VYTAUTO DIDŢIOJO UNIVERSITETAS
POLITIKOS MOKSLŲ IR DIPLOMATIJOS FAKULTETAS
SOCIALINĖS IR POLITINĖS TEORIJOS KATEDRA
Edvinas Visockis
THE REGRESSIVE DIALECTICS OF MUSICAL CONSUMPTION: A CRITIQUE OF MAINSTREAM MUSIC AND THE CULTURE INDUSTRY
Magistro darbas
Vadovas doc. dr. Jay Daniel Mininger
Kaunas 2015 SUMMARY
Edvinas Visockis. The Regressive Dialectics of Musical Consumption: A Critique of Mainstream Music and the Culture Industry. Master thesis of Social and Political Critique program / Advisor doc. Dr. Jay Daniel Mininger; Vytautas Magnus University, Department of Social and Political Theory.- Kaunas, 2015. 60p
Master thesis employs and updates T. W. Adorno‘s theory of regression of listening in order to analyze culture industry and its effects on music and listening habits. The ideas of music as background, commodity, reproduction, imitation and territorialization are explored. The conclusion that the variety of genres does not introduce any significant differences between them, as they are essentially interchangeable between one another is reached. Thesis proposes that this is a regressive dialectic—a dialectic that does not obtain progress but regresses backwardly as differences exist only between the forms and not the content of the art. The possibility of music that wields social control and influence as well as provides the hope and possibility of emancipation from social and cultural hegemony is explored.
The final chapter shows how the theory of regression of listening can be used in praxis by analyzing a selected band ―Alexisonfire‖ and their works.
Key words: Adorno; regressive dialectics; music; aesthetics; culture industry
2
TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION ...... 4
1. THEORIES OF TASTE AND BEAUTY ...... 7
2. CULTURE INDUSTRY AND THE REGRESSION OF LISTENING ...... 12
2.1 Music as background and inability to listen ...... 12
2.2 Commodification and marketability of music ...... 15
2.3 Music as communication and identity ...... 18
2.4 Reproduction and imitation of music ...... 22
2.5 Territorialization and music ...... 27
2.6 The regressive dialectics of musical consumption...... 33
3. SUBMISSION AND EMANCIPATION THROUGH MUSIC ...... 37
3.1 Controlled deviation and excorporation of the culture industry ...... 37
3.2 Critique, protest and noise ...... 41
3.3 Music and manipulation ...... 44
3.4 The limits of culture industry ...... 47
4. THEORY IN PRAXIS: THE EXAMPLE OF ―ALEXISONFIRE‖ ...... 49
CONCLUSION ...... 55
SANTRAUKA ...... 57
LITERATURE ...... 58
3
INTRODUCTION
Music is and can be a lot of things. First and foremost it is art, which often has meaning for its listeners, and which participates in discourses of ―truth‖, perhaps even, according to some, revealing truth. It can speak about various problems and let them be heard. Or it may serve as a relaxing or stimulating background that helps one think. It can be a social event, like a concert that is enjoyed by many at the same time, emanating its aura to everyone participating in such event. On the other hand music can be a commodity that is used to gain symbolic, social capital—for example, when one may be seen in at a classical music concert and be attributed the qualities necessary for someone belonging to high society. In other cases, music can help one construct identity, through what kind of music is preferred and that music is experienced. Some people enjoy rebellious music and see themselves as punks (or members of any other subculture that sees itself as a counter to the mainstream culture). In this sense, music is something that provides options to construct and showcase identity by buying records and attending concerts in festivals and venues.
Music not only helps one relax or construct/represent identity, it may also serve as a commercial piece that assures that everything is and will be okay. In this sense it is just a background sound that is rarely heard, and when heard it is supposed to reassure one that the consumption feast in the shopping mall can continue, as it is what spins the world around, allows you to express yourself and get anything that may be needed for everyday living. Besides such background sound, music has another purpose, which can clearly be seen in movies and television. On the one hand it may force one to associate the catchy melody with a product of some sort, while on the other hand it may intensify the emotions that are felt during a scene of a dramatic movie, or an action sequence.
In order to explore music‘s significance for those who consume it, it is important to answer questions about whether music is consumed actively or not — do people notice what is being played, or does it serve other purposes? Following claims made by Theodor W. Adorno, do we, in fact, live in an age of the regression of listening? The initial object of the thesis is the consumption of music—specifically, the practices of consumption of mainstream music that have gained widespread recognition and are commercially successful. Mainstream music is defined in this study as including such genres as pop, post-
4 hardcore, metalcore, etc. Mainstream music is related to the parallel object of this thesis, the theory of the regression of listening.
The goals of the thesis are to:
1. analyze the effects of regressed listening on cultures and practices of musical consumption
2. reveal the critical and discursive elements of music that, especially as manifest through practices of music consumption, wield social control and influence as well as provide the hope and possibility of emancipation from social and cultural hegemony.
3. examine the contemporary validity of Adorno's theory of the regression of listening and musical consumption
4. draw conclusions from the theoretical analysis via the example of a reading of music produced by the band "Alexisonfire."
The significance of the topic ushers in part from the fact that Theodor Adorno‘s critical theory of regressed listening is over seventy years old. Considering the extraordinary transformations in popular music culture over the years, including especially matters of technology, the availability of music, and the shift in tastes and genres, it is necessary to update his theory accordingly. There are various studies and books of popular music culture and consumption that analyze certain aspects of music and music industry: S. Reynolds studies punk and post-punk music (2005) and rave culture and music (2015). M. Hall and N. Zukic (2013) discuss DJ and electronic dance music as a potential (de)territorializer, while M. Hall and J. Gunn (2008) analyze the psychodynamics of iPod enjoyment. Barthelmes (2002) examines the relationship between city and music. However, none of these studies exposes the dialectical pattern in popular music culture and consumption, which this thesis identifies in the argument that, for example, the greater the proliferation of identities, bands, styles, genres, and so forth, the more in fact these supposed differences become unified underneath. The variety of genres does not introduce any significant differences between them, as they are essentially interchangeable between one another. This thesis proposes that this is a regressive dialectic—a dialectic that does not obtain progress but regresses backwardly as differences exist only between the forms and not the content of the art. The methodologies used in the thesis all belong predominantly to modes of social and political critique. In particular, the thesis draws its general approach from T. W.
5
Adorno and his work on aesthetics, regression of listening, and the culture industry. Thus, the Frankfurt school of critical theory is the main methodological point of reference in the thesis.
The methods and critical tools employed in the thesis, among the most notable ones, negative dialectics, the aesthetic theories of I. Kant and G. Hegel, G. Deleuze and F. Guattari‘s concept of territorialization, A. Giddens‘ theory of identity construction, J. Fiske‘s theory of popular culture and incorporation, and J. Attali‘s concept of noise and music.
6
1. THEORIES OF TASTE AND BEAUTY
For people art often is something that gives aesthetic pleasure, looks or sounds nice and therefore is consumed. What matters the most is whether it is beautiful and pleasing for the consumer, and the message it conceives is rarely the most important. Rather than looking for the truth content, people tend to use art, whether it is music, paintings or movies in order to escape routine or simply for enjoyment purposes as art gives pleasure. However, the truth content and meanings of art are not entirely forgotten, as the ability to relate with art remains important, for both its popularity and the enjoyment itself. In the meantime philosophical aesthetics argue about truth, beauty and taste, while culture industry imitates art in order to both satisfy the needs of people, and profit while doing so.
Music is art, and art can be understood in different ways. The most crucial difference of art understanding can be found between Kant and Hegel and their theories of taste, as they represent the opposite poles of the discussion. According to Kant, art is beautiful and can only be beautiful. Even if it represents something ugly it does so beautifully. If a painting shows victims of pandemic, like Black Death, the painting itself is not ugly, things that are shown in it are. Hegel on the other hand, separates art into categories of beautiful and ugly, good and bad. For him satirical, grotesque, comical art is not art, it is seen as something else. In this sense the same painting showing the horrors of pandemic wouldn‘t be considered beautiful.
A difference between the understandings of art does not end with categorization or absence of it. For Kant taste is a subjective thing. Taste is subjective because it has no universal claim to it. What one finds beautiful and appealing to him, other may see as something ugly, or unappealing. According to Kant „If others make a judgment that is unfavorable to us, this may rightly make us wonder about our own judgment, but it can never convince us that ours is incorrect. ― (Kant, 2000:18) This means that taste is not universal but subjective varying between people. It is not logical; we do not like something because someone else likes it. We can try to, but in the end it is our own subjective taste that comes before anything else. In a way, if Mona Lisa is considered to be perfect, one may be pressured to find that perfectness in it, pressured to like it, but at the same time, subject may not like her at all. That is the subjectivity of taste. According to Kant, people choose what they like, and it lies within them, and not in the object itself.
7
Hegel finds beauty in the object and not the subject. Because beauty lies in the object it can be found universally in the objects by the subjects, meaning that when one looks at a piece of art, one may find it beautiful and see meaning in it. Hegel thought that art had a piece of truth in it which can be revealed. For him, every art creation has its beauty in itself, regardless of the subject who looks at it. This means that the truth is somewhere in the piece, it can be understood and seen differently by various subjects, though it cannot be grasped and conceptualized into one final answer. The truth is never completely revealed, it is there, and can only be seen for a brief moment. Every time when one tries to see the truth it vanishes and one has to try again.
When we start thinking this way, the first difference is obvious, as Kant finds beauty and meaning in subjects and their opinion about things, and Hegel does the exact opposite. For him the same things lie in the object, for people to see them, and understand/reveal. Second major difference is that understanding of beauty lies within people, and everyone has a subjective opinion about same things, thus opening up space for various interpretations. With this in mind, taste is based on people themselves and not the object, therefore it is not universal, as not everyone will see same object as beautiful. For Hegel however ―The beauty of art is beauty born of the spirit and born again<…>‖ (Hegel, 2000:35), meaning that beauty lies in the object, thus meaning that it is universal, and we all can find beauty and truth in it (it may reveal truth to us, as it is in the object).
However, a different kind of universality is found in Kant‘s theory of aesthetics and taste, as all the subjects may have their own opinion about things, and what they find beautiful, therefore a subjective universality. People may not share the same opinion, but the fact that they all have some sort of opinion makes it universal. For Hegel, universality lies in the object, as it has meaning in itself, and subjects can either see it or not, and it doesn‘t matter if they do, the object still holds the meaning. For example, if the piece of art represents stomped and dirty flag after World War II, people may find it aesthetically pleasing to look at, because of the picture, but it also holds the meaning that Japan suffered a loss in the war. It may also mean a change that is coming for the country and it policies. In short, people may find the image pleasant or unpleasant, see its meaning and understand it or don‘t. Even if one does not know the context for the picture and possible meanings of it, the meaning is still there. For Kant universality is in the aesthetic pleasure we feel. Even though we may interpret the same thing differently, trying to do so is pleasurable for everyone, thus making the process of trying to grasp the meaning and fail universal.
