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Infrared Imaging with COAST

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Infrared Imaging with COAST Infrared Imaging with COAST John Stephen Young St John’s College, Cambridge and Cavendish Astrophysics A dissertation submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the University of Cambridge 26 March 1999 iii Preface This dissertation describes work carried out in the Astrophysics Group of the Department of Phys- ics, University of Cambridge, between October 1995 and March 1999. Except where explicit reference is made to the work of others, this dissertation is the result of my own work, and includes nothing which is the outcome of work done in collaboration. No part of this dissertation has been submitted for a degree, diploma, or other qualification at any University. This dissertation does not exceed 60,000 words in length. v Acknowledgements Many people say that this is the only page of a PhD. thesis worth reading. I hope that is not the case here. This is, however, the only page not written in the passive voice, and the only one which might make you smile. Above all, I would like to thank my supervisor, Professor John Baldwin, for always being available to give advice and encouragement, and for assisting with many hours of alignment and even more hours of observing. The shortbread was much appreciated! Many thanks are also due for his reading of this thesis. It has been a pleasure to work with all of the members of the COAST team. None of the work described in this thesis would have been possible without the NICMOS camera built by Martin Beckett. I would like to thank him for taking the time to explain it to me. I am also grateful to Craig Mackay for revealing some of the undocumented features of CCD controllers. I would like to thank Chris Haniff for many useful discussions, and for reading Chapter 8. Peter Warner was always willing to hack the Nord software to accommodate the infrared system, and participated in most of the observing with COAST. David Burns wrote the original versions of most of the analysis software. Donald Wilson contributed his expertise to the artificial star and mirror drives used in the IR beam combiner. Thanks to Richard Wilson for help with the Betelgeuse stuff. Peter Lawson also participated in the WHT run which yielded the Betelgeuse data. Amanda George and Debbie Pearson took the photographs of COAST. All of the above, plus John Rogers, Roger Boysen, and David St-Jacques contributed to the very enjoyable COAST meetings on Friday afternoons. Of those outside Cambridge, I would like to thank Professor Michael Scholz for supplying model Mira CLVs, and Dr. Joseph Lehar for modifying his versions of the Caltech VLBI model-fitting software. My office mates deserve a mention for putting up with me. Keith and Mat should go first, for 1 surviving all 3 2 years of me (and the canteen food). Klaus, Youri, Firouzeh, Dave, Marcel and Anja all helped to brighten things up too. Special thanks are due to my long-time housemates Matt, Emma (honorary housemate), Tim, Steve, and Anna. I also want to thank Dave, Pip and Fred for keeping me in touch with the real world. I owe the largest debt of gratitude to my family. Thanks to Mum, Dad and Suzanne for love and support from afar, and to my grandparents for the same from slightly closer. To my family The Cambridge Optical Aperture Synthesis Telescope x Contents 1 Introduction and Historical Perspective 1 1.1Highresolutionimaging.............................. 1 1.2Historyofopticalstellarinterferometry...................... 3 1.3Historyofinfraredstellarinterferometry...................... 4 1.4Thiswork...................................... 5 2 Infrared Detectors for Interferometry 7 2.1Detectorprinciples................................. 7 2.2Performance..................................... 8 2.2.1 Quantumefficiency............................. 8 2.2.2 Readnoise................................. 9 2.2.3 Readout time . ............................. 9 2.2.4 Linearity.................................. 9 2.2.5 Darkcurrent................................ 9 2.2.6 Wellcapacity................................ 10 2.2.7 Arraysize.................................. 10 2.3NICMOScamera.................................. 10 2.3.1 NICMOSdevice.............................. 10 2.3.2 Dewar.................................... 11 2.3.3 Interfacebox................................ 11 2.3.4 CCDcontroller............................... 11 xii CONTENTS 2.3.5 Hostcomputer............................... 11 2.4 Pixel readout .................................... 12 3 Optical Systems 15 3.1 Components of an optical/infrared interferometer ................. 15 3.1.1 Telescopes................................. 15 3.1.2 Acquisition/autoguiding.......................... 16 3.1.3 Pathcompensation............................. 