A Comparative Study of Selected Secondary School Preservice Music Teacher Education Programs in the Republic of Korea And

A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF SELECTED SECONDARY SCHOOL

PRESERVICE MUSIC TEACHER EDUCATION PROGRAMS

IN THE REPUBLIC OF KOREA

AND THE UNITED STATES

Bo Yeon Kim

A dissertation submitted to the faculty of The University of Utah in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Doctor of Philosophy

School of Music

The University of Utah

December 2015

The University of Utah Graduate School

STATEMENT OF DISSERTATION APPROVAL

The dissertation of Bo Yeon Kim has been approved by the following supervisory committee members:

Mark Ely , Chair 03/13/2015 Date Approved

Joelle Lien , Member 03/13/2015 Date Approved

Rachel Nardo , Member 03/13/2105 Date Approved

Hasse Borup , Member 03/13/2015 Date Approved

Michael Gardner , Member 03/13/2015 Date Approved

and by Miguel Chuaqui , Chair/Dean of the Department/College/School of Music and by David B. Kieda, Dean of The Graduate School.

ABSTRACT

In this study, I investigated and compared secondary school preservice music teacher education programs in the Republic of Korea and in the United States of

America. The purpose of this study was to identify similarities and differences between secondary school preservice music teacher education programs from Korea and the

United States to facilitate understanding of teacher education programs. I analyzed in detail the admission requirements, curricula, and teaching practica of selected universities in both countries. Specifically, four Korean universities and three U.S. universities were selected for analysis. The Korean universities were Chonnam National

University [CNU], Kongju National University [KNU], Korea National University of

Education [KNUE], and Konkuk University [KU]. The U.S. universities were The

University of Arizona [UA], University of Colorado Boulder [CU-Boulder], and The

University of Utah [UU].

The results indicated that for admission requirements, the U.S. universities consider a balance of academic achievement and musical abilities, while the Korean universities allow applicants to compensate for a weakness in one area with a strength in another. Regarding curricula, the U.S. universities focus more on major coursework than do the Korean universities, while there seems to be no particular difference in teaching coursework. Regarding teaching practica, the U.S. universities require more credits overall and longer student teaching periods than do Korean universities.

To my Dad, Byeong Og Kim,

for your love, patience, support, encouragement, humor, and prayer

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT ...... iii

LIST OF TABLES ...... vii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... x

Chapters

1 INTRODUCTION ...... 1

Need for the Study ...... 4 The Problem ...... 7 Purpose of the Study ...... 9 Research Questions ...... 9 Scope of the Study ...... 10 Definition of Terms ...... 10

2 BACKGROUND SUMMARY AND LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 12

Korean Education System ...... 13 Development of Korean Education System ...... 14 Structure of Korean Education System ...... 15 Standards for Korean Music Teachers ...... 16 U.S. Education System ...... 22 Development of U.S. Education System ...... 23 Structure of U.S. Education System ...... 25 Standards for U.S. Music Teachers ...... 27 Related Studies ...... 36 Korea ...... 36 The United States ...... 39 Comparative Studies ...... 42 Summary ...... 43

3 METHODOLOGY AND PROGRAM CONTENT ANALYSIS ...... 47

Programs of Study ...... 47 Procedures ...... 48

Admission Requirements ...... 49 Admission Requirements of Korean Programs ...... 49 Admission Requirements of U.S. Programs ...... 57 Comparison of Admission Requirements in Korean and U.S. Programs ..... 64 Curricula ...... 65 Curricula of Korean Programs ...... 65 Curricula of U.S. Programs ...... 76 Comparison of Curricula in Korean and U.S. Programs ...... 81 Teaching Practica ...... 82 Teaching Practica of Korean Programs ...... 82 Teaching Practica of U.S. Programs ...... 86 Comparison of Teaching Practica in Korean and U.S. Programs ...... 88

4 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS ...... 121

A Review of the Study ...... 121 Discussion and Conclusions ...... 122 Research Question 1 ...... 122 Research Question 2 ...... 126 Research Question 3 ...... 128 Implications for Now ...... 130 Recommendations for Further Research ...... 132

REFERENCES ...... 133

LIST OF TABLES

Tables

3.1. Selected Universities ...... 90

3.2. CNU Admission Requirements ...... 90

3.3. CNU Performance Audition Requirements ...... 91

3.4. KNU Admission Requirements ...... 92

3.5. KNU Performance Audition Requirements ...... 92

3.6. KNUE Admission Requirements ...... 93

3.7. KNUE Performance Audition Requirements ...... 93

3.8. KU Admission Requirements ...... 94

3.9. KU Performance Audition Requirements ...... 94

3.10. UA Admission Requirements ...... 94

3.11. UA Performance Audition Requirements ...... 95

3.12. CU-Boulder Admission Requirements ...... 96

3.13. CU-Boulder Performance Audition Requirements ...... 97

3.14. UU Admission Requirements ...... 98

3.15. UU Performance Audition Requirements ...... 98

3.16. MOE Teaching Coursework Requirements ...... 99

3.17. Contents of Teaching Coursework ...... 100

3.18. MOE Subject Education Coursework Requirements ...... 101

3.19. MOE Music Foundation Coursework Requirements ...... 101

3.20. MOE Criteria for Teacher Certificate ...... 102

3.21. CNU Curriculum Requirements ...... 103

3.22. CNU Major Coursework ...... 103

3.23. KNU Curriculum Requirements ...... 104

3.24. KNU Major Coursework ...... 104

3.25. KNUE Curriculum Requirements ...... 105

3.26. KNUE Major Coursework ...... 106

3.27. KU Curriculum Requirements ...... 107

3.28. KU Major Coursework ...... 108

3.29. Curricula Analysis of Korean Universities ...... 109

3.30. Korean Universities Music Courses ...... 110

3.31. Korean Universities Music Education Courses ...... 111

3.32. Teaching Coursework of U.S. Universities ...... 112

3.33. UA Curriculum Requirements ...... 112

3.34. UA Major Coursework ...... 113

3.35. CU-Boulder Curriculum Requirements ...... 113

3.36. CU-Boulder Major Coursework ...... 114

3.37. UU Curriculum Requirements ...... 114

3.38. UU Major Coursework ...... 115

3.39. Curricula Analysis of U.S. Universities ...... 116

3.40. U.S. Universities Music Courses ...... 117

3.41. U.S. Universities Music Education Courses ...... 118

viii

3.42. Comparison of Curricula in Korean and U.S. Universities ...... 118

3.43. MOE Student Teaching Requirements ...... 119

3.44. MOE Educational Volunteer Work Requirements ...... 119

3.45. Teaching Practica Requirements of Korean Universities ...... 120

3.46. Teaching Practica Requirements of U.S. Universities ...... 120

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I wish to express my sincerest thanks and gratitude to all of the wonderful individuals who offered their support, encouragement, and assistance. Particular thanks are extended to Dr. Mark Ely, my committee chair, for kind guidance, advice, and patience throughout my entire doctoral study. Special thanks are extended to Dr. Rachel

Nardo, one of my committee members, for her advice and support in helping me recognize my goals and direction in music education. Heartfelt thanks are extended to Dr.

Joelle Lien, Dr. Hasse Borup, and Dr. Michael Gardner for your willingness to serve on my committee and for sharing your expertise and encouragement.

Most of all, I wish to express my deepest gratitude to my dear family whose prayers and encouragement have sustained me through every endeavor. Thank you to my younger brother, Jae Gyeong Kim, for sharing your love, laughter, and enduring support and for being there for our parents while I have completed my doctoral study. Thank you to my parents, Byeong Og Kim and Seoung Ran Kim, for loving me unconditionally and for supporting me every step of the way through every life endeavor. Dad, thank you for your love, belief, and encouragement and for always thinking of me as your proud daughter. You helped me to never give up on my chosen path. You are my wonderful father. Mom, thank you for all of your support, patience, sacrifice, and prayers allowing me to recognize my desire to learn and pursue my dreams. I love you.

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

The academic benefits of music education have been well documented. According to the Utah Music Educators Association (2012), students who participate in music programs have higher Scholastic Aptitude Test [SAT] scores than students who do not.

Students who participate in music programs also receive more awards and academic honors than students who do not. In addition, students who participate in music programs have fewer issues related to school misbehavior than students who do not. The National

Association for Music Education [NAfME] emphasized that the study of music contributes to students’ success throughout their entire lives. According to NAfME

(n.d.a), “Participation in music, often as not based on grounding in music education during the formative school years, brings countless benefits . . . [which] may be psychological or spiritual, and they may be physical as well” (p. 4). None of these benefits are obtained without an excellent music teacher.

The National Board for Professional Teaching Standards [NBPTS] (2001) explained the effects of accomplished music educators:

Accomplished music educators have the power to engage students in educational experiences that might well be life changing, allowing them to discover new things about themselves and others that they might not otherwise have known;

inspiring them to give music a prominent and permanent place in their lives; or, for some, supplying a constructive means of expression and a path to achievement that can prevent them from making unproductive choices. (p. 1)

If music education provides academic benefits to students, it follows that society must ensure students are taught by the very best music teachers in order to gain those academic benefits. In fact, research implies that music teacher education may be a critical factor in the formation of excellent programs, because the quality of teacher education has a direct influence on the quality of teaching in schools (Ballantyne & Packer, 2004, p.

299). Because the quality of teacher education is directly related to teachers’ professional knowledge and skills (National Research Council, 2001, p. 115), professional skills and competencies are one of the important aspects required for music teachers to be outstanding leaders in the learning environment (Jang, 1988, p. 2). Preservice music teacher education is especially important, because music teachers encounter special challenges in their classroom teaching (Ballantyne & Packer, 2004, p. 299). Jackson

(2008) indicates that music educators believe that they are being inadequately prepared to face the challenges of classroom management during the early years of teaching. He writes, “This researcher recommends that undergraduate teacher training institutions begin to take action based on what their graduates are trying to communicate to them and to all those who are responsible for the preservice preparation of music educators” (p.

111).

In terms of requirements for music teacher education programs, Peterson (1955) studied secondary school preservice music teacher education programs in Western colleges and universities in the United States, and he concluded that, “the training program of the secondary school music teacher must be broad in scope, balanced in

3 emphasis, and effective in preparing him [or her] to become an educator as well as a musician” (p. 131). While Peterson’s three recommendations may be viewed as principles on which to build a program, emerging research reveals the expanding complexities of music teacher education, including the examination of new imperatives, pedagogies, and means of assessment. For example, Rumpf (2012) examined music teacher education research within the United States between 1982 and 2010. He categorized the research of music teacher education conducted by previous researchers into different topics. The categories were (a) the learning process of preservice teachers,

(b) methods courses, (c) the role and perception of technique courses, (d) the use of technology, (e) perceptions of diversity, (f) thoughts on lesson planning, the effect and identification of teaching strategies and effectiveness, (g) field experience and student teaching, and (h) the evaluation of other’s teaching and the self-evaluation of one’s own teaching (p. 257). In addition to identifying new topics in music teacher education research, Rumpf (2012) also noted a gap in knowledge concerning comparative music teacher education. The researcher suggested that there is a need for comparative studies of music programs both foreign and domestic because of the lack of studies on this topic.

Following Rumpf’s recommendation, the present study addresses the gap in knowledge concerning foreign and domestic music teacher education programs specific to the

Republic of Korea and the United States to analyze similarities and differences between preservice teacher education programs in these countries. The goal of this study is to provide information on the current status of preservice teacher education in these countries in order to illuminate the comparative strengths and challenges of the programs, thus leading to recommendations for future growth.

Need for the Study

The need for high-quality teachers in music education has been readily discussed for several decades. However, the elements of teacher education programs required producing such high-quality music teachers are not specifically identified. Rohwer and

Henry (2004) wrote, “While most music educators agree that producing effective teachers is the ultimate goal of preservice programs, there does not seem to be consensus on what specific skills and characteristics should be taught and how they should be assessed” (p.

18). Conkling (2007) stated that, “Surprisingly, little research has focused on the question of how we learn to teach music, in spite of the relatively long history of formalized music teacher preparation in the United States” (p. 44). Music teacher education for the 21st century has to be transformed to satisfy the needs and expectations of a rapidly changing society (Boardman, 1992, p. 41). Wiggins (2007) maintained that the development of preservice teachers’ understanding of the most fundamental and authentic concepts of all music, education, and music education in context is an essential aspect for the curriculum of music teacher education programs (p. 39). Arne Duncan (2010), who is the Secretary of Education in the Obama administration, pointed out the low quality of the teacher preparation program in the United States. He stated, “I’d be first to admit that the

Education Department has often gotten stuck in the past” (para. 11). It appears that opinions about quality practices span the gamut and that consensus on best practice is nonexistent. Therefore, it is important to systematically examine the current practices that define the selected programs of the study. In this way, the characteristics of all—good and bad—can be identified, compared, and contrasted. In a cursory analysis of preservice teacher education programs in Korea and the United States, there are many similarities

5 yet distinct differences between the two nations’ programs. In Korea, elementary and secondary school preservice teacher education programs are offered by different types of institutions, respectively, while generally, in the United States, elementary and secondary school teacher education programs are offered by the same institution. According to a report by the Korean Ministry of Education [MOE] (2013b), which was established in

2013 by reorganizing the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology, 13 universities, 12 national and one private, have elementary school teacher preparation institutions in Korea. On the other hand, 369 universities, including 74 national, four public, and 291 private, have secondary school teacher preparation institutions.

However, only 10 universities of the 369 secondary teacher preparation institutions have departments of music education at the undergraduate level. Four of these

10 are national universities and include Chonnam National University, Gyeongsang

National University, Kongju National University, and Korea National University of

Education. The other six are private universities and include Chosun University,

Cheongju University, Mokwon University, Seowon University, Konkuk University, and

Kyungnam University. These 10 universities offer a secondary school preservice music teacher education program along with a bachelor’s degree and a teacher certificate. The

10 universities accepted a total of 11,024 students between 2010 and 2013 (MOE, 2013b).

In Korea, preservice teachers obtain a teacher certificate when they graduate from a government certified teacher preparation institution. There are several routes to receive a secondary school teacher certificate in music. First, the department of music education at the undergraduate level offers a teacher certificate to their students when they graduate from the university. Second, students whose major is in music, such as performance,

6 composition, conducting, musicology, and more, but not in music education, are able to receive a teacher certificate if they satisfy criteria and credit requirements; however, it is highly competitive to be selected as a candidate. In general, only 10% of all students can be selected as candidates for such a certificate. Third, students are able to receive a teacher certificate along with a master’s degree in music education at a graduate school of education. Rim and Park (2006) indicated that cultivating music teachers in diverse ways has a positive aspect that expands routes for a person who wishes to be a secondary music teacher in Korea. Nevertheless, the authors pointed out that providing various means for obtaining a teacher certificate may not guarantee high-quality teachers, because it is hard to maintain a unified standard for preservice teacher qualifications.

National and public school teachers go through a different hiring process than do private school teachers in Korea. Preservice teachers who wish to become a national or public school teacher are required to pass the Teacher Employment Examination, while most private schools do not require preservice teachers to take the examination (Kim,

2009, p. 17). Private schools employ teachers through their own selection processes, such as competitive open screenings. In Korea, the teacher certificate is a kind of license, which enables people to take the Teacher Employment Examination; the certificate is required for national, public, and private school teachers regardless the type of school. In short, there is the same criterion for national or public school teacher candidates, such as the Teacher Employment Examination, yet they are trained at different types of institutions, which have different criteria for preservice teachers.

Throughout the 50 states of the United States, there are numerous music teacher preparation institutions. In terms of the diversity of preservice teacher education,

7 individual states have their own authority over the requirements for obtaining a teacher license (National Research Council, 2001, p. 34). According to NAfME (n.d.b.), “most states require public and private school teachers to test and be licensed to teach in their subject area.” Each state has its own criteria for obtaining a teacher license, which may be different from other states. Many states require Praxis Series tests, but other educational requirements and specific tests vary greatly (NAfME, n.d.b).

In terms of the uniformity of preservice teacher education, there are approximately 651 institutional members accredited by the National Association of

Schools of Music [NASM], which establishes national standards for undergraduate and graduate degrees and other credentials (NASM, 2015). Various state accrediting offices have authority to approve music teacher training programs (Mark & Gary, 2007, p. 248).

In this regard, the Korean and U.S. preservice teacher education systems have both uniformity and various criteria and requirements for preservice teachers. Modern society has become globalized, so understanding other cultures and different education systems must be a high priority to produce globally minded people. Therefore, a comparative study of preservice teacher education programs in different countries is necessary to further our global understanding of different education systems and to develop highly advanced and effective education systems.

The Problem

Teacher preparation institutions in Korea show unsatisfactory qualitative standards in their facilities, curriculum, and degree of specialization (Kim & Han, 2002, p. xi). Lee (2005) indicated that Korean teacher preparation institutions seem

8 insufficiently prepared to meet the needs of an information-oriented society and current music teachers are particularly concerned about a lack of field education for preservice music teachers (p. 63). Compared to Korean teacher preparation institutions, U.S. teacher preparation institutions focus more on the practical parts of teacher education. One major difference can be seen in student teaching requirements. Most Korean teacher preparation institutions require 4 to 6 weeks of student teaching periods, while U.S. teacher preparation institutions require at least one semester of student teaching experience. Jung

(2012a) stated that a period of 4 to 6 weeks of student teaching is not adequate for preservice teachers to fully understand school environments (p. 35).

Sufficient practical experiences are necessary for preservice teachers to learn and understand the dynamics of diverse teaching environments and improve their knowledge and skills that they can apply in the classroom. Conkling (2007) writes, “By spending extended amounts of time at a school prior to student teaching, preservice music teachers can develop a clearer image of the kind of teachers they want to be” (p. 44). Rumpf (2012) stated the development of music teacher identity is highly related to their teaching experiences (p. 273). Despite the fact that U.S. teacher preparation institutions provide more practical teaching programs to preservice teachers than Korean teacher preparation institutions do, U.S. institutions still need to develop more advanced preservice teacher training programs—programs that can provide preservice teachers with sufficient preparation to become effective music teachers. According to Simon (2009), when

Tennessee music teachers were asked about “how well their [preservice] experience prepared them for becoming music teachers,” only 27.93% of respondents replied very well, 63.03% replied moderately well, and 9% reported not well (p. 23). In addition, when

Simon’s respondents were asked about “how they would rate their overall teaching experience,” 47.01% respondents answered very successful, 36.75% answered somewhat successful, 12.82% said average success, and 3.42% said unsuccessful (p. 20).

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study was to identify similarities and differences between secondary school preservice music teacher education programs from Korea and the

United States to facilitate understanding of teacher education programs. In part, it fills a gap in knowledge related to comparative music teacher education practices and standards in Korea and the United States. Determining potential strengths and weaknesses of these programs may lead to program modifications that will help provide more high-quality music teacher training programs in both countries. This researcher compared and contrasted secondary school preservice music teacher education programs in Korea and the United States, using three criteria: (a) admission requirements, (b) curricula, and (c) teaching practica.

Research Questions

The following research questions were addressed in this study:

1. What are the similarities and the differences in admission requirements for

secondary school preservice music teacher education programs in the selected

Korean and U.S. universities?

2. What are the similarities and the differences in curricula of secondary school

preservice music teacher education programs in the selected Korean and U.S.

universities?

3. What are the similarities and the differences in teaching practica of secondary

school preservice music teacher education programs in the selected Korean and

U.S. universities?

Scope of the Study

This dissertation is a comparative study of secondary school preservice music teacher education programs in Korea and the United States. In Korea, there are several types of institutions that have secondary school preservice music teacher education programs, such as graduate schools of education, universities offering teacher preparation programs to a few selected music major students, and universities that process a department of music education at the undergraduate level. In this study, only one type of secondary school teacher preparation institution was considered, which is processing a department of education at the undergraduate level. There are only 10 universities in

Korea pertaining to this type of institution. In the United States, Western universities accredited by NASM, which offer a bachelor degree in music education, were considered.

Finally, 4 of the 10 universities in Korea and the three flagship U.S. universities of three states were selected as subjects for the study.

Definition of Terms

For this study, specific terms were defined as follows:

• Preservice Teachers: university students who are enrolled in a teacher preparation

program to be a school teacher after they graduate from the university.

• Teacher Preparation Program or Teacher Education Program: a university

program for students who wish to be a school teacher.

• Highly Qualified Teachers or High-Quality Teachers: school teachers who have

an adequate certificate and or a licensure as well as broad pedagogical and subject

knowledge.

• Secondary School: a level of school that refers to middle and high school.

• Teaching Practica: parts of field experiences required for preservice teachers that

are related to teaching experiences. Teaching practica include student teaching

that preservice teachers have an approximately full-time teacher’s role at selected

schools during student teaching periods.

• Field Experiences: school and community activities required for students who are

enrolled in a teacher preparation program. Field experiences can be divided into

early field experiences and student teaching. Early field experiences vary from

observations and assisting to participation in teaching and so on.

CHAPTER 2

BACKGROUND SUMMARY AND LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter includes background information regarding Korean and U.S. education systems, a review of related studies, and a summary of the chapter. This opening section addresses the Korean education system and includes information regarding the development of the Korean education system, the structure of the Korean education system, and the standards for Korean music teachers. The standards discussed are based on the 2009 revision of the national curriculum, which is currently enforced in

Korean schools. The section describing the U.S education system includes information regarding the development of the U.S. education system, the structure of the U.S. education system, and the standards for U.S. music teachers. These standards are set forth by six organizations, including (a) National Association for Music Education [NAfME],

(b) National Association of Schools of Music [NASM], (c) Interstate Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium [InTASC], (d) National Board for Professional Teaching

Standards [NBPTS], (e) National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education

[NCATE], and (f) American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education [AACTE].

The section covering the related studies provides results and statements of previous research on preservice school music teacher education program in Korea, the United

States, and comparative studies in both countries.

Korean Education System

Teaching is a highly respected profession in Korea and one of the most popular career choices for young South Koreans (Center on International Education

Benchmarking, 2015). The U.S. President Barack Obama (2011) stated:

[T]he biggest impact on a child’s success comes from the man or woman at the front of the classroom. In South Korea, teachers are known as “nation builders.” Here in America, it’s time we treated the people who educate our children with the same level of respect.

Because there is such high respect for the teaching profession in Korea, it seems contradictory that the teaching standards and guidelines for teachers are insufficient for promoting the highest levels of education. In Korea, the national curriculum controlled by the government provides teaching standards and guidelines for teachers, while in the

United States, various organizations provide standards and guidelines for teachers and teacher preparation institutions. The current Korean school curricula are based on the

2009 revision of the national curriculum. The centralized Korean education system under the Korean government may produce limited school curricula in terms of teaching standards and guidelines for teachers and preservice teachers. In addition, music as a subject in middle and high schools has not been considered as important as other academic subjects, including mathematics and sciences, which are included as subjects of the College Scholastic Ability Test [CSAT] that is a type of standardized test accepted by

Korean universities. In this environment, music is not considered a very important subject, which is reflected in the presence of limited guidelines for music teachers and music teacher preparation programs.