8
Another aspect that has to be considered is art work purpose. For Kant, art serves no purpose, except to be beautiful (Kant, 2000:23). This means that the purpose of art is to be art (purposiveness without purpose). This is because art and beauty can never be conceptualized, thus making art unable to serve any other purpose beyond being beautiful. This also brings us back to the problem of aesthetic pleasure. Even though people do not understand art pieces, they still gain pleasure which is the universality that was mentioned before. This happens, because aesthetic pleasure comes not from understanding itself, but from trying to do so. People constantly try to grasp the meaning, but are unable to do so as it always eludes them. This aesthetic pleasure is universal, as everyone tries to understand piece of art, but fail (and never conceptualize it).
In Hegel‘s theory art has another function; it is a part of historical development, as it reveals a truth of a particular stage of development. Art has meaning in it that holds a part of truth, in other words art is a vessel of truth. This vessel is an object that holds meaning, instead meaning being inside subjects and their interpretations. With this in mind, four key differences between Kant‘s and Hegel‘s theories of taste are these:
1. Kant thinks that all art is beautiful, even if it represents something ugly, while Hegel separates beautiful and ugly art, and only focuses on beautiful one. 2. For Kant taste is subjective, as peoples taste may vary from one man to another, so the meaning of the artwork lies in them, and not in the work itself (it is subject based). For Hegel, the truth and idea is in things (objects) and not in people (subjects). 3. Subjective universality for Kant comes from feelings shared between subjects, when people try to interpret works of art. Even though art can never be understood completely, in trying to do so, subjects share a universal aesthetic pleasure, while Hegelian thinking points to the object and universality through object. 4. Kant thought that art serves no purpose except to be art, and to be beautiful (purposiveness without purpose), while Hegel sees art as a stage of development, as well as being the truth of that particular stage. Also, art holds meaning; it is a vessel of truth (ability to see truth through art as it reveals it).
While theories discussed before were influential, they lack what is needed for a contemporary analysis of music. A theory that can fill the gaps that are left could be provided by T. W. Adorno. In a way he incorporates both theories into one, as both subject and the object are important for the art. Any everyday object could become a piece of art if given a
9 context. An example of this could be twelve chairs placed in a museum with a name given to the piece ―listeners‖. It could represent auditorium of people listening to a lecture, or a concert hall or anything else. With this context same chairs are not just chairs, but art that can be interpreted in various ways. It may not mean the same thing to everyone, as one may see them as a simple representation of the educational system and its flaws, while others may think that this piece is revealing social problems like higher education is for privileged people only. What a particular piece of art speaks depends not only on the art itself and the context that is attributed to it, but also what context does the subject brings with him when one tries to understand the said piece. In this sense, both the subject and the object are important for art. However, art itself is unable to indicate the real truth content as it cannot show it. (Adorno, 2002:566-567) Truth content can only be grasped negatively by the subject and only for a brief moment until it is lost again. It is a never ending cycle without any real conclusion and conceptualization.
Music created by the culture industry however is not done to be art, but to be a product that can be sold and profited from. It only appears to be art that can reveal a certain truth, but it no longer does so, as it is only an imitation, a reproduction of art. In order for such music to be popular it has to bear multiple meanings and interpretations, so that as many people as possible could understand and relate with such music. In other words, culture industry creates multiple codes, and as Maţeikis argues, each of these codes may mark meanings that deny one another, implicate confrontation and at the same time avoid it while transforming already existing meanings and creating new ones. (Meţeikis, 2005:212) The broader the code is the more possible interpretations it has, thus it may appeal to more groups and people who then consume it. In other words, such codes are used by the culture industry to produce music and fill pieces with universal meanings. Such schemes and codes may seem like a part of pop music, however it can be found in every genre, whether it is hardcore, metal or even jazz.
Culture industry is interested in appealing to everyone and providing the options to choose from. Even if it doesn‘t seem as profitable as pop music, incorporation of other genres can still earn a considerable amount of money. In this case art is replaced by cultural codes and schemes. As everyone can choose something to their liking, a sense of freedom and choice is created, while in reality general and universal meanings are applied and then reproduced by the industry. It is a mere imitation of art as ―Something is provided for all so that none may escape; the distinctions are emphasized and extended―(Adorno, Horkheimer,
10
2006:163). What appears to be different at first sight is actually a repetition of the same. Often only form differs, as content is reproduced and imitated over and over again. Then something new and original emerges, culture industry simply incorporates such marginality into itself and produces new pieces mimicking the original piece and filling it with codes. Such products, because of their universality can mean different things depending on how the consumer views it. On the one hand pop rock may seem like a conformist music that is turned into ―radio friendly‖ music, while on the other hand it may seem as a rebellion against the system while being a part of a system itself. It may also seem to be a logical continuation and evolution of the rock genre as it became more available and gained mainstream recognition. In all of the instances it provides entertainment that can bring satisfaction to consumers as they all find what they want in the same product.
Music and art in general often no longer holds the ―truth‖ in itself, as it is replaced by codes and schemes in order to provide entertainment for the masses. It is a constant reproduction and repetition of the same that disguised itself as technological progress and development. (Adorno, Horkheimer, 2006:179) In such disguise, same reappears again and again, providing entertainment and eventually making a fool out of the consumer who in the meantime seeks more pleasure. Pleasure that one finds in hearing and recognizing what is being played, managing to guess what will come next and how it will end. Instead of feeling fooled, consumers feel joy, that they were correct in their presumption. Ability to guess becomes the most important, as one has to put little to no effort at all in order to gain pleasure that supposedly should help one escape routine, while in fact it becomes a continuity of it and repetition of the same.
11
2. CULTURE INDUSTRY AND THE REGRESSION OF LISTENING
2.1 Music as background and inability to listen
With the ever growing music industry and wide array of musicians, styles and genres, everyone can find what suits their taste the most. However, people who listen to the most popular genres, songs and artists are criticized for their taste, or the lack of it, while in the meantime, said songs are turned into soundtracks of movies and TV series, breaking chart records and otherwise being successful. In this sense, the most popular music is often seen as poorly done, simple, often sexualized or eroticized, similar or even same. While it is understandable that sexuality sells and that is why it is so commonly used in music and other industries, it does not guarantee a commercial success and popularity. All of this is a part of culture industry. It continuously produces goods for consumption, always trying to fulfill every need and wish that one may have. It does it so well, that one may not notice that what he wishes and what he consumes is actually very much influenced by the industry itself and not the actual needs and wishes of the consumers. In this sense, both music and society is subsumed by the culture industry.
While the culture industry provides a wide selection of music and gives a sense of freedom and individuality, it is just an illusion. Illusion because a lot of music is done using a certain pattern, one set of rules or another that varies by genre. Even though genres may seem different, in reality they are the same, ideological products created for people to consume. There are no real differences among them, other than what they represent. For example, genres are codes in themselves, as they can be decoded in a certain way. Punk and metal music immediately may be seen as loud and angry, thus it is rebellious, while classical music is seen as something that sophisticated people consume. While the attributes associated with genres may be different, genres themselves are just codes that are created by following certain schemes and models. Although a lot of music is done while following certain rules and patterns, not all music succumbs to the influence of culture industry. There is of course some music that is done for the sake of art and expression and not for the sake of industry and capitalism. Here music can be separated into two categories as it is done by Adorno – serious and ―light‖ music. Highly sophisticated structure (harmony, disharmony, melodies, etc.) is attributed to serious music. If music is done this way, it is serious music, weather it is hip-hop or classical music. This type of music pushes the boundaries of what is music. While ―light‖
12 music is made by following the set of rules. In the case of ―light‖ music quality is no longer important, as many of the pieces are made using the same patterns. According to Adorno ―The familiarity of the piece is a surrogate for the quality ascribed to it. To like it is almost the same thing as to recognize it.‖ (Adorno, 2005:30) This means that the quality of a piece, meaning, and message it may conceive doesn‘t matter anymore, as the only criteria for it is to be easily recognizable and consumed, rather than to be listened to and experienced.
Music that is done based on certain rules and patterns are no longer original or somehow different. It is the return of the same, only repeating itself over and over without any real innovation or difference. There is very little to no autonomy in creation of such piece, as it is done to match and repeat the previous one. When music is created in such a way, people tend take it for granted, as it seems the way it should be. Music is no longer interpreted or actively listened to. It becomes a background that is not in the center of attention and rightly so. One is not willing to listen to music carefully and actively if it is a mere repetition of the same that emerges once again in a similar shape, pretending it is something else. It becomes a part of life, a routine that is unnoticeable. Such music doesn‘t force to think or feel, doesn‘t require any interpretations as everyone already knows everything about the piece. The only purpose remaining for it to serve is to simply vanish into the background of everyday activities. One may argue that all music is a repetition of the same, and in a way it may be true, however there is more to music than just a mere repetition and ability to be recognizable.
There is also music that is serious, breaking limits, innovating, revealing truth and so on. Something new and original often is often seen as deviation that is then absorbed by the industry, or as Adorno and Horkheimer argues, ―Once his particular brand of deviation from the norm has been noted by the industry, he belongs to it as does the land-reformer to capitalism. Realistic dissidence is the trademark of anyone who has a new idea in business―(Adorno, Horkheimer, 2006:173). What was new and innovative, is turned into a scheme that can then be imitated and reproduced. The situation of utter sameness and standardization gives false feeling of freedom and ability to choose from many, while most of them are the same. In order to prefer one over the other is to be in a different situation, different geographical location or be under different biographical circumstances. But isn‘t the quality of a piece no longer important? On the one hand, people praise singers for their wonderful voices, musicians for their masterful performances, while at the same time auto tuned singing is very successful in music industry. This can only mean that the ability to
13 perform and create is no longer important. Anyone can do it, and it may not be bad at all. However it raises another question, weather the robotic voice is actually heard as it seems that people no longer listen to music, and are unable to concentrate for a prolonged periods of time. It is supplemented with the commercialization of music, thus leading to music becoming a mere background, rhythmical stimuli, that are packaged together with sexuality in order to be sold to masses and to entertain them. But this raises more questions, as one may ask whether music actually entertains or only fill the silence of people who are unable to communicate with one another? Why are dance clubs and discothèques so popular for young people to meet each other and fall in love? Is it not because it is loud, rhythmical, dark and pulsating? In this sense, places like dance clubs are filled with sexuality and noise that constantly breaks the silence and allows anxiety filled people to communicate and get to know one another. The amount of actual talking is reduced to a bare minimum, and instead of the awkward silence one has plenty of time to think of what to say, and how to do so. Club is where bodies are close to one another, breaking personal space boundaries and stepping into the zone of intimacy while actual conversations are either very short, or screamed into the ear of other. Dancing and music are substitutes for communication, allowing people to overcome their anxiety. But the role of music doesn‘t become primary in this context. It is only a background that fights silence and horrors that come with it, as one doesn‘t have to speak anymore. Music becomes the background as it is always there, always filling the void, but is never heard. As Adorno argues, if one is unable to speak, then one is certainly unable to listen as well. (Adorno, 2005:31) Music that becomes the background bears no meaning, it is not heard, or actively listened to as that requires attention. Even if it has meaning, it is often ignored on purpose, as it may say something that one doesn‘t want to see or hear. (Attali, 2009:4) In both cases, people are either not willing or not able to listen. This is why more complex musical pieces are usually harder to listen to and tend to be skipped by most. Many people struggle with post-rock, hardcore, metal, classical music, as they are constantly changing, harder to be grasped and memorized, harder to predict. It certainly doesn‘t apply to every song, but it is often the case in such genres. The same can be said about atonal music, which plays with different melodies, constantly changing and never repeating themselves in a loop. It is the complete opposite of what music is today.
