Journal of the WASHINGTON ACADEMY of SCIENCES Volume 102 Number 4 Winter 2016 Contents

i Journal of the WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Volume 102 Number 4 Winter 2016 Contents Editorial Remarks S. Howard ................................................................................ ii Tribute to Katharine Gebbie W. Phillips ................................................................ iv Board of Discipline Editors .................................................................................... vi Laser Cooling and Trapping of Neutral Atoms W. Phillips .................................... 1 Bose Einstein Condensation in a Dilute Gas E. Cornell & C. Wieman .................. 53 Defining and Measuring Optical Frequencies J. Hall .............................................101 Superposition, Entanglement, and Raising Schrödinger’s Cat D. Wineland ..........141 Membership Application .......................................................................................172 Instructions to Authors ..........................................................................................173 Affiliated Institutions ..............................................................................................174 Membership List ....................................................................................................175 Affiliated Societies and Delegates .........................................................................182 ISSN 0043-0439 Issued Quarterly at Washington DC Winter 2016 ii Editorial Remarks This issue of the Journal is a special one. We dedicate this Journal to Katharine Gebbie, who for over twenty years, directed the National Institute of Standards and Technology’s (NIST) Physical Laboratory and its successor, the Physical Measurement Laboratory (PML). Over decades of service Gebbie accumulated an impressive list of honors recognizing her work and impact. They include two Department of Commerce (DoC) Gold Medals, a DoC Distinguished Rank Award, the NIST Equal Employment Opportunity award, a Lifetime Achievement Award from the professional society Women in Science and Engineering, the Washington Academy of Science’s Physical Science Award, a special award from the American Physical Society for her leadership role in fostering excellence in Atomic, Molecular, and Optical science, and the 2002 Service to America Award from the Partnership for Public Service – the first of such recognitions given to anyone at NIST. She is also a Fellow of the Washington Academy of Sciences, the American Association of Arts and Sciences, the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and the American Physical Society. She was Vice-President of the International Committee on Weights and Measures (CIPM) from 1993 to1999. She was named after her aunt, Katharine Burr Blodgett, who was the first woman to earn a Ph.D. in physics from the University of Cambridge, a world-class scientist, a long-time colleague of Irving Langmuir at General Electric, and the co-discoverer of Langmuir-Blodgett thin films. She was married to Alastair Gebbie, a pioneer in Fourier Transform Spectroscopy. She was known for her kindness and wisdom. I came to know her late and saw that unique person who shone with excitement for science and for the people who work in it. It was a singular privilege to have known her. She strongly supported the Washington Academy of Science’s awards program. We could always depend on her to submit superb candidates for awards. In a rare move Gebbie’s colleagues renamed NIST’s precision measurement laboratory in Boulder, Colorado in her honor. “This renaming is our small way of saying thank you… for all [Katharine] has done for this organization over such a long period of time,” said NIST Director Willie E. May. An astrophysicist by training, Gebbie received her B.A. in Physics from Bryn Mawr College, subsequently earning a B.S. in Astronomy and Ph.D. in Physics from University College London. Washington Academy of Sciences iii For several years in the mid-1960s she trekked in Nepal, went mountaineering in Turkey, and flew around North America in her mother’s airplane. Both Dr. Gebbie and her parents had taken professional flying lessons. Please enjoy this issue in honor of Katharine Gebbie. Sethanne Howard Editor Winter 2016 iv A Tribute to Katharine Blodgett Gebbie KATHARINE BLODGETT GEBBIE, a Fellow of the Washington Academy of Sciences, was born on 4 July 1932 and died on 17 August 2016. Katharine spent most of her professional career at the National Institute of Standards and Technology (originally the National Bureau of Standards). Trained as an astrophysicist, she began her association with NBS/NIST in 1966 as a postdoc at JILA, then known as the Joint Institute for Laboratory Astrophysics, a cooperative operation of NIST and the University