On the other hand, the U.S. education system is comparatively decentralized, so the U.S. government does not control the education system as much as the Korean

14 government does. In the United States, a number of organizations develop different standards and guidelines for schools and teachers. This decentralized system produces diverse school curricula as well as diverse teaching standards in contrast to the relatively narrow Korean education system.

Development of Korean Education System

The development of education in Korea can be divided into four stages during the period of time following liberation from the Japanese colonial occupation in 1945 (Bae,

2011). The four stages are (a) liberation and reconstruction of the nation after the Korean

War (1945-1960), (b) export-driven industrialization (1961-1980), (c) economic restructuring (1980-Mid-1990s), and (d) transition to knowledge-based economy (Mid-

1990s-present). After liberation from the Japanese colonial occupation, the Korean government enacted the Education Law in 1950. The education system that followed a single track of elementary school, middle school, high school, and college and university education was established under the Education Law. During the 1960s and 1970s, Korea experienced rapid economic growth and industrialization. In the 1960s, the student population, the education facilities, and the teacher population rapidly expanded

(Ministry of Education [MOE], 2013a). During the 1980s and 1990s, Korea faced new challenges despite the astronomical growth in the economy during the 1960s and 1970s.

The challenges included (a) structural adjustment in industries to make the transformation into the knowledge-based economy from technology-intensive industrialization, (b) the change of governance structure that resulted from the democratization movement, and (c) major historical events, such as the Summer Olympics held in Seoul in 1988 and

15 becoming a member of the OECD in 1996 (Bae, 2011). Consequently, the government emphasized quality of education, and the overall education system was generally promoted and improved in the 1980s and 1990s.

Structure of Korean Education System

According to the Korean Culture and Information Service [KOCIS] (2013), “An emphasis on education is often cited as a foundation for Korea’s rapid economic growth over the past four decades as it has produced an educated labor force as well as the scientists, engineers and specialists needed for various professional fields” (p. 49). The school system in Korea consists of 1 to 3 years of preschools and kindergartens, 6 years of elementary schools, 3 years of each middle and high schools, and 4 years of colleges and university studies, with there are also being 2- to 3- year junior and vocational colleges and graduate study programs for master’s and doctoral degrees (KOCIS, 2013, pp. 49-50).

In Korea, the government systemically manages the education system and policies, including teacher training, employment, textbook production, and facility building (Ministry of Education, Science and Technology, 2011). According to the

Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (2011), which was established in 2008 by combining the Ministry of Education and Human Resource Development and the

Ministry of Science and Technology, “Government-led education policies have played a critical role in expanding access to educational opportunities, improved the education environment, and bridged regional gaps in education” (p. 11).

The Ministry of Education [MOE] has the overall authority to develop and

16 manage the Korean education system. However, the Metropolitan and Provincial Offices of Education in 17 local governments have their own authority due to local autonomy and self-governance, which leads to diversification in the education sector. The 17 local governments include the eight metropolitan governments of Seoul, Incheon, Daejeon,

Gwangju, Daegu, Ulsan, Busan, and Sejong Special Self-Governing City; and the nine provincial governments of Gyonggi-do, Gangwon-do, Chungcheongnam-do,

Chungcheongbuk-do, Jeollabuk-do, Jeollanam-do, Gyeongsanbuk-do, Gyeongsangnam- do, and Jeju Special Self-Governing Province (KOCIS, p. 207).

According to the Constitution of the Republic of Korea, “Local governments shall manage their autonomous affairs within their jurisdiction and the affairs entrusted to them under Acts and subordinate statues” (Korea Legislation Research Institute, 2011, para. 1).

It includes affairs concerning the promotion of education, athletics, culture and art, such as (a) establishment, operation, and guidance of day-care centers, kindergartens, elementary schools, middle schools, high schools, and other kinds of schools of similar levels; (b) installation and management of public educational, athletic and cultural facilities; (c) designation, preservation, and management of local cultural heritages; (d) promotion of local culture and art; and (e) support for local cultural and art organizations

(Korea Legislation Research Institute, 2011).

Standards for Korean Music Teachers

The national curriculum of Korea has been revised 10 times since 1954. The 2009 revision is now enforced in schools, and most recently, the 2015 revision was introduced for enhancing the curriculum. In this study, the 2009 revision was discussed. The 2009

17 revision of the national curriculum provides teaching standards for the elementary and secondary school teachers.

The following are the general guidelines for curriculum (National Curriculum

Information Center [NCIC], 2009a):

1. It seeks both…[uniformity] on the national level, and diversity on the regional,

school, and individual level.

2. It is student-centered and aims to facilitate student autonomy and creativity.

3. It takes shape through the collaboration of schools, Office of Education, teachers,

students and parents.

4. It intends to build a curriculum-centered school education system.

5. It aims to maintain and control the quality of the process and results of education.

2009 Revision of National Curriculum

The 2009 revision of the national curriculum for the subject of music for middle school students includes goals, areas and standards, teaching and learning methods, and assessments.

Goals

The following are the goals for the subject of music (NCIC, 2009b):

1. It is to experience the beauty of music through diverse musical activities.

2. It is to creatively express music by playing instruments and to listen to music with

an understanding of the characteristics of music in historical and cultural contexts.

3. It is to be aware of the value of music, to take an active part in musical activities,

and to have a positive attitude towards music.

Areas and Standards

The following are three music areas and the standards of each area (NCIC, 2009b):

1. Expression: expression with good posture, expression while demonstrating

characteristics of music, and expression by creatively producing music.

2. Appreciation: understanding elements and concepts of music, and listening with

an understanding of characteristics of music.

3. Musical living: having a positive attitude towards music, and having awareness of

the value of Korean music.

Expression. There are teaching instructions in each area of music for teachers.

The following are teaching guidelines for the area of expression:

1. Teachers lead students to creatively express their feelings and thoughts through

their voices, instruments, bodies, pictures, and others. The areas of Korean

traditional music, singing, dancing, and music have to be integrated.

2. For singing, students should express with personality their personal feelings

according to songs while having good posture and vocalization. As they explore

the relationship between the lyrics and melody of songs, they have to naturally

express their feelings. When teachers teach melody, Sigimsae [Ornamentation],

and Changbeob [Singing style], they lead students to express themselves in

various ways using hands, sheet music, and more. In addition, teachers should

promote learning through play and consider physical expression to be important

as well.

3. For playing instruments, students should utilize diverse percussion and melodic

instruments. Teachers should select instruments to teach from both Korean

traditional instruments and Western instruments while considering students’

interests, developmental characteristics, and school conditions, and more. When

teaching Korean traditional instruments, teachers should lead students to be

familiar with the instruments by oral sounds and to learn rhythm by dance. When

playing Korean traditional music, it should be accompanied by mainly Korean

traditional instruments.

4. For making music, students use pictures, symbols, letters, and scores, and more to

freely explore sounds of music and creatively produce music. When making

Korean traditional music, characteristics of the music should be expressed by

playing mainly Korean traditional instruments.

Appreciation. The following are teaching guidelines for the area of appreciation:

1. Students should widely understand and be able to internalize the role and the

value of music in a context of musical elements, types, history, society, and

culture.

2. Teachers lead students to understand musical terms and concepts through real

musical sounds by providing sufficient opportunities for musical experiences.

3. Teachers should use diverse teaching and learning methods so that through

musical appreciation, students can have esthetic experiences related to music. In

addition, teachers need to use diverse materials, such as pictures and videos, to

understand characteristics of music. When listening to Korean traditional music,

teachers lead students to actively participate in learning the music by having them

shout Chuimsae [Exclamation] during the performance. In addition, to help

students’ understanding of Korean traditional music, teachers should use

Jeongganbo [Korean mensural notation] and Gueumbo [Korean oral notation].

4. For the study of musicology, teachers should focus on the students’ breadth of

understanding and viewpoints of music by learning about pieces of music, people,

social and cultural backgrounds, and the flow of musicology.

Musical living. The following are teaching guidelines for the area of musical

living:

1. Teachers should lead students to enjoy music in their lives and to have correct

values regarding music culture and Korean music.

2. Teachers should provide students with diverse information and opportunities

regarding musical activities inside and outside of school so that students actively

participate in the musical activities.

Teaching and Learning Methods

The following are the national teaching and learning methods for middle school music teachers (NCIC, 2009b):

1. Teaching and learning plans are to be based on the purpose and content of the

national curriculum in regard to students’ development stage, ability level,

interests, and regional characteristics.

2. Creative and diverse teaching methods and materials are appropriately utilized

according to ability level and context while considering the characteristics of a

student’s grade level.

3. Teachers are able to reorganize the curriculum flexibly in accordance with

regional, school, and students’ characteristics.

4. Teachers teach music to students while considering class, grade, and the

connectivity of music areas to develop the ability to express music, a

comprehensive understanding of music, and music learning capabilities.

5. Appropriate teaching and learning methods are employed in accordance with the

characteristics of the subject matter.

6. Teachers use diverse teaching materials, including traditional and digital materials.

7. Teachers select an appropriate instrument and teach that instrument in accordance

with students’ needs and school environments.

8. Teachers teach their music classes while considering the relationship of music to

other subjects.

Assessments

The following are guidelines for music assessments (NCIC, 2009b):

1. Teachers evaluate students’ achievements primarily based on what they learned,

and teachers reflect on how students’ attitudes and behaviors changed during their

learning experiences.

2. Teacher evaluation, mutual evaluation, and self-evaluation are potential methods

for assessment.

3. Diverse methods, when appropriate, can be utilized for assessments (e.g.,

performance-based examinations, written examinations, observations, portfolios,

reports, and more).

4. Teachers evaluate each area of music while heeding the following guidelines:

a. Expression: teachers evenly reflect on students’ basic abilities, expression,

and attitudes of their singing, performing instruments, and producing

music.

b. Appreciation: teachers evaluate students’ comprehensive understanding

and attitudes towards music.

c. Musical living: teachers evaluate students’ participation in music activities

inside and outside of school, their attitudes toward music, and how

actively they practice a musical lifestyle.

U.S. Education System

The U.S. education system is more decentralized than the Korean education system, which is primarily controlled by the Ministry of Education [MOE]. The U.S. federal government has no direct authority over education and no direct control over how states offer education; however, if states want funding from the federal government, they must meet standards like the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 [NCLB] and the

Common Core. In addition, neither a national ministry of education nor national education framework laws exist in the United States (United States Department of

Education [USDOE], 2008a).

In terms of standards and guidelines for school teachers, including music teachers, various organizations provide standards and guidelines for teachers and teacher preparation institutions, while only the national curriculum provides teaching standards and guidelines for school teachers in Korea.

Development of U.S. Education System

A history of American education can be divided into two basic periods that are before and after the 1950s. In this section, American education after the1950s was reviewed. After World War II ended in 1945, the American economy’s continual growth enhanced the quality of living for Americans, while the Cold War and the Korean conflict increased political tensions (Mark & Gary, 2007, p. 383). From 1956 to 1961, the

Cooperative Research Branch of the U.S. Office of Education distributed 10 million dollars each year for 407 research projects. Mark and Gary (2007) wrote, “The late 1950s and early 1960s saw vast amounts of resources dedicated to the improvement of curricular areas directly related to the needs of American society” (p. 386). In 1960s, the baby boom created high enrollments of schools, so the sudden expansion of school populations had occurred (Mark, 1996, p. 17). By the mid-1970s, the expansion of enrollment by the baby boom ended and consequently enrollment declined (Mark & Gary,

2007, p. 389). In the 1970s, American education declined rapidly because of world economic conditions; many schools closed and music positions began to decline throughout the country (Mark & Gary, 2007, p. 389). American education of the 1980s was in the national spotlight. Many commissions and task forces reported on the problems arising in areas, including time in class, teaching, and subject matter content

(Mark & Gary, 2007, p. 390). In the 1990s, some progress of education was initiated. The federal government reinvested in education reform and such involvement led to the most significant reform efforts since the 1950s (Mark & Gary, 2007, p. 391). For the first 2 decades of the 21st century, the Vision 2020: the House Wright Symposium on the Future of Music Education was cosponsored by the Music Educators National Conference and

24 the School of Music of Florida State University. Planning of the symposium began in

1998. The following is a statement that relates to prospective music teachers of the

Vision 2020:

Recruiting prospective music teachers is a responsibility of many, including music educators. Potential teachers need to be drawn from diverse backgrounds, identified early, led to develop both teaching and musical abilities, and sustained through ongoing professional development. Also, alternative licensing should be explored in order to expand the number and variety of teachers available to those seeking music instruction. (Mark & Gary, 2007, pp. 450-451, as cited in Hinckley 2000, pp. 219-220)

The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 is the most recent version of the

Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 proposed by the Bush administration.

NCLB requires all teachers to be highly qualified. According to the USDOE (2004), to be highly qualified teachers, teachers must have a bachelor’s degree, full state certification or licensure, and prove that they know each subject they teach. NCLB requires states to

(a) measure the extent to which all students, including minority and disadvantaged students, are taught by highly qualified teachers, (b) accept goals to confirm whether all teachers are highly qualified, and (c) publicly report plans and progress to meet the goals for having highly qualified teachers (USDOE, 2004). However, Michelli and Earley

(2011) stated that the requirements of NCLB adopt a very limited definition of quality (p.

1). In other words, the definition of highly qualified teachers recommended by NCLB was not very specific. The Obama administration’s Race to the Top [RTTT] was one of the efforts to change the culture of teaching, which the NCLB had failed to improve

(Hess, 2011, p. 17). According to the White House (n.d.), “Race to the Top marks a historic moment in American education” (para. 1).

Race to the Top was enacted with the investment of 4.35 billion dollars as part of

25 the federal American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009. This is a competitive grant program that offers incentives to states willing to systemically reform their education programs to improve teaching and learning in schools. In regard to teacher effectiveness and qualification, improvising teacher and principal effectiveness based on performance is a criterion through which states receive points toward a grant. This criterion is worth 58 out of a total of 500 points.

According to Lohman’s report (2010), to receive points according to this criterion, participating districts of a state must meet the following guidelines:

1. Districts must procure a clear approach to measure each student’s growth;

2. Districts design clear and fair evaluation systems for teachers and principals to

judge effectiveness with data on student growth;

3. Districts conduct annual evaluations and provide teachers and principals with data

on student growth for their students, classes, and schools; and

4. Districts use these evaluations to make informed decisions for: (a) developing

teachers and principals, (b) compensating, promoting, and retaining teachers and

principals, (c) whether to grant tenure or full certification, and (d) removing

ineffective and untenured teachers and principals who have had sufficient time to

improve.

Structure of U.S. Education System

In regard to the structure of the U.S. education system, the order of the education system is similar to the Korean education system. Specifically, early childhood education is followed by elementary school, middle school, high school, and then postsecondary

26 education (USDOE, 2008b). A wide variety of federal, state, and local regulations, as well as court decisions, affect the decentralized system’s competence. Furthermore, educational associations, individual schools, and institutions have their own policies and rules that often have legal authority (USDOE, 2008c). The local level of control at the primary and secondary levels plays the most important role in the U.S. education system;

“Local communities operate schools, implement and enforce state laws and policies, develop and implement their own educational policies, hire and supervise professional teaching staffs, and raise money to pay for schools” (USDOE, 2008d, para. 1). The U.S. state governments perform direct oversight over most parts of education at all levels.

Their work is related to the work of ministries of education, including the political, administrative, and fiscal functions (USDOE, 2008e).

The United States has an accreditation process to confirm that schools, postsecondary institutions, and other education providers meet minimum standards of educational quality, including academic, administration, and other related services.

Schools, postsecondary institutions, and other programs within institutions participate in accreditation as a voluntary process based on the principle of academic self-governance

(USDOE, n.d.). Voluntary nongovernmental accrediting agencies have the responsibility of postsecondary accreditation. They develop and acquire standards for institutions and programs. The federal government does not have any power to accredit institutions

(USDOE, 2007a). In addition, there are no specific federal laws to accredit primary and secondary schools, and the USDOE has no responsibility for school accreditation.

Instead, most states have specific laws to accredit public schools and state-chartered private schools (USDOE, 2007b).

Standards for U.S. Music Teachers

In the United States, various organizations provide standards and guidelines for music teachers and music teacher education programs, while there are no such organizations for music teachers in Korea. This section reviews the standards and guidelines for music teachers and music teacher education by six organizations, including the National Association for Music Education [NAfME], the National Association for

Music Education [NASM], the Interstate Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium

[InTASC], the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards [NBPTS], the

National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education [NCATE], and the American

Association of Colleges for Teacher Education [AACTE].

NAfME

The National Association for Music Education describes nine core standards for music education:

1. Singing, alone and with others, a varied repertoire of music

2. Performing on instruments, alone and with others, a varied repertoire of music

3. Improvising melodies, variations, and accompaniments

4. Composing and arranging music within specified guidelines

5. Reading and notating music

6. Listening to, analyzing, and describing music

7. Evaluating music and music performances

8. Understanding relationships between music, the other arts, and disciplines outside

the arts

9. Understanding music in relation to history and culture

NASM

In the NASM Handbook 2013-14, there is a common body of knowledge and skills applicable to all professional baccalaureate degrees in music that include music education. These are (a) performance, (b) musicianship skills and analysis, (c) composition and improvisation, (d) history and repertory, and (e) synthesis (NASM, 2013, pp. 99-100). The general titles for baccalaureate degrees in music education are Bachelor of Music Education, Bachelor of Music in Music Education, Bachelor of Science in

Music Education, and Bachelor of Arts in Music Education (NASM, 2013, p. 116).

According to NASM (2013), a standard of curricular structure for the degree programs designed for teacher education in music is, “Curricular structure, content, and time requirements shall enable students to develop the range of knowledge, skills, and competencies expected of those holding a professional baccalaureate degree in music education” (p. 116).

National Association of Schools of Music (2013) proposed the following guidelines for the degree programs under this standard (p. 116):

1. Music courses comprise at least 50% of the total program; general studies are 30-

35%; professional education is 15-20%.

2. Music education methods courses, such as methods and supplementary

instruments courses where the primary content is music, are counted under the

music component.

3. Professional education is regarded as those courses generally offered by the

education department, such as philosophical and social foundations of education,

educational psychology, special education, history of education, and more.

4. Student teaching is regarded as professional education although qualified music

persons supervise student teachers.

National Association of Schools of Music (2013) illustrated three essential competencies applicable to all preparation programs for prospective music teachers. The three competencies include (a) music competencies, (b) specialization competencies, and

118):

1. Conducting and musical leadership: prospective music teachers have competent

conducting and musical leadership skills that enable them to teach music to

students effectively.

2. Arranging: prospective music teachers arrange and adjust music from diverse

sources to meet students’ needs as well as classroom environments.

3. Functional performance: prospective music teachers have basic skills, such as

playing the keyboard and singing. It is important to play instruments related to the

prospective music teachers’ specialization.

4. Analysis, history, and literature: prospective music teachers have analytical and

historical knowledge as well as an understanding of music literature.

Specialization competencies can be applied singly or combined together for the consistency of specialization objectives of each teacher preparation program in music.

Specialization competencies are organized into five components, including (a) general music, (b) vocal and choral music, (c) instrumental music, (d) music at all levels and all

30 specializations, and (e) specific music fields or a combination (NASM, 2013, pp. 118-

119).

For teaching competencies, according to NASM (2013), “The musician-teacher must be able to lead students to competency, apply music knowledge and skills in teaching situations, and integrate music instruction into the process of P-12 education” (p.

119). The following are essential competencies (pp. 119-120):

1. Prospective music teachers teach music at different levels to diverse age groups

and in different classroom and ensemble settings.

2. Prospective music teachers understand individuals, groups of students, and the

nature of subject matter. They have the ability to plan educational programs to

meet a student’s need.

3. Prospective music teachers understand child growth, development, and learning

principles related to music.

4. Prospective music teachers have knowledge about teaching methods, materials

and repertoires in diverse fields, and they have appropriate levels of music

education relative to their teaching specialization.

5. Prospective music teachers adjust and arrange methods and materials based on

personal assessment of specific teaching situations.

6. Prospective music teachers evaluate the musical progress of students as well as

the objectives and procedures of the curriculum.

Regarding professional procedures of programs for prospective music teachers,

NASM (2013) stated that music education faculty who teach music methods courses should have successful music teaching experiences in elementary and or secondary

31 schools, and they should maintain contact with those schools (p. 120). Prior to formal admission to the teacher education programs, institutions encourage observation and teaching experiences that are provided in real school situations and supervised by qualified music personnel from the institutions and cooperating schools (NASM, 2013, p.

120). In regard to evaluating students’ achievements, NASM (2013) suggested three consecutive assessments that include (a) an initial assessment to determine potential for admission to the program, (b) periodic assessments of progress throughout the program, and (c) a future assessment after graduation (p. 121).

InTASC

The Interstate Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium developed the model core teaching standards for K-12 teaching. InTASC categorized the following 10 standards into four general groups as (a) the learner and learning, (b) content, (c) instructional practice, and (d) professional responsibility (Council of Chief State School

Officers, 2011).

Standards 1 to 3 are categorized as learner and learning; standards 4 to 5 are categorized as content; standards 6 to 8 are grouped under instructional practice; standards 9 to 10 are grouped under professional responsibility (Council of Chief State

School Officers, 2011, pp. 8-9):

1. Learner development: teachers understand growth and development of learners.

2. Learning differences: teachers understand individual differences and diverse

cultures.

3. Learning environments: teachers create a learning environment that encourages

individual and collaborative learning, social interaction, active engagements, and

motivation, and more.

4. Content knowledge: teachers identify the main concepts of contents and the

structures of disciplines.

5. Application of content: teachers understand how to apply the concepts of contents

to learners’ activities.

6. Assessment: teachers use multiple methods of assessments.

7. Planning for instruction: teachers plan instruction that enables every learner to

achieve high and accurate goals of learning.

8. Instructional strategies: teachers understand and express diverse instructional

strategies.

9. Professional learning and ethical practice: teachers continue to develop their

professional knowledge and skills to help each learner meet their needs.

10. Leadership and collaboration: teachers understand leadership roles and

collaborate with learners as well as others, such as families, colleagues, and

community members, and more.

NBPTS

The National Board for Professional Teaching Standards (2001) elaborated on the nature of accomplished teaching:

Accomplished music educators set high and demanding standards for themselves and their students, creating a challenging and nurturing learning environment. And though music education is the means by which they teach important skills and concepts to young people, it is not an end unto itself; teachers demonstrate in their teaching that they are supportive of each student’s development and well- being as they lead students toward achieving their musical goals. (p. 2)

The National Board for Professional Teaching Standards (2001) stated five core propositions of what a teacher must know and be able to articulate. The following are the core propositions (pp. v-vii):

1. Accomplished teachers are dedicated to all students and their learning.

2. Accomplished teachers know how to teach subjects to students.

3. Accomplished teachers manage and monitor students’ learning.

4. Accomplished teachers critically examine their practice and learn from

experiences.

5. Accomplished teachers seek to collaborate with communities.

The National Board for Professional Teaching Standards (2001) provided the music standards for teachers of students whose age ranges from three to more than eighteen years. The standards consist of the following eight standards (p. 5):

1. Knowledge of students: music teachers understand the cognitive, physical, and

social development of students as well as their musical backgrounds.

2. Knowledge of skills in music: music teachers demonstrate outstanding

performance and musicianship skills.