While theories of taste apply to all arts, in this specific case music is taken as a primary example and study object as it is the most popular and influential form of art. It is not only the most widely spread, but also influenced the most by the cultural industries. In the
14 contemporary society almost any kind of taste can be satisfied as cultural industry provides one with anything ranging from the variety of genres, artists, and live performances at venues bars to outdoor festivals. Anyone can find at least something to their liking. As mentioned in the previous section, music is produced in such a way, that as many people as possible would like it and therefore would buy it. It succumbs to the overwhelming power of industry, capital and audience pleasure, as listener is ―<…>converted, along the line of least resistance, into the acquiescent purchaser.‖ (Adorno, 2005:32). Industry is interested in selling as much as possible and if something is hard to consume it will not sell well. In a sense, it is not only people who lost their ability to listen; it is industry itself that converted them into such. If one is unable to pay attention and listen, if one gets mad when the piece is complex and unpredictable, then one doesn‘t have to as industry will provide an alternative. Alternative that is done exactly in the way it should, applying the rules of easily consumable music. Typical rules or guidelines for such easily consumable and marketable music are these: catchy melody which serves as a ―hook‖. It has to be simple, easy to remember for it to get stuck in one‘s head. Preferably it should be predictable, as one should be able to know what will come up next and how the song will sound even before hearing it all up to its final notes. Most of the time songs have to be short, less than four minutes long, in order for a listener to remain focused. Typically it should be bright and positive, rhythmical, preferably sexualized (weather in the song itself or in its presentation) so it would be easier to sell and consume. It all comes down to the consumer and his ability to listen. And this is what can be understood as the regression of listening. When one is unable to actively listen and music itself serves a purpose of being void filler.
2.2 Commodification and marketability of music
The other side of this argument is focused on a different approach to music. Instead of bashing people for their inability to listen and hear, another option is explored. For a long time in history music was not something so easily accessible, it was a privilege. There were of course ones who had the ability to play instruments but between commoners it was typically ethnic songs. For the upper class there were concerts in palaces or theaters, but in all of these cases music was performed live. In order to be entertained by music one depended on place, time, schedule and even the program of artists. It all changed in the XIX century with the introduction of phonograph and later on the invention of radio when music became
15 available for more and more people. Instead of the aura that was felt while one performed and shared among many listeners at once, music was enjoyable without the actual person who performs it. (Benjamin, 2007) In other words, the presence of the artist was no longer needed. Artist was replaced by technological device which ―performed‖ instead of the artist. It played whatever and whenever one wanted. Besides that it may have also been enjoyed alone or in a small company at home instead of a live concert or a celebration. In a sense, when music became more available, in turn it also became a commodity, thus influencing change of listening. Rather than requiring certain situation and circumstances, one just had to have one of the certain devices in order to enjoy music at any given time. Not only to enjoy any kind of music, but specific music depending on one‘s wishes and mood. This certainly supplied the demand of entertainment but also turned music into a product that is produced in factories and then sold on the market. Artists and musicians become something that is packaged and shipped right into the living rooms of people via computers, TV‘s, radios and other devices. It turned into something that is available anywhere and at any time, ―Just as water, gas, and electricity are brought into our houses from far off to satisfy our needs<…>so we shall be supplied with visual or auditory images<…>‖. (Valery, 1964:226) All art, not only music nowadays is just a click away. Entertainment can be found anywhere, no longer depending on specific time, place or people who were supposed to perform. In a sense, concerts lost a part of their meaning.
Commodification of music is not one dimensional. While first thing that comes to mind may be records and their sales, radio constantly playing thousands of songs by different artists, or MTV and its music videos, but it doesn‘t end there. What also becomes a commodity are concerts, live performances and even artists‘ names. Though one has to admit that such events may have already been a place for one to show him, it also gotten more widespread with the rise of music industry. The fact that one has more options to choose from, constantly hears various artists played on the radio or television, then one will most likely buy a ticket to a live performance and consume even more. It may certainly be a favorite artist or a band and may be done for the sake of pleasure or enjoyment although it may also be done in order to gain status. One can buy tickets to live performances, pre- recorded shows, and records themselves, which are available for purchase both as CD‘s or digital downloads from iTunes and the like. One can have massive collections of songs and albums and it is done with ease, even though it is not the same to have a record as to be at a live performance among other people.
16
While recordings of songs are of a very high quality, they still lack the aura that is present only during live shows with lots of people in one place. Aura can be understood as ―<…>presence in time and space, its unique existence at the place where it happens to be.‖ (Benjamin, 2007:220) Even though records cannot reproduce aura, they still can be collected and listened at ones will. It may hold deeper meanings of identity and representation, but what is important that music becomes a product. It is the same as to have food in the fridge or a latest smart phone. While concerts and other events certainly have an aura attached to them, attending such concert does not necessarily mean that it is done because it is pleasurable or enjoyable (though it may also be that), but because music is a commodity. In this case, product is to be seen by others in a concert where pieces of Mozart or Vivaldi are played. Attending such event has nothing to do with music. As Adorno argues, ―The consumer is really worshipping the money that he himself has paid for the ticket<…>‖. (Adorno, 2005:34). Ticket value is influenced by many things, but most importantly by the fame of the artist or the star value, as the name sells better and attracts more people if it is well known. The same can be applied to music reality shows and music contests such as ―American Idol‖, ―Kelias į Ţvaigţdes‖ and similar, where singers are judged based on the size of their fan base and marketability, and not on their ability to sing and create music. (Bolanos, 2007:28) This is when exchange value is passed as use value (qualitative), when in fact quantitative value is worshipped (the more it costs the more it is worth). It is a mere instrument to achieve something, in this case to gain status. It is not the music that is played in the concert that is worshiped, but the ticket and the money that has been paid. In this sense, attending a concert is not a consumption of music, but rather consumption of money and status. To illustrate this, imagine a politician or a businessman going to the opera or a classical music concert. In both instances they are public people, often portrayed in news and media. Attending such events shows that these people are sophisticated and educated thus generating them symbolic capital in both their representation (the image that is constructed through such acts) and appearing in news or ―people‖ section. According to Adorno, all of this is done in order to generate fame and symbolic capital as people claim to enjoy light music over the higher one, and listen to classical and so called ―serious‖ music only for the reasons of social prestige. (Adorno, 2005:34) In this sense, music and performance becomes a tool, a means to an end. To listen to classical music is not to enjoy it, but to gain status that comes with it.
However this is not entirely true as classical music became a cultural product, especially popular in movies and TV commercials. In movies it is often used as a dramatic
17 element which goes together with what is seen on the screen. While in commercials such music is used exactly for its familiarity. When one hears a classical piece played in the background of the latest and greatest cleaning product it may seem that the product is better, or at the very least when the piece is heard somewhere else it should be associated with the said product immediately. Music becomes a commodity, a tool to sell and gain profit instead of being art or a form of expression. It lacks meaning as the only meaning acceptable is whether it is marketable or not. The more known the name of an artist is, the easier it is to sell songs, albums and other products related with the artist. Eventually artists name can become a brand on its own. When this happens it is used to sell other things than music, for example perfume, cosmetics, notebooks, pens or even clothing. That is why there are multiple products with ―One Direction‖ name on them, or Madonna‘s fashion line made in collaboration with ―H&M‖ or multiple different perfumes labeled as popular singers names like ―Lady Gaga‖1. The music they make no longer matters, as it is replaced by the fame of their names and familiarity that comes with them. It is easier to sell a product whose name is well to the audience. Quality becomes obsolete, as fans would still buy other products just because they have their favorite artists name on them. In this case, music becomes more than a product. It is also a name – a brand. A name that is familiar and can be acquired by buying it thus makes it an object of desire.
2.3 Music as communication and identity
Despite that people are aware that they are being ―fed‖ with ―light‖ music, they still consume it. It is not only familiarity that makes certain objects or in this case musical pieces desirable or enjoyable, but the ability to recognize oneself in the music that is heard. It is precisely the reason why it is liked, as it ―speaks‖ to (or about) one. Both the context of the art and the recipient are equally important in order to interpret and understand it, to try and grasp it. In this sense the interplay between the object and the subject, art and people viewing, hearing and in other ways receiving it, reveals a certain truth to the listener, which sometimes may seem as if it is about the listener himself. Here once again relationship between music and commodity is seen, as one may use music to define ones personality and identity.
1 Many of the female singers have their names as brands for perfumes and other products. Among the most popular to name a few are Lady Gaga, Christina Aguilera, Katy Perry, Beyoncé, Rihanna, Shakira, Jennifer Lopez and pop rock band „One Direction―.
18
Consumption of certain music, artists and genres may help one in creating and showing others what he is like, or at least, would prefer to be like. One person is listening to the greatest ―Nirvana‖ or ―Red Hot Chili Peppers‖ hits while in the meantime someone else is blasting latest ―Lady Gaga‖ song through the speakers of their car. Both of these people are attributed different qualities in the eyes of others. One may be seen as a decent, ―normal‖, while other is viewed as depressed rocker with tendencies to do drugs (though these qualities are used as an exaggerated example, with no claim to reality). Qualities are not only attributed to the ones, but also by the ones listening. While other people may certainly attribute some qualities based on musical preferences and taste, listener himself tend to attribute something to themselves and the music they are listening to. For example, while listening to AFI, Rise Against or Anti-flag2 person may see himself as punk, anarchist that fights mainstream music and popular culture, while caring about the earth, political problems and so on. It comes not only with the collection of vinyl records or latest albums in the form of CD‘s that can be showcased to represent one, but the consumption of specific artists and music or products that are advertised or made using the names of bands or artists. In this sense, commodification of music actually serves as a tool of identity construction through the music that is preferred and consumed. It is a representation of a certain lifestyle that chose. As Giddens argues, ―A lifestyle can be defined as a more or less integrated set of practices which an individual embraces, not only because such practices fulfill utilitarian needs, but because they give material form to a particular narrative of self-identity.― (Giddens, 2000:107) In other words, through everyday practices and choices identity is constantly being built. Every choice matters and changes how one is seen by others. Even the preferred musical genres play an important role.