16 3.1.4 Correlator.................................. 16 3.2Possiblecorrelatordesigns............................. 17 3.2.1 All-on-onev.pair-wisebeamcombination................. 17 3.2.2 Image plane v. pupil plane combination . ................. 18 3.3Alignmentproblems................................ 23 3.3.1 Generalproblems.............................. 23 3.3.2 Infrared-specificproblems......................... 24 3.4Alignmentsolutions................................. 28 3.4.1 Measuring the pupil positions ....................... 28 3.4.2 Referencedirections............................ 30 3.4.3 Focusingtheartificialstar......................... 31 3.4.4 Schemeforfineadjustmentofthebeamdirections............ 33 3.4.5 Resultsandsummary............................ 36 3.5Performance..................................... 37 3.5.1 Optical throughput . ............................ 37 3.5.2 Fringe visibility . ............................ 42 3.5.3 Spectral response . ............................ 42 3.5.4 Closurephases............................... 45 3.5.5 Path stability ................................ 46 3.5.6 Conclusions................................. 46 CONTENTS xiii 4 NICMOS3 Infrared Camera 47 4.1Samplingrequirements............................... 47 4.2 Readout of the NICMOS array ........................... 49 4.2.1 NICMOSfeatures............................. 51 4.2.2 Extrinsicnoise............................... 53 4.3Futureimprovements................................ 55 4.4Summary...................................... 59 5 Stellar Observations, Data Reduction and Analysis 61 5.1 Introduction ..................................... 61 5.2Observations.................................... 62 5.2.1 Telescopealignment............................ 62 5.2.2 Findingfringes............................... 62 5.2.3 Recordingfringedata............................ 63 5.3 Visibility amplitude estimation ........................... 67 5.4Closurephaseestimation.............................. 70 5.5Capellaobservationsanddatareduction...................... 71 5.6Imagereconstruction................................ 72 5.7 Model fitting .................................... 75 5.7.1 Effectivetemperatures........................... 76 5.8Conclusions..................................... 78 6 The Wavelength-dependent Morphology of Betelgeuse 81 6.1 Introduction ..................................... 81 6.2Observationsanddatareduction.......................... 82 6.2.1 Measurements with COAST at 1.3 µm................... 83 6.2.2 MeasurementswithCOASTat905nm.................. 84 6.2.3 MeasurementswiththeWHT....................... 84 xiv CONTENTS 6.3Results........................................ 85 6.3.1 Fourierdata................................. 85 6.3.2 Images................................... 90 6.3.3 Asymmetries................................ 90 6.3.4 Apparentsizesandlimb-darkening.................... 97 6.4Discussion...................................... 100 6.4.1 Asymmetries................................ 100 6.4.2 Infraredlimb-darkening.......................... 106 6.5Conclusions..................................... 107 7 Cyclic Variations in the Angular Diameter of χ Cygni 109 7.1 Introduction ..................................... 109 7.1.1 Miravariables............................... 109 7.1.2 DiameterchangesofMiras......................... 110 7.2Observationsanddatareduction.......................... 110 7.2.1 MeasurementswithCOAST........................ 110 7.2.2 MeasurementswiththeWHT....................... 111 7.3Results........................................ 114 7.4Discussion...................................... 118 7.5Conclusions..................................... 119 8 Mira Variables 121 8.1 Introduction ..................................... 121 8.2Observationsanddatareduction.......................... 121 8.3Results........................................ 122 8.3.1 Simplemodels............................... 122 8.3.2 Asymmetries................................ 124 8.3.3 Photosphericdiameters........................... 128 CONTENTS xv 8.3.4 Variationwithphase............................ 133 8.3.5 Effectivetemperatures........................... 133 8.3.6 Linearradii................................. 135 8.4Discussion...................................... 135 8.4.1 Asymmetriesandlimb-darkening..................... 135 8.4.2 Previously-published angular diameters .................. 137 8.4.3 Effectivetemperatures........................... 137 8.4.4 Linearradiiandpulsationmodes...................... 138 8.5Conclusions..................................... 142 9 Conclusions 143 9.1Thefuture...................................... 145 xvi CONTENTS List of Figures 2.1Circuitforcalculationofresetnoise........................ 12 2.2DCScircuitry.................................... 14
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