3. Planning and implementing assessment: music teachers employ a variety of

methods to evaluate learning progress.

4. Facilitating music learning: music teachers employ diverse materials, methods,

and strategies that help students learn.

5. Learning environments: music teachers create dynamic learning environments to

meet high expectations for all students.

6. Valuing diversity: music teachers value the diverse backgrounds and abilities of

students and provide a curriculum with musical diversity.

7. Collaboration: music teachers understand the roles of families, colleagues, the

community, and others and have a partnership with them in the music education

process.

8. Reflection, professional growth, and professional contribution: music teachers

continually improve their teaching and deepen their knowledge for professional

growth and to be able to contribute to schools or major fields.

NCATE

The National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education (2008) provided professional standards for the accreditation of teacher preparation institutions. These standards include guidelines for the conceptual frameworks of teacher preparation for the institution. The following are the NCATE unit standards (NCATE, 2008, pp. 12-13):

1. Candidate knowledge, skills, and professional dispositions: teacher candidates

know and demonstrate content knowledge, pedagogical content knowledge and

skills, pedagogic and professional knowledge and skills, and professional

dispositions.

2. Assessment system and unit evaluation: the unit evaluates the performance of

teacher candidates, the unit, and its program through an assessment system that

collects and analyzes data on applicant qualifications, candidate and graduate

performance, and unit operations.

3. Field experiences and clinical practice: the unit and its school partners support

field experiences and clinical practice to help teacher candidates and other school

professionals develop and demonstrate the knowledge, skills, and professional

dispositions.

4. Diversity: the unit provides experiences for teacher candidates so that they

acquire and demonstrate knowledge, skills, and professional disposition.

Experiences provide candidates with opportunities to work with diverse

populations, including higher education and K-12 school faculty, candidates, and

students in K-12 schools.

5. Faculty qualifications, performance, and development: faculty is qualified in most

parts of the unit program, including scholarship, service, and teaching. The

faculty evaluates their own success as related to the performance of teacher

candidates. The unit evaluates faculty performance as well as facilitates

professional development.

6. Unit governance and resources: the unit has the leadership, authority, budget,

facilities, and resources for teacher candidates to meet professional, state, and

institutional standards.

AACTE

The American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education (2009) established characteristics of well-prepared teachers (p. 1):

1. Teachers have strong general intelligence and verbal ability.

2. Teachers have strong content knowledge.

3. Teachers have knowledge of how to teach others in their content area.

4. Teachers have an understanding of learners and their development.

5. Teachers have adaptive expertise that allows them to make effective judgment

calls.

Related Studies

This section is a review of related studies on preservice music teacher education and includes doctoral dissertations, master’s theses, and journal articles. The section consists of three subsections, such as (a) Korea, (b) The United States, and (c)

Comparative Studies.

Korea

Jang (1988) studied the secondary school preservice music teacher education programs of five selected universities in Korea. He summarized a secondary music teacher’s opinion on the needs of preservice teacher education. The needs include (a) a diversity of courses offered, (b) courses more relevant to music teaching and the current situation of secondary schools, (c) high-quality music methods courses, (d) courses for teaching exceptionally talented children, (e) more practical teaching experiences, (f) music appreciation courses and diverse technology education courses, and (g) music methodology courses based on current secondary music textbooks (p. 136).

Seog (1992) stated that socio-economic demand for high-quality music teachers in

Korea conflicts with actual music teacher education programs offered by the higher educational institutions, which train teachers for the profession (p. 7). She wrote, “The problem in music teacher education is that no [program] has been systematically developed for the specific purpose of preparing secondary school music teachers” (p. 7).

Seog maintained that a clear statement of objectives and outcomes of the music teacher education curriculum is one of the important issues to consider for music teacher education in Korea. In addition, she emphasized the need for revising teaching methods in a Korean context, the development of curriculum focusing on Korean traditional music programs, the cooperation of inservice education with preservice education, and the autonomy of university administration in areas, such as curriculum development, entrance examinations, and department policy decision making (p. 10).

Lee (2005) analyzed for secondary school preservice music teachers at universities in Korea. She stated that secondary school preservice music teacher programs lack sufficient credit volume and direction to train preservice teachers as qualified teachers. According to her analysis, colleges of education provide students with only a few courses related to teaching music while music content subjects are diverse and more focused on professional musicians rather than music pedagogy. Furthermore, more than half of music pedagogic subjects are optional, not required (p. 64).

Son (2005) compared Korean and U.S. graduate curricula for master students in music education. According to the results, graduate school curricula of education in

Korea is 32% music pedagogic subjects, 46% music content subjects, 9% performance subjects, 12% research and seminar, and 1% other subjects. In contrast, graduate school curricula in the United States is 47% music pedagogic subjects, 20% music content subjects, 23% research and seminar, and 10% practical training. These numbers indicate that the U.S. graduate schools focus on pedagogic knowledge, research, and practical experience in their curricula while the Korean graduate schools of education have a greater focus on music content subjects and performance.

Jung (2012b) investigated secondary school preservice music teachers’ concerns about student teaching experiences. The participants were secondary school preservice music teachers who were studying at 1 of the 10 universities in Korea with music education departments. Jung found that 51.5% of students considered the period of student teaching to be too short. In addition, 51.4% indicated that 5 to 8 weeks was an appropriate period for student teaching experiences. In relation to classroom observation,

51.4% (the highest response frequency) indicated that they had participated in classroom observation more than six times. In regard to participants’ perception of classroom observation, 30.7% (the most common response) indicated that the appropriate number of classroom observations is two to four times, and 9.4% of students (the least common response) indicated that eight or more times observing would be most appropriate. As for the number of times teaching, 49.5% of students (the most common response) indicated that they had taught more than eight times, and 2.8% of students (the least common response) indicated that they had taught only one to two times.

In addition, 42.9% of students (the most common response) indicated that eight or more times would be appropriate for classroom teaching, and 2.4% of students (the least common response) indicated that one to two times would be appropriate for classroom teaching. Regarding the most valuable aspects of teaching music during the student teaching period, the most common response, which was given by 26.3% of students, was musical activity is the most important aspect; 23.9% of students indicated that multiple teaching-learning methods is the most important aspect; 16.9% of students indicated that abundant professional knowledge of the subject is the most important aspect; and 13.1% of students indicated that multiple learning materials are the most important aspect.

The United States

Gregory (1995) studied collaboration for music teacher education programs between higher education institutions and K-12 schools. The sample was 204 higher education institutions in the United States, and a total of 155 surveys were completed and returned. The finding indicated that 96.77% of institutions collaborate with K-12 schools, and only 3.23% of institutions do not collaborate with K-12 schools. According to the survey, the reasons for collaboration with K-12 schools included (a) providing observations and field experiences for college/university students, (b) providing student teaching for music education students, (c) recruiting prospective college music students, and (d) providing assistance to K-12 music program (pp. 50-51). In addition, the top- three ranked benefits for collaboration with K-12 schools were (a) better field experiences for college/university students, (b) more opportunities to become effective music teachers, and (c) higher institutions faculty’s awareness of K-12 school realities

(pp. 53-54).

Teachout (1997) surveyed both preservice and experienced teachers’ opinion of skills and behavior important to successful music teaching. The questionnaire listed teacher skills and behavior for effective music teaching, including personal skills, teaching skills, and musical skills. According to the results, both preservice and experienced teachers commonly selected the seven skills and behaviors as the top-10 ranked items: involve students, employ a positive approach, display confidence, be organized, motivate students, possess leadership skills, and be mature or have self-control

(p. 45). In addition, both preservice and experienced teachers ranked musical skills significantly lower than personal skills and teaching skills as an important factor to

40 successful teaching (p. 47).

Conway (2002) studied perceptions of beginning music teachers, mentors, and administrators on their preservice music teacher program at large mid-Western universities. The graduates of music teacher preparation programs at the universities stated that the most useful aspects of teacher training programs are student teaching, preservice fieldwork, and growth of musicianship associated with ensembles and applied lessons. On the other hand, the graduates stated that the least useful aspects are teacher education courses, early observation without context, and some instrument methods courses. Beginning music teachers suggested that preservice teacher preparation institutions have tracks, avoid repetition of instruments methods courses, and increase student teaching experiences. In addition, administrators, mentors, and researchers suggested for improvement of teacher education better preparation for administrative duties and for working with beginners as well as the need for extended student teaching.

Rohwer and Henry (2004) studied a university teacher’s perception of requisite skills and characteristics of effective music teachers. For the study, questionnaires were sent to 1,000 music faculties listed in the College Music Society Directory, which identifies music faculties in the United States and Canada, and 416 respondents were analyzed.

According to the results, university teachers considered teaching skills to be most important for effective teachers rather than personal characteristics and musical skills.

The reason may be because teaching skills are more clearly defined than other factors and are not very affected by changing conditions, such as the classroom setting and grade level (p. 24). In relation to music educators’ perspectives of assessment methods for skills

41 and personality characteristics needed to be an effective music teacher, they had high frequency of using (a) incourse assessments, such as tests, peer teaching, or other classroom activities; (b) student teaching/field experiences; and (c) informal observation

(p. 22).

Conway (2012) examined an experienced teacher’s current reflection on the teacher’s past perception of preservice music teacher preparation, which Conway had previously studied in 2002. Participants were in overall agreement with their past perception (p. 329). Experienced teachers still considered student teaching, preservice fieldwork to be most important. However, Conway wrote, “musicianship might be perceived by experienced teachers as less important than they considered it 10 years ago”

(p. 330). On the other hand, college of education courses and classroom observation without music context still were considered least important (p. 330). The experienced teachers suggested several enhancements for teacher preparation programs. They included (a) fieldwork in various settings, (b) a focus on the practical, (c) a lengthy student teaching period, and (d) understanding of certification requirements.

Kelly (2013) examined the influence of student teaching experiences of preservice music teachers’ commitments to teaching. Participants were university students who were preparing to have their student teaching experience after completing their preservice curriculum. The researcher used pre- and postformat to examine the difference of participants’ commitment to teaching before and after their student teaching experience.

The results indicated that there was no significant difference in participants’ commitments to teaching before and after their student teaching experience.

In addition, “College/university music education faculty” and “Undergraduate

42 music education classes” were highly rated as factors influencing preservice music teachers’ commitment to teaching by both the pre- and postsurvey. On the other hand,

“Class management/discipline” and “Working with parents” were highly rated as factors that may influence preservice music teachers not to commit to teaching by both the pre- and postsurvey.

Comparative Studies

Ko et al. (2002) indicated that institutions for prospective music teachers in the

United States, the United Kingdom, France, and Waldorf school in Germany have longer terms of student teaching than the term of student teaching required at universities in

Korea, and those institutions are actively cooperating with partnership schools in many ways compared to Korea. Cooperation with partnership schools is important for the quality of student teaching in terms of providing enough experiences and meaningful assessment of student teaching for preservice music teachers (pp. 25-26).

Brand (2004) studied a music education student’s self-esteem among the United

States, Australia, and China. Participants were undergraduate music education students in three universities: one university of each country. Brand distributed the self-description questionnaire measuring the multiple dimensions of self-concept to participants. The results showed the Chinese students’ self-esteem scores (M=64.63) were lower than both

American and Australian students’ self-esteem scores. In addition, the American students showed higher levels of self-esteem scores (M=73.32) than Australian students’ self- esteem scores (M=71.89). The author stated there were significant differences in the total scores among the countries (p. 61).

Randles and Smith (2012) examined differences of preservice music teachers’ identities as creative musicians in the United States and England. Preservice music education students from nine universities in the United States and eight universities in

England participated in the survey of this study. The results indicated that “[preservice] music education students in [the United States] feel less confident about their abilities to compose music, less comfortable teaching composition, and are less likely to plan on

‘teaching students to compose/improvise their own original music when [they] get a job as a music teacher’ than their English colleagues” (p. 173).

Summary

The Korean education system is comparatively centralized and is controlled by the Korean government. The development of education in Korea is divided into four stages. The first stage is liberation and reconstruction of the nation after the Korean War; the second stage is export-driven industrialization; the third stage is economic restructuring; the fourth stage is transition to knowledge-based economy. The Korean education system follows a single track of 6 years of elementary school, 3 years of middle school, 3 years of high school, and 4 years of university education. The Ministry of Education [MOE] develops and manages overall educational policies, but the

Metropolitan and Provincial Offices of Education in 17 local governments have their own local autonomy and self-governance. According to the Korean Culture and Information

Service [KOCIS], “Local government heads manage and supervise administrative affairs except as otherwise provided by law” (p. 206). Teachers have a high social status in

Korea, and they receive a favorable level of compensation for their work; however, there

44 does not seem to be clear work guidelines for school teachers. In Korea, a number of secondary teacher preparation institutions train an excess of secondary school preservice teachers. The national curriculum of Korea has been revised 10 times since 1954. The current national curriculum enforced in schools is the 2009 revision that provides national standards and guidelines for the elementary and secondary school curricula. The curriculum seeks to establish uniformity and diversity, autonomy and creativity, collaboration, a curriculum-centered education, and quality of education.

The U.S. education system’s arrangement is largely similar to the Korean education system. The U.S education structure is divided into early childhood education, elementary school, middle school, high school, and postsecondary education. The U.S. education system is more decentralized compared to the Korean education system. The local level of control has the primary role directing school education. Interestingly,

Karakelle (2006) pointed out that fully industrialized nations prefer decentralization of education in general, while other emerging industrialized nations are choosing a centralized model for their education systems (p. 31). According to his research,

Australia, Canada, Denmark, Finland, Ireland, Japan, Spain, and the United Kingdom are countries that focus on decentralized teacher training programs. Countries with centralized teacher training programs are Ghana, Jordan, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia,

Singapore, South Korea, Sweden, Thailand, Taiwan, and the United Arab Emirates.

Karakelle wrote, “Although one cannot say that the centralized approach is inappropriate for today’s educational needs, the decentralized approach appears to have fewer drawbacks even though it is not a ‘cure for all’” (p. 106). The music curriculum of a particular cultural region of a country should be considered in terms of various aspects,

45 including political, economic, social, and financial issues (p. 107).

The United States Department of Education has no responsibility for school accreditation, but most states have specific laws regarding the accreditation of schools. In addition, the United States has an accreditation process to confirm that schools, higher institutions, and other education providers fulfill minimum standards for educational quality. The No Child Left Behind [NCLB] and the Race to the Top [RTTT] seek to improve the quality of education in the United States, which includes producing high- quality teachers. In the United States, there are diverse active organizations that provide standards for music teachers and teacher education institutions. Different organizations provide all different guidelines and standards in specific way, yet basic ideas of them are similar. The essential ideas include teachers’ professional knowledge and skills; diversity and creativity of teaching; appropriate level of teaching and flexibility; collaborations of schools, teachers, students, parents, and communities; understanding of students’ development and ability. These ideas are similar to the standards and guidelines of the

2009 revision of the national curriculum of Korea.

According to the related studies of Korean preservice music teacher education programs, Korea may not seem to have very clear standards and systemic development for preservice music teachers and teacher preparation universities. Korean teacher preparation universities may also have a lack of practical teacher training programs. In addition, the length of the Korean student teaching experience is comparatively short. As a result, the number of times Korean preservice teachers actually participate in classroom teaching is insufficient for preservice teachers to understand and learn classroom environment. In regard to curricula of teacher preparation programs, music content

46 subjects, such as music theory and music history have greater proportions of a teacher training curriculum rather than pedagogic subjects, such as instrumental pedagogy and music teaching method courses.

According to the related studies of U.S. preservice music teacher education programs, the United States places more emphases on practical training for preservice music teachers. Most U.S. teacher preparation universities actively collaborate with K-12 schools. Regarding preservice music teachers’ and experienced music teachers’ perspectives, teaching skills are considered the most important aspect for effective music teaching rather than music skills or personal characteristics of teachers. In addition, preservice music teachers believed that the music education faculty and music education courses for preservice music teachers are important factors affecting preservice music teachers’ commitment to teaching.

According to the comparative studies of the United States, Korea, and other countries as well, Europe and the United States focus more on practical trainings for preservice teachers than Korea. They have comparatively longer terms of student teaching requirements. In this manner, teacher preparation institutions in the United

Kingdom, French, Germany and the United States are actively cooperating with partnership schools. In regard to preservice teachers’ self-esteem, the United States showed the highest level of teachers’ self-esteem as compared to Australia and China.

Australia showed a higher level of preservice teachers’ self-esteem than Chinese preservice teachers. In contrast, the United States showed less confidence of preservice music teachers’ identities as creative musicians when compared with England preservice music teachers.

CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY AND PROGRAM CONTENT ANALYSIS

Programs of Study

This study focused primarily on preservice teacher training programs in Korea and the United States, which play a primary role in producing qualified music teachers.

All 10 universities that have a department of music education in Korea were reviewed through the university websites before selecting Korean universities. Korea is divided into 17 local governments (KOCIS, p. 207). The universities are located throughout six local governments: Seoul, Daejeon, Gwangju, Chungcheongnam-do, Chungcheongbuk- do, and Gyeongsangnam-do. For this study, four universities were selected, because of their reputation and location. The selected universities are Chonnam National University

[CNU] in Gwangju, Kongju National University [KNU] in Chungcheongnam-do, Korea

National University of Education [KNUE] in Chungcheongbuk-do, and Konkuk

University [KU] in Seoul (see Table 3.1).

According to the Bureau of the Census (n.d.), the United States can be divided into four regions: West, Midwest, Northeast, and South. The West region of the United

States, which is composed of 13 states, was considered for this study. The West region states are Alaska, Arizona, California, Colorado, Hawaii, Idaho, Montana, Nevada, New

Mexico, Oregon, Utah, Washington, and Wyoming. All of the National Association of

Schools of Music [NASM] member universities in this region that offer music education programs at the undergraduate level of study were reviewed before the final selection was made. The final selections were made by reviewing NASM websites, the university websites, and the U.S. News & World Report website. Three universities were finally selected after considering total undergraduate enrollment, student satisfaction of the university programs, the diversity of the music program, degrees offered in music education, and the number of faculty in the area of music education. The selected universities are The University of Arizona [UA], University of Colorado Boulder [CU-

Boulder], and The University of Utah [UU]. These are all public and flagship universities in the United States (see Table 3.1).

Procedures

This study focused on secondary school preservice music teacher education programs in Korea and the United States. In order to ascertain the similarities and differences between these programs, selected universities from the two countries were examined using three criteria: (a) admission requirements, (b) curricula, and (c) teaching practica. The research data of each university were collected from government websites, university websites, university handbooks and bulletins, and informal telephone and email interviews with university personnel. Other supplementary materials that were received via request from selected universities were also considered when appropriate.

Data were categorized according to the three research questions. The categorized data were then analyzed to determine similarities and differences in secondary school preservice music teacher education programs between both countries. Results were

49 presented in a descriptive manner. This chapter addresses the three research questions that guided this investigation. Specifically, the questions were addressed by considering all of the information gathered about the programs. The first research question addresses the admission requirements for students who wish to major in music education at universities in Korea and the United States. The second research question addresses the curricula of music education programs at universities in Korea and the United States. The third research question addresses the required teaching practica at universities in Korea and the United States. Three specific research questions were addressed in this study:

1. What are the similarities and the differences in admission requirements of

secondary school preservice music teacher education programs between selected

universities of Korea and the United States?

2. What are the similarities and the differences in curricula of secondary school

preservice music teacher education programs between selected universities of

Korea and the United States?

3. What are the similarities and the differences in teaching practica of secondary

school preservice music teacher education programs between selected universities

of Korea and the United States?

Admission Requirements

Admission Requirements of Korean Programs

In this section, admission requirements of four Korean universities—CNU, KNU,

KNUE, and KU—were reviewed. The data were based on information obtained from the university website and the application handbook of each university. All of these

50 universities require a transcript of high school records, the College Scholastic Ability

Test [CSAT] scores, a performance audition, and or an interview. Evaluation of the high school transcript is largely based on an applicant’s grade(s). The CSAT consists of sections on Korean language, mathematics, foreign language (English), social studies/sciences/vocational education, and second foreign languages/Chinese characters and classics (University Autonomy Support Division, 2010). A live audition is required for all music education major applicants on their major instruments. Audition requirements are different for each university. An interview determines whether an applicant has adequate ability to be accepted for the music education program and includes considerations of teaching aptitude, personal characteristics, and more. Each university program has different criteria for the transcript of high school records, the

CSAT scores, the performance audition, and or the interview; the specific criteria of each university were reviewed in detail.

CNU

Chonnam National University (2013) requires a high school transcript, CSAT results, and a performance audition for admission. This university designates a specific percentage to each of these three requirements. The transcript is weighted 30%, the

CSAT scores are weighted 30%, and the performance audition is weighted 40% for a total of 100% (CNU, 2013, p. 19). The transcript and CSAT score categories have subportions. The transcript category consists of an applicant’s high school grade and school attendance, respectively, comprising 90% and 10% (CNU, 2013, p. 22). Of the

CSAT scores, CNU requires Korean language, foreign language, and social

51 studies/sciences/vocational education scores. Korean language and foreign language are each weighted 37.5%, and the social studies/sciences/vocational education section is weighted 25% of the total CSAT percentage (CNU, 2013, p. 2; see Table 3.2).

Chonnam National University offers both Western music and Gugak [Traditional

Korean music] options for admission performance auditions (CNU, 2013, pp. 31-32).

Western music studies consist of voice, piano, string, winds, percussion, and composition.

Specifically, the major instruments available to string students are the violin, viola, cello, and contrabass. The major instruments of wind students are the flute, oboe, clarinet or saxophone, bassoon, horn, trumpet, and trombone or tuba. Students whose major area is piano are required to sing one Italian or German song.

Gugak studies consist of voice, string, winds, percussion, composition, and theory.

The major tracks for voice students are P’ansori [Traditional Korean musical storytelling by vocalist and drummer], Gagok [Traditional Korean vocal music for mixed male and female voices], and Gayageum Byeongchang [Traditional Korean performing genre in which a performer sings and plays Gayageum at the same time]. The major string instruments are the Gayageum [Traditional Korean Zither, which has 12 strings],

Geomungo [Traditional Korean Zither, which has six strings], and Ajaeng [Traditional

Korean bowed instrument]. The major wind instruments are the Piri [Traditional Korean double reed instrument], Daegeum [Traditional Korean bamboo], and Haegeum

[Traditional Korean bowed instrument].

All applicants of both Western music and Gugak must have a performance audition either for voice, an instrument, composition, or theory, depending on their specific major, and they must perform a piece with a fast tempo on piano. The specific

52 performance audition requirements of CNU are presented in detail (see Table 3.3).

KNU

Kongju National University (2013) requires a high school transcript, CSAT results, a performance audition, and an interview for admission. This university designates a specific percentage of these four requirements. The transcript is weighted

40%, the CSAT scores are weighted 25%, the performance audition is weighted 30%, and the interview is weighted 5% for a total of 100% (KUN, 2013, p. 6). The transcript and

CSAT score categories have subportions. The transcript category consists of an applicant’s high school grade and school attendance, respectively, comprising 90% and

10% (KNU, 2013, p. 17).