In a society in which people are unable to speak any longer, music speaks for them and thus brings people together. Similar musical taste, preferred styles, genres and artists replaces words and conversations. Not only because it is a common topic, but because it creates a feeling of belonging and understanding. Similarities in taste now bear another meaning. It is not the art that speaks the same to many, but through the art that is preferred people speak to one another. The consumption of various cultural goods, not only music is what helps one to define what he is. In the contemporary society, as Černevičiūtė argues,
2 Anti-Flag is the least famous band of the mentioned above, however it is the most anarchistic and political. Main themes for a band range from police and its brutality, to anti-nationalism. While AFI and Rise Against are both punk bands, they are more famous than Anti-flag. Songs of these bands have their songs playable in ―Ubisoft‖ video game ―Rocksmith 2014‖
19 identity construction is similar to browsing the shops showcase. (Černevičiūtė, 2008). One may simply choose from various options presented and create his identity through the consumption of one or another. This is used by companies and manufacturers, as identity is turned into a product that can be purchased and consumed. In this sense, identity becomes something that is created through the products and brands that are consumed. For example, a typical skater will most likely consume products made by ―Vans‖, ―DC‖ or similar company, while listening to skate punk3 music. This way one is defining his identity not only through the act of skating, but supplementing it with specific brands of clothing and music. In this case, culture industry is supplying the cultural products that have a specific meaning attached to them in order to produce a desired outcome. One doesn‘t have to put any effort in ―being‖ something, the only requirement is money. Same can be applied to concerts and their tickets as it doesn‘t matter what music is being played at the concert. What matters is the value that is paid for it and how can it be used later on. For example, a ticket can be photographed and then uploaded to ―Facebook‖ or ―Instagram‖ this way showing preferences to other people. Same ticket does not only provide entertainment at the concert itself, or identity through the ticket as item that can be shown to others, but also a way of speaking in order to tell a story. In the instance of a ticket, or specifically a concert, one typically takes multiple pictures of how one went to the event and how ―good‖ it was. The more pictures of the event are taken, the better it was, as there are more impressions from it. Music and the entertainment it provides is only a part of the ―fun‖ at the concert. It also becomes a story that is told through pictures and multiple posts on various social websites. It is not the music that matters, but how it can be used later on for both identity construction and communication.
While it is fairly obvious how music can play a role as a material representation of identity, the issue of communication is more clouded. As already discussed, music can bring people together based on similarities between their tastes indirectly, as people may have something in common or something that can be a general conversational topic that helps people to get to know each other. However music can also be used as direct communication as it can transmit both emotions and text through lyrics. On the one hand, music itself can generate emotions and give a certain feeling to others. The form of music is what matters the most as lyrics often tend to be missed or ignored on purpose, as people ―just like the way it sounds‖. In some cases, music can be used as directly replacing speech. In a society which is
3 Skate punk is sometimes called skate core or skate rock. Music is typically fast and aggressive but tend to have more melody and harmonic vocals than punk rock. Many of the bands are skaters themselves and often make references to skateboarding.
20 unable to speak, music can not only fill the void, but speak through its lyrics and serve as confessions, reminders of the good times and so on. In both cases music plays a direct and major role of communication, whether it is emotions or text that is transmitted.
Music may also say what it doesn‘t say as it often happens that qualities that are attributed to the music, artists or genres differ from one person to another. While some people may view metal as a loud noise with screams and heavily distorted guitars and wouldn‘t even consider it music, others may find such music very emotional, deep and meaningful, while third group would see it as the music of the angry or depressed people4. In all these cases music speaks different things, even though it can be one and the same song that is seen in three different ways. According to Shepherd, music in general has the ability to unify meanings which listener can recognize as their own. (Shepherd, 2007:183) What a particular song or genre will tell depends solely on the ones who interpret it. It can be interpreted through the concept of the gaze. While the concept itself was not intended to study music it can be applied to it, as ―The gaze I encounter<…>is, not a seen gaze, but a gaze imagined by me in the field of the Other.‖ (Lacan, 1994:84) In this situation it can be understood that music and people who listen to it give certain qualities and attributes to themselves and to the music in general (whether they listen to it or others). Yet these qualities are not necessarily there in the music itself, but rather in the one who is prescribing them to a certain piece, band or genre. It is not only the music that tells something, but also what person is seeing in it (or willing to see). It may be used to judge people, as people who don‘t listen to the same music as one may be seen as lesser people who lacks the taste (and has other qualities), while others who have similar taste, as someone ―good‖, ―like me‖ and ―interesting‖. The gaze ―<…>is not what you look at, but what in a way looks back at you and shows/tells something about you, through what you do, paint, ask or simply say. You find something about yourself through others that you imagine<…>‖ (Visockis, 2014:160) In this sense, it is not the music that tells something about others, whether they are similar or not, but what one thinks about others based on their musical preferences and one‘s own attitude towards both people and the music they prefer.
4 Distinction between metal, metalcore, punk, hardcore, many post-genres, screamo or emo music (not to mention all other genres with screaming vocals), is rarely made by vast majority of people as they tend to see all such music as the same, thus labeling as metal. In fact, all of these genres are different and themes vary greatly among them. However in the example a stereotypical view of metal (or heavy music in general) is taken.
21
2.4 Reproduction and imitation of music
Music today heavily depends on the culture industry, as one of the main aspects of art is to be marketable and consumable. If no one is interested in buying a certain piece or production, it is not worth making it. That is when reproduction and imitation in art is the most visible. One may think that it is a new phenomenon that emerged with the technological advances in music and listening. However it is not entirely true, as culture industry existed before the invention of radio, record players and television. Even if it wasn‘t as obvious as it is today, music and art in general always followed certain rules and schemes that changed over the course of time. Following a trend, a style could be understood as imitation, a set of rules that are considered as most pure and true. To illustrate this, one can remember that during the renaissance the ideas of antiquity were borrowed in order to create art (paintings, architecture, literature and so on). In order to be popular and to be taken seriously one had to create his art in the generally accepted style. That may be applied to many pieces as they followed the rules of style. Even well-known composers such as Beethoven or Mozart were affected this. While certainly they created original compositions, they were also affected by the style, and in a sense, had to fit in a frame of it, thus they share some similarities. During the baroque era, an ornate performance and elaborate sound like ―la Folía‖ was very popular. Even the most popular composers of the time like Vivaldi and Corelli used folía as a technique in their compositions and even named them as ―la Folía‖. Same thing happened with pieces called ―Requiem‖. That is why similarities, imitation and even reproduction are inevitable today as well. It is the same as to follow a certain style, a path that is already there, and one just has to follow.
Imitation of style and reproduction of it may have several reasons behind it. Some people may find inspiration in the artworks of others and it influences them to the extent that their own creations resemble something that is already done (not necessary a copy note for note, but the style, ideas, to some extent sound, motifs and so on). While new artist is still searching for his own style and sound, he borrows ideas or follows in the footsteps of the one he admires. This can be seen as learning from the past; as such imitation is not done for the reasons of easy profit or fame, but rather for the art itself. This is a clear way for artists to learn and eventually create something of their own, no longer imitating their idols, but supplementing their style or genre with new ideas and sounds. In this case, something old
22 serves as a basis for something new. In other cases, songs are taken as a whole and then reproduced, reinterpreted and reimagined by another author. That as well is done for the sake of art rather than reproducing for the reproductions sake. It may be done out of respect to honor the original creator, or in order to show how same piece is seen through the eyes of the other. It interests both the author and the listener, as something that is already heard is shown in the different light. A great example of reinterpretation of the old can be found in the movie ―12 Years a Slave‖ where the song ―Roll, Jordan, Roll‖ is being sung near the grave for the dead to reach the Promised Land. ―Roll, Jordan, roll‖ is a song originally written by Charles Wesley in the 18th century; however it became popular among the slaves a century later. ―Roll, Jordan‖ refers to Israelites who in Biblical tradition crossed river Jordan to get to the Promised Land. (White, 1928:87) Among the slaves the song meant two things. Firstly it was to mark a crossing to a better life, with no burdens and no trouble. Second meaning being a coded message for escape from slavery, as Ohio and Mississippi rivers both led to the northern United States, in which slavery was illegal. In this instance reproduction of the old served as something that provides authenticity and historical accurateness, while at the same time introducing slave culture to the minds of the contemporary society. Also it is undeniable that the song was also used to trigger emotions and feelings, sadness in particular. Another example in which ―Roll, Jordan‖ is reproduced, although partially is in a song ―The Northern‖ by Alexisonfire. Alexisonfire was a Canadian post-hardcore band, which gained some mainstream success and was very popular among the fans of the genre. Song ―The Northern‖5 uses phrase ―Roll, Jordan, roll‖ in its lyrics. It can be understood as a modern take on the old song, as lyrics indicate that a severe judge is coming, and one wants to go to heaven. It can both mean the same thing as it meant for the slaves, a hope for a better life without burden, or indicate that the same problem persists, even if it has changed in form (abolishment of slavery, but remaining exploitation). In this context, ―Roll, Jordan‖ is revived and adapted for the contemporary society as a message that still matters up to this day. In both cases, old is not reproduced for the sake of profit or familiarity, but rather for its
5 Extract of the song lyrics is taken from the original booklet included with the album ―Old Crows / Young Cardinals‖ released by ―Dine Alone Records‖ on 23rd of June, 2009. Verses that are repeated more than once and reoccur are not repeated here:
―He comes, he comes / Judge so severe / Seven trumpets speak / Oh, they speak him near / He comes, he comes/ Judge so severe / Seven trumpets speak / Speak the sound of fear / Oh mother, you oughta be there / I‘m gonna go to heaven when I die / (I want to go to heaven) / Roll Jordan, roll Jordan, roll Jordan / Oh father, you oughta be there / I‘m gonna go to heaven when I die / (I want to go to heaven) / Roll Jordan, roll Jordan, roll Jordan―
23 emotional charge, message and even how it can be applied to the current events and problems. Old composition serves as an inspiration for something new and as a reminder of the past. In this situation, reproduction and imitation is done for the purposes of art and social-political critique, and not culture industry.
