viterbo, Italy, 17-22 September 19901990

Poschen, P.P. Forest WorkerWorker TrainingTraining - A A step-childstep-child nono longer?longer?

Schlegel,Schlegel, F.M.F.M. Secretariat Note.Note. 304

Seventeenth Session - Bangkok,Bangkok, Thailand,Thailand, 13-1513-15 DecemberDecember 19931993

Awang, K.K. Response to Users' Needs in Forestry Education, with Special Reference to Technical and Socio-EconomicSocio-Economic Aspects of Silviculture and Management TTeachingeaching in the Asia-Pacific Region

Bachelard, E.P.E.P. Continuing Professional Forestry Education: and Griffin,Griffin, D.M.D.M. A Survey of IssuesIssues

Becker, M.M. IntegrationIntegration of UniversityUniversity CoursesCourses andand and Schmidt,Schmidt, P.P. Exchange ofof ForestryForestry StudentsStudents inin EuropeEurope under the ERASMUS/Silva-NetworkERASMUS/ Silva-Network Scheme

Bedel, J.J. Vocational LevelLevel Forestry Education in FranceFrance.. TheThe ContributionContribution of Private Enterprise to thisthis TrainingTraining

Chandrasekharan, CC.. Non-Wood Forest Products inin Forestry Education

Dykstra, D.D. Teaching Ecologically Benign Logging Methods in thethe ProfessionalProfessional andand Technical-Technical­ Level Forestry Schools of thethe Asia-PacificAsia-Pacific Region

FergusonFerguson,, I.S.I.S. Postgraduate LevelLevel EducationEducation inin the Asia-Asia­ Pacific Region

Gilbert, F.F. Forestry Education's ResponseResponse to ChangingChanging Social Values and Other Resources Knowledge 305

Giry,Giry, C. EducationEducation of Private Forest Owners. Alternatives, Perspectives andand IImplications mplications for Vocational Training

Higgs, J.M. Refresher and In-ServiceIn-Service ForestryForestry Training:Training: Responding to thethe ChallengesChallenges ofof MaintainingMaintaining Quality ForestryForestry Faculty,Faculty, GovernmentGovernment andand IndustrialIndustrial PersonnelPersonnel

Kashio, M.M. TheThe Professional and TechnicalTechnical Forestry Education NetworkNetwork inin thethe Asia-PacificAsia-Pacific Region.Region. Present Working Inter-InstitutionalInter-Institutional LinkagesLinkages and Prospects

Miller, H.G.H.G. How toto Interlink Social Sciences and Extension and Communication inin Professional and Technical LeLevelvel ForeForestrystry Education Curricula

Peredo, H. Professional Forestry Education with PrivatePrivate or PublicPublic Financing.Financing. Strengths,Strengths, WeaknessesWeaknesses and StandardsStandards ofof QualityQuality

Schlegel, F.M.F.M. Secretariat Note

Temu, A. Integrating Multiple Land-UseLand-Use Approaches intointo Forestry Education with EmphasisEmphasis onon WaysWays to Train Teaching Staff and FocusFocus onon FieldField EExercisesxercises and the Development of InstructionInstruction Materials. FAO TECHNICALTECHNICAL PAPERS PAPERS