Of the CSAT scores, KNU requires Korean language and foreign language scores, and a social studies/sciences score. Korean language and foreign language are each weighted 35%, and the social studies/sciences score is weighted 30% of the total CSAT percentage (see Table 3.4). The purpose of the interview is to judge teaching aptitude and expressivity, personality, values, and educational views that are related to teacher qualification (KUN, 2013, p. 10).

Kongju National University offers both Western music and Gugak options for admission performance auditions (KNU, 2013, pp. 11-12). Western music studies consist of voice, piano, string and winds, and composition. Specifically, the major instruments available to string and wind students are the violin, viola, cello, flute, and clarinet. Gugak studies have only a string major. The string major instruments available to Gugak students are the Gayageum, Deageum, and Heageum. KNU requires both common and

53 elective assignments on the performance audition. The weight of elective assignments and common assignments are respectively 70% and 30%, for a total of 100% for the performance audition.

All applicants are required to audition for three common assignments and one elective assignment. The common assignments depend on an applicant’s elective assignment choice. Specifically, applicants who choose piano, string and winds, composition, or Gugak as their elective assignment must sing one Korean song; applicants who choose voice, string and winds, or Gugak must perform a fast movement of piano sonata; applicants who choose voice, piano, or composition must tap a Jeongak

[Traditional Korean classical music] Jangdan [Traditional Korean rhythmic patterns] and

Minsogak [Traditional Korean folk music] Jangdan of middle school level difficulty. The specific performance audition requirements of KNU are presented in detail (see Table

3.5).

KNUE

The department of music education at KNUE has two stages of the screening process for admission (KNUE, 2013, p. 10). In the first stage, the university requires a high school transcript and CSAT scores, wherewith the university selects 300% of the final entrance quota. The weight of the transcript and CSAT scores is respectively 33.3% and 66.7%. In the second stage, the university selects 100% of the final entrance quota from among the selected applicants of the first stage; and the university requires the transcript, the CSAT scores, a performance audition, and an interview. For the second stage, the transcript is weighted 20%, CSAT scores 40%, the performance audition 30%,

54 and the interview 10%, for a total of 100%. The transcript category consists of an applicant’s high school grade, school attendance, and volunteer work, respectively 90%,

5%, and 5% (KNUE, 2013, p. 12).

Of the CSAT scores, KNUE requires a Korean language or mathematics score, a foreign language score, and a social studies/sciences/vocational education score (KNUE,

2013, p.14; see Table 3.6). The interview consists of a general part and an applicant’s major-related part, with the general part including the applicant’s teaching aptitude and personality assessment (KNUE, 2013, p. 16). The university judges the applicant’s ability and potential to be a teacher throughout the interview process.

Korea National University of Education offers both Western music and Gugak options for admission performance auditions (KNUE, 2013, p. 26; see Table 3.7).

Western music studies consist of voice, piano, and composition. Gugak studies consist of

Gayageum and theory. KNUE requires both common and elective assignments. All applicants are required to audition for common assignments and one elective assignment.

The common assignments depend on an applicant’s choice of the elective assignment.

Specifically, all applicants are required to audition for sight singing, music dictation, and

Gugak Jangdan; applicants who choose voice, composition, or Gugak as their elective assignment must perform two fast movements of piano sonata and scales; applicants who choose piano as their elective assignment must sing a Korean song.

Konkuk University (2013) requires a high school transcript, CSAT results, and a performance audition. This university designates a specific percentage to each of these

55 three requirements. The transcript is weighted 25%, CSAT scores 35%, and the performance audition 40% for a total of 100% (KU, 2013, p. 8). The high school transcript is only based on an applicant’s high school grade. The CSAT scores category has subportions. Of the CSAT scores, KU requires Korean language and foreign language scores, and social studies/sciences or mathematics score. An applicant is available to choose either the social studies/sciences score or mathematics score. Korean language and foreign language are each weighted 40%, and social studies/sciences or mathematics is weighted 20% (KU, 2013, p. 17; see Table 3.8).

Konkuk University only offers Western music options for admission performance auditions (KU, 2013, p. 9). The Western music study consists of voice, piano, composition, string, and winds. Specifically, the major instruments available to string and wind students are the violin, viola, cello, flute, clarinet, and horn. The audition requirements of KU appear more flexible than other selected Korean universities. String and winds applicants are free to choose any piece of music for their performance as long as it meets basic guideline. The specific audition requirements of KU are presented in detail (see Table 3.9).

Summary of Admission Requirements of Korean Programs

The four selected Korea universities commonly consider an applicant’s high school transcript, CSAT score, and a performance audition for admission. KNU and

KNUE include an interview to determine an applicant’s teaching aptitude, personality, and other characteristics. A high school transcript is primarily based on an applicant’s school grade, but a school attendance and a volunteer work can be considered as a part of

56 the total percentage.

Specifically, CNU and KNU require high school grades and school attendance.

KNUE requires high school grades, school attendance, and volunteer work experience.

On the other hand, KU requires only high school grades. For CSAT scores, CNU requires

Korean language, foreign language, and social studies/sciences/vocational education scores. KNU requires Korean language and foreign language scores, and a social studies/sciences score. KNUE requires a Korean language or mathematics score, a foreign language score, and a social studies/sciences/vocational education score. KU requires Korean language and foreign language scores, and a social studies/sciences or mathematics score.

For the performance audition, CNU, KNU, and KNUE offer both Western music and Gugak options for admission performance auditions, while KU only offers Western music options for admission performance auditions. KNU and KNUE require both common and elective assignments for their performance audition. The common assignment includes sight singing, music dictation, Gugak Jangdan, piano, and or voice.

The elective assignment is an applicant’s choice depending on the applicant’s specific major area that includes instrument, voice, composition, and theory categories.

Chonnam National University and KU do not require common assignments for the performance audition. However, CNU requires all applicants except piano students to perform a piano piece with a fast tempo; a piano student is required to sing one Italian or

German song instead of performing the piano piece. In regard to these audition requirements of selected Korean universities, it seems that universities require a wide range of musical ability and skills for applicants regardless of their specific major area.

Admission Requirements of U.S. Programs

In this section, the admission requirements of three selected U.S. universities—

UA, CU-Boulder, and UU—were reviewed. The data of admission requirements were extracted from the university website, the application handbook, and or audition handbook of each university. To be accepted as a music education major to these U.S. universities, applicants must be accepted to both the university and the school or college of music. All selected U.S. universities require a high school transcript and Scholastic

Aptitude Test [SAT] and or American College Testing [ACT] score. The SAT consists of sections on critical reading, writing, and mathematics (The College Board, 2014). The

ACT consists of sections on English, mathematics, reading, and science (ACT, Inc.,

2014).

A recorded performance audition or live performance audition is required for all music education major applicants, either a vocal performance or one on their major instrument. Audition requirements differ at each university. In general, a recorded audition is required for an applicant not able to travel to the university; however, a live audition is strongly recommended for all applicants. A performance audition is mainly based on the applicant’s major instrument or voice performance, but there are potentially additional requirements, such as a sight reading, a matching of pitches, an interview, a preliminary recording for advisory purposes, which is not for a prescreening audition, a prescreening recording, a private lesson with a professor, a discussion with faculty about their study, goals, interests, and more. In addition, the school or college of music requires letters of recommendation that illustrate the applicant’s musical ability and potential. The specific requirements of each university program were reviewed in detail.

The School of Music at UA has two steps to its admissions process. First, applicants must complete a UA application to be admitted to the university. Then, applicants must complete the School of Music application and participate in a performance audition (UA, 2014b). The UA admission office requires all applicants to submit (a) the UA application, (b) a high school transcript, (c) college transcripts from all universities and colleges that applicants have attended if applicable, and (d) SAT and or

ACT score (UA, 2014c; see Table 3.10). According to UA, the university selects applicants throughout a comprehensive review process based on academic achievements as well as other factors (2014d). Academic achievements like class rank, strength of coursework performance in curriculum, GPA, and SAT and or ACT score are reviewed.

Other factors, such as leadership, service, work experience, diverse activities, personal characteristics and attributes, adaptability in a variety of challenging learning environments, and other talents are considered. In addition, the High School Competency

Requirements, which require specific courses and scores, are reviewed to determine if applicants have to make up any course work deficiencies.

The University of Arizona School of Music application materials are (a) the

School of Music application, (b) a letter of recommendation that describes an applicant’s musical aptitude and ability, (c) a music theory readiness exam to determine if an applicant has necessary theory skills to take the first semester of a required music theory course, and (d) a performance audition (UA, 2014e; see Table 3.10). According to the audition repertoire requirements of the UA School of Music, the UA School of Music offers the following areas of performance auditions: voice, keyboard, string, and winds

59 and percussion (2014f; see Table 3.11). As subcategories, keyboard includes the piano and organ; string include the harp, guitar, violin, viola, cello, and bass; wind instruments include the flute, oboe, bassoon, clarinet, saxophone, horn, trumpet, trombone, and tuba and euphonium. Applicants select instruments or voice on which they wish to audition.

There are some specific requirements for the audition for certain instruments or areas.

Music education applicants who audition on voice must interview with the music education faculty. Applicants who play horn are required to participate in sight reading and ear training, and most string and winds applicants must play scales on their instruments. Applicants who play trombone have the option to play a jazz piece if they are interested in jazz. Trombone applicants must demonstrate a receptive and non- defensive attitude towards constructive criticism and suggestions. Applicants who play tuba and euphonium must have a lesson lasting around 60 to 90 minutes with a professor instead of a formal juried audition, and the lesson includes a discussion concerning the expectations and requirements of prospective students. Notably, organ, guitar, and saxophone applicants have to contact a professor of their specialty in person because specific requirements are not available on the university website. Each area determines the acceptable audition level and materials for each degree. In other words, music education applicants must play the acceptable audition level and materials for the degree.

CU-Boulder

The College of Music at CU-Boulder has two steps in its admission process. First, applicants must complete the CU-Boulder application or a Common Application for admission to the university. Then, the applicants must complete the College of Music

60 application and participate in a performance audition, either with a vocal performance or on their major instrument. The CU-Boulder admission office requires applicants to submit (a) the CU-Boulder application or the Common Application, (b) a high school transcript, (c) college transcripts from all universities and colleges that applicants have attended if applicable; (d) SAT and or ACT score, (e) two personal essays on assigned topics, and (f) one academic letter of recommendation (CU-Boulder, 2014a; see Table

3.12). In addition, applicants may submit optional documents, such as additional letters of recommendation, a resume, a list of various extracurricular activities, and information regarding work experience, leadership positions, and awards. CU-Boulder selects students through a holistic admission review process based primarily on academic factors and then on other secondary factors (CU-Boulder, 2014b). The academic achievements reviewed are the high school GPA, the rigor of courses taken, previous SAT and or ACT score, the Minimum Academic Preparation Standards that require specific courses and units, and whether applicants have received any D or F grades. The secondary factors are an applicant’s ability and potential to be successful in competitive and challenging environments at the university. The CU-Boulder College of Music requires applicants to submit (a) the College of Music application, (b) a letter of reference from a person who is familiar with the applicant’s development as a musician, and (c) a performance audition

(CU-Boulder, 2014c; see Table 3.12).

According to the audition repertoire requirements of CU-Boulder College of

Music, the CU-Boulder College of Music offers the following areas of performance auditions that apply to a music education major: voice, keyboard, string, woodwinds, and brass and percussion (CU, 2014d; see Table 3.13). As subcategories, keyboard includes

61 piano, harpsichord, and organ, but harpsichord and organ are not applicable for music education major applicants. String includes the harp, classical guitar, violin, viola, cello, and bass. Woodwinds include the flute, oboe, bassoon, clarinet, and saxophone. Brass includes the horn, trumpet, trombone, and tuba and euphonium.

There are some specific requirements for the audition in certain instruments or areas. Specifically, some areas require sight reading and or matching of pitches; voice areas require sight singing and matching of pitches; applicants who play classical guitar are required to match pitches; harp, trumpet, tuba and euphonium, and percussion applicants are required to demonstrate sight reading skills, and harp, trumpet, and tuba and euphonium applicants must also play scales. Flute applicants are encouraged to have a lesson with a professor, and all non-Colorado resident applicants who play flute must submit a prescreening recording. A prescreening recording is strongly recommended for all undergraduate string applicants. Oboe and clarinet applicants are recommended to submit a preliminary recording on an advisory basis that is not for a prescreening audition, and clarinet applicants must have an individual interview with a professor. In regard to an applicant’s interest, horn, trumpet, and tuba and euphonium applicants can play an optional orchestra excerpts, and trombone applicants may play a jazz excerpt depending on their interests.

The School of Music at UU requires applicants first to apply for admission to the university. Then, they must have either a vocal audition or an audition on their major instrument. UU admission office requires applicants to submit (a) an application for

62 admission to the university, (b) an official high school transcript, (c) college transcripts if applicable, and (d) SAT or ACT score (UU, 2014a; see Table 3.14). UU has a holistic review process for admission that considers academic achievements and achievements in other areas as well (UU, 2014b). First of all, an applicant’s academic preparation and performance is considered by reviewing the rigor of courses taken throughout their high school career, their grade trends, GPA, SAT and or ACT score, academic awards or distinctions, excellence in academic achievement, intellectual pursuits, creative endeavors, and the satisfaction of all high school core course requirements. Second, the applicant’s personal achievements and characteristics are considered, such as personal qualities like integrity, maturity, motivation, and resilience; significant commitment to community engagement, citizenship, and leadership; involvement in student clubs and organizations, athletics, or other extracurricular activities; familiar responsibilities; extraordinary circumstances; ability to contribute to and benefit from a culturally and intellectually diverse learning community; and a demonstrated understanding of and respect for historically underrepresented populations.

The University of Utah School of Music requires applicants to submit (a) three letters of recommendation, wherein two of the letters must be written by persons who can evaluate their musical and academic abilities; (b) 1st-year theory rudiments diagnostic assessment; and (c) a performance audition (UU, 2014c; see Table 3.14). The diagnostic assessment is to determine whether a student has the ability to take the 1st-year theory class, but it does not affect to the admission decision. Applicants for the music education major must have either a vocal audition or an audition on their major instrument.

According to undergraduate audition requirements for the UU School of Music, the UU

School of Music offers the following areas of performance auditions applicable to the music education major: voice, piano, organ, string, classical guitar, woodwinds and brass, percussion, and jazz (UU, 2014d; see Table 3.15). UU School of Music has relatively simple audition requirements as compared to the other two schools. For example, UU

School of Music addresses a same audition requirement for string area instead of a specific audition repertoire for each stringed instrument. However, there are some specific requirements for the audition in certain instruments or areas. Specifically, voice requires a brief interview with an audition panel. String, except harp, classical guitar, and woodwinds and brass require applicants to play scales. Classical guitar applicants are required to sight read ensemble parts.

Summary of Admission Requirements of U.S. Programs

The three selected U.S. universities similarly require a university application, an official high school transcript, college transcripts if applicable, and SAT or ACT score.

All of these universities have a comprehensive review process for admission. They review an applicant’s academic achievement as well as other factors. A review of academic achievement is based on an applicant’s transcript as well as the SAT and or

ACT score. The secondary factors are based on an applicant’s diverse experiences, including personality, awards, work experiences, leadership, and more. CU-Boulder admission office requires personal essays and an academic letter of recommendation as well as the above common requirements.

The School/College of Music applicants must be accepted to both the

School/College of Music and the university in order to enter the music education program.

In general, the School/College of Music requires a performance audition for all applicants.

Specifically, the UA School of Music requires the School of Music application, a letter of recommendation that describes an applicant’s musical ability, a performance audition, and the music theory readiness exam. CU-Boulder requires the College of Music application, a letter of reference describing an applicant’s musical ability, and a performance audition. UU requires three letters of recommendations, two of which have to attest to an applicant’s musical and academic abilities, a performance audition, and a music theory diagnostic test. For the audition, the school and college include areas in voice, keyboard, string, percussion and winds, and or jazz for music education major applicants. The school and college may also have various specific requirements for each area aside from the solo performance auditions, namely interviews, private lessons, sight readings, ear trainings, prescreening recordings, preliminary recordings, and or playing scales.

Comparison of Admission Requirements in Korean and U.S. Programs

Both Korean and U.S. universities require school transcripts, specific academic test scores, such as the CSAT in Korea, and the SAT and or the ACT in the United States, and performance auditions. All music education applicants have a required audition, either a performance audition on their major instrument or a vocal performance. The performance audition is primarily based on an applicant’s solo performance on the applicant’s major instrument or major area to show his or her performing level, but other musical abilities, such as sight reading, ear training, piano skills, and other abilities may also be required for some instruments or some areas. Contrastingly, the Korean

65 universities and the U.S. universities also show differences in admission requirements.

First of all, the Korean universities specifically weight each of the academic achievements and musical performance audition with different percentages, and these are combined for admission decision reviews. On the other hand, the U.S. universities require for applicants to satisfy both the university criteria and school or college of music criteria. If they are only able to satisfy one of them, they may not receive admission to the university. Second, the Korean universities have a comparatively narrow review process in which they weight an applicant’s high school transcript and the CSAT score highest.

In contrast, the U.S. universities have a broader review process that considers diverse factors based on the applicant’s in-school and extracurricular experiences as well as academic achievements based on transcripts and academic test scores. For differences in performance auditions, CNU, KNU, and KNUE have both Western and Gugak areas for music education students. On the other hand, UA, CU-Boulder, and UU only have

Western music based auditions. In regard to audition requirements, U.S. institutions seem to have a broader range of audition procedures and consider an individual applicant’s interest or background through private lessons with professors, interviews with faculty, and more.

Curricula

Curricula of Korean Programs

The Ministry of Education [MOE] requires for preservice music teachers to complete specific coursework at their universities to receive a teacher certificate. The

MOE had revised the requirements several times, and the following requirements in this

66 study are the most recent policy. The selected Korean universities provide the related coursework needed to fulfill the requirements for the teacher certificate. The coursework can be divided into two areas: (a) teaching course works, and (b) major course works.

First, The MOE provides a standard for teaching coursework for preservice teachers to be certified as teacher candidates (see Table 3.16). According to the MOE (2014, p. 78), the teaching coursework has three areas: (a) teaching theory, (b) teaching qualifications, and

Specifically, first, the teaching theory includes Introduction to Education,

Educational Philosophy and History, Curriculum of Education, Assessment of Education,

Educational Methods and Technology, Educational Psychology, Educational Sociology,

Educational Administration and Management, Educational Counseling and Guidance, and other related courses. Preservice teachers must complete more than 6 courses and 12 credits of teaching theory. Second, teaching qualifications includes Introduction to

Special education, Educational Work, and Prevention of and Solutions to School

Violence. Preservice teachers must complete more than 6 total credits and more than 2 credits per course of teaching qualifications. Third, teaching practica include Student

Teaching and Educational Volunteer Work. Preservice teachers complete more than a total of 4 credits of teaching practica: no less than 2 credits of Student Teaching and no more than 2 credits of Educational Volunteer Work for a total of 4 credits.

The Ministry of Education (2014, pp. 79-80) has detailed explanations for the contents of each area of teaching coursework (see Table 3.17). For the teaching theory coursework, the introduction to education course is about the basic theory of overall

67 education, teaching ethics, and teaching theory. The philosophy and history of education course is about philosophical and historical foundations of education, notably about

Korean educational history and philosophy. The curricula for education course are about the theory and practice of curriculum, notably the national curriculum and school curricula. The assessment in education course is about the theory, practice, and methods of assessment applicable to school environments. The educational methods and technology course is about the theory and practice of teaching and learning, including subjects about educational materials and the use of software. The educational psychology course is about a learner’s understanding, learning and development theory, and lifestyle mentoring. The educational sociology course is about the social function of education, notably social structures in school. The educational administration and management course is about the educational system and organization, faculty personnel, supervision and school administration, and class management. The lifestyle counseling and mentoring course is about counseling and guidance methods appropriate to a student’s developmental stage. There are other courses besides the previous nine areas that have content on teaching theory.

For teaching qualifications coursework, the introduction to special education course is about teaching methods for the special handicaps of each student by understanding their psychological and behavioral characteristics. The educational work course is about diverse skills and knowledge about class management, various personnel and rules, guidance for students, teaching ethics, and student cultures. The prevention of and solutions to school violence course is about understanding, prevention, and solutions of school valance that are realistic and applicable to school environments.

For teaching practica coursework, the student teaching course is for a practical training to participate in teaching at schools after receiving an education on teaching practica theory at universities. The educational volunteer work course is to instigate future teachers to participate in volunteer work in the education field, such as working as a substitute teacher, afterschool teacher, or working with underachieving children.

Second, the MOE requires two types of specific major coursework: (a) subject education coursework, and (b) subject foundation coursework. Preservice music teachers must complete more than 8 credits and 3 courses related to music education coursework.

The education coursework includes a foundation of subject education course, a study of subject materials and teaching methods course, a course of logic and critical writing on subject, and other subject education areas (2014, p. 73; see Table 3.18). For the contents of coursework, a foundation of subject education course is about overall study of subject education; a study of subject materials and teaching methods is about practical experiences of teaching subject; a course of logic and critical writing on subject is about basic rule of logical thinking; other subject education areas are about study of theory and practice (2014, p. 73).

Preservice music teachers must also complete more than 21 credits and 7 subjects of music foundation coursework (2014, p. 71; see Table 3.19). The music foundation coursework includes a foundations of music education course, music (Gugak) teaching methods course, applied lesson, Gugak performance course, sight seeing and ear training,

Gugak vocal teaching methods, chorus and orchestra teaching methods, an introduction to Gugak, Gugak history, history of Western music, harmony, music form and analysis,

Janggu accompaniment methods, and piano accompaniment methods courses (2014, p.

263). Subject education coursework and subject foundation coursework can overlap. For example, the foundations of music education and the study of music teaching materials and teaching methods belong to the music education coursework as well as music foundation coursework.

The Ministry of Education requires secondary school preservice teachers to fulfill specific criteria during their university years to receive a secondary teacher certificate when they graduate from the university (MOE, 2014, p. 61; see Table 3.20). First, secondary school preservice teachers must complete more than 50 credits of the coursework on their major, including more than 7 subjects and 21 credits of the basic foundation coursework. Second, they must complete more than 22 credits of teaching coursework: no less than 12 credits of teaching theory coursework, 6 credits of teaching qualifications coursework, and 4 credits of teaching practica coursework. Third, their average score of major coursework has to be higher than 75 of 100 points. Fourth, their average score of teaching coursework has to higher than 80 of 100 points. Fifth, they have to pass more than two times of a teacher attitude a teacher attitude and personality test. Finally, they have to fulfill specific requirements by their university.

The researcher reviewed the graduation requirements for a bachelor degree in music education with a teacher certificate of each selected school. The data were collected from university websites, a phone interview with persons of authority, and materials requested directly form the universities. The researcher organized the graduation requirements by major (music) coursework, teaching coursework, nonmusic coursework and electives. The major coursework includes music education coursework and music foundation coursework. The teaching coursework includes teaching theory,

70 teaching qualifications, and teaching practica courses. Typically, nonmusic coursework encompasses various courses, including literature, language, English, culture, history, philosophy, social science, natural science, arts that are related to general education.

