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Indonesian Democracy: The impact of electoral systems on political parties, 1999–2009 Reni Suwarso College of Arts Victoria University Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy April 2016 ABSTRACT This study analyses the impact of electoral systems and electoral mechanics on political parties and party systems, 1999–2009. Throughout this period, Indonesia conducted nearly 500 elections. These elections have their own systems (proportional representation, SNTV (Single Non-Transferable Vote) and majoritarian systems) and each has different mechanics (ballot structure, electoral threshold, electoral formula and district magnitude). They are conducted in the same political, social and cultural environment and are participated in by the same parties and voters. This study was conducted as qualitative research and involved elite interviews with 75 informants during fieldwork in the provinces of DKI-Jakarta, West Java, East Java, South Sulawesi and Riau Islands. This study shows that institutions do matter and electoral systems and electoral mechanics are powerful instruments for institutional engineering with far-reaching impacts for parties and party systems. However, institutionalism has difficulty in explaining the various different processes, unforeseen problems and unexpected impacts. It finds that the changes to electoral systems and electoral mechanics since reformasi 1998 have restored the importance of elections, whereby the ruling elite are no longer able to legitimise themselves through methods other than elections. The importance of political parties has been reinstated by granting them exclusive authority in determining who will control the government and dominate the political system. However, this study finds that practices, such as money politics, vote buying and abuse of authority remained; older figures, such as former members of Golkar, senior government officials and retired military officers, dominated electoral results. Moreover, this study also finds that parties tend to focus more on activities related directly to the conduct of elections rather than representing different ideologies and diversity in society. Even though elections and political parties are crucial determinants of Indonesia’s politics, they are not sufficient in and of themselves for building Indonesian representative democracy. ii Declaration I, Reni Suwarso, declare that the PhD thesis entitled “Indonesian Democracy: the impact of electoral systems on political parties 1999-2009” is no more than 100,000 words in length including quotes and exclusive of tables, figures, appendices, bibliography, references and footnotes. This thesis contains no material that has been submitted previously, in whole or in part, for the award of any other academic degree or diploma. Except where otherwise indicated, this thesis is my own work. Reni Suwarso April 2016 iii Acknowledgements This study could not have been completed without the support of many people who provided brilliant insights and valuable advice. My first and enormous thanks go to Prof. Richard Chauvel of Victoria University, a truly respected mentor, for his endless intellectual guidance as well as personal, caring enthusiasm for this study. Because of him, I have a new perspective in seeing the democratic process of my own country. It took me a long time to detach myself from internal political processes and activism in Indonesia to be able writing this thesis objectively. And because of him, I understand better and fully appreciate the history of my own country. Previously, I simply read many history books, but now I enjoy them. This study, in fact, is our brilliant collaboration in understanding the complexity of Indonesian democracy post reformasi 1998. My gratitude also to Prof. Helen Borland, who kindly gave me a warm welcome when I arrived at Victoria University for the first time and opened up many opportunities to be involved in postgraduate life on campus. To mention a few, I was elected (along with my party) by hundreds of voters as Vice-president of Victoria University Postgraduate Students Association, selected as host for the first 3M (three minutes) thesis competition in Victoria University, and appointed by acclamation as President of Victoria University Indonesian Students Association. My special thanks go to all staff and administration of VU, particularly to Prof. Phillip Deery, Prof. Tony Love, Prof. Adrian Fisher, Prof. Michele Grossman, Prof. Mark Stevenson, Grace Schirippa, Margaret Jones and Jenny Cameron who always helped me with processes and procedures. For personal and intellectual support in Indonesia, I would like to thank Chusnul Mariyah, Prof. Nazaruddin Sjamsuddin, Prof. Ryaas Rasyid, Prof. Amin Rais, Prof. Bambang