of Colorado at Boulder. After a distinguished career in research, Katharine was persuaded to turn her talents to scientific management. A series of increasingly responsible positions led her to become the founding Director of NIST’s Physics Laboratory in 1991. She remained the director of that Laboratory for all of its 20 years and was also the founding director of its even larger successor, the NIST Physical Measurement Laboratory. Many of us believe her laboratory to be the best place in the entire world in which to do research in Physics, predominantly because of the atmosphere that Katharine created. Her creed was to hire the best people, give them the resources to do their work, and let them do it. While many other managers might have said similar things, she actually did it, and the results were astounding. Within a span of 15 years, four of her scientists received Nobel Prizes in Physics. Two of her researchers received the prestigious MacArthur awards, and many other accolades were bestowed on those under her leadership. She was a true servant, and gloried in the accomplishments of those she nurtured. This issue of the Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences pays tribute to Katharine Blodgett Gebbie by reprinting the “Nobel Lectures” of Katharine’s four Laureates, William Phillips (1997), Eric Cornell (2001), John Hall (2005), and David Wineland (2012). These are the articles prepared by the Laureates for publication in Reviews of Modern Physics a few months after the award of the Nobel Prize, and are not transcripts of the Washington Academy of Sciences v Nobel Lectures delivered in Stockholm during the events association with the 10 December prize award ceremony. The article by Cornell is co- authored with his University of Colorado colleague Carl Wieman, with whom he worked closely at JILA, and who also benefitted from Katharine Gebbie’s leadership. William D. Phillips Gaithersburg January 2017 Winter 2016 vi Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences Editor Sethanne Howard [email protected] Board of Discipline Editors The Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences has an 11-member Board of Discipline Editors representing many scientific and technical fields. The members of the Board of Discipline Editors are affiliated with a variety of scientific institutions in the Washington area and beyond — government agencies such as the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST); universities such as Georgetown; and professional associations such as the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). Anthropology Emanuela Appetiti [email protected] Astronomy Sethanne Howard [email protected] Biology/Biophysics Eugenie Mielczarek [email protected] Botany Mark Holland [email protected] Chemistry Deana Jaber [email protected] Environmental Natural Sciences Terrell Erickson [email protected] Health Robin Stombler [email protected] History of Medicine Alain Touwaide [email protected] Operations Research Michael Katehakis [email protected] Science Education Jim Egenrieder [email protected] Systems Science Elizabeth Corona [email protected] Washington Academy of Sciences 1 1 Laser cooling and trapping of neutral atoms William D. Phillips National Institute of Standards and Technology, Introduction IN 1978, WHILE I WAS A POSTDOCTORAL fellow at MIT, I read a paper by Art Ashkin (1978) in which he described how one might slow down an atomic beam of sodium using the radiation pressure of a laser beam tuned to an atomic resonance. After being slowed, the atoms would be captured in a trap consisting of focused laser beams, with the atomic motion being damped until the temperature of the atoms reached the microkelvin range. That paper was my first introduction to laser cooling, although the idea of laser cooling (the reduction of random thermal velocities using radiative forces) had been proposed three years earlier in independent papers by Hänsch and Schawlow (1975) and Wineland and Dehmelt (1975). Although the treatment in Ashkin’s paper was necessarily over-simplified, it provided one of the important inspirations for what I tried to accomplish for about the next decade. Another inspiration appeared later that same year: Wineland, Drullinger and Walls (1978) published the first laser cooling experiment, in which they cooled a cloud of Mg+ ions held in a Penning trap. At essentially the same time, Neuhauser, Hohenstatt, Toschek and Dehmelt (1978) also reported laser cooling of trapped Ba+ ions. Those laser cooling experiments of 1978 were a dramatic demonstration of the mechanical effects of light, but such effects have a much longer history. The understanding that electromagnetic radiation exerts a force became quantitative only with Maxwell’s theory of electromagnetism, even

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