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Unlikely Allies? the Intersections of Conservation and Extraction in Tanzania

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Unlikely Allies? The Intersections of Conservation and Extraction in Tanzania Devin Holterman A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Graduate Program in Geography York University Toronto, Ontario October 2020 © Devin Holterman, 2020 Abstract Tanzania is largely considered the epicenter of the Second Poaching Crisis, having experienced dramatic declines in wildlife populations, in particular elephants. In response, the country has established a new (para)military wildlife authority, enhanced international partnerships and projects aimed at curbing illegal elephant killings, and embarked on widespread anti-poaching operations as part of the country’s so-called “war on poaching.” Attuned to these characteristics of green militarization and the conditions of biodiversity crisis in Tanzania, this dissertation examines the emergence of anti-poaching partnerships between conservation and extractive industry actors. Based on 11 months of research in Tanzania, focusing specifically on the Selous Game Reserve, I illustrate that mainstream state and non-state conservation efforts, under the conditions of biodiversity crisis, enable the expansion of the mining, oil and gas industries. Building on this argument, the dissertation offers three contributions to political ecological and broader critical geographical scholarship. First, I show how Tanzania’s categorization of the poacher as an “economic saboteur” who threatens the national economy forms one aspect of a broader economic rationale directing the country’s increasingly militarized approach to conservation. Such an economic rationale, utilized by both state and non-state conservation actors, authorizes controversial partnerships with the extractive industries. Second, I show how Tanzania’s militarization of conservation is enabled in part by extractive industry actors who, in addition to securing access to its desired mineral deposits, temporarily “fix” the broader social and political crises facing the industry. Finally, I show that the Tanzanian state and its conservation authority mobilize conservation territory as a means to secure a range of resources for the developmental trajectory of the state, blurring the lines between territories of conservation and mineral extraction. Taken together, this research sheds light on the growing roster of actors involved in biodiversity conservation, the novel ways they enable and benefit from the intensification of green militarization, and the varying impacts of conservation-extraction articulations on conservation policy, practice, and territory. ii Dedication For Henri – Je dédie ce travail, à mon fils, Henri, source de ma motivation iii Acknowledgements The list of those who have supported me throughout this dissertation and the broader PhD process is a long and winding one. I will undoubtedly miss some names and for this I apologize. I would like to start by sending a heartfelt thank you to all those who participated in the research process in Tanzania and beyond. Your time and patience are greatly appreciated, and I hope the process and the findings of this research, however critical they may be, help in continuing a dialogue about the complex reality of conservation and resource extraction. In particular, this research has been touched by many incredible people in southern Tanzania who will remain anonymous here but deserve extra recognition and gratitude. Asante sana. An enormous thank-you to my supervisor, Dr. Elizabeth “Libby” Lunstrum for all her support, guidance, and constructive criticism. I simply could not be more thankful. My committee members are also due a significant amount of gratitude: Dr. Robin Roth, Dr. David Szablowski, and Dr. Peter Vandergeest all greatly contributed to this process in ways that I am sure I do not fully understand today. I am forever grateful for this wonderful team’s guidance. Dr. Christine Noe at the University of Dar es Salaam (UDSM) requires special attention for her guidance, critical feedback, and friendship. Thabit Jacob too, for the many fascinating conversations that continue. Thank you to Thabit and Rasmus Hundsbæk Pedersen for the kind invitation to the Hierarchies of Power PhD student workshop and to the many thoughtful comments and critiques from those in attendance. It was an honor to present my work at UDSM and a fruitful academic experience to be a part of with such a great group of thinkers. I would like to thank the Tanzania Wildlife Research Institute, Commission for Science and Technology, and Tanzania Wildlife Management Authority for reviewing my research project and accepting it on its scholarly merits. An openness to critical research is a testament to the professionalism and iv commitment of those in the offices of these respected institutions. I hope this project contributes to thoughtful dialogue about conservation policy and practice in Tanzania. There are plenty of other friends and colleagues across Tanzania and East Africa that deserve my gratitude. A very special thanks to my research assistant and translator Victoria Abel, Eliezer Sungusia and Kolady Kayanda for so many interesting conversations, and the entire team at the East and Horn of Africa Human Rights Defenders Project, as without my time in Kampala in 2012/2013, I would have never come to this project. Many thanks to the list of friends and colleagues who have spurred such great dialogue over the years, that has undoubtedly helped shape my thinking and approach to this project. Colin Sutherland, Christopher Alton, Jarren Richards, Daniel Huizenga, Annette Greene, Patrick Schukalla, Francis Massé, Yolanda Weima, Kariuki Kirigia, Jevgeniy Bluwstein and so many others. A special thanks to the growing team at Beyond Extraction and the many participants in our collective’s events. Although not always directly related to this dissertation, the many conversations about the breadth of our activities has helped shape my thinking of this project and its before and afterlives. Thank you to SSHRC, the Canadian Conservation in Global Context project (Robin Roth and Libby Lunstrum again), and the Nathanson Centre on Transnational Human Rights, Crime and Security, for financial, and various other supports throughout the years of this dissertation. Many thanks to the Department of Geography at York University and all the faculty and staff that have touched this work in various ways. To my fellow PhD cohort members, Colin, Yolanda, Rupinder Minhas, Rita Nketiah, and Julián Gutiérrez Castaño, although our time together was relatively short, it was full of engaging discussion and friendship–thank you! A special thank-you to Yvonne Yim for all the administrative assistance stickhandling the PhD program at York. Without your tireless help this project would have likely been insurmountable. v Thank you again to Colin Sutherland for co-organizing the Political Ecology in Ruinous Times session at the 2019 annual meeting of the American Association of Geographers in Washington DC and to all those who attended the sessions proceedings. Feedback and discussion from this meeting was especially critical in shaping Chapter 4 of this dissertation. I am extremely grateful to Dr. Katharina Lange, Patrick Schukalla, and the rest of the Politics of Resources Research Unit at the Leibniz Zentrum Moderner Orient (ZMO) in Berlin for the 2017 invitation to join the group for multiple days of thought-provoking dialogue. In a similar vein, thanks again to Francis Massé and Timothy Norris for collaboratively organizing the Conservation Extraction Conundrum sessions at the 2016 meeting of the AAG, where again, my early thoughts on this project began percolating. A special thank you to Bram Büscher, Robert Fletcher, and the organizers of the Political Ecologies of Conflict, Capitalism and Contestation summer school and conference at Wageningen University. This great event, full of incredible minds, could not have come at a better time in the intellectual development of this project. To my many friends who have offered extensive support, a couch to sleep on, and a mind to pick, I can never fully repay you: Colin, Jarren, Francis, Patrick, Yannish Sewraz, Meghan Hogg, Chris Doyle-Kelly, Shane Jackman, and many others. You have shaped this project, and me, in innumerable ways. To my mother, and biggest fan, Penny Denman, your love and support are incalculable, and I would have never arrived here without you. To my brother Brandon Holterman, your continuous support and curiosity has motivated me to push the boundaries of my abilities and intellectual capacities with this project and beyond. I am forever grateful for your support in everything that I do, and I know that our conversations have shaped this project in ways beyond my own recognition. A special thank-you to my oldest brother Jeremy Holterman, you have vi always been there, and I know you always will be. To Caroline Lévesque, my wonderful partner, your unwavering support and companionship has let me see all that is possible, thank you–forever. Finally, to our young son Henri Lévesque, I hope this work one day inspires you to chase your own intellectual and political dreams towards a future that is more just and equitable for all. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract ................................................................................................................................ ii Dedication ...........................................................................................................................
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