However, in other cases, reproduction of the old is done in order to gain profit. The culture industry is interested in providing as many options to choose from as possible so the consumers would feel satisfied and everyone would find something to consume. In order to do so, the industry has to make unimaginable amounts of new songs, creating new super stars and celebrities industry reuses same patterns, techniques and everything else that proven to be successful in the past. If classical pieces do not sell well, then they can be used in new arrangements by the popular artists in order to be profitable again. In a best case scenario something is borrowed or imitated in a ―new‖ piece while quite often same things are basically repeated and reproduced again. A good example of this can be multiple uses of
Beethoven‘s ―Für Elise‖. While his original creation is well known and commonly used in various contexts, hip-hop artist Nas used the main theme as a sample for his own song. Same thing was done with Carl Orff‘s ―Carmina Burana‖, where Nas uses main theme and sings about money, critics and women. In this case classical music is used to earn more money, generate fame and popularity, rather than as influence or reinterpretation of the old. It is a mere reproduction and imitation of the familiar, adapted to the market and sold again. Such music loses all its meaning and becomes a commodity without aura. Not in a sense of being played at a specific time or at a certain event, like concert, but in a sense that it is stripped away of its original cultural and historical context and loses the aura it originally had. If one is unable to hear a revolutionary cry of the bourgeoisie in the works of Beethoven, then one does not understand that music. (Adorno, 1976:62) It may happen because one has no understanding of music in general, or no knowledge of the historical context, or even because the contexts in which one heard the works of Beethoven were simply altered and are now associated with completely different things than originally intended. As Benjamin argues mechanical reproduction of art takes away its authenticity and art loses its essence. (Benjamin, 2007:220-221) While it is true that original pieces lose their meaning, as they are placed in a different context, in turn they also gain new or altered meanings. On the one hand it is done in order to sell something that lost its marketability, where familiarity of Beethoven and Orff pieces prompts the sales of supposedly new pieces. While on the other hand, musical reproduction and reinterpretation provides a new meaning thus actualizing the piece
24 and message once again. Although it is undeniable that in some cases reproduction is done purely on the behalf of culture industry as a manipulation of the masses and the easiest way of making profit.
While certainly reproduction of the same is often chosen as the easiest and most profitable way to create music and something ―new‖, it is also something that is demanded by the people. As it often happens, when one likes a particular thing, then one tends to look for more of the same or similar in order to have it (or consume it). This can also be applied to music and listening, as one may like particular songs, styles, genres or bands and thus choose them over others. People constantly look for something similar to what they already like, as it appeals to them and their taste. In order to satisfy it culture industry employs multiple ways of giving it to the people, as multiple websites and programs suggest what one may like based on their previous choices. That includes both the internet radio ―Spotify‖ and the music database on ―last.fm‖6. As they suggest similar artists to people, they in turn are looking for the similarities. It can also be applied to favorite artists and bands that disbanded or don‘t create anything new. In such situation people start looking for someone to replace their favorites thus searching for similar artists. The search for similar or even the same creates a demand that has to be supplied by either the culture industry or in some cases, by the consumer himself. The later can happen when fans create bands that are heavily influenced by their favorites thus creating similar music which they couldn‘t find otherwise. It both fills the gap of similarity and helps in the creation of something new. This means that it is not only cultural industry that is interested in the reproduction of the same but people as well.
Reproduction and imitation can also be related with commodity fetishism as one can collect records and artist branded products in order to define oneself. However, what is more fascinating is that reproduction and imitation of music itself can be understood as a fetish. One can consume various products that are presented in order to define the identity and give personality a visual representation. However, for the same reason music can be imitated and reproduced as a fan of the band tries to play their songs and riffs on his guitar, piano or some other instrument. For the fan, the fact that he is able to imitate what he likes on his own is what matters the most. Some of the fans have the ability to play instruments well,
6 Both internet radio ―Spotify‖ and ―Last.fm‖ takes into consideration what user listened in the past, and based on their tastes in both bands and genres suggests more bands to listen to. All of this is based on similarity between the bands and the way they sound. For example, if one likes ―Alexisonfire‖ then he is suggested other bands or side projects of the original band members (―Black Lungs‖, ―Gallows‖, ―City and Colour‖), and other bands that are considered to play same genre. Similar algorithm and theory is applied on another popular website for movies www.imdb.com.
25 read notes or learn songs by ear, however there are a vast majority of fans that doesn‘t have the required knowledge or skills. Culture industry does not forget them and provides the tools necessary to imitate and replicate something that one likes. Rather than reading the notes people are treated as children, as an adapted musical language is given to them. It is not a real thing, no longer a musical language that can be read, as one cannot read the notes. Notes are replaced by pictures that ―<…>depict graphically the fingering for the chords of the plucking of instruments. The rationally comprehensible notes are replaced by visual directives<…>‖ (Adorno, 2005:51). For the most part, one does not need any musical education or understanding, as the only perquisite is to have a musical instrument. While Adorno thought that this could only be applied to instruments like guitar, ukulele, or similar, which he considered infantile as they didn‘t require one to be able to read the notes, instead using the tablatures. It can be applied to piano as well. Nowadays there are both programs like ―Synthesia‖7, videos and even pianos that can light up to visually show what keys to press and the lengths of notes while using lights or other symbols. Similar programs can be found for guitar, bass and other instrument playing. They use tablatures as a form of musical notation indicating fingering rather than the pitch of notes, written on lines corresponding to, for example, the strings of a guitar or the holes on a flute. However, tablatures are still used in order to play the actual song on the actual instrument. While there are certain programs like „Guitar Pro― that plays tablatures and simulates guitar sound so that one can have a better understanding of how a song should sound, there are also games that help one play guitar or bass. A game like „Rockmsmith― uses a modified cable that with USB to 1/4" audio jack that allows one to plug actual guitar into his computer and play songs along the audio track and tablatures. Notes are not only shown as numbers, but also divided into color groups corresponding to one of the strings. Game works as a learning tool, as it not only shows tabs and plays a tune over them, but provides multiple video lessons on techniques and overall playing of the guitar. While it is considered a learning game it doesn‘t escape the grasp of culture industry, as the cable used for the game is made exclusively for it, meaning that it is done in order to prevent piracy and make additional money. However, the most popular music games are „Guitar Hero― and „Rock Band― are using fake instruments, that only has colored buttons for each string and a handle to imitate guitar playing. In this case, game provides a feeling of reproduction, the complete imitation of a star like performance, while
7 „Synthesia‖ is a computer program that shows notes falling onto piano keys so that user can play songs without the ability to read sheet music by simply playing what is shown graphically on the screen. It is somewhat similar to a computer games ―Guitar Hero‖ or ―Rock Band‖.
26 simply playing on a plastic guitar controller. It creates a perfect illusion of reality when one doesn‘t have to use a real guitar (or an instrument of any kind), or have any particular musical skill to reproduce art on their own. In all of these games one can play his favorite songs in front of the virtual audience in a concert hall making it feel real to lose oneself in music, both audibly and visually. (Gunn, Hall, 2008:148) With such games one is not only losing himself in music, but also gets the ability to do so while imitating and reproducing art. ―Rockmisth‖ and tablatures pushes this even farther as one can collect the ability to play as many songs as possible, showoff his taste and skill. It is in fact a fetishisation of music through imitation and reproduction of it. And above all this, music is capital that can be bought and sold. Companies buy rights from the bands in order to use them in video games, so one can buy both the game and various songs as DLC‘s8 to both learn them all and collect as ―skills‖ and have them simply as items.
2.5 Territorialization and music
While music can be used to represent people and construct their identities, it also serves as a background or a commodity. Many of these uses are closely related with the reproduction or imitation. Most of the time, it is either a multiplication of the same piece that makes it available to many, or imitation of something in order to create something supposedly new, yet the same and familiar. However, there is another dimension of familiarity that is not yet discussed, and that is territorialization. The familiarity of music piece is the key aspect in this discussion, as what is familiar helps one to find peace and stability. What else could be so effective in calming people down, if not the calm and familiar voice of their mothers? It provides stability in the chaos, as mother always knows the answers to all the questions a kid has. It reassures that everything is going to be alright. Same can be applied to music that is familiar to one. As everyone chooses the music they like and most often play their most favorite tunes over and over again. Through such repetition they eventually know every single note of the song, it becomes their song in a sense that it if so well known, so familiar, like the voice of their own mother. As Deleuze and Guattari argues, a song (or music in general), plays a role of calm and stable center at the heart of chaos.
8 DLC stands for downloadable content which is sold separately from the original game as additional content. In the case of ―Rocksmith‖ one can download various songs and song packs that are not in the original game. They can be collected, and showed off, as one have progress bars and mastery levels on each song. Adding items to the collection opens up new possibilities as one can learn new songs, track their progress and even compete online by earning points.
27
(Deleuze, Guattari, 2005:331) And it does so through repetition and familiarity of the piece, especially the refrain, which often is also a hook of the song. Refrain itself is a repeated line or number of lines in a song at the end of each verse. Familiar, recognizable music is what helps to turn a threatening or scary situation into one that is under control and repetition of the lines contributes to the familiarity factor. For example, when walking alone at night may seem scary, therefore one may hum, sing or listen to their favorite song this way gaining control over the situation. In this sense music not only stabilizes what may seem as chaos, but also takes control of both the situation and space at the same time. What looked like intimidating streets at night became an organized space. In this sense, music serves as a wall of sound that protects one from the outside. It also in turn gives strength to finish a very important project or marks a territory that is owned, as typically people listen to music or watch television while at home. Music becomes another wall that supplements and sometimes even replaces actual walls. In the same way earphones and iPods serve as portable comfort zones, as they shut down the outside world and place one in a sonorous envelope. They can choose to ignore traffic or city noise, avoid chatting with other people, or simple lose themselves in music and their own thoughts. In many instances it can help one pass time, relax or concentrate. In other words, music helps one claim a certain territory that provides stability, thus comfort. It also means that one has choice of who to let in to their comfort zone, whether inside their actual home, or by taking the earpiece out and granting others their attention.
Music not only helps to find stability and control over the situation, or transform a certain territory/space into a familiar one, but also changes the perspective of the surroundings as well. While one may listen to fast paced, melodic music may see the world in a different way from the one that listens to rhythmical hip-hop music. The genres and the way they sound affect the surroundings as well as the way they are perceived by the listener. Some people may focus on the outside world as they see it passing by, while they are staring at outside the bus window. Meanwhile others may focus on their thoughts and their own actions, more than the world outside. When looking from this perspective, it may seem that music is the ultimate tool that can boost one‘s confidence, provide stability and create a personal space. However, it is also a tool of culture industry.