Shergi, Cosmas Batubara, Akbar Tandjung, Marzuki Alie and Pramono Anung, who helped me with their constructive suggestions during various stages of this research. Thank much to Hasto Kristiyanto, Eddy Siregar, Didik Prasetyono, Firman Djaya Daeli, Tenri A. Palallo, Azizah Aziz, Ratri Indrawati and Rikes Rasyid, who helped me a lot with my primary data and field interviews. Special thank to Dr. Diane Brown for copyediting the thesis in accordance with the Australian Standards for Editing Practice (2013) and IPEd/DDOGS national policy guidelines. My appreciation further extends to the Australian Leadership Award for its generous financial support that enabled me to study in Australia. Thanks to my postgraduate friends at Victoria University for their support, particularly my office mates including Paola Bilbrough, Lutfiye Ali, Alice Robinson, Mojdeh Mahdevi, Rzirwatulaida Ibrahim, Taha Selim Ustun, Ben Anwyl, Denise Lam and others. And, my extended families in Australia, Kusnar Budi, Nonny Basalama, Ali Hapsah, Hendro Margono, Windu Kuntoro, Iwan Prawiranegara, Iwan Nazirwan, Turijn Turijn, Estty Handayani, Emi Ilmiah, Siti Azizah, Syaukarni, Zizi Nazianda, Listiani Hermanto, Anna Margret, Riaty Rafiuddin, Evi Safrina and others. The Indonesia- Australia Students Association (Fahmi, Reza, Duddy, Putri, Kania, Timur and Yuza), the Indonesian Consulate General of Melbourne (Pak Budiarman and Ibu Yetty), SBS (Ibu Sri and Pak Simon) and ABC radio (Bang Nuim, Mang Hidayat and Puan Dian iv Fatwa) were important; they helped in various ways during my time in Melbourne. Particular thanks go to Annie Feith, for her love and patience, and correction of my bad English grammar, which must have been really painful. Words cannot express my deep feeling for my beloved late mother, Martha Suwarso, who is always there for me when needed. And, to my beloved late father, Suwarso Tjokrodimedjo, who started to indoctrinate me with his political views when he assumed I was able to read a newspaper. My thanks are to my husband Rosenfield Panjaitan, my sister Safitry Rahayu and her husband Dedy Ramdani, and my brother Samudra Wanardi and his wife Rita Conny, who always care for me in their own ways. Also for my nephews –Irfan Raharja, Farhan Dzakwan, Rakan Justin and Thobie Danundoro. Finally this thesis is dedicated to my smart beautiful daughter, the future Indonesian leaders, Rose Chand Guilaume, who embraced her experience in Australia with enthusiasm. Although some errors and misinterpretations are inevitable in a work of such scope, ultimate responsibility for any error remains with me. I hope this study can stimulate others to explore similar issues in future research. v List of Publications and Awards Publications Suwarso, R. (in press). Indonesia pasca reformasi 1998: ‘New Politics’ [Indonesia post reformasi 1998: ‘New Politics’].Jakarta, Indonesia: Kompas Gramedia. Suwarso, R. (in press). Politik marketing di Indonesia [Marketing politics in Indonesia]. Jakarta, Indonesia: Kompas Gramedia. Suwarso, R. and Mar’iyah, C. (Eds.). (2014). Politik, media dan parlemen di Indonesia [Politics, media and parliament in Indonesia].Jakarta, Indonesia: UI Press. Suwarso, R. and Mar’iyah, C. (Eds.). (2014). Pendidikan politik untuk pemilih muda: Pemilu 2014 [Politics education for young voters: 2014 Indonesian Election]. Jakarta, Indonesia: FISIP-UI, Centre for Election and Political Party. Suwarso, R. and Mar’iyah, C. (Eds.). (2013). Belajar dari politik lokal (Lesson learned from local politics). Jakarta, Indonesia: UI Press. Suwarso, R. (2013). Parlemen Indonesia: Membangun kepercayaan publik [Indonesian parliament: Building public trust]. Jakarta, Indonesia: FISIP-UI, Centre for Election and Political Party. Suwarso, R. (2012). Meningie Kebijakan Pembangunan Indonesia: Aspek Sosial dan Politik [Revisiting Indonesian Development Policies: Social and Politics Aspects].Jakarta, Indonesia: FISIP-UI, Special working group. Suwarso, R. (2010, March 10). SBY, Obama and Kevin Rudd [Opine & Editorial].Suara Pembaharuan Newspaper, p.5.Jakarta, Indonesia. Suwarso, R. and Prasetiyono, D. (2009), Pemilu 2009: Pemilu Liberal Machiavellian? [The 2009 Election: Liberal Machiavellian Election?]. Journal of University of Airlangga - Politikana, East Java Province, Indonesia.24 June.http://politikana.com/baca/2009/06/24/pemilu‐2009‐liberal‐machiavellian‐election. html. Suwarso, R. (2009, March 25). Degradation of political party’s function in 2009 elections. Fadjar Newspaper, South Sulawesi, Indonesia.http://cetak.fajar.co.id/news.php?newsid=88861. Suwarso, R. and Fahmi, M. (Eds.) (2008).The voice of Indonesian young leaders. [Paper compilation of PPIA 2008 conference in commemorating ‘100 years of Indonesian National Awakening Day –May 1908-2008,
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