FAO FORESTRYFORESTRY PAPERSPAPERS

1 Forest utilization contracts on public land,land, 19771977 (E (E FF S)SI 2 Planning forest roadsroads and harvesting systems, 19771977 (E (E FF S)5) 3 WoWorldrld lilistst of forestryforestry schools,schools, 19771977 (E/F/S) (E /F/S) 3 Rev.1 World llistist of forestryforestry schools,schools, 19811981 (E/F/S)(E/F/S) 3 Rev.2 WorldWorld listlist ofof forestryforestry schools, schools, 19861986 (E/F/S) (E/F/S) 4/1 WorldWorld pulp andand paper demand, supplysupply andand tradetrade 1-1- Vol.Vol. 1,1, 19771977 (E {E FF S)51 4/2 WuildWorld pulppulp andand paperpaper demand, supply and trade -- Vol.Vol. 2,2, 19771977 (E IE FF S)51 5 The marketing of tropical wood,wood, 19761976 (E (E S)SI 6 NationalNational parks planning, 19761976 (E FF S*·jS**) 7 Forestry for locallocal communitycommunity development,development, 19781978 (Ar (Ar E E F F SI 51 8 EstablishmentEstablishment techniques forfor forest plantations,plantations, 19781978 (Ar(Ar C C E* E* F F S) 51 9 Wood chipschips - production,production, handling,handling, transport,transport, 19761976 (C (e E E S) 51 1010/1/1 Assessment of logging costs from forest inventoriesinventories in the tropics - 1. PrinciplesPrinciples and methodology, 1978 (E(E FF S)5) 10/2 Assessment of logging costs from forest inventoriesinventories in the tropics - 2. DataData collection andand calculations,calculations, 19781978 IE (E FF SI 51 111 1 Savanna afforestation in Africa, 19771977 (E (E F)F) 12 China: forestry support for agriculture,agriculture, 19781978 (E) (E) 13 Forest products prices 1960-1977, 19791979 (E/F/S) (E/F/S ) 14 Mountain forestforest roadsroads andand harvesting, 19791979 (E) (E) 14 Rev.Rev.1 1 Logging and transport in steep terrain, 19851985 (E)(EI 15 AGRIS forestryforestry - worldworld cataloguecatalogue ofof informationinformation and and documentationdocumentation servservices,ices, 1979 (E/F/S)(E /F/S) 16 China: integrated wood processing industries, 1979 (EIE F SI 17 Economic analysis ofof forestry projects, 19791979 (E (E FF S)S) 17Sup.117 Sup.1 Economic analysis ofof foforestryrestry projects: casecase studies, 19791979 IE(E S)S) 1177 Sup.2 EconomicEconomic analysis analysis ofof forestryforestry projects: projects: readings,readings, 19801980 (C(C E)E) 1188 Forest productsproducts pricesprices 1960-.1978,1960,1978, 19801980 (E/F/S) (E/F/S) 19/19/11 PuPulpinglping and paper-makpaper-makinging properties properties of of fastfast-growing-growing pplantationlantation wood species -- Vol.Vol. 1,1, 19801980 (E)(EI 19/2 PUlpingPulping and paper-makingpaper-making properties properties of of fastfast-growing-growing plantation wood species -- Vol.Vol. 2, 19801980 (El(EI 20 Forest tree improvement, 1985 (CIC EE F SIS) 20/220/ 2 A guide to forest seedseed handling, 1985 (E(E S5 I) 21 ImpactImpact on soils of fast-growingfast-growing speciesspecies in lowlandlowland humid tropics,tropics. 19801980 IE(E F SI 22/1 Forest vovolumelume estimation and yield prediction - Vol. 1. Volume estimation, 19801980 (C(C EE FF S)51 2222/2/2 Forest volume estimation and yield prediction - Vol. 2. YieldYield prediction,prediction, 19801980 (C (C EE F F S) 51 23 Forest productsproducts prices prices 1 1961-1980,9 6 1 -1 9 80, 19819811 (E/F/S)(E /F/S) 24 Cable logging systems, 1981 (C(C E)EI 25 Public foforestryrestry administrations ~ in LatinLatin America,America, 19811981 (E)(EI 26 Forestry and rural development, 19811981 (E (E FF S) 51 27 Manual of forestforest inventory, 19811981 (EIE F)F) 2828 SmaSmallll and medium sawmills in developdevelopinging countries, 1981 (E(E S)SI 29 World forest products, demand and supply 19901990 2000, 19821982 (E IE FF SI51 30 Tropical forest resources,resources, 1982 (E(E F 51 31 Appropriate technology in forestry, 19821982 (E)(EI 32 Classification and defidefinitionsnitions of forest products, 19821982 (Ar/E/F/S)(Ar/E/F/S) 33 Logging ofof mountain forests, 19821982 (E (E FF S)5) 34 Fruit-bearing forest trees, 19821982 (E (E FF S)5) 35 Forestry in China, 19821982 (C(C ElE) 36 Basic technologytechnology in forest operations, 19821982 (E(E FF SI5) 37 Conservation and developmentdevelopment ofof tropical forest resources,resources, 1982 (E(E FF SI5) 38 Forest productsproducts pricesprices 1962-19811962-1981,, 19821982 (E/F/S)(E /F/5) 39 Frame sawsaw manual, 1982 (E)(E) 40 Circular sawsaw manual, 1983 (E)(E) 4141 5impSimplele technologiestechnologies for charcoal making,making, 19831983 (E (E FF S)5) 42 Fuelwood supplies inin thethe developing countries,countries, 1983 (Ar(Ar EE F S)5) 43 Forest revenuerevenue systems iinn developing countries, 19831983 (EIE FF S)5) 44/144/1 Food andand fruitfruit-bearing-bearing forest speciesspecies - 1. Examples fromfrom eastern Africa, 1983 (E(E FF S)5) 44/244/2 Food andand fruit-beafruit-bearingring forest speciesspecies - 2. Examples from southeasternsoutheastern Asia,Asia, 19841984 (E IE FF S) 5) 4444/3/3 Food andand fruitfruit-bearing-bearing forest speciesspecies -- 3,3. ExamplesExamples from Latin America, 19861986 (E (E S)5) 45 EstablishingEstablishing pulppulp and paper mimills,lls, 1983 (E)(E) 46 ForestForest productsproducts prices 1963-'1963-1982, 982, 19831983 (E/F/S) (E/F/S) 47 Technical forestry education - designdesign andand implementation, 19841984 (E(E F S)5) 48 Land evaluationevaluation for forestry, 19841984 (C (C EE F F S) 5) 49 Wood extraction withwith oxen oxen andand agriculturalagricultura l tractors,tractors, 19861986 (E (E F F S) 5) 50 Changes in in shiftingshifting cultivationcultivation in Africa, 1984 (E(E F) 50/150/1 Changes inin shiftingshifting cultivation in Africa -- sevenseven case-studies,case-studies, 19851985 (E) (E) 51/151 /1 5tudiesStudies on thethe volume andand yieldyield of of tropicaltropical forestforest standsstands -- 1.1. DryDry forestforest formations,formations, 19891989 (E (E F)F) 5252/1/1 Cost estimating inin sawmillingsawmilling industries:industries: guidelines,guidelines, 19841984 (E) IE) 52/2 Field manual onon costcost estimation in sawmillingsawmilling industries,industries, 19851985 (E) (E) 53 Intensive multiple-usemUltiple-use forestforest managementmanagement inin Kerala,Kerala, 19841984 (E (E FF SI 5) 54 Planificaci6nPlanificación dedell desarrollo forestal, 19841984 (SI(5) 55 IntensiveIntensive multiple-use forestforest management in the tropics, 19851985 (E IE FF SI5) 56 Breeding poplars for diseasedisease resistance,resistance, 19851985 (E) (E) 57 Coconut woodwood - ProcessingProcessing and useuse,, 19851985(E IE S)5) 58 Sawdoctoring5awdoctoring manual,manual, 19851985 (E (E SI5) 59 The ecologicalecological effects of eucalyptus,eucalyptus, 19851985 (C (C EE FF S)5) 60 Monitoring and evaluaevaluationtion of participatory forestryforestry projects,projects, 19851985 IE (E FF SI5) 61 Forest productsproducts prices 1965-1984, 19851985 (E/F/S) (E/F/5) 62 World listli st ofof institutionsinstitutions engagedengaged inin forestryforestry andand forestforest productsproducts research,research, 1985 (E/F/S)(EIF/SI 63 IndIndustrialustria l charcoal making, 19851985 (E) (E) 64 Tree growing byby ruralrural people,people, 19851985 (Ar (Ar E E F F S) 5) 65 Forest legislation in selected 'AfricanAfrican countries, 19861986 (E (E F)F) 66 Forestry extension organization, 1986 (C(C EE S)5) 67 Some50me medicmedicinalinal forest plantspla nts of AfricaAfrica andand LatinLatin America,America, 19861986 (E)(E) 68 Appropriate forest industries,industries, 19861986 (E) (E) 69 .'Management Management of forestforest industries,industries, 19861986 (E) (E) 70 WildlandVVildland firefire managementmanagement terminology, 19861986 (E/F/S) (E /F/S) 71 World compendium of forestry andand forestforest productsproducts researchresearch institutions,institutions, 1986 (E/F/S)IEIFISI 72 WoodVVood gasgas asas engineengine fuel,fuel, 19861986 (E (E S)5) 73' Forest products: world outlook projections 1985-2000,1985-2000, 19861986 (E/F/S) (E /F/S) 74 Guidelines for forestry information processing,processing, 19861986 (E)(E) 75 An operational guide toto the monitoring and evaluation ofof social forestryforestry in India,India, 19861986 (E)lEI 76 Wood preservation manual,manual. 