It is related with reproduction in music. Many songs are similar to one another, because they are made based on the same scheme. It may be done on purpose to imitate something that proven to be successful or because one or another musical structure (a pattern
28 for music construction, a model) is the most popular at the given time. It may be the AAA form, where the same component is repeated several times with different lyrics, or AABA model, which is used in many of the American popular music songs, where two A sections are followed by a contrasting B section, that is then completed with the additional repetition of the A section, or some other model, that is the most popular at a certain period of time. (Von Appen, Frei-Hauneschild, 2015:3-4) The same can be applied to both, the entire song, or a certain parts of it, like verse, chorus or the refrain, that are done based on one of the models. As models often employ repetition of the same with some variations (or none at all), they are what can be called ―the hook‖ of the song. As that is the tiny bit, a blurb, a sound that makes a song immediately recognizable. It is what is being repeated over and over again, thus it gets stuck in one‘s head. The repetition of the same makes the song familiar, thus it is what helps one in the process of territorialization and deterritorialization. However, it also succumbs to the culture industry as it provides the tools for the said process and creates a space that can be considered a norm. For example, most of the time the music that is being played in coffeehouses, bars and restaurants, as well as shopping malls or other establishments, is either pop music or mainstream music in general. In other words, only the music which is considered to be ―normal‖ and popular is used in these instances.
One may argue that this happens because more people prefer this kind of music over the others, or that it is ―neutral‖ and doesn‘t annoy anyone. While that may be true, it is also what makes the territory a part of the culture industry. Besides specific places, like underground scene pubs, rock bars or certain festivals, most of the places are only playing the music that is either trending, or was popular at one point in time. In this sense, it creates a unified, normative space, where oppositions are hidden beneath the mountain of acceptable and heavily by the culture industry influenced music.
When mostly everywhere the same music is played over and over again, it people either enjoy the music that is presented to them, or does not pay any attention anymore and do not hear the music, it becomes a background. In both instances it does not create any opposition, instead becoming the everyday practice. At the same time, music that is not popular or not considered to be a widespread norm is often perceived negatively. In other words, music that is different and not typical or popular is often mystified. Rather than trying to understand it, people tend to imagine it in a very stereotypical way. For example, pagan, folk and black metal festival ―Kilkim Ţaibu― above all is a heavy music festival for both black metal music enthusiasts and folk metal (or folk in general) admirers. However, for
29 the outsiders, such music is not only different from what they listen to, but also outside of the norm.
It is not what can be typically heard in both public places, shopping centers or radio and television. Precisely because it is not common or widespread music, it is understood as something that belongs to ―them‖ or the ―others‖, in this case, the metal subculture. That is when both music and festival itself is turned into a stereotypical myth, where ―they‖ sacrifice animals, drink blood, worship old gods (or Satan, as black metal is often associated with it) and perform other unholy deeds. While to some extent it is true, most of the things are either exaggerated or imagined by the masses that have nothing in common with the festival, the music or the subculture. It is true that the festival is related to pagan religion, however rather than sacrificing anything, people dance, light fires, search for a magical blossoms and so on. What terrifies people the most is the unknown, or what is different. Different music is instantly antagonized. Thus, both music itself and the festival in which it is played create a different territory, a space that is not controlled by the culture industry, but by ―others‖. ―Others‖ are seen through negative stereotypes, this way positioning them as deviations from the norm. Heavy music, in this case black, folk and pagan metal is not considered to be ―normal‖, but instead understood as something bad, or what can be considered as a foolishness of the youth. In other words, it is not something that is taken seriously by the masses. What matters the most is the fact that such music is not a part of culture industry. Therefore it does not create same, industry influenced space, but rather, completely new and different space, that is outside of the norm. It is not familiar to the masses, precisely why it promotes different, new, even autonomous thinking that leads to the diversity of people. Heavy music and its festivals takes away a territory, which would typically be a park, or a beach near the lake, and turns into a new cultural space, by changing the way it sound, even if only for a few days a year. In other words, it changes the soundscape of the territory, bringing it closer to the way a city would sound, rather than a lakeside or a forest. It provides a common identity through the chatter of people, sounds from the merchants who sell various items at the festival, the sound of speakers, artists and their instruments. It is similar to what happens in a city, as ―To make the city a home for its inhabitants it needs symbols which generate a common identity.‖ (Barthelmes, 2002:104) In the city it is a sound of the train station, chatter of the old town, noise of the main street and so on. In the case of the festival, it changes the environment and the sound of the forest or a beach by the lake into a territory of a heavy music fans with their own ideas, myths and
30 identity. It deterritorializes the established space and reterritorializes it into a new one, giving it new meanings. At the same time the space gains additional meanings that are created by the people outside of the subculture, in other words, created by the masses. They become a myth for the masses, who view them through stereotypes.
It is not only heavy music such as punk, hardcore or metal that can be a (de)territorializer. While in many instances music is creating a space that is often understood as normal or typical, it can also do the opposite. Electronic music can be related with rave parties and rave subculture. ―Raves have historically referred to grass-roots organized, anti- establishment and unlicensed all night dance parties, featuring electronically-produced dance music (EDM), such as techno, house, trance and drum and bass.― (Anderson, Kavanaugh, 2007:500) Electronic music and rave subculture in turn, resisted social norms and mainstream conventions through the behavior of the people in parties and the music itself. Often in raves people consumed illegal substances like mushrooms, LSD, ecstasy or other drugs in order to party all night. The parties themselves were unlicensed, meaning that they were illegal public gatherings. While music was also too loud, thus was seen as a violation of noise. Both by creating a sound wall, and performing illegal actions by gathering without a license and consuming drugs, electronic music parties became territorializers. Warehouses, hangars and abandoned houses were turned into new cultural space for both pleasure and protest. It was met negatively by many of the politicians ―<…>as they saw the subculture as another troublesome matter to be controlled, rather than a meaningful cultural experience.― (Anderson, Kavanaugh, 2007:500) In turn multiple laws were passed to prohibit electronic music parties, by either preventing more than certain amount of people in gatherings, giving officers the authority to direct people away if they are suspected of going to a rave party and so on. While laws were officially introduced in order to protect the residents from noise and all night parties, while according to Reynolds, some party participants thought that such prohibitions were pressure from alcohol industry, as their profits diminished because of the changing habits of youth. (Reynolds, 2012) One may also argue that this was done in order to gain control over these autonomous places, as they were directed against capitalism and consumerism in society. However, electronic dance music eventually gained mainstream success and recognition and became a part of music industry. With commercialization large, illegal and free rave parties eventually turned into legal and sanctioned events that required fees for attendance. In fact, electronic music became so popular, that EDM festivals nowadays are attended by thousands of people. For example, in 2014 ―Electronic Daisy
31
Carnival‖9 sold 400,000 tickets. This means, that electronic music is well marketed, as the price of the ticket starts at 300 dollars. In this sense, electronic music is undoubtedly a part of mainstream music and culture industry and DJ‘s, as artists certainly reach a lot of people. Although, it has to be mentioned, that alongside large mainstream festivals, illegal raves are still happening. One of such examples could be a rave in Swindon, which was attended by several hundred people, and the police officers were greeted aggressively by the participants of the rave. While free and illegal EDM parties are still happening, like the one in Swindon10, they pale in the comparison to commercialized EDM festivals and relationship between ravers and police is tense at the very least. At first sight it may seem that electronic music lost its meaning and original intention and was fully incorporated into the popular culture as DJ‘s became super stars of the highest caliber. However, rather than completely succumbing to the culture industry and creating typical, normative space, DJ‘s hold the ability to do the exact opposite. According to M. Hall and N. Zukic, DJ can be positioned as:
<…>a perpetually shifting interlocutor, moving between politico-ideological closure and territorial intrusion. DJs – now conceived as a refrain – stake out new sonoric territories amidst musical chaos; they continuously actualize, shift, disrupt and re-actualize the networks of acoustic power/knowledge within EDM culture. By manipulating digital planes of musical compositions, the DJ deterritorializes and reterritorializes the cultural-political relations of sonoric capital.(Hall, Zukic, 2013:108)
This means that a DJ can take a role of a refrain in the sense that it repeats what is already created, but with slight variations. Electronic music is constantly changing and shifting, as the same piece can be remixed multiple times, thus being the same yet different with every remix. The DJ is always participating in the process of territorialization and deterritorialization by reimagining and remixing various existing pieces, sometimes more than once (or by more than one DJ), or meshing multiple tracks into unexpected harmony and
9 „Electronic Daisy Carnival‖ in Las Vegas, also known as EDC sold 400,000 tickets in 2014 (132 000 attendees each of the three festival nights). It is one of the largest electronic dance music festivals in the world. The cost of the ticket ranges from 300 dollars up to 699 dollars for a VIP ticket. http://www.edmtunes.com/2014/06/edc-las- vegas-2014-the-statistical-rundown/ http://edm.com/articles/2014-06-18/Electric-Daisy-Carnival-Las-Vegas-Statistics 10According to BBC news, officers were alerted by large car gathering near an empty estate, and about 100 people were seen heading in that direction. http://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-wiltshire-31681979 It is the most recent rave that happened 1st of march, 2015, and is mentioned by the BBC.
32 beauty. While every DJ has the potential to remix and mesh tracks together, and thus to act as a (de)territorializer, star DJ‘s can reach wider audiences and larger masses. While electronic music is heavily commercialized and in turn may seem as completely under the influence of culture industry, it retains the potential to shift and disrupt. Even the star DJs can change the scene and culture completely, by introducing new, unexpected mixes and sounds, rather than following established norms and rules of the genre. At the same time, EDM encounters a problem of commercialization as music becomes similar and homogenized, thus killing the genre by sounding the same, as electronic music producer Joel Zimmerman (under the stage name ―Deadmau5‖) stated.11 In this sense EDM holds both the potential of territorialization and deterritorialization, and the complete influence of music industry and commercialization.