Students can choose elective courses from music coursework, teaching coursework, nonmusic coursework, and more.

CNU

The graduation requirements for credits at CNU total 150: major coursework accounts for 71 credits (47.3%), teaching coursework accounts for 22 credits (14.7%), nonmusic coursework accounts for 27 credits (18%), and electives accounts for 30 credits

(20%) (CNU, n.d.a; see Table 3.21). These percentages were rounded off to one decimal place to total 100% when applicable. For the major coursework, students have to complete at least 8 credits and 3 subjects of music education coursework as well as 21 credits and 7 subjects of the music foundation coursework (CNU, n.d.b, pp. 90-91). The music education coursework includes Foundations of Music Education, Study of Music

Teaching Materials and Teaching Methods, and A Course of Logic and Critical Writing in Music (CNU, n.d.b, p. 90). The teaching coursework includes teaching theory, teaching qualifications, and teaching practica courses (CNU, n.d.b, p. 92). In addition,

CNU requires for students to select their elective courses from major coursework.

Chonnam National University offers both music and music education courses, such as various classes in Gugak [Korean Traditional Music], Western music, computer music, popular music, creativity, and special teaching methods, such as Orff teaching methods (CNU, n.d.a). Students can select subjects from various courses in accordance

71 with their interest and specific requirements to graduate (see Table 3.22).

KNU

The graduation requirements for credits at KNU total 140 credits: major coursework accounts for 71 credits (50.7%), teaching coursework accounts for 22 credits

(15.7%), nonmusic coursework accounts for 18 credits (12.9%), and electives accounts for 29 credits (20.7%) (KNU, n.d.; see Table 3.23). These percentages were rounded off to one decimal place to total 100 % when applicable. For the major coursework, students have to complete at least 8 credits and 3 subjects of music education coursework as well as 21 credits and 7 subjects of the music foundation coursework (KNU, 2014b, pp. 232 &

239). The music education coursework includes Foundations of Music education, Study of Music Teaching Materials and Teaching Methods, and A Course of Logic and Critical

Writing in Music (KNU, 2014b, p. 239).

Kongju National University offers both music and music education courses, and the university provides classes in Western music as well as Gugak (KNU, n.d.; see Table

3.24). KNU seems more focused on fundamental courses, such as theory, counterpoint, arrangement, harmony, and so on; and emphasized less the courses in music and music education. KNU notably provides a development of music education media course.

KNUE

The graduate requirements for credits at KNUE total 140: major coursework accounts for 57 credits (40.7%), teaching coursework accounts for 24 credits (17.1%), nonmusic coursework accounts for 21 credits (15%), electives accounts for 38 credits

(27.1%), and duties of a teacher coursework accounts for 0 credit (0%) (KNEU, 2014, p.

23; see Table 3.25). Each of these percentages was rounded off to one decimal place when applicable, and the total percentage was rounded off to the nearest whole number for a total of 100%. For major coursework, students have to complete at least 9 credits and 3 subjects of music education coursework as well as 21 credits and 7 subjects of music foundation coursework (KNUE, 2014, pp. 47 & 101). Music education coursework includes Foundations of Music Education, Study of Music Teaching Materials, and

Critical Writing in Music (KNUE, 2014, p. 101). For teaching coursework, KNUE requires more than 22 credits of teaching coursework, which is the minimum number of credits required by the MOE.

According to the MOE, a minimum of 4 credits of teaching practica courses are required, but KNUE has its graduation requirements set as a minimum of 6 credits. In addition, students need to pass the duties of a teacher course, which is a noncredit course.

KNUE offers various music and music education courses (KNUE, 2014, pp. 101-102; see

Table 3.26). In particular, KNUE provides music courses in Asia, Korea, and Western country. In addition, KNUE offers the teaching of singing with accompaniment class as well as keyboard harmony. The reason for providing these courses is that the music classrooms in Korean schools focus much more on a student’s singing with keyboard accompaniment rather than playing diverse instruments.

The graduation requirements for credits at KU total 140: major coursework accounts for 60 credits (42.9%), teaching coursework accounts for 23 credits (16.4%),

73 nonmusic coursework accounts for 15 credits (10.7%), and electives accounts for 42 credits (30%) (KU, n.d.a, p. 247; see Table 3.27). These percentages were rounded off to one decimal place to total 100% when applicable. For major coursework, students have to complete at least 9 credits and 3 subjects of music education coursework as well as 21 credits and 7 subjects of the music foundation coursework (KU, n.d.a, pp. 256 & 421-

422). The music education coursework includes Foundations of Music Education, Study of Music Teaching Materials and Teaching Methods, and A Course of Logic and Critical

Writing in Music (KU, n.d.a, pp. 256 & 421-422).

For teaching coursework, KU requires more than the minimum 22 credits of teaching coursework mandated by the MOE. KU requires a minimum of 23 credits to fulfill graduation requirements (KU, n.d.a, p. 418). KU offers both music and music education courses (see Table 3.28). Particularly, KU provides multimedia assisted music education and computer music courses. KU offers Korea music history as well as

Western music history courses. Comparatively, KU does not provide many classes in

Gugak, but courses of applied music in Dan-so and traditional music singing and Janggu accompanying are provided. In addition, KU offers courses involving student teaching practice in music and a student teaching seminar.

According to KU, The student teaching practice in music is that, “It provides students with observation and teaching practices to give then a chance to experience classroom teaching in advance, to practice their teaching skills, to establish their teachership, and to cultivate their self-understanding and self-evaluation as a teacher,” and the seminar is that, “A workshop participated by individuals of different major instruments” and “Presentations on individual project are required” (KU, n.d.b).

Summary of Curricula in Korean Programs

In Korea, MOE requires specific coursework and credits for secondary school preservice teachers to be certified as secondary music teachers. First, the MOE requires at least 22 credits of teaching coursework: 12 credits of teaching theory courses, 6 credits of teaching qualifications courses, and 4 credits of teaching practica courses. Second, the

MOE requires at least 21 credits of subject foundation coursework. Preservice music teachers have to complete at least 21 credits for music foundation coursework. The

Korean universities provide the required teaching and major coursework with students.

However, although each university has a different curriculum, they all follow the basic instruction by the MOE. The coursework of selected Korean universities can be divided into four areas and duties of a teacher area. All selected universities have four common areas: major courses in music and music education, teaching courses, nonmusic courses, and elective courses in music and or nonmusic; only KNUE has duties of a teacher area as a noncredit course (see Table 3.29).

Chonnam National University requires a total of 150 credits: 71 credits of major coursework (47.3%), 22 credits of teaching coursework (14.7%), 27 credits of nonmusic coursework (18%), and 30 credits of electives (20%). KNU requires a total of 140 credits:

71 credits of major coursework (50.7%), 22 credits of teaching coursework (15.7%), 18 credits of nonmusic coursework (12.9%), and 29 credits of electives (20.7%). KNUE requires a total of 140 credits: 57 credits of major coursework (40.7%), 24 credits of teaching coursework (17.1%), 21 credits of nonmusic coursework (15%), 38 credits of electives (27.1%), and the noncredit duties of a teacher (0%). KU requires a total of 140 credits: 60 credits of major coursework (42.9%), 23 credits of teaching coursework

(16.4%), 15 credits of nonmusic coursework (10.7%), and 42 credits of electives (30%).

On average, the Korean universities require a total of 142.5 credits for a bachelor degree with a teacher certificate. Specifically, 64.75 credits of major coursework (45.4%), 22.75 credits of teaching coursework (16%), 20.25 credits of nonmusic coursework (14.2 %),

34.75 credits of electives (24.4 %), and noncredit of duties of a teacher (0%). These percentages were rounded off to one decimal place to total 100% when applicable.

In terms of the music-related coursework at Korean universities, they provide performance, theory, literature and history, musical skills and techniques, and Gugak courses (see Table 3.30). Regarding literature and history-related courses, KNU, KNUE, and KU have both the Korean and the Western music courses. In particular, KNUE separates the literature and history courses into History of Asian Music, History of

Korean Music, History of Western Music, and Twentieth Century Music. Regarding music skills and techniques courses, all four universities provide a sight singing and ear training course and piano accompaniment or practice course. Moreover, as different courses from traditional music-related courses, CNU and KNUE provide Popular Music and Practical Music, respectively, and KU provides Computer Music.

In terms of music education-related coursework, Korean universities provide the three required courses for preservice teachers that lead to a teacher certificate when they graduate: a foundation of music education, study of music teacher materials, and critical writing in music courses (see Table 3.31). CNU and KNUE comparatively have diverse courses in music education more than KNU and KU. In particular, CNU specified Gugak education courses into each area, such as Teaching of Gugak Singing, Teaching of Gugak

String Instruments, Teaching of Gugak Wind Instruments, and Gugak Pedagogy. In

76 addition, CNU offers special teaching methods courses, such as Activity of Music and

Body Expression, Teaching of Creativity Activity and Composition in Class, and Orff

Teaching Methods.

Curricula of U.S. Programs

The curricula of U.S. universities for preservice music teachers can be divided into three areas: major coursework, teaching coursework, and nonmusic coursework. The major coursework includes classes in music and music education. The educational department primarily provides the teaching coursework. According to an analysis of the curriculum of the U.S. universities, the U.S. universities may have subcategories of teaching coursework, such as society and culture, special education, ethics, educational psychology, and teaching practica.

First, the area of society and culture may be comprised of courses, such as

Schooling in America; School and Society; Language, Reading, and Culture;

Differentiating Instruction in Diverse Classrooms; and Introduction to Multicultural

Education. Second, special education may be comprised of courses, such as Inclusive

Classrooms and Human Exceptionality. Third, the area of ethics might contain courses like Ethnic Studies. Fourth, Educational Psychology is also under teaching coursework.

Finally, teaching practica may include Student Teaching (see Table 3.32). At CU-Bolder, the educational department provides the student teaching course; however, at UA and UU, the School of Music provides the student teaching course. In general, nonmusic courses may include general education and or electives. General education encompasses areas, such as math, English, second language, traditions and cultures, individuals and societies,

77 humanities, natural sciences, literature and arts, written communication, writing, diversity, and so on; electives are the students’ choice in nonmusic courses.

Graduates at UA are certified as a K-12 music teacher who can teach music in any public school in Arizona as well as many other states (UA, 2014g). The graduation requirements for credits UA total 125 (UA, 2014a; see Table 3.33). UA offers major coursework in music and music education, teaching coursework, and nonmusic coursework. Major coursework accounts for 62 credits (49.6%) of the program. Teaching coursework accounts for 27 credits (21.6%) of the program: the educational department provides 15 credits of teaching courses, and the UA School of Music provides 12 credits of a student teaching course. Nonmusic coursework accounts for 36 credits (28.8%) of the program. UA offers both music education and music coursework. In relation to music education coursework, the UA School of Music provides diverse technique courses. The courses are in band, string, keyboard, woodwinds, brass, and marching band (see Table

3.34). As for music courses, they include applied lessons, musical skills and structure, piano class, history of Western music courses, and ensemble courses.

CU-Boulder

The University of Colorado Boulder prepares students for careers in music education and to be a K-12 music teacher. The students can choose one of four specialized areas: choral, instrumental, choral-general, or instrumental-general (CU-

Boulder, 2014e). Students study with applied faculty on their major instrument and have

78 opportunities to perform in solo recitals and with a variety of ensembles. During their sophomore year, students begin to observe and work with music teachers. In the junior year, students participate in methods courses that investigate appropriate teaching strategies and materials. Ultimately, during their student teaching semester, students work in partnership with public school teachers as they assume the role and responsibilities of a full-time music educator.

The graduation requirements for credits at CU-Boulder total 126 (see Table 3.35).

CU-Boulder offers major coursework in music and music education, teaching coursework, and nonmusic coursework. Major coursework accounts for 85 credits

(67.5%) of the program. Teaching coursework accounts for 17 credits (13.5%) of the program, which includes student teaching. The educational department provides the teaching coursework. Nonmusic coursework accounts for 24 credits (19%) of the program. These percentages were rounded off to one decimal place to total 100% when applicable.The University of Colorado Boulder offers various music and music education courses (see Table 3.36). Notably, CU-Boulder provides an introduction to student teaching and student teaching seminar courses. In addition, sophomore proficiency and junior recital are required for their performing proficiency.

Students at UU can choose one area of three specialized areas: instrumental, choral, and general music, and they can meet the requirements for a K-12 music teaching endorsement from the Utah State Office of Education by completing the coursework that

UU provides (UU, 2014e). Students develop teaching skills through early and intensive

79 field experiences in classrooms. During their freshman year, students begin to observe and work with public school music teachers and proceed to field teaching experiences, finishing with a final student teaching semester. The graduation requirements for credits at UU average 131.5: 131 credits for the instrumental major and 132 credits for the choral major (see Table 3.37).

The University of Utah offers major coursework in music and music education, teaching coursework, and nonmusic coursework. Major coursework credits range from 79 to 80 (60.5%) of the program: 79 credits for the choral major and 80 credits for the instrumental major. Teaching coursework accounts for 19 credits (14.4%) of the program: the educational department provides 9 credits of teaching courses, and the UU

School of Music provides 10 credits of a student teaching course. Nonmusic coursework accounts for 33 credits (25.1%) of the program. These percentages were rounded off to one decimal place for a total 100% when applicable. UU School of Music offers a number of music and music education courses (see Table 3.38). The School of Music offers lesson, theory, history, conducting, ensemble, senior recital, concert attendance, and more. Also, diverse methods, technique, and pedagogy courses are offered.

Summary of Curricula in U.S. Programs

The coursework of selected U.S. universities can be divided into three areas: major coursework, teaching coursework, and nonmusic coursework (see Table 3.39). UA requires a total of 125 credits: 62 credits of major coursework (49.6%), 27 credits of teaching coursework (21.6%), and 36 credits of nonmusic coursework (28.8%). CU-

Boulder requires a total of 126 credits: 85 credits of major coursework (67.5%), 17

80 credits of teaching coursework (13.5 %), and 24 credits of nonmusic coursework (19%).

UU requires a total of 131.5 credits: 79.5 credits of major coursework (60.5%), 19 credits of teaching coursework (14.4%), and 33 credits of nonmusic coursework (25.1%).

On average, U.S. universities require a total of 127.5 credits for a bachelor degree of music in music education. Broken down, the credits are divided so that 75.5 credits are of major coursework (59.2%), 21 credits are of teaching coursework (16.5%), and 31 credits are of nonmusic coursework (24.3%). All of these percentages were rounded off to two decimal places. These percentages were rounded off to one decimal place for a total 100% when applicable.

In terms of music-related coursework at the U.S. universities, they provide performance, theory, literature and history, musical skills, and techniques courses (see

Table 3.40). Regarding musical skills and techniques courses, UA specified the technique courses into each area: Keyboard Techniques, Woodwind Techniques, Brass Techniques,

String Techniques, Band Techniques, and Marching Band Techniques. In terms of literature and history courses, CU-Boulder provides a history of (Western) music as well as non-Western music history courses.

In terms of music education-related coursework, U.S. universities specified the courses on specific areas (see Table 3.41). UA divided a teaching music in school course into two courses as Teaching Music in Secondary Schools and Teaching Music in

Elementary Schools. CU-Boulder specified the courses, such as Voice Class, String Class,

Woodwind Class, Brass Class, Percussion Class; Teaching String Instruments, Teaching

Woodwind Instruments, Teaching Brass Instruments; and Teaching General Music,

Teaching Instrumental Music, Teaching Choral Music. UU specified the courses, such as

Brass Instrument Study, Percussion Instrument Study String Instrument Study,

Woodwind Instrument Study, and Voice Study for Instrumental Music; and General

Music Methods, Choral Music Methods, Instrumental Music Methods.

Comparison of Curricula in Korean and U.S. Programs

Both the Korean and the U.S. institutions have the common goal of providing music education programs designed to produce professional music teachers who can lead music education in their schools and communities. The Korean and U.S. universities provide major coursework, teaching coursework, and nonmusic coursework. The Korean universities also offer elective coursework.

In relation to major coursework, both the Korean and the U.S. universities provide music-related coursework and music education-related coursework. As music-related coursework, both the Korean and U.S. universities provide performance, literature and history, theory, and musical skills and techniques courses for preservice teachers. In addition, Korean universities provide Gugak courses for them to learn playing and teaching of Korean traditional music. As music education- related coursework, both the

Korean and U.S. universities’ curricula have an introduction to music education course, music techniques courses, and diverse pedagogy courses. Contrastingly, the goal of the

Korean universities is cultivating secondary school music teachers, while the U.S. universities seek to produce music teachers who can teach any level from kindergarten through high school. Regarding Korean universities curricula, the MOE sets specific coursework requirements for secondary school preservice teacher education programs, while diverse organizations, such as (a) National Association for Music Education

[NAfME], (b) National Association of Schools of Music [NASM], (c) Interstate Teacher

Assessment and Support Consortium [InTASC], (d) National Board for Professional

Teaching Standards [NBPTS], (e) National Council for Accreditation of Teacher

Education [NCATE], and (f) American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education

[AACTE], provide standards for preservice teacher education programs in the United

States.

According to an analysis of curricula, the Korean universities require more credits overall than the U.S. universities require. The total number of credits of Korean universities and U.S. universities are 142.5 and 127.5, respectively (see Table 3.42). As for major coursework, the U.S. universities require a greater percentage (59.2%) than do the Korean universities (45.4%). Regarding teaching coursework, the required percentage is similar in the Korean and the U.S. universities, but the U.S. universities require a slightly higher percentage of teaching coursework (16.5%) than do the Korean universities (16%). As for nonmusic coursework and or electives, Korean universities require a greater percentage (38.6%) than do U.S. universities (24.3%). In short, U.S. universities seem to focus much more on major courses in their curriculum than do

Korean universities.

Teaching Practica

Teaching Practica of Korean Programs

The Ministry of Education assigns two areas of teaching practica for preservice music teachers. These two areas are student teaching and educational volunteer work

(2014, pp. 80-82). Korean student teaching procedures consist of observations,

83 participation, teaching practice, and work practice (CNU, n.d.c; Ju, 2011; KNU, 2007;

MOE, 2014). In the first stage of student teaching, during observations, preservice teachers observe and understand overall school environments related to teaching, such as school curriculum, students, classroom management, and more (CNU, n.d.c; Ju, 2011;

KNU, 2007). In the participation stage, preservice teachers participate as an assistant to a teacher in diverse school activities, teaching a class, classroom management, after school teaching, lifestyle mentoring, community activities, and more (Ju, 2011 & KNU, n.d.c).

In the teaching practice stage, preservice teachers have a teaching role where they directly teach and lead a class based on their observations and participation (CNU, n.d.c;

Ju, 2011; KNU, 2007). Furthermore, the work practice aspect refers to preservice teachers role-playing as teachers by participating in diverse work activities at school

(CNU, n.d.c). These four aspects of student teaching may take place in a variety of orders depending on the collaborating school.

The Ministry of Education requires preservice teachers to complete more than a total of 4 credits of teaching practica, including no less than 2 credits of student teaching.

For student teaching, if preservice teachers work as a full-time student teacher, they must work 2 weeks per 1 credit hour regardless of weekends and holidays. If they work as a part-time student teacher, then they have to work more than 80 hours per 1 credit (see

Table 3.43).

Each university has the authority to set the practica periods for preservice teachers, so students must follow the university policy to choose a start year or date for their student teaching experience. Each university has the responsibility of coordinating with area schools for student teaching experience; however, students may be able to select

84 schools by themselves if they wish. Preservice teachers must have a student teaching experience at the same level of school as their desired teacher certificate. Furthermore, the MOE (2014, p. 83) emphasizes that university advisors should visit preservice teachers’ student teaching locations and advise them there in order to reinforce the student teaching.

Educational volunteer work refers to university students serving preschool students to secondary school students in an educational way by their specific talents

(MOE, p. 82; see Table 3.44). The MOE requires preservice teachers to complete more than a total of 4 credits of teaching practica, including no more than 2 credits of educational volunteer work. The MOE requires students to complete no less than 30 hours per 1 credit of student teaching. There is no regulation regarding the start year or periods for the educational volunteer work, but it is recommended that students continually work from the time they enter the university until they graduate. Students have a responsibility to select work organizations, but universities are able to select the organizations. Students are not required to work at the same level of school they desire to receive their teacher certificate for. In addition, the MOE (2014, p. 82) does not require universities to provide a grade on the educational volunteer work course although it does count as credit hours.

Chonnam National University (CNU, n.d.b) requires students to complete the student teaching course and the educational volunteer work course (see Table 3.45). Two credits are required for student teaching, which consists of 4 weeks of student teaching.

CNU has set the semester of student teaching as the first semester of senior year. Two credits of educational volunteer work are required, which equates to 60 hours of

85 volunteer work. KNU (2014a) requires students to complete the student teaching course and the educational volunteer work course. Two credits of student teaching are required, which consist of 4 weeks of student teaching. KNU has set the semester of student teaching as the first semester of the junior year for students of departments of education.

The educational volunteer work courses are divided into two courses: (a)

Educational Volunteer Work 1, and (b) Educational Volunteer Work 2. Each educational volunteer work course equates to 30 hours of volunteer work. KNUE (2014a) requires students to complete the student teaching course and the educational volunteer work course. The student teaching courses are divided into two courses: (a) Student Teaching 1, and (b) Student Teaching 2. Two credits of student teaching are required for each division, each division consisting of 4 weeks of student teaching. A total of 4 credits and

8 weeks of student teaching are required.

Korea National University of Education has determined the semesters for Student

Teaching 1 and Student Teaching 2 to be the second semester of the junior year and the first semester of the senior year, respectively. Two credits of educational volunteer work are required, which equates to 60 hours of volunteer work. KU (n.d.a) requires students to complete the student teaching course and the educational volunteer work course (see

Table 3.45). Two credits of student teaching are required, which consists of 4 weeks of student teaching. KU has set the semester of student teaching as the first semester of senior year. The educational volunteer work course is divided into two courses, including

Educational Volunteer Work 1 and Educational Volunteer Work 2. Each educational volunteer work course equates to 30 hours of volunteer work, and a total of 60 hours and

2 credits of educational volunteer work is required.

Teaching Practica of U.S. Programs

The credits required for student teaching at UA are 12 (see Table 3.46). UA suggests that students conduct their student teaching during the spring semester of their senior year. To be eligible to student teach, all student teachers must maintain a 3.0 GPA and receive a grade of C or higher in all major and teaching courses. Seventy-five days of student teaching are required, including 20 days of maximum responsibilities for classroom management, planning, and instruction. Student teaching is evaluated by considering the student teacher’s portfolio of their student teaching as well as the midterm/final exam(s). The standards of midterm/final exam(s) are (a) learner development, (b) learning differences, (c) learning environments, (d) content knowledge,

(e) content application, (f) assessment, (g) planning for instruction, (h) instructional strategies, (i) professional learning and ethical practice, and (j) leadership and collaboration. All of these domains belong to the 10 standards for professional teacher preparation programs suggested by the Interstate Teacher Assessment and Support

Consortium.