19861986 (E)(E) 77 Databook on endangeredendangered tree andand shrubshru b speciesspecies and provenances,provenances, 1986 (E)lEI 78 Appropriate wood harvesting in plantation forests, 1987 (E)(E) 79 SmaSmall-scalell-scale forest-based processing enterprises,enterprises, 19871987 (E (E FF S) 5) 80 Forestry extension methods, 19871987 (E) (E) 81 GuGuidelinesidelines forfor forest policy formulation, 19871987 (C (C E)E) 82 ForestFOrest productsproducts pricesprices 1967-1986, 19881988 (E/F/S) (E/F/S) 83 Trade in forest products: aa studystudy ofof thethe barriersbarriers facedfaced byby thethe developingdeveloping countries, 19881988 (E)(E) 84 Forest products:products: WorWorldld outlook projections 1987-2000 -- ProductProduct and and country tables, 19881988 (E/F/S) (E l F/51 85 Forestry extension curricula, 19881988 (E/F/S) (E /F/S) 86 Forestry policies in Europe,Europe, 1988 (E)(E) 87 Small-scale harvestingharvesting operationsoperations ofof wood and non-wood forest products involvinginvolving ruralrural people,people, 19881988 (E (E FF S)5) 88 Management ofof tropical moist forests in Africa, 19891989 (E (E FF P)PI 89 Review of forest managementmanagement systems of tropicaltropical Asia,Asia, 19891989 (E) lEI 90 Forestry and food security, 19891989 (Ar(Ar E E SI 51 91 Design manual onon basicbasic woodwood harvesting technology, 1989 (E(E F S)5) (Published only as FAOFAD Training Series, No. 18)18) 9992 Forestry polpoliciesicies in Europe -- AnAn analysis,analysis, 19891989 (E)(E) 93 Energy conservationconservation inin thethe mechanical forestforest industries, 1990 (E(E S)5) 94 Manual on sawmisawmillll operationaloperational maintenance,maintenance, 1990 (E)lEI 95 Forest pproductsroducts prices 1969-1988, 19901990 (E/F/S) (E/F!S) 96 Planning and managing foforestryrestry research:research: guidelinesguidelines forfor managers,managers, 1990 (E)lEI 97 Non-wood forest products: thethe wayway ahead, ahead, 19911991 (E(E S)S) 98 Timber plantations inin thethe humid tropics of Africa, 19931993 (E (E F)F) 99 Cost control in forest harvesting and road construction, 1992 (E)(E) 100 IntroductionIntroduction to ergonomicsergonomics in forestry inin developingdeveloping countries, 1992 (E(E F I) 101 Management andand conservationconservation ofof closed forests in tropical America, 1993 (EIE FF PP S)51 102 Research managementmanagement inin forestry,forestry, 1992 (EIE FF S)51 1031 03 Mixed and pure forest plantations in the tropicstropics andand subtropics, 19921992 (E) (E) 110404 Forest pproductsroducts pricesprices 1971-1990,1971-1990, 19921992 (E)(E) 110505 Compendium ofof pulp and paperpaper trainingtraining andand research research institutions,institutions, 1992 lEI(E) 110606 Economic assessment ofof forestryforestry project impacts, 19921992 (E(E F)F) 107 Conservation of genetic resources in trtropicalopical forestforest management - PrincipPrinciplesles andand concepts,concepts, 1993 (E)(E) 108 A decade ofof wood energyenergy activitiesactivities within thethe NairobiNairobi ProgrammeProgramme of Action, 19931993 (E) (E) 109 DirectoDirectoryry of forestry researchresearch organizations,organizations, 19931993 (E)IE) 110 Proceedings ofof the Meeting of ExpertsExperts onon ForestryForestry Research,Research. 19931993 (E/F/S) (E/F/ S) 111 Forestry policiespolicies iinn thethe NearNear EastEast region region - - AnaAnalysislysis andand synthesis,synthesis, 19931993 IE)(E) 112 Forest resourcesresources assessment assessment 1990 1990 - - Tropical countries, 1993 (El(E) 113 Ex situ storage of seeds, pollen and inin vitrovitro cultures of perennial woody plant species,species. 19931993 (E) (E) 114 Assessing forestry project impacts:impacts: issuesissues andand strategies, 19931993 (E) (E) 115 Forestry policiespolicies of selectedselected countriescountries in AsiaAsia andand the Pacific,Pacific, 19931993 (E) (E) 116 Les panneapanneauxux aà base de bois, 19931993 (F) (F) 117117 Mangrove forestforest managementmanagement guidelines,guidelines, 19931993 (E) (E) 118118 BiotechnologyBiotechhology in forest treetree improvement,improvement. 19941994 (E) (E) 111919 Les produits bois rreconstitués,econstit ues, liantsliants etet environnement,environnement. 19941994 (F) (F) 120 Decline andand diedieback back ofof ttreesrees andand forestsforests -- A globalglobal overview,overview, 19941994 (E) (E) 121 EcologíaEcologia y enseflanzaenseñanza rruralural - ManualManual para profesores ruralesrurales deldel áreaarea andina.andina, 1994 (S)(5) 122 Readings inin sustainable forest management, 1994 (E)(E) 123 Forestry education - New trends andand prospects, 19941994 IE (E F)F)

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