2.6 The regressive dialectics of musical consumption
The relationship between culture industry and music is a complex one. As it is clear now, music can become a mere background that mutes all other sounds around, rather than a work of art, or a commodity that serves as a physical expression of one‘s identity. One can collect music CD‘s, vinyl records or reproduce favorite music by learning how to play it. In other cases, music and the familiarity of it can serve as a (de)territorializer that provides stability and control over the situation and the surroundings and so on. Music itself is constantly produced, reproduced and presented to the consumer in the variety of genres to choose from. In order to appeal to the audiences, music is constantly changing, evolving. More and more genres and differences between them are introduced. While genres themselves are not created by the culture industry, but by innovative artists, the names of the genres are often given by the industry in order for them to be marketable. Like in the case of nu metal where unexpected mixes of seemingly different music styles of electronic music (such as dubstep) are merged with alternative metal, come to life. While on the one hand new genres supplement musical diversity, at the same time, they are met with criticism and dissatisfaction by the fans of other metal genres, as it sounds different from what they are used to hear. The term nu metal itself is first and foremost a marketing term, (Udo, 2002:14- 16) which was invented by the industry in order to market a new generation of artists who
11 EDM producer and one of the most famous electronic music artists in the world ―Deadmau5‖ criticized the commercialization of the genre, and how it all sounds the same to him. According to the producer, the genre is being ―killed‖ by both the music industry and the ―<…>widespread accessibility to music-making technology is also adding to the genre's blandness.―. Statements from http://www.fuse.tv/2013/03/deadmau5-slams-edm and http://blogs.wsj.com/speakeasy/2013/03/13/deadmau5-tells-sxsw-success-is-killing-electronic-dance-music/
33 changed the way alternative metal sounds. In this sense, music is evolving and constantly changing, but at the same time it is influenced by the culture industry and regarded as a product that has one main purpose – to be sold. Here is when a kind of paradoxical movement of stepping backward in terms of technique, musical skills, production and yet moving forward in terms of new identities, genres, sounds is encountered. This can be understood as a regression of listening. As discussed in previous chapters, people are increasingly unable to listen, thus music serves as void filler. However, regression of listening does not mean that an individual relapses into an earlier phase of development. According to Theodor W. Adorno „<...> it is the contemporary listening which has regressed, arrested at the infantile stage. ― (Adorno, 2005:46) Rather than listening to the whole, people tend to listen to music atomistically by ignoring what is heard and then suddenly hearing and recognizing the most familiar and catchy parts of songs and music in general. It is not active listening that requires attention, but something more like a restless sleep that is interrupted when one suddenly wakes up for a brief moment, yet falls back to sleep again. In other words, music sometimes breaks the veil and becomes the center of attention, but soon enough falls back into just being background. However, there are those who have the ability to listen and listen to different music, but cause discontent to those who don‘t. In this sense, people are turned away from important music (music which is critical to some extent and serves other purposes besides being pleasurable) and it is done by the industry and its superior power of advertising that forces one to buy things for the sake of peace. (Adorno, 2005:47-48) Advertising, visual images and slogans make it easier for one to relate with commercialized mainstream music and hit songs. It almost seems like the music that is presented to the masses is exactly what the masses wanted as people identify themselves with the advertised product. Such identification is possible because of the familiarity of the song. While many of the hit songs are done based on similar or even same patterns and schemes, what differentiates them are hooks and the so called hit lines that get stuck in one‘s head. It happens because the music itself is all the same. Standardization of music makes concentrated listening unbearable, so only the hooks and catchy lines are noticeable. Other parts of the song are often unheard or left in the background. Same can be applied to different music, something that one is not used to listening to. Rather than exploring new options and sounds, regressed listeners, according to Adorno, reject what is unfamiliar to them and behave like children who want something that was once served to them. (Adorno, 2005:51) In this sense there is no room left for different or more complex music. Especially when constantly changing rhythmic, melody and
34 tone makes it harder to follow, predict and therefore harder to consume. The only demand that has to be satisfied is to provide pleasure and entertainment without any tension or discomfort for the listener. It is both the fault of culture industry and the consumer itself that listening regresses. In many instances music as a form of entertainment seems to be evolving and progressing. The variety of genres, bands and musicals styles seem to fulfill everyone‘s needs and demands. There is something for everyone, whether one is heavy metal fan or jazz admirer. At first glance it may seem that this encourages people to be different from one another. In other words, listeners tend to use genre, sound and band differences in order to define themselves and create their own identities and culture industry provides such possibility. Rather than criticizing heavy music and labeling it as work of devil, culture industry and many of the well-known music labels sign such artists and promote them. However, what seems as a liberating factor, that allows multiple different identities and heterogeneity of people is in fact an illusion. At the same time the greater the proliferation of identities, bands, styles, genres, etc. is the more in fact it becomes unified underneath. It is more exchangeable as everything is done based on similar principles of both schematics and certain models (patterns), and the fact that art is turned into a commodity which provides pleasure (or just fills the void with sounds). It is a regressive dialectic - a dialectic that does not obtain progress. In fact on the contrary, by going forward it regresses backwardly. More styles and genres do not provide more freedom and identity options, than a single dominating genre did in the past. Instead, genres are interchangeable, different mostly on the outside and same on the inside done for the sake of pleasure and profit. Yet there is still hope that listening, its habits, and the role of art can change (social hope). On the one hand, the possibility of critical listening still remains. One may listen to music, actively and more importantly with understanding that a lot of music is influenced by the culture industry. Both because it is profit driven industry and many of the artists want to be heard. That is why many of them succumb to schemes and patterns that are popular and recognized by the fans all over the world. It does not necessarily mean that the music itself is bad or has nothing to offer. It might as well serve as a social critique, as ―Artworks are afterimages of empirical life insofar as they help the latter to what is denied them outside their own sphere and thereby free it from that to which they are condemned by reified external experience.― (Adorno, 2004:5) In this sense, music and art in general reveals that the society is lacking something. By doing so, the lack of something serves as the precondition of the social critique. Precisely by showing what is lacking it has the potential of
35 hope as something can be changed in the future. In other words, lack of something references all the more clearly the potential that could fill that lack. However, the possibility of change rests both on the shoulders of art and society simultaneously, as the present situation could quickly turn around ―<…> if art in unity with the society, should ever leave the road of the always-identical.― (Adorno, 2005:59) Rather than seeking similar and familiar, i.e. the identical, both artists and consumers should search and strive for the nonidentical. The difficulty, of course, is how to know where or what to strive after when that object is denoted precisely by a lack of identity. The nonidentical can be understood as something that is not fully defined, that refuses to totalize itself into a reified and static whole. It should be something that one does without trying to follow certain rules and standards. It should be something that has individualism and freedom in it, yet a kind of self-unaware version of individuality and freedom of determination. In this sense it also applies to music that has a purpose of being different rather than just expressing and showing something, ―The new wants nonidentity, yet intention reduces it to identity; modem art constantly works at the Munchhausean trick of carrying out the identification of the nonidentical.― (Adorno, 2005:23) In order for music and art to be nonidentical, it should be critical of the past and the present, or as Bolanos argues, art should open up ―new‖ by being its constant nemesis. (Bolanos, 2007:31). Rather than talking about ideals (utopias) it should do the opposite, that is remind of dystopias and imperfections. The nonidentical is like a remainder that refuses to fit in, even though it will eventually be co-opted, reappropriated, reterritorialized. It may be that calling it the „nonidentical― is already somewhat disingenuous because it is the very work of the nonidentical to resist identity and conceptualization—i.e. to resist generalizability. The nonidentical would be singular, something understood in its act of becoming. The nonidentical is therefore always fleeting—precisely never lasting in any one single mode, for that is precisely what would constitute identity. In other words, nonidentical can be related with profit and exchangeability as it is precisely what nonidentical most profoundly resists.
In this sense, music should not be treated as a mere background, but contrary, as something that holds deeper meaning and conceives a message that should be heard rather than dismissed if it is not pleasurable enough. Especially because art itself serves other purpose than to simply bring pleasure and enjoyment.
36
3. SUBMISSION AND EMANCIPATION THROUGH MUSIC
3.1 Controlled deviation and excorporation of the culture industry
Reproduction of music is not only a part of culture industry or what is used by people, but also a social change. It is in part what contributes to equality, as the role of music has shifted because of this. It is important to note that reproduction of art made it available for the majority of the population regardless of their class or status. Until then consumption of art was a privilege that only a selected few had, as masses lacked both status and funds that were necessary to attend musical events. Technological advancements were revolutionary as with them music became accessible to the vast population. Finally people had a chance to enjoy art and creations of others. Rather than being something negative, reproduction of art unconsciously fought inequality and class stratification. In a sense it served as a democratization of art consumption. Radio and vinyl records contributed greatly, as through them music at last spoke to many rather than the few. With the invention of the internet, various digital formats and the emergence of multiple websites provides free listening music is now more available than ever. However, with the availability of music comes multiple effects, or, as Attali argues, „With music is born power and its opposite: subversion.― (Attali, 2009:6) On the one hand, it is emancipates people, while on the other hand it is how the culture industry gains access to the masses.
Reproduction of art provides the means to manipulate the population, as they are made to think that they have choices and freedom. In fact, if the culture industry provides every possible option, then music serves as a categorization of people. While it certainly provides multiple categories through genres and variations in sound, it is also an industry of control. In a sense, a lot of music is created by following certain rules and canons, and it may differ by genre but it is in fact a repetition of the same. And on top of that it is made available to anybody through the reproduction of the repetition of the same. With art that is heavily influenced by the industry, it becomes easier to manipulate masses and shape people. And it often seems that culture industry is working in cycles, shoving one idea at a time, providing the concept that is then used until another one emerges and can replace the previous. Great examples of this could be multiple songs released at roughly the same time by Jennifer Lopez
37 and Nicki Minaj12 with buttocks as their topic. Another example of this could be seen in the rising popularity of indie pop and especially female vocalists such as Lana Del Ray or Lorde. Instead of encouraging diversity the production of semi identical objects in fact creates artificial differences that are not real or actual differences, but rather ―acceptable differences‖ (Attali, 2009:5) When all deviations from norms are controlled by the industry they are not deviations, but rather the norms. This can be related with popular culture in general as it seeks to incorporate the elements of resistance into the pop culture and make them a part of it. (Fiske, 2008) While rock music was a rebellious music at a certain period of time, it then became industrialized and turned into a part of the mainstream music.
One of the best examples could be ―Linkin Park‖ and ―30 Seconds to Mars‖ as they both started out as alternative music bands, but eventually gained mainstream success and shifted their sound towards more acceptable and radio friendly thus adopting electronic music sounds to their style. While this certainly proves that the culture industry is influencing genres, it also shows that the incorporation of deviations and what was considered rebellious is successful. when rock music became radio friendly it lost its rebellious side, but at the same time gained mainstream recognition which allowed for certain topics, themes and issues to be discussed more widely. Bands use their success to spread their messages far and wide, as it reaches more people than it would if genre was never affected by the culture industry. For example, ―30 Seconds to Mars‖ in the video of the song ―A beautiful lie‖ talks about climate change and global warming. While many of the punk bands do so, they have far lesser audiences and thus conceive the message to less people than a band with mainstream success. In this sense, recognition and stardom of the band helps to spread the message and reach as many people as possible. Though the band is not considered to be ―punk‖ or deviated from norm, but rather than succumbing to the industry completely, it uses the industry for their own ends to increase the availability of their art and messages that lay in it. What was supposed to be a simple promotional video in order to sell more products became a part of the rebellious actions but with the use of culture industry and the popularity that comes with it. This can be related with the term: excorporation. John Fiske described it as ―<…> the process by which the subordinates make their own culture out of the resources
12 Nicki Minaj released a song titled ―Anaconda‖ roughly at the same time as Jennifer Lopez released ―Booty‖. Both songs shared a same topic and were about buttocks. Considering the influence of culture industry and the fact that songs related to the theme of sexuality are very popular in mainstream music, there is no surprise that they were created and released simultaneously.