Colorado University Boulder provides their students with a Bachelor of Music

Education degree and Colorado K-12 teaching licensure when they graduate from the university. Eight credits of student teaching are required, which total 16 weeks and consist of 8 weeks of elementary school teaching and 8 weeks of secondary school teaching (see Table 3.46). CU-Boulder suggests that students conduct their student teaching during the spring semester of their senior year. To eligible to student teach, first, preservice music teachers have to be admitted to the Teacher Education Program through a sophomore interview. Second, all student teacher candidates must maintain a

87 cumulative GPA of 2.75 and a 3.0 GPA in music courses. Third, they have to complete all music education and teaching courses with a grade of C- or higher. Fourth, they must have satisfactory performance skills to meet junior level applied proficiency requirements.

Next, they must have a passing score on the PLACE Music Assessment. Moreover, CU-

Boulder requires preservice teachers complete a total of 150 hours of early field experience, including (a) 15 hours as a part of the introduction to music education course;

(b) 10 hours of independently completed experiences; (c) 50 hours through teaching coursework; (d) 25 hours through the music methods practicum course; and (e) 50 hours of the introduction to teaching course. Early field experiences include observation, teaching assistance, introductory teaching, apprentice teaching, internship teaching, and exploration.

The University of Utah stresses that receiving a teacher certificate and licensure is separate from completing degree requirements. Ten credits of student teaching are required in instrumental or choral education (see Table 3.46). UU recommends that students conduct their student teaching during the spring semester of their senior year.

Students are able to choose elementary level or secondary level of student teaching. For the secondary school teaching, one semester of student teaching is required, including a responsibility for four classes or course equivalents. The courses include two content preparations with one required in the student teacher’s content major. Within 1 to 2 weeks in a student teaching period, the student teacher should take overall responsibilities of the regular classroom teacher so that they have full teaching responsibilities by no later than the 3rd week of the student teaching period. Student teachers are encouraged to participate in extracurricular activities with the permission and supervision of the site

88 teacher educator. The five evaluation domains for student teaching are (a) organizing content knowledge for student learning, (b) teaching for student learning, (c) assessment,

(d) creating an environment for student learning and classroom management, and (e) teacher professionalism. Specifically, UU follows the 10 standards for teacher preparation suggested by the Interstate New Teacher Assessment and Support

Consortium. The standards are (a) learning development, (b) learning differences, (c) learning environments, (d) content knowledge, (e) assessment, (f) instructional planning,

(g) instructional strategies, (h) reflection and continuous growth, (i) leadership and collaboration, and (j) professional and ethical behavior. To be eligible to acquire a teacher licensure, all preservice teachers must maintain a cumulative GPA of 3.0 in their academic coursework as well as in their professional or major coursework.

Comparison of Teaching Practica in Korean and U.S. Programs

In Korea, the MOE assigns minimum credit and hour requirements for teaching practica, and all preservice teachers must fulfill the requirements to be eligible to acquire a teacher certificate when they graduate from a university. According to the MOE, preservice teachers must complete no less than 4 credits of the teaching practica coursework that includes more than 2 credits of the student teaching courses and less than

2 credits of the educational volunteer work courses. The MOE requires 4 weeks student teaching periods, with 2 weeks or 80 hours of student teaching hours per 1 credit for student teaching. A total of 30 hours of volunteer work is required per 1 credit of educational volunteer work course. CNU, KNU, and KU all require 2 credits of student teaching, which consist of 4 weeks of student teaching periods. These universities also

89 require a total of 2 credits of the educational volunteer work course, which equate to 60 hours of educational volunteer work. CNU and KU students are required to conduct their student teaching during the first semester of their senior year, while the KNU students are required to conduct their student teaching during the second semester of their junior year.

The student teaching credit requirements at KNUE total 4 credits and include 4 weeks of student teaching during both the second semester of junior year and the first semester of senior year.

In the United States, each state has different requirements for teacher licensure and teacher certificates. Most teacher preparation institutions provide adequate coursework for their students to fulfill the state requirements upon graduating. Student teaching is one of the most important parts of teacher training programs. In U.S. universities, the credits required for student teaching consist of a large portion of the total coursework credits. UA requires 12 credits of student teaching that consist of 75 days of the student teaching, including 20 days with the full responsibilities of a classroom teacher. CU-Boulder requires 8 credits of student teaching that consists of a total 16 weeks of student teaching, which includes 8 weeks of elementary school teaching and 8 weeks of secondary school teaching. UU requires 10 credits of student teaching, which consist of one semester of student teaching. All of the U.S. universities offer the student teaching course during the second semester of the senior year.

Table 3.1: Selected Universities

Country Name of University Region

Chonnam National University [CNU] Gwangju

Kongju National University [KNU] Chungcheongnam-do Korea Korea National University of Education [KNUE] Chungcheongbuk-do

Konkuk University [KU] Seoul

The University of Arizona [UA] Arizona The United University of Colorado Boulder [CU-Boulder] Colorado States The University of Utah [UU] Utah

Table 3.2: CNU Admission Requirements

Transcript (%) CSAT (%) Audition (%) Total (%) Elements *SG *SA *KL *FL *SS/*S/*VE 90 10 37.5 37.5 25 Total (%) 100 100 Total (%) 30 30 40 100 *SG: School grades *SA: School attendance *KL: Korean language *FL: Foreign language *SS: Social studies *S: Sciences *VE: Vocational education

Table 3.3: CNU Performance Audition Requirements

Areas Requirements Western Music Voice One Italian song or opera aria; one German song; one piano piece with a fast tempo

Piano One piece of Chopin Etude Opus 10 or Opus 25; one fast movement of Beethoven Piano Sonata; one Italian or German song

String One string piece of an applicant’s choice; one piano piece with a fast tempo

Winds One wind piece of an applicant’s choice; one piano piece with a fast tempo

Percussion One percussion piece for marimba, snare drum, and timpani; one piano piece with in a fast tempo Composition Composing a piano piece in a ternary form based on an assigned theme (180 min.); harmony analysis based on overall traditional methods (60 min.); one piano piece with a fast tempo Gugak [Korean Traditional Music] Voice P’ansori: one piece of Danga [Traditional Korean short song sang before a P’ansori piece]; one piece of P’ansori; one piano piece with a fast tempo

Gagok: one piece of Pyung-sijo [Traditional Korean poem song] and one piece of Nanchang Gagok [Male voice] or Yeonchang Gagok [Female voice]; one piano piece with a fast tempo

Gayageum Byeongchang: one piece of Danga; one piece of P’ansori; one piano piece of the applicant’s choice with a fast tempo

String One piece of Jeongak [Traditional Korean classical music]; Sanjo [Traditional Korean flee-style solo instrumental music]; one piano piece with a fast tempo

Wind s One piece of Jeongak; Sanjo; one piano piece with a fast tempo

Percussion Pungmulgarak [A melody of traditional Korean folk music which includes drumming, dancing, and singing]; P’ansori Jangdan [A rhythm of P’ansori]; Sanjo Jangdan [A rhythm of Sanjo]; one piano piece with a fast tempo

Composition Harmony analysis up to dominant 7th chord; composing melody by an assigned topic; one piano piece with a fast tempo

Theory Gugak basic theory; one piano piece with a fast tempo

Table 3.4: KNU Admission Requirements

Transcript CSAT Audition Interview Total (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) Elements SG SA KL FL SS/S *CA *EA 90 10 35 35 30 30 70 Total (%) 100 100 100 Total (%) 40 25 30 5 100 *CA: Common assignments *EA: Elective assignments

Table 3.5: KNU Performance Audition Requirements

Areas Requirements Common Assignments Group A: One Korean song Piano, String & Winds, Composition, Gugak

Group B: One fast movement of piano sonata Voice, String & Winds, Gugak

Group C: Tapping a Jeongak Jangdan and Minsogak Jangdan of middle Voice, Piano, Composition school level difficulty Elective Assignments Western Music Voice One Korean song; one Italian or German song Piano One piece of Chopin Etude or Liszt Etude; one fast movement of a sonata in classical or romantic era

String & Winds One fast movement of sonata or concerto Composition Harmony analysis based on overall traditional methods; composing one piano piece in a ternary form based on an assigned theme Gugak String Jeongak: one piece of Yeongsan heosang [Korean court music repertoire]; Sanjo: one piece of an applicant’s choice

Table 3.6: KNUE Admission Requirements

Screening Selection Transcript CSAT Audition Interview Total Process Rate (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) Elements SG SA *VW KL FL SS/ CA EA or S/ *M VE 90 5 5 Stage 1 (%) 300 33.3 66.7 100 Stage 2 (%) 100 20 40 30 10 100 *VW: Volunteer work *M: Mathematics

Table 3.7: KNUE Performance Audition Requirements

Areas Requirements Common Assignments Group A: Sight singing: sight singing on a level of 7th degree; music All applicants dictation: a single melody dictation; Gugak Jangdan: tapping a basic Gugak Jangdan which is a level of middle school music text

Group B: Piano: two fast movements of piano sonata; all major and harmony Voice, Composition, Gugak minor scales in four octaves on the piano

Group C: Piano Voice: one Korean song Elective Assignments Western Music Voice One Korean song; one oratorio aria or opera aria of an Italian, German, or French song

Piano Two contrasting piano pieces that have different music styles and eras; all major and harmonic minor scales in four octaves

Composition Harmony analysis based on overall traditional methods; composing a piano piece in a ternary form by an assigned theme Gugak Gayageum One piece of Yeongsan heosang; one short Sanjo (10 min.) Theory Gugak basic theory; performing a piece on any Gugak instrument

Table 3.8: KU Admission Requirements

Transcript (%) CSAT (%) Audition (%) Total (%) SG KL FL SS/S or M Elements 100 40 40 20 Total (%) 100 100 Total (%) 25 35 40 100

Table 3.9: KU Performance Audition Requirements

Areas Requirements Voice One Italian and German songs

Piano One etude or other piece corresponding to the etude; one other piece of applicants choice

Composition Harmony analysis using traditional methods; composing a piano piece in a ternary form according to an assigned theme (180 min.); performing a piano piece

String One string piece of an applicant’s choice (7 min.)

Winds One wind piece of an applicant’s choice (7 min.)

Table 3.10: UA Admission Requirements

University School of Music a. UA application a. School of Music application b. High school transcript b. A letter of recommendation c. College transcripts c. Music theory readiness exam d. SAT and or ACT score d. Performance audition

Table 3.11: UA Performance Audition Requirements

Areas Requirements Voice Two classical selections with contrasting styles of tempo; interview

Keyboard Piano: two contrasting pieces Organ: contact a professor

String Harp: two or three contrasting harp solos Guitar: contact a professor Violin: scales; a movement from a solo Bach Suite; a movement from a concerto or a comparable work Viola: scale and arpeggio; an etude or movement from a solo Bach Suite; a movement from a concerto or sonata of the student’s choice Cello: three pieces, including a movement from the Bach Suites; a movement from a concerto or sonata; either an etude or a short piece demonstrating technical ability Bass: scales; a piece to show musical ability; an orchestral excerpt of an applicant’s choice; a jazz piece

Winds & Percussion Flute: two contrasting works Oboe: scales; two contrasting etudes from a) Barret Oboe Method, and b) Ferling 48 Etudes Bassoon: scales; two contrasting works Clarinet: scales; one fast movement from a standard repertoire piece; a slow movement from a standard repertoire piece Saxophone: contact a professor Horn: two contrasting etudes; two contrasting solo movements; four standard excerpts from the major orchestral literature; sight reading; scales; basic ear training Trumpet: scales; a movement from a standard solo; two contrasting etudes; sight reading Trombone: two contrasting works as technical and lyrical from solos, etudes, and or orchestra excerpts; scales; sight reading; a jazz etude and or some improvisation; attitude receiving constructive criticism and suggestions gracefully and non-defensively Tuba & Euphonium: lesson with a professor Percussion: being able to demonstrate proficiency in at least two of the following four main areas of percussion performance: snare drum, keyboard percussion, timpani, and drum set

Table 3.12: CU-Boulder Admission Requirements

University College of Music a. CU-Boulder application or a. College of Music application Common Application b. A letter of reference aside from the b. High school transcript academic letter of recommendation c. College transcripts c. Performance audition d. SAT and or ACT score e. Personal essays f. Academic letter of recommendation

Table 3.13: CU Performance Audition Requirements

Areas Requirements Voice Prescreening recording of two contrasting pieces; two contrasting songs; sight singing and matching pitches Keyboard Piano: a work by J. S. Bach, at the level of a suite or prelude and fugue; a sonata-allegro form movement from a Classical period sonata; a piece of an applicant’s choice Organ: only Bachelor of Music in Organ Harpsichord: only Bachelor of Music in harpsichord String Prescreening recording for all undergraduate string applicants Harp: two contrasting pieces; one orchestra excerpt Classical Guitar: audition consists of classical music played on a classical guitar; scales; sight reading; three pieces from different historical periods; matching pitch by singing a note that is played to applicants Violin: a movement of a standard concerto; a movement of a Bach Solo Sonata or Partita; additional piece of an applicant’s choice Viola: a movement of a standard concerto; a movement of a Bach Solo Suite; additional piece of an applicant’s choice Cello: a movement of a standard concerto; a movement of a Bach Solo Suite; additional piece of an applicant’s choice Bass: one movement from a double bass concerto; one movement from a baroque sonata or from a Bach cello suite; one standard orchestral excerpt Woodwinds Flute: prescreening recordings for non-Colorado resident; two or more selections of diverse style; lesson Oboe: two selections in contrasting styles from two different pieces; scales; preliminary recording Bassoon: minimum of three contrasting movements from a required repertoire Clarinet: two selections in contrasting styles; interview; preliminary recording Saxophone: two or three contrasting works; scales

Horn: required solo work; solo works of choice; etude of an applicant’s Brass & Percussion choice; orchestra excerpts Trumpet: one or two movements from a concerto or sonata, or two etudes of contrasting styles; scales; sight reading; orchestra excerpts; jazz tune to demonstrate style and improvisational skills Trombone: solo or single movement of an applicant’s choice, to be selected from a list by school or piece of equivalent difficulty; an etude, orchestral excerpt, or jazz and improvisation of student’s choice Tuba & Euphonium: two contrasting solos or etudes, or one piece with contrasting sections; etude of student’s choice; scales; orchestral excerpts; sight reading Percussion: percussion includes snare drum, mallets, timpani, drum set, jazz vibes, and hand drums; all applicants who play percussion are required to demonstrate a strong musical background in snare drum and mallets; matching pitches by singing

Table 3.14: UU Admission Requirements

University School of Music a. Application for admission to UU a. Three letters of recommendation, two b. High school transcript of which must be from persons capable c. College transcripts of evaluating an applicant’s musical d. SAT and or ACT score and academic abilities b. 1st-year theory rudiments diagnostic assessment c. Performance audition

Table 3.15: UU Performance Audition Requirements

Areas Requirements Voice One classical song in English, Italian, French or German; interview

Piano Two classical pieces of contrasting style and period

Organ Two Baroque pieces and one post Baroque piece

String Two selections of contrasting style; scales [except harp]

Classical Guitar Two prepared works: etude from required repertoire, and composition of an applicant’s choice from Baroque, or twentieth century guitar literature; scales; sight reading skills

Woodwinds & Brass Two selections of contrasting style; scales

Percussion Two etudes: First on snare, multiple percussion, or timpani; second on vibe, xylophone, or marimba

Jazz Scales; group or solo selection from jazz repertoire

Table 3.16: MOE Teaching Coursework Requirements

Min. (or Max.) Total Areas Courses Credits Credits Teaching Introduction to Education 12 12 Theory Educational Philosophy and History (More than 6 Curricula for Education subjects) Assessment in Education Educational Methods and Technology Educational Psychology Educational Sociology Educational Administration and Management Lifestyle Counseling and Mentoring Other Related Courses

Teaching Introduction to Special Education 2 6 Qualifications Educational Work 2 Prevention of and Solutions to School 2 Violence

Teaching Student Teaching 2 4 Practica Educational Volunteer Work 2 (Max.)

Total 22 22

100

Table 3.17: Contents of Teaching Coursework

Areas Courses Contents Teaching Introduction to Education - Basic theory of overall education, teaching ethics, Theory and teaching theory Educational Philosophy and - Philosophical and historical foundations of History education, particularly in regard to Korean educational history and philosophy Curricula for Education - Theory and practice of curriculum, particularly in regard to the national curriculum and school curricula Assessment in Education - Theory, practice, and methods of assessment applicable to school environments Educational Methods and - Theory and practice of teaching and learning, Technology including subjects about educational materials and software use Educational Psychology - A learner’s understanding, learning and development theory, life guidance Educational Sociology - Social function of education, notably social structure in a school Educational Administration - Educational system, organization, a teacher’s and Management personnel, supervision and school administration, and class management Lifestyle Counseling and - Life guidance and counseling methods according to Mentoring students’ development stage

Other Related Subjects - Other teaching subjects that exclude the above 9 areas

Teaching Introduction to Special - Teaching methods according to special handicaps of Qualifica Education each students by understanding their psychological -tions and behavioral characteristics Educational Work - Diverse skills and knowledge about class management, various personnel and rules, students guidance, teaching ethics, and students cultures Prevention of and Solutions - Understanding, prevention, and solutions of school to School Violence valance that are realistic and applicable to school environments Teaching Student Teaching - Participate in teaching at schools after receiving Practica education of teaching practica theory at universities Educational Volunteer - Volunteer work in the education field, such as Work working as a substitute teacher, afterschool teacher, or working with underachieving children

101

Table 3.18: MOE Subject Education Coursework Requirements

Coursework Contents Foundations of Subject Education Overall study of subject education: historical background of subject, goal of subject, analysis of secondary school curriculum, and more.

Study of Subject Materials and Teaching Methods Practical experiences for teaching subject: characters of subject, analysis of secondary school materials, lesson planning, teaching method, and more.

A Course of Logic and Critical Writing in Subject Basic rule of logical thinking applied to subject and study of essay writing

Other Subject Education Areas Study of theory and practice: teaching, curriculum, and assessment applied to character of subject

Table 3.19: MOE Music Foundation Coursework Requirements

Areas/ Courses Number of Courses Credits • Foundations of Music Education 7 21 • Music (Gugak) Teaching Methods • Applied Lesson • Gugak Performance • Sight Seeing and Ear Training • Gugak Vocal Teaching Methods • Chorus and Orchestra Teaching Methods • Introduction to Gugak • Gugak History • History of Western Music • Harmony • Music Form and Analysis • Janggu Accompaniment Methods • Piano Accompaniment Methods

102

Table 3.20: MOE Criteria for Teacher Certificate

Criteria

• Major coursework: no less than 50 credits, including no less than 7 subjects and 21 credits of the basic foundation coursework • Teaching coursework no less than 22 credits (teaching theory: 12/ teaching qualifications: 6/ teaching practica: 4) • Average score of major coursework no lower than 75 of 100 points • Average score of teaching coursework no lower than 80 of 100 points • Passing a teacher attitude and personality test more than two times • Other specific criteria by each institution

103

Table 3.21: CNU Curriculum Requirements

Areas Subcategories Min. Credits Total Credits Percentage (%) Major Coursework: Music Foundation 21 71 47.3 Music & Music Edu. Music Education 8

Teaching Coursework Theory 12 22 14.7 Qualifications 6 Practica 4

Nonmusic Coursework 27 18

Electives 30 20 Total 150 100

Table 3.22: CNU Major Coursework

Music Music Education

Performance: Foundations of Music Education Applied Lesson Study of Music Teaching Materials and Teaching Methods A course of Logic and Critical Writing in Music Theory: Music education curriculum and evaluation Harmony Teaching of Chorus Teaching of Basic Music Theory Literature & History: Teaching of Popular Guitar History of Western Music Teaching of Percussion Music and Arts Teaching of Singing Teaching of Applied Digital Piano Musical Skills & Techniques: Activity of Music and Body Expression Sight Singing and Ear Training Teaching of Computer Music Popular Music Teaching of Counterpoint Piano Accompaniment Teaching of Gugak Singing Teaching of Music Appreciation Gugak: Teaching of Gugak String Instruments Janggu Accompaniment Teaching of Gugak Wind Instruments History of Gugak Gugak Pedagogy Introduction to Gugak Teaching of Chorus and Orchestra Teaching of Creative Activity and Composition in Class Orff Teaching Methods Teaching of Singing with Accompaniment

104

Table 3.23: KNU Curriculum Requirements

Areas Subcategories Min. Credits Total Credits Percentage (%) Major Coursework: Music Foundation 21 71 50.7 Music & Music Edu. Music Education 8

Teaching Coursework Theory 12 22 15.7 Qualifications 6 Practica 4

Nonmusic Coursework 18 12.9

Electives 29 20.7 Total 140 100

Table 3.24: KNU Major Coursework

Music Music Education Performance: Foundations of Music Education Applied Lesson Study of Music Teaching Materials A Course of Logic and Critical Writing in Music Theory: Teaching of Chorus Harmony Teaching of Orchestra Counterpoint Teaching of Gugak Music Theory and Form Development of Music Education Media

Literature & History: History of Korean Music History of Western Music

Musical Skills & Techniques: Sight Singing and Ear Training Singing Accompaniment Practice Beginning of Piano Arrangement

Gugak: Gugak Singing and Jangdan Gugak Theory and Practice

105

Table 3.25: KNUE Curriculum Requirements

Areas Subcategories Min. Credits Total Credits Percentage (%)

Major Coursework: Music Foundation 21 57 40.7 Music & Music Edu. Music Education 9

Teaching Coursework Theory 12 24 17.1 Qualifications 6 Practica 6

Nonmusic Coursework 21 15

Electives 38 27.1

Duties of A Teacher P/F 0 Total 140 100

106

Table 3.26: KNUE Major Coursework

Music Music Education

Performance: Foundations of Music education Applied Lesson Study of Music Teaching Materials Recital Critical Writing in Music Piano Ensemble Music Education Methods Chorus Music (Gugak) Teaching Methods Ensemble Singing of (Korean) Traditional Music Computer and Music Education Teaching of Orchestra Theory: Teaching of Gugak Appreciation Counterpoint Teaching of Tradition Music Singing Music Theory Classroom Instrument Applied Harmony Foundations of Singing Education Music Analysis and Form Teaching of Singing with Accompaniment Keyboard Harmony Study of Music Instruments Harmony Practice

Literature & History: History of Asian Music History of Korean Music History of Western Music Twentieth Century Music

Musical Skills & Technique: Sight Singing and Ear Training Piano Accompaniment Piano Practice Vocal Practice Harmony Practice Practical Music Accompaniment Arrangement Conducting

Gugak: Janggu Accompaniment Introduction to Gugak Gugak Practice

107

Table 3.27: KU Curriculum Requirements

Areas Subcategories Min. Credits Total Credits Percentage (%)

Major Coursework: Music Foundation 21 60 42.9 Music & Music Edu. Music Education 9

Teaching Coursework Theory 12 23 16.4 Qualifications 6 Practica 4 Other 1

Nonmusic Coursework 15 10.7

Electives 42 30

Total 140 100

108

Table 3.28: KU Major Coursework

Music Music Education Performance: Foundations of Music Education Applied Lesson Study of Music Teaching Materials and Teaching Methods Secondary Music A Course of Logic and Critical Writing in Music Chamber Music Student Teaching Practice in Music Chorus & Orchestra Seminar Choral Conducting and Teaching Methods Theory: Multimedia Assisted Music Education Harmony Counterpoint Music Analysis