38 provided by the dominant system<…>‖ (Fiske, 2008:21) While he talked about torn jeans and how they can be used for both as expression of rebellion and a part of culture industry as it tears the same jeans so masses would have the ready-made product available to them. The same can be applied to music, and not only when one is talking about music videos that are not only promoting the product, but songs themselves. Prime examples of this are song covers and even style covers made by comedians and comedy musicians like ―Axis of Awesome‖ or ―Weird Al Yankovic‖. However, this example is ironic in a sense that while these bands belong to culture industry-type reproduction and appropriation, at the same time the feeling that someone is actually being mocked and criticized in their works, remain.
Even while being a part of the industry, the creations of artists are still managing to slip through the cracks of the system and criticize it from within. They take a cultural product that is already made and turn it into something new, adapted yet reproduced out of the same that already existed, ―Products are transformed and merged in ways that the manufacturer did not intend to<…>‖ (Storey, 2011:143). The song ―Radioactive‖ by ―Imagine Dragons‖ as the bands vocalist describes13, originally was about an awakening that one has, and decides to do something new and see his life in a fresh way. However the remake done by Weird Al is basically the same song with remade lyrics. Rather than being about an awakening it criticizes inactive lifestyle and laziness of the people, but does so in a comical way. In this case, ―<…>our sense of humor frees us from the chains of our perceptual, conventional, logical, linguistic and moral systems.<…>it releases us from our naive belief that man is reasonable, trustworthy creature.‖ (Mindess, 1971:28) This means, that rather than mocking and criticizing something (or someone) openly, comedy bands do so indirectly, by doing so as a joke. Humor liberates people, as one can express something that otherwise would remain untold (or unheard). In this specific case, the old and familiar is adapted and used again for both comedy purposes and a kind of social critique. A product of culture industry serves as a basis for something new, something of the counter culture. In this sense, both reproduction and culture industry itself contribute to the emancipation of the people.
Industry not only makes music more available to the masses or provides a material that can be reproduced. It also inspires emancipation of the people and even action.
13 ―Imagine Dragons‖ vocalist Reynolds talks to MTV News about their hit song ―Radioactive‖. He explains its meaning and message to the viewers. Extracts of the interview can be found on http://www.songfacts.com/detail.php?id=28007
39
It does so by gaining a more significant role in person life, as one immerse himself into music so deep, that rather than passively consuming cultural products, instead becomes an active creator of them. One is no longer satisfied with the mere consumption of music, bands, songs or their products and thus wants to create something on their own, do-it-themselves (DIY ideas). (Kelts, 2006:147) While Kelts talks about Japanese culture fans also known as Otaku, it can be applied to the studies of music, as fans often tend to create their own music influenced by their idols. At a certain point, one‘s passion becomes a drive that frees from the grasp of culture industry and one becomes a creator, an artist on its own who looks for the ways to do so. The ability to do something yourself without depending on industry could ―<…>be used for a collective political project of emancipation‖ (Jameson, 2009:xiii). The culture industry inspires one to become a part of music and art creation. Thus one is no longer just a passive consumer, but an active author that has a chance to say his or her own opinion and send various messages through their art.
While it is true that music and reproduction of it emancipates (at least to some extent), it also forces people into submission to the culture industry. As Adorno and Horkheimer argued, technological advancements played an important role in it, as telephone still allowed people to express themselves and participate in the communication while radio took away such option, ―The former still allowed the subscriber to play the role of subject, and was liberal. The latter is democratic: it turns all participants into listeners and authoritatively subjects them to broadcast programs which are all exactly the same―. (Adorno, Horkheimer, 2006:161) However, what Adorno and Horkheimer did not foresee was the creation of internet. As it allows people to not only choose what to listen to, but also gives the ability to comment or even create and spread something of their own. It serves as both liberation and absolute control, as one can choose from many, but in turn is always monitored. Through such monitoring one‘s choices are affected as many of the websites including ―YouTube‖ suggests new videos and music based on similarities of the artists and their labels, as typically more bands from the same record label are suggested as alternatives. In this sense, one is influenced to stay on the path and consume something that is predetermined by the companies, which is their own products. Even the instruments that bands use are promoted with the artist‘s faces or even signature models. One can reproduce band sound with his own hands with the use of same guitar brands or models as the quality of the products is attributed to the sound of favorite artists. In this sense, music industry provides the tools as means to emancipate oneself, while at the same time completely
40 controlling through the guidelines of genre, instruments and their brands and favorite bands. However, there are some cases of in which music actually emancipates, provides the means of critique, protest and change.
3.2 Critique, protest and noise
While music and reproduction of it contributed to both emancipation and control of the people, it also provided the masses with a tool of resistance. It is a form of protest and critique, as through art the truth may be manifested. It may criticize the political system, current events or social life. Like ―Weird Al Yankovic‖ and his song ―Inactive‖ criticizes the lifestyle of people, it does so both through music and comedy. However, social and political critique is more common in the heavier genres, such as punk or metal. This kind of music is heavier, louder, and angrier, often accompanied by screaming or growling vocals and distorted guitars. A lot of people criticize such music and even consider it to be noise, rather than different kind of music. For them, music has to be melodic, rhythmical, calm, easily memorized. As Attali explains, ―<…>it is necessary to ban subversive noise, because it betokens demands for cultural autonomy, support for differences or marginality<…>music, an instrument of political pressure, must be tranquil, reassuring, and calm<…>‖ (Attali, 2009:7) In order for the culture industry to maintain control over its subjects, to brainwash and influence them, and above all to manipulate them, music has to fit a certain standard. When deviated, marginal music is different from the standard; it may cause the said effects, thus increasing the chances of disorder, protest and autonomy. Incorporation of the genres comes into play at this very moment, as industry tackles the problem by allowing certain deviations from the norm with some adjustments. Most common of such adjustments is radio friendly or generic sound. It erases the differences between the bands and the way they sound, and shifts their sound towards more acceptable one. For example, bands like ―Blink 182‖ or ―Sum 41‖ plays music that is influenced by the culture industry. Even though they play punk music (pop punk if being more specific), due to the fact that they are radio friendly, their sound is completely different from the traditional punk and hardcore punk band sound. What‘s more, bands like this are not considered to be a part of punk scene by the punk scene themselves, as they are seen as ―posers‖ or ―sellouts‖. To illustrate how music can fit the acceptable deviation, one has to know that bands which do not fit into the framework of accepted deviation are not among the nominees for the MTV music awards. However, even
41
MTV contributed to the variation of genres and music in general, as the original concept of the channel was to show new and different music and music videos, rather than playing ―safe‖ and easily marketable music, so that people wouldn‘t turn off their channel. It was a fresh breeze in the music distribution, as many of the American radio stations played safe songs and artists, like classic rock and very popular new hit songs, so their listeners wouldn‘t change the station. (Reynolds, 2005:529-537) However, eventually MTV became commercial television, that started showing less and less new music, and instead playing what was already popular or trending at the given time. In other words, it became exactly the same thing it tried to replace. Nowadays, MTV mainly plays mainstream music. That is the central reason why certain bands are among the nominees and even winners of MTV music awards and others aren‘t (metal, punk and other music that employ screams or heavy/aggressive sound) is that their sound is closer to the category of noise, and general public rarely consider such bands as actual musicians. In the eyes of many, screaming does not require any effort or skill, one does not have to be a great musician to be able to ―sing‖ like this, and thus their creations are not considered to be music or have any value. On the contrary, artists that create melodic, rhythmical or tranquil music and are able to sing high notes are often seen as true musicians. In this sense, music industry influences people to like one type of sound, or something that is as similar to it as possible.
At this point again, industry control over deviations is seen. When actual protest and critique is not even considered music anymore, but rather understood as noise, it tends to be ignored by the masses. Noise is understood as nonsense that makes it is easily dismissible. While in fact, heavy music, even if it is considered to be noise by the culture industry and its subjects, is a form of protest that does so by rejecting norms and rules of the industry. It is not only the sound that is different, or the lyrics that are sung, but even the performance and concerts themselves are different. Rather than being directed towards profit and large budgets, heavy music festivals and concerts are often done for the sake of performance. For example, Lithuanian heavy (or as they label themselves, extreme) music festival ―Devil Stone‖ suffered losses for the first 3 years of the festival‘s existence, but kept on going for the sake of difference and marginality. As Maţeikis argues, every protest rock concert is an event, a new situation that is created by both the performers and the audience. (Maţeikis, 2013:353) The same can be applied to ―Devil Stone‖ as it not only promotes different music, but also different, not always acceptable ideas. For example, some bands that were invited to the festival were related to Satanism and devil, which caused discussions among townsfolk of
42
Anykščiai, politicians and even the local church. The negative connotations were given to the festival itself, because the bands were invited there in the first place. In this sense the festival stood behind their decision to invite the said bands, thus eventually changing the view of both the people and the religious institution towards the festival. It turned out to be a social act that influenced a change and played a role as a protest against the established norms and influence of the Catholic Church.
Not in all cases heavy music festivals and concerts can be understood as acts of protest, critique or emancipation. In many instances, heavy music is incorporated into the dominant culture. Large and popular festivals may invite well known bands as their headliners. Their goal is not to protest against something, but to attract as many people as possible in order to earn maximum profits. Such festivals provide entertainment for the masses, and are not interested in inviting bands that are not considered mainstream. For example, ―Vans‖ festivals invite many of the most popular artists from the heavy music scenes, but limit themselves to the certain genres, like metalcore. Rather than inviting black metal or thrash metal bands whose music is often considered too heavy for the masses, such festivals invite potentially economically successful bands that has large fan bases. ―Vans‖ festivals are fascinating not only because they are alternative music festivals managed to be popular and acceptable to many, but even the name of the festival is actually a brand of skating gear and equipment. In this sense, even the music is assimilated into the brand and promotes it. At this point it is clearly visible that such a brand is deemed to be rebellious. People can consume a brand in order to be ―different‖, while in fact it is only a controlled deviation and has nothing to do with actual rebelling or protesting. However, through the control of deviations and incorporation of heavy music it creates an illusion of being such. Some heavy music, especially the more melodic kinds, are then considered to be