Literature & History: Introduction to Music Literature of Music History of Western Music Introduction to Korean Music

Musical Skills & Techniques: Sight Sing and Ear Training Computer Music Piano Accompaniment Conducting Orchestration Diction

Gugak: Applied Music in Dan-So Traditional Music Singing and Janggu Accompanying

109

Table 3.29: Curricula Analysis of Korean Universities

Credits/ Areas Korean Universities Percentage (%) CNU KNU KNUE KU Average Major Coursework: Credits 71 71 57 60 64.75 Music & Music Edu. Percentage (%) 47.3 50.7 40.7 42.9 45.4

Teaching Coursework Credits 22 22 24 23 22.75 Percentage (%) 14.7 15.7 17.1 16.4 16

Nonmusic Coursework Credits 27 18 21 15 20.25 Percentage (%) 18 12.9 15 10.7 14.2

Electives: Credits 30 29 38 42 34.75 Music/Nonmusic Percentage (%) 20 20.7 27.1 30 24.4

Duties of A Teacher Credits NA NA P/F NA 0 Percentage (%) 0 0 0 0 0

Credits 150 140 140 140 142.5 Total Percentage (%) 100 100 100 100 100

110

Table 3.30: Korean Universities Music Courses

CNU KNU KNUE KU Performance

Applied Lesson Applied Lesson Applied Lesson Applied Lesson Recital Secondary Music Piano Ensemble Chamber Music Chorus Chorus & Orchestra Ensemble Theory

Harmony Harmony Counterpoint Harmony Counterpoint Music Theory Counterpoint Music Theory and Applied Harmony Music Analysis Form Music Analysis and Harmony Practice Form Keyboard Harmony Literature & History

History of Western History of Korean History of Asian Introduction to Music Music Music Music Literature of Music Music and Arts History of Western History of Korean History of Western Music Music Music History of Western Introduction to Music Korean Music Twentieth Century Music Musical Skills & Techniques

Sight Singing and Ear Sight Singing and Ear Sight Singing and Ear Sight Sing and Ear Training Training Training Training Popular Music Singing Piano Practice Computer Music Piano Accompaniment Vocal Practice Piano Accompaniment Practice Harmony Practice Accompaniment Beginning of Piano Practical Music Conducting Arrangement Accompaniment Orchestration Arrangement Diction Conducting Gugak

Janggu Gugak Singing and Piano Applied Music in Accompaniment Jangdan Accompaniment Dan-So History of Gugak Gugak Theory and Janggu Traditional Music Introduction to Gugak Practice Accompaniment Singing and Janggu Introduction to Gugak Accompanying Gugak Practice

111

Table 3.31: Korean Universities Music Education Courses

CNU KNU KNUE KU Foundations of Music Foundation of Music Foundation of Music Foundation of Music Education Education education Education Study of Music Study of Music Study of Music Study of Music Teaching Materials Teaching Materials Teaching Materials Teaching Materials and Teaching A Course of Logic Critical Writing in and Teaching Methods and Critical Writing in Music Methods A Course of Logic Music Music Education A Course of Logic and Critical Writing in Teaching of Chorus Methods and Critical Writing in Music Teaching of Orchestra Music (Gugak) Music Music Education Teaching of Gugak Teaching Methods Student Teaching Curriculum and Development of Singing of (Korean) Practice in Music Evaluation Music Education Traditional Music Seminar Teaching of Chorus Media Computer and Music Choral Conducting Teaching of Basic Education and Teaching Music Theory Teaching of Orchestra Methods Teaching of Popular Teaching of Gugak Multimedia Assisted Guitar Appreciation Music Education Teaching of Teaching of Tradition Percussion Music Singing Teaching of Singing Classroom Instrument Teaching of Applied Foundations of Digital Piano Singing Education Activity of Music and Teaching of Singing Body Expression with Accompaniment Teaching of Computer Study of Music Music Instruments Teaching of Counterpoint Teaching of Gugak Singing Teaching of Music Appreciation Teaching of Gugak String Instruments Teaching of Gugak Wind Instruments Gugak Pedagogy Teaching of Chorus and Orchestra Teaching of Creative Activity and Composition in Class Orff Teaching Methods Teaching of Singing with Accompaniment

112

Table 3.32: Teaching Coursework of U.S. Universities

Areas Courses

Society and Culture Schooling in America School and Society Language, Reading, and Culture Differentiating Instruction in Diverse Classrooms Introduction to Multicultural Education

Special Education Inclusive Classrooms Human Exceptionality

Ethics Ethnic Studies

Educational Psychology Educational Psychology

Teaching Practica Student Teaching

Table 3.33: UA Curriculum Requirements

Areas Subcategories Min. Credits Total Credits Percentage (%)

Major Coursework: Music 62 49.6 Music & Music Edu. Music Education

Teaching Coursework *ED Coursework 15 27 21.6 Student Teaching 12 (offered by *SM)

Nonmusic Coursework 36 28.8 Total 125 100 *ED: Educational department *SM: School of Music

113

Table 3.34: UA Major Coursework

Music Music Education Performance: Introduction to Music Education Applied Lesson Teaching Music in Secondary Schools Ensemble Introduction to Conducting Teaching Music in Elementary Schools Theory: Methods for Secondary Vocal Music Education Musical Skills and Structure String Methods Percussion Instruments Class Literature & History: Jazz Pedagogy History of Western Music

Musical Skills & Techniques: Piano Class Instrumental Conducting Choral Conducting Keyboard Techniques Woodwind Techniques Brass Techniques String Techniques Band Techniques Marching Band Technique Diction

Table 3.35: CU-Boulder Curriculum Requirements

Areas Subcategories Min. Credits Total Credits Percentage (%) Major Coursework: Music 85 67.5 Music & Music Edu. Music Education

Teaching Coursework ED Coursework 9 17 13.5 Student Teaching 8 (offered by ED) Nonmusic Courses 24 19 Total 126 100

114

Table 3.36: CU-Boulder Major Coursework

Music Music Education Performance: Introduction to Music Education Applied Lesson Voice Class Sophomore Proficiency String Class Junior Recital Woodwind Class University Ensemble Brass Class Percussion Class Theory: Teaching String Instruments Theory Teaching Woodwind Instruments Introduction to Musical Styles & Ideas Teaching Brass Instruments Teaching General Music Literature & History: Teaching Instrumental Music Non-Western Music History Teaching Choral Music History of Music Music Methods Practicum Jazz Techniques for the Music Educator Musical Skills & Techniques: String Pedagogy and Literature Keyboard Musicianship Inclusive Music Aural Skills Development Children’s Choirs Upper-Division Theory Elective Vocal Pedagogy for Young Voices Conducting Introduction to Student Teaching Marching Band Techniques Student Teaching Seminar Vocal Diction

Table 3.37: UU Curriculum Requirements

Areas Subcategories Min. Credits Total Credits Percentage (%) Major Coursework: Music 79-80 (79.5) 60.5 Music & Music Edu. Music Education

Teaching Coursework ED Coursework 9 19 14.4 Student Teaching 10 (offered by SM)

Nonmusic Coursework 33 25.1 Total 131-132 (131.5) 100

115

Table 3.38: UU Major Coursework

Music Music Education Performance: Introduction to Music Education Applied Lesson Brass Instrument Study Senior Recital Percussion Instrument Study Concert Attendance String Instrument Study Large Ensemble Woodwind Instrument Study Voice Study for Instrumental Music Education Majors Theory: General Music Methods Music Theory Theoretical Foundations of Music Education Form and Analysis Vocal Pedagogy Choral Music Methods Literature & History: Instrumental Music Methods Music History Music Teaching Seminar

Musical Skills & Techniques: Musicianship Twentieth Century Techniques Instrumentation Conducting Ensemble Conducting Diction for Conductors Choral Rehearsal Techniques Instrumental Rehearsal Techniques

116

Table 3.39: Curricula Analysis of U.S. Universities

Credits/ Areas U.S. Universities Percentage (%) UA CU-Boulder UU Average

Major Coursework: Credits 62 85 79.5 75.5 Music & Music Edu. Percentage (%) 49.6 67.5 60.5 59.2

Teaching Coursework Credits 27 17 19 21 Percentage (%) 21.6 13.5 14.4 16.5

Nonmusic Coursework Credits 36 24 33 31 Percentage (%) 28.8 19 25.1 24.3

Credits 125 126 131.5 127.5 Total Percentage (%) 100 100 100 100

117

Table 3.40: U.S. Universities Music Courses

UA CU-Boulder UU Performance

Applied Lesson Applied Lesson Applied Lesson Ensemble Sophomore Proficiency Senior Recital Junior Recital Concert Attendance University Ensemble Large Ensemble

Theory

Musical Skills and Structure Theory Music Theory Introduction to Musical Styles Form and Analysis & Ideas

Literature & History

History of Western Music Non-Western Music History Music History History of Music

Musical Skills & Techniques

Piano Class Keyboard Musicianship Musicianship Instrumental Conducting Aural Skills Twentieth Century Techniques Choral Conducting Upper-Division Theory Instrumentation Keyboard Techniques Elective Conducting Woodwind Techniques Conducting Ensemble Conducting Brass Techniques Marching Band Techniques Diction for Conductors String Techniques Vocal Diction Choral Rehearsal Techniques Band Techniques Instrumental Rehearsal Marching Band Technique Techniques Diction

118

Table 3.41: U.S. Universities Music Education Courses

UA CU-Boulder UU Introduction to Music Introduction to Music Education Introduction to Music Education Voice Class Education Teaching Music in Secondary String Class Brass Instrument Study Schools Woodwind Class Percussion Instrument Introduction to Conducting Brass Class Study Teaching Music in Elementary Percussion Class String Instrument Study Schools Teaching String Instruments Woodwind Instrument Methods for Secondary Vocal Teaching Woodwind Instruments Study Music Education Teaching Brass Instruments Voice Study for String Methods Teaching General Music Instrumental Music Percussion Instruments Class Teaching Instrumental Music Education Majors Jazz Pedagogy Teaching Choral Music General Music Methods Music Methods Practicum Theoretical Foundations of Jazz Techniques for the Music Music Education Educator Vocal Pedagogy String Pedagogy and Literature Choral Music Methods Inclusive Music Instrumental Music Development Children’s Choirs Methods Vocal Pedagogy for Young Music Teaching Seminar Voices Introduction to Student Teaching Student Teaching Seminar

Table 3.42: Comparison of Curricula in Korean and U.S. Universities

Credits/ Korean U.S. Areas Percentage (%) Universities Universities Major Coursework: Credits 64.75 75.5 Music & Music Edu. Percentage (%) 45.4 59.2

Teaching Coursework Credits 22.75 21 Percentage (%) 16 16.5

Nonmusic Coursework Credits 20.25 31 Percentage (%) 14.2 24.3

Electives Credits 34.75 NA Percentage (%) 24.4 NA

Credits 142.5 127.5 Total Percentage (%) 100 100

119

Table 3.43: MOE Students Teaching Requirements

Classification Requirements Credits Minimum 2 of total 4 credits

Hours Full-time work: 2 weeks per 1 credit Part time work: 80 hours per 1 credit

Periods Universities have authority to set the practica periods

Selection of Organization Universities have responsibility to coordinate schools, but students are able to select their schools by themselves

Possible Organizations Students must have a student teaching experience at the same level of school they desire for their teacher certificate

Table 3.44: MOE Educational Volunteer Work Requirements

Classification Requirements Credits Maximum 2 of total 4 credits

Hours At least more than 30 hours per 1 credit

Periods There is no limitation about starting year or periods, but it is recommended that students continually work from the time of entering their university until they graduate

Work Place Selection Students have a responsibility to select work organizations, but universities are able to select the organizations

Possible Organizations Students are not required to work at the same level of school with the expected teacher certificate

120

Table 3.45: Teaching Practica Requirements of Korean Universities

CNU KNU KNUE KU Student Teaching

Credits 2 2 4 2

Periods 4 weeks 4 weeks 8 weeks 4 weeks

When Senior 1st Junior 1st Junior 2nd (Fall) & Senior 1st Conducted (Spring) (Fall) Senior 1st (Spring) (Spring) Semester Semester Semester Semester

Educational Volunteer Work

Credits 2 2 2 2

Hours 60 hours 60 hours 60 hours 60 hours

When During During During During Conducted School Years School Years School Years School Years

Table 3.46: Teaching Practica Requirements of U.S. Universities

UA CU-Boulder UU Student Teaching

Credits 12 8 10

Periods 75 days: 16 weeks: 1 semester: 20 days of full 8 weeks elementary responsibilities for 4 responsibilities of school teaching and 8 classes with two contents; a classroom weeks secondary school one is the student teacher teaching teacher’s major content

When Conducted Senior 2nd Senior 2nd Senior 2nd (Spring) Semester (Spring) (Spring) Semester Semester

CHAPTER 4

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

A Review of the Study

The purpose of this study was to identify similarities and differences between secondary school preservice music teacher education programs in Korea and the United

States to facilitate greater understanding of teacher education programs. This researcher selected secondary school preservice music teacher education programs in both countries that were representative of traditional programs and compared them. Specifically, four

Korean universities and three U.S. universities were selected for inclusion in this study.

The Korean universities were Chonnam National University [CNU], Kongju National

University [KNU], Korea National University of Education [KNUE], and Konkuk

University [KU]. The U.S. universities were The University of Arizona [UA], University of Colorado Boulder [CU-Boulder], and The University of Utah [UU].

These programs were then analyzed thoroughly to determine how they were similar and how they varied. Three research questions regarding (a) admission requirements, (b) curricula, and (c) teaching practica, guided the researcher in this investigation. Information about the programs was collected from a variety of sources, including government websites, university websites, university handbooks, informal telephone and email interviews with university personnel, and supplementary materials

122 received on request from selected universities. The information collected and analyzed from these sources constituted the data in this study. The data were categorized according to the research questions and then analyzed to determine what similarities and differences exist between the secondary school preservice music teacher education programs of these two countries. The data were presented in a descriptive manner.

Discussion and Conclusions

Research Question 1

The first research question addressed in this study was: What are the similarities and the differences in admission requirements for secondary school preservice music teacher education programs in the selected Korean and U.S. universities?

The Korean universities require a high school transcript, College Scholastic

Ability Test [CSAT] scores, a performance audition, and or an interview. All of the

Korean universities designate a degree of importance, or weight, for each requirement on a percentage basis. Not every university required an interview, as reflected in the percentages reported for each program. CNU weights the transcript at 30%, the CSAT scores at 30%, and the performance audition at 40% for a total of 100%; KNU weights the transcript at 40%, the CSAT scores at 25%, the performance audition at 30%, and the interview at 5% for a total of 100%; KU weights the transcript at 25%, the CSAT scores at 35 %, and the performance audition at 40% for a total of 100%. In particular, KNUE has two stages in the screening process for admission. In the first stage, KNUE requires only the high school transcript and the CSAT scores, wherewith the university selects

300% of the final entrance quota; in the second stage, the university requires the high

123 school transcript, the CSAT scores, the performance audition, and the interview. In the second stage, KNUE weights the transcript at 20%, the CSAT scores at 40%, and the performance audition at 30%, and the interview at 10% for a total of 100%, and the school then selects 100% of the final entrance quota from the selected 300% of candidates. In regard to the weighted percentage of the performance audition, it is interesting to note that all of the Korean universities weight the performance audition at

40% or less during the admission process. The researcher believes that percentage of performance audition should be increased more than 40% to select students who have appropriate level of musical abilities to be a music educator.

For admission, the U.S. universities require applicants to be accepted to both the university and to the school/college of music. University admission offices accept applicants after a holistic review of academic factors and other factors, such as types of diverse experiences, awards, and leadership potential. More specifically, most university admission offices require a university application, a high school transcript, college transcripts when applicable, academic letters of recommendation, and SAT and or ACT score for admission consideration. In addition to these university requirements, schools/colleges of music typically require a school/college of music application, a performance audition, and letters of recommendation describing an applicant’s musical ability and aptitude.

For the performance audition, all of the Korean universities except KU offer both

Western music and Gugak [Korean traditional music] programs in music education studies for an applicant’s emphasis area. The emphasis areas for performance auditions are voice, keyboard, string, winds, composition, and theory in Western music or Gugak

124 area. The Korean universities review an applicant’s musical ability on the applicant’s emphasis area as well as overall musical skills and techniques.

In contrast, U.S. universities offer performance auditions in the following instrument specific or style specific areas: voice, keyboard, string, winds, percussion, and or jazz. In all of the U.S. admission processes, these instruments or areas are limited to the performance of Western music. Non-Western music is not included in performance auditions. Consequently, it is clear that U.S. universities focus almost exclusively on music of their own culture (i.e., Western music) rather than on music of other cultures

(i.e., Non-Western music). As a part of the school/college of music audition process, U.S. universities may require an interview, a private lesson, sight reading, ear training, a prescreening recording, and a preliminary recording of the applicants. By considering all of the various audition requirements in addition to the live audition, the school/college of music can more accurately determine an applicant’s performance ability as well as the applicant’s interest and potential for academic success at the school.

A comparison of the admission processes of both countries reveals similarities.

Both the Korean and the U.S. universities consider an applicant’s academic achievement and performing ability during the admission processes. However, even though both countries consider academic achievements and performing abilities during the admission processes, they do so in different ways. For example, Korean universities allow applicants to compensate for a weakness in one area (e.g., musical performance or academic achievement) with a strength in the other (e.g., academic achievement or musical performance) in order to gain admission. By contrast, U.S. universities require students to be relatively strong in both academic achievement and in their performance

125 audition. In short then, U.S. admissions require a more equal balance of academic achievement and performance abilities than do Korean universities.

The researcher believes that there are some notable strengths in the admission process of Korean universities. For example, the admission process is based on two main criteria: performance abilities and academic achievements. One of these strengths is that the admission process has a built-in compensatory mechanism that allows some students to be admitted, even though they may be weak in a particular area. That is, if a student is relatively weak in one area but strong in another area, this student can still be admitted.

For example, applicants who apply for admission, but who have unacceptable musical abilities, can still be admitted to the music education programs if they have a tremendous strength in another area, such as academic achievement.

The admission process of U.S. universities contains two distinct, yet related, phases: (a) admission to the university, and (b) admission to the school/college of music.

That is, to be admitted into music education programs, applicants must also be admitted to the university. The U.S. university admission offices review an applicant’s academic achievement and other additional factors (e.g., leadership skills, work experiences, awards, personal characteristics, and more), while the schools/college of music consider primarily the applicant’s musical ability for admission. If an applicant is not admitted to the university for academic reasons, then the applicant cannot be admitted into the school of music. Conversely, if an applicant is accepted by the university but not accepted into the school/college of music as a major, then the applicant cannot participate in that university’s teacher training program. In this sense, the U.S. universities give equal consider to both academic achievement and musical abilities. There are exceptions; for

126 example, students may be accepted to the university and to the school/college of music provisionally if they receive sufficient support from both university and music personnel.

Provisional status is usually reserved for students who do not meet the minimum academic standards but who demonstrate extraordinary abilities in music.

Research Question 2

The second research question addressed in this study was: What are the similarities and the differences in curricula of secondary school preservice music teacher education programs in the selected Korean and U.S. universities?

In Korea, the Ministry of Education [MOE] provides requirements for specific coursework and sets the minimum number of credits at universities that preservice teachers need to complete in order to receive a teacher certificate. All of the Korean universities follow these standards. The MOE stipulates that secondary school preservice teachers must complete at least 22 credits of teaching-specific coursework, which includes teaching theory, teaching qualifications, and teaching practica. For music education coursework, preservice teachers must complete 21 credits of basic coursework.

This coursework includes (a) foundations of music education, (b) a study of music teacher materials and teaching methods, (c) a course of logic and critical writing in music, and (d) other subject education areas.

Because the Korean universities all follow MOE guidelines, they all offer the coursework that the MOE prescribes for preservice teachers. In general, the coursework for preservice music teachers in Korean universities can be divided into four areas: (a) major coursework, (b) teaching coursework, (c) nonmusic coursework, and (d) electives

127 in any courses. Major coursework includes both music and music education courses. The average weighted percentages of the coursework areas vary. Major coursework comprises

45.4% of all coursework, which is the largest percentage of the four areas. Teaching coursework accounts for 16%, nonmusic coursework accounts for 14.2%, and electives account for 24.4% of all coursework.

The coursework for preservice music teachers in the U.S. universities can be divided into three areas: major coursework, teaching coursework, and nonmusic coursework. Just as it does in the Korean universities, major coursework includes both music and music education courses. However, the coursework for preservice music teachers in U.S. universities are divided into three areas (i.e., major coursework, teaching coursework, and nonmusic coursework) as opposed to four areas. The average weighted percentages of the coursework areas vary. Major coursework accounts for 59.2%, teaching coursework accounts for 16.5%, and nonmusic coursework accounts for 24.3% of all coursework.

Both the Korean and U.S. universities have a similar curricular structure. This structure includes major coursework, teaching coursework, and nonmusic coursework.

However, the balances are noticeably different. The U.S. universities have a higher average percentage of both major coursework (59.2% to 45.4%) and nonmusic coursework (24.3% to 14.2%) than do the Korean universities. However, the Korean universities require that students complete an elective coursework that students can choose a class in major coursework, teaching coursework, and nonmusic coursework depending on their interests. Therefore, although the Korea universities show a lower average percentage of major coursework, students are encouraged to take more credits

128 than the required credits. The U.S. universities have a higher percentage on major coursework than do the Korean universities. However, the school sets curriculum for a degree and specific area in music education, and students must complete all courses and credits specified. On the other hand, the Korean universities provide a flexible curriculum that students can select some courses within a school standard besides the required courses. In addition, the Korean universities provide an elective coursework that students are able to select any classes that interest them.

Research Question 3

The third research question addressed in this study was: What are the similarities and the differences in teaching practica of secondary school preservice music teacher education programs in the selected Korean and U.S. universities?

In Korea, the MOE assigns two types of teaching practica courses: (a) Student

Teaching, and (b) Educational Volunteer Work. All secondary school preservice teachers must take the required credits for each of these two courses to be certified as a school teacher. The 4 required credits of teaching practica are a minimum of 2 credits of Student

Teaching and a maximum of 2 credits of Educational Volunteer Work. According to the

MOE, 1 credit of Student Teaching is equated to 2 weeks of full-time student teaching or

80 hours of part time teaching; and 1 credit of Educational Volunteer Work is equated to

30 hours of volunteer work. CNU, KNU, and KU require the same credits and hours of teaching practica as are stipulated by the MOE so that preservice teachers are able to acquire a teacher certificate when they graduate from their universities. KNUE notably requires 4 credits of Student Teaching, 2 more than the MOE standard, resulting in 8

129 weeks of student teaching experiences. While the Korean universities require 2 to 4 credits of Student Teaching, the U.S. universities require 8 to12 credits of a student teaching courses. Specifically, UA requires 12 credits of a student teaching course that includes 75 days of student teaching experiences with full responsibility as a classroom teacher for at least 20 of the 75 days. CU-Boulder requires 8 credits of a student teaching course where a total of 16 weeks of student teaching experiences that takes place, half being at an elementary school and another half being at a secondary school. UU requires

10 credits for a student teaching course, which includes one semester of student teaching experiences at a secondary school. In this manner, the U.S. universities focus more on student teaching experiences than the Korean universities do.

In terms of teaching practica, the Korean universities and the U.S. universities show more differences than similarities. The Korean universities have two types of teaching practica consisting of (a) Student Teaching, and (b) Educational Volunteer

Work. For the student teaching course, the Korean universities require 2 to 4 credits, which consist of 4 to 8 weeks of student teaching experiences. For the educational volunteer work course, the Korean universities require 2 credits, which equates to 60 hours of volunteer work. In contrast, the U.S. universities require 8 to 12 credits of a student teaching course, which consist of about one semester of student teaching experiences.

In addition, the U.S. universities have more diverse field experiences than do the

Korean universities. This researcher believes that 4 to 8 weeks of student teaching experience in Korea is not adequate for preservice teachers to have enough teaching practices. This researcher suggests that the Korean universities need to require at least

130 one semester of student teaching experiences for preservice teachers. To do so, the

Korean universities must actively cooperate with K-12 schools, and active communication will be required among university professors, school teachers, preservice teachers, parents, community, and others. The Korean education policy is controlled by the MOE. Therefore, a resolution for this fundamental issue of preservice teacher education programs would require effort on the part of national and government entities.

Implications for Now

1. In the future, Korean programs may want to have a holistic review process for

school admissions—a process that considers more diverse factors in addition to

focusing primarily on an applicant’s school transcript and CSAT score in order to

determine the applicant’s potential and ability to be a successful music educator.

2. Korean programs may want to consider a balance between an applicant’s

academic achievement and musical ability for admission rather than weighing

academic achievements so heavily.

3. To determine an applicant’s interest and potential to succeed in the program,

Korean programs may want to have a variety of audition requirements, such as a

lesson with a professor, discussion with faculty, a preliminary recording for

advisory purposes in addition to live auditions.

4. Korean programs may want to increase the percentage of major coursework (i.e.,

music and music education-related courses) in their curricula. In addition, more

diversity in their course offerings may be beneficial.

5. Korean programs may want to extend the length of student teaching experiences,

131

and they may incorporate other types of early field experiences. In addition, clear

and practical guidelines on student teaching should be provided for preservice

teachers.

6. U.S. programs may want to reserve a certain percentage of accepted applicants for

students who demonstrate great potential to be an effective music educator in one

area (e.g., academic achievements or performance abilities), but who have a

perceived weakness in another area (e.g., performance abilities or academic

achievements), which would otherwise make it difficult for students to be

accepted to both a university and school/college of music through a general

admission process.

7. U.S. programs may want to offer more areas of emphasis and additional classes

on music of diverse cultures of the world, especially considering the multicultural

nature of modern society.

8. U.S. programs may want to provide a more flexible curriculum, including specific

standards that will allow students more freedom to select some music related

courses according to their interests.

9. Both Korean and U.S. programs may want to have a balance between music

coursework and music education coursework.

10. Both Korean and U.S. programs may want to increase the percentage of general

teaching coursework to introduce diverse pedagogies and methods in addition to

music pedagogy courses. This increase may help preservice teachers develop a

more through understanding students’ development over time, thus helping

teachers learn how to help students face challenges as they arise.

132

Recommendations for Further Research

The following recommendations may help further researchers diverse ways to develop secondary school music teacher preparation programs in both Korea and the

United States:

1. The study could be expanded to incorporate music teacher preparation programs

from additional states in the United States.

2. The study could be expanded to incorporate music teacher preparation programs

from other regions in Korea in addition to the selected regions.

3. The study could be expanded to incorporate other countries’ music teacher

preparation programs.

4. Email or phone interviews could be conducted with an area chair or a professor of all

selected teacher preparation institutions to discuss and determine weaknesses and

strengths of their current programs.

5. Preservice teacher surveys could be conducted to determine their perceptions and

their perceived needs for teacher preparation programs.

REFERENCES

ACT, Inc. (2014). Description of the ACT. Retrieved from http://www.actstudent.org/testprep/descriptions/?_ga=1.16602800.743796243.141 5737547

American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education. (2009). Teacher preparation makes a difference. Retrieved from http://www.iacte.net/files/Teacher%20Preparation%20Makes%20a%20Differenc e--Winter%202009.pdf

Bae, S. (2011). National development through education: Lessons from Korea. In Bae et al. (Eds.), Brief understanding of Korean educational policy (pp. 1-18) (Report No. CRM 2011-89) [PDF version]. Available from http://eng.kedi.re.kr/khome/eng/education/educationSeries.do

Ballantyne, J., & Packer, J. (2004). Effectiveness of preservice music teacher education programs: Perceptions of early-career music teachers. Music Education Research, 6(3), 299-312. doi: 10.1080/1461380042000281749

Boardman, E. (1992). New environments for teacher education. Music Educators Journal, 79(2), 41-43. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/3398506

Brand, M. (2004). Collectivistic versus individualistic cultures: A comparison of American, Australian and Chinese music education students’ self-esteem. Music Education Research, 6(1), 57-66. doi: 10.1080/1461380032000182830

Bureau of the Census. (n.d.). Census regions and divisions of the United States [Regional Map]. Retrieved from http://www2.census.gov/geo/pdfs/maps-data/maps/reference/us_regdiv.pdf

Center on International Education Benchmarking. (2015). South Korea: Teacher and principal quality. Retrieved from http://www.ncee.org/programs-affiliates/center- on-international-education-benchmarking/top-performing-countries/south-korea- overview/south-korea-teacher-and-principal-quality/

Chonnam National University. (2013). 2014hagnyeondo jeonnamdaehaggyo jeongsi ga · na gun sinibsaeng Mojibyogang [Chonnam National University application handbook for 2014 academic year]. Available from http://admission.jnu.ac.kr

134

Chonnam National University. (n.d.a). 2011-2014nyeon gyogwagwajeong [2011-2014 Curriculum]. Hagsaannae [Academics Guide]. Retrieved from http://musicedu.jnu.ac.kr/?r=musicedu&c=468/479/647

Chonnam National University. (n.d.b). 2013-14 jeonnamdaehaggyo yolam [2013-14 Chonnam National University bulletin]. Retrieved from http://www.jnu.ac.kr/Down/M_Introduction/DirectoryBulletin/directorybulletin20 13.pdf

Chonnam National University. (n.d.c). Silseubannae mich iljeong [Teaching practicum guidelines and schedule]. Gyojigjeongbo [Teaching profession information]. Retrieved from http://education.jnu.ac.kr/NewHome/home_page/educate/index.php?page=040301

Conkling, S. W. (2007). The possibilities of situated learning for teacher preparation: The professional development partnership. Music Educators Journal, 93(3), 44-48. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/4101538

Conway, C. M. (2002). Perceptions of beginning teachers, their mentors, and administrators regarding preservice music teacher preparation. Journal of Research in Music Education, 50(1), 20-36. doi: 10.2307/3345690

Conway, C. M. (2012). Ten years later teachers reflect on “Perceptions of Beginning Teachers, Their Mentors, and Administrator Regarding Preservice Music Teacher Preparation.” Journal of Research in Music Education, 60(3), 324-338.

Council of Chief State School Officers. (2011). InTASC model core teaching standards: A resource for state dialogue [PDF version]. Available from http://www.ccsso.org

Duncan, A. (2010, February 19). Preparing teachers and school leaders of tomorrow. Remarks by the U.S. education secretary at the American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education Conference, Washington, DC. Transcript retrieved from http://www.ed.gov/news/speeches/preparing-teachers-and-school-leaders- tomorrow-secretary-arne-duncans-remarks-american

Gregory, M. K. (1995). Collaboration for music teacher education between higher education institutions and K-12 schools. Journal of Research in Music Education, 43(1), 47-59. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/3345791

Hess, F. (2011). Perspectives on federal policy. In P. M. Earley, D. G. Imig, & N. M. Michelli (Eds.), Teacher education policy in the United States: Issues and tensions in an era of evolving expectations (pp. 14-25). New York, NY: Taylor & Francis.

Jackson, C. R. (2008). Effectiveness of preservice experiences and course work in music

135

education toward teacher self-efficacy in classroom management (Doctoral dissertation). Available from ProQuest Dissertation and Theses database. (UMI No. 3370983)

Jang, K. (1988). A comprehensive examination of music teacher training programs in selected universities in the Republic of Korea (Doctoral dissertation). Available from ProQuest Dissertation and Theses database. (UMI No. 8814664)

Ju, N. (2011). Gyoyugsilseubilji bunseogeul tonghan jungdeung eumaggwa gyoyugsilseubsaengui sueob gyeongheom yeongu [A study on secondary music student teachers’ teaching experience through teaching practice journal analysis] (Master’s Thesis, Ewha Womans University, Seoul, Republic of Korea). Retrieved from http://dcollection.ewha.ac.kr/jsp/common/DcLoOrgPer.jsp?sItemId=000000068 372

Jung, J. (2012a). Yebieumaggyosa yangseonggigwanui gyoyugsilseubcheje bigyo yeongu: Hanguggwa migugeul jungsimeulo [A study of student teaching practicum programs for preservice music teachers: Focused on Korea and the United States]. Journal of Music Education Science, 14, 19-40. Retrieved from http://www.dbpia.co.kr/Article/1626036

Jung, J. (2012b). Yebieumaggyosaleul wihan hyoyuljeogin gyoyugsilseub peulogeulaemui banghyang mosaeg [A field study on teaching practicum for pre-service music teachers]. Gyowongyoyug, 28(1), 19-42. Available from http://www.riss.kr/link?id=A100029551

Karakelle, S. (2006). The centralized higher education system in Turkey and the national music teacher training program since 1998: An analysis (Doctoral dissertation). Available from ProQuest Dissertation and Theses database. (UMI No. 322710)

Kelly, S. N. (2013). The influence of student teaching experiences on preservice music teachers’ commitments to teaching. Journal of Music Teacher Education. Advance online publication. Retrieved from http://jmt.sagepub.com/content/early/2013/10/31/1057083713506120

Kim, E. (2009). Teacher policy: Procurement and disposition of qualitative teachers (Report No. CRM 2009-28-5). Available from http://eng.kedi.re.kr/khome/eng/education/educationSeries.do

Kim, E., & Han, Y. (2002). Attracting, developing and retaining effective teachers: Background report for Korea (Report No. OR 2002-8) [PDF version]. Retrieved from http://www.oecd.org/edu/school/2713221.pdf

Kongju National University. (2007). 2007nyeondo gyoyugsilseub pyeonlam [2007 year teaching practicum handbook]. Available from

136

http://kongju.oktomato.net/edu/list.asp?bbs_code=1

Kongju National University. (2013). 2014hagnyeondo jeongsi (‘ga’ · ‘na’ gun) sinibsaeng mojibyogang [Application handbook for 2014 academic year]. Retrieved from http://ipsi.visang.com/Html/UnivInfo/Common/Download.asp?Path=/fileup/ipsiin fo/UnivData/AdmissionFile&fName=VISANG_FN0124168_2014_2_mojip.pdf

Kongju National University. (2014a). 2014hagnyeondo gyoyugsilseub gibon unyeong gyehoeg(an) [2014 plan for management of teaching practicum]. Kongju, Republic of Korea: Author.

Kongju National University. (2014b). 2014hagnyeondo 2haggi ganguiillampyo [2014 academic year 2nd semester class schedule]. Available from http://www.kongju.ac.kr/service/schedule.jsp?term_idx=12&gbn=1

Kongju National University. (n.d.). Gyoyuggwajeong [Curriculum]. Yecheneunggye [Art and physical education]. Retrieved from http://kongju.oktomato.net/te/sub_01.asp?section_code=3§ion_subject=2

Konkuk University. (2013). 2014hagnyeondo jeongsi mojibyogang [Application handbook for 2014 academic year]. Retrieved from http://enter.konkuk.ac.kr/seoul2013/info/dataroom/jungsi/view.jsp?no=18&pageN o=1&category=&search_key=&search_keyword=

Konkuk University. (n.d.a). 2014 geongugdaehaggyo yolam [2014 Koukuk University bulletin]. Available from http://www.konkuk.ac.kr/jsp/Intro/intro_05_02_tab01.jsp

Konkuk University. (n.d.b). Hyeonhwang mich gyujeong, Yolam [Condition and policy, Bulletin]. Retrieved from http://www.konkuk.ac.kr/do/Intro/KECommentary.do

Korea Legislation Research Institute. (2011). Article 9: Scope of activities of local government. Local Autonomy Act. Retrieved from http://elaw.klri.re.kr/eng_service/lawView.do?hseq=22082&lang=ENG

Korea National University of Education. (2013). 2014hagnyeondo jeongsimojib『ga』gun daehagsinibsaeng mojibyogang [2014 application handbook for propsective students]. Retrieved from http://book.knue.ac.kr/Viewer/JQ6XOJLRYTUH

Korea National University of Education. (2014). 2014hagnyeondo gyoyuggwajeong annae [2014 curriculum handbook]. Available from http://www.knue.ac.kr/icons/app/cms/?html=/home/life_co1.html&shell=/index.s hell:192

137

Korean Culture and Information Service. (2013). Facts about Korea. Seoul, Republic of Korea: Author. Retrieved from http://www.korea.net/koreanet/fileDownload?fileUrl=/content/pdf/general/2013_f acts_english.pdf

Lee, Y. (2005). Jungdeung eumaggyosa yangseong daehagui jeongong gyoyuggwajeong bunseog yeongu [An analysis of curriculum for the secondary music teacher in college] (Master’s thesis, Ewha Womans University, Seoul, Republic of Korea). Available from http://www.riss.kr/link?id=T10034330

Lohman, J. (2010). Comparing No Child Left Behind and Race to the Top (Report No. 2010-R-0235). Retrieved from http://www.cga.ct.gov/2010/rpt/2010-R-0235.htm

Mark, M. L. (1996). Contemporary music education (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Schirmer.

Mark, M. L., & Gary, C. L. (2007). A history of American music education (3rd ed.). Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.

Michelli, N. M., & Earley, P. M. (2011). Teacher education policy context. In P. M. Earley, D. G. Imig, & N. M. Michelli (Eds.), Teacher education policy in the United States: Issues and tensions in an era of evolving expectations (pp. 1-13). New York, NY: Taylor & Francis.

Ministry of Education. (2013a). Overview. Education system. Retrieved from http://english.moe.go.kr/web/1692/site/contents/en/en_0203.jsp

Ministry of Education. (2013b). 2013hagnyeondo gyowonyangseonggigwan hyeonhwang [State of teacher preparation institutions in 2013 academic year]. Available from http://www.moe.go.kr/

Ministry of Education. (2014). 2014nyeondo gyowonjagyeoggeomjeong silmupyeonlam [Manual for teacher qualification in 2014 year]. Available from http://www.moe.go.kr/web/107261/ko/board/view.do?bbsId=342&boardSeq=525 53

Ministry of Education, Science and Technology. (2011). Secrets of an education powerhouse: 60 years of education in Korea: Challenges, achievements, and future [PowerPoint slides]. Available from http://eng.kedi.re.kr/khome/eng/education/genernalInfo.do

National Association for Music Education. (n.d.a). The benefits of the study of music: Why we need music education in our schools. Retrieved from http://www.phoenixsymphony.org/uploads/benefits_of_music.pdf

National Association for Music Education. (n.d.b) Testing and certification. Retrieved from http://musiced.nafme.org/careers/career-center/testing-and-certification/

138

National Association of Schools of Music. (2013). National Association of Schools of Music Handbook 2013-14 [PDF version]. Retrieved from http://nasm.arts- accredit.org/site/docs/Handbook/NASM_HANDBOOK_2013-14.pdf

National Association of Schools of Music. (2015). National Association of Schools of Music. Retrieved from http://nasm.arts-accredit.org/

National Board for Professional Teaching Standards. (2001). NBPTS music standards: For teachers of students ages 3-18+. Retrieved from http://www.nbpts.org/sites/default/files/documents/certificates/nbpts-certificate- emc-music-standards.pdf

National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education. (2008). Professional standards for the accreditation of teacher preparation institutions. Washington, DC: Author.

National Curriculum Information Center. (2009a). The characteristics of curriculum. 2009 revision. Retrieved from http://ncic.kice.re.kr/english.kri.org.inventoryList.do?pOrgNo=10000356

National Curriculum Information Center. (2009b). Eumag [Music]. Available from http://ncic.go.kr/nation.kri.org4.inventoryList.do#

National Research Council. (2001). Testing teacher candidates: The role of licensure tests in improving teacher quality. K. J. Mitchell, D. Z. Robinson, B. S. Plake, & K. T. Knowles (Eds.). Washington, DC: National Academies Press.

Obama, B. (2011, January 25). The state of the union: Winning the future. Address by the president in the State of Union Address. Washington, DC. Video retrieved from http://www.whitehouse.gov/blog/2011/01/26/state-union-address-winning- future

Peterson, W. J. (1955). Training of secondary school music teachers in Western colleges and universities. Journal of Research in Music Education, 3(2), 131-135. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/3343627

Randles, C., & Smith, G. D. (2012). A first comparison of pre-service music teachers’ identities as creative musicians in the United States and England. Research Studies in Music Education, 34(2), 173-187. doi: 10.1177/1321103X12464836

Rim, M., & Park, M. (2006). Jungdeungeumag gyosagyoyug peulogeulaem gaebal [Development of the teacher training program for the secondary music teacher]. Eumaggyoyugyeongu, 30, 149-175. Available from http://www.riss.kr/link?id=A75554335

Rumpf, R. J. (2012). A systematic review of music teacher education research within the United States: 1982-2010 (Doctoral dissertation). Available from ProQuest

139

Dissertation and Theses database. (UMI No. 3543542)

Seog, M. (1992). Music teacher education in Korea into the next millenium. International Journal of Music Education, 19, 5-13. doi: 10.1177/025576149201900102

Simon, K. A. (2009). A survey of the perceptions of Tennessee teachers, their administrators, and teacher educators regarding preservice music teacher preparation (Master’s thesis). Available from ProQuest Dissertation and Theses database. (UMI No. 1464823)

Son, Y. (2005). Hanguggwa migugui eumaggyoyug seogsahagwigwanlyeon gyogwagwajeong yeongu [A study on music education curriculum in master’s degree of South Korea and the USA] (Master’s thesis, Ewha Womans University, Seoul, Republic of Korea). Available from http://www.riss.kr/link?id=T10034323

Teachout, D. J. (1997). Preservice and experienced teachers’ opinions of skills and behaviors important to successful music teaching. Journal of Research in Music Education, 45(1), 41-50. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/3345464

The College Board. (2014). What does the SAT test? Retrieved from http://sat.collegeboard.org/why-sat/topic/sat/what-the-sat-tests

The University of Arizona. (2014a). 2014-2015 school of music bachelor of music in music education. Retrieved from http://music.arizona.edu/downloads/MUS_ED_FALL_2014.pdf

The University of Arizona. (2014b). Admissions. College of Fine Arts. Retrieved from http://cfa.arizona.edu/prospective-students/admissions/

The University of Arizona. (2014c). Steps to apply. Office of Admissions. Retrieved from http://admissions.arizona.edu/freshmen/steps-to-apply

The University of Arizona. (2014d). Admission decisions. Office of Admissions. Retrieved from http://admissions.arizona.edu/freshmen/admissions-decisions

The University of Arizona. (2014e). Admission requirements for bachelor of music – music education. Fred Fox School of Music. Retrieved from http://music.arizona.edu/admissions/applications/undergraduate

The University of Arizona. (2014f). Repertoire and requirements. Fred Fox School of Music. Retrieved from http://music.arizona.edu/index.php/admissions/auditions/undergraduate_audition_ repertoire_and_requirements/

140

The University of Arizona. (2014g). Music education. Fred Fox School of Music. Retrieved from http://music.arizona.edu/students/areas_of_study/music_education/

The University of Utah. (2014a). Application process. Office of Admissions. Retrieved from http://admissions.utah.edu/apply/undergraduate/freshman.php

The University of Utah. (2014b). Holistic review. Office of Admissions. Retrieved from http://admissions.utah.edu/apply/undergraduate/admission-standards.php

The University of Utah. (2014c). Undergraduate admission. School of Music. Retrieved from http://music.utah.edu/admissions/undergraduate.php

The University of Utah. (2014d). Undergraduate audition requirements. School of Music. Retrieved from http://music.utah.edu/admissions/auditions.php

The University of Utah. (2014e). Music education. School of Music. Retrieved from http://music.utah.edu/areas/music-education/index.php

United States Department of Education. (2004). New No Child Left Behind flexibility: Highly qualified teachers. Retrieved from http://www2.ed.gov/nclb/methods/teachers/hqtflexibility.html

United States Department of Education. (2007a). Accreditation and Quality Assurance: Postsecondary Accreditation. Retrieved from www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ous/international/usnei/us/accred-postsec.doc

United States Department of Education. (2007b). Accreditation and Quality Assurance: School-Level Accreditation. Retrieved from www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ous/international/usnei/us/accred-school.doc

United States Department of Education. (2008a). Organization of U.S. education: The federal role. Retrieved from http://www.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ous/international/usnei/edlite- index.html

United States Department of Education. (2008b). Structure of U.S. education. Retrieved from http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ous/international/usnei/us/edlite- structure-us.html

United States Department of Education. (2008c). General information resources about education in the United States. Retrieved from http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ous/international/usnei/us/generalinfo.doc

United States Department of Education. (2008d). Organization of U.S. education: The local role. Retrieved from www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ous/international/usnei/us/local.doc

141

United States Department of Education. (2008e). Organization of U.S. education: The state role I – primary and secondary education. Retrieved from www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ous/international/usnei/us/elsec.doc

United States Department of Education. (n.d.). Accreditation and quality assurance. Retrieved from http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ous/international/usnei/us/edlite- accreditation.html

University Autonomy Support Division. (2010). Basic plan for CSAT 2012. Retrieved from http://www.moe.go.kr/web/42208/en/board/enview.do?bbsId=265&boardSeq=19 30

University of Colorado Boulder. (2014a). How to apply. Retrieved from http://www.colorado.edu/admissions/undergraduate/apply/freshman/howtoapply

University of Colorado Boulder. (2014b). Freshman criteria for admission. Retrieved from http://www.colorado.edu/admissions/undergraduate/apply/freshman/admissioncrit eria

University of Colorado Boulder. (2014c). Application process. College of Music. Retrieved from http://www.colorado.edu/music/prospective-undergrads/application-process

University of Colorado Boulder. (2014d). Audition requirements. College of Music. Retrieved from http://www.colorado.edu/music/prospective- undergrads/audition-requirements

University of Colorado Boulder. (2014e). Music education. College of Music. Retrieved from http://www.colorado.edu/music/departments/music-education

Utah Music Educators Association. (2012). Advocacy. Retrieved from https://umea.us/advocacy.php

White House. (n.d.). Education for K-12 students. Retrieved from http://www.whitehouse.gov/issues/education/k-12/race-to-the-top

Wiggins, J. (2007). Authentic practice and process in music teacher education. Music Educators Journal, 93(3), 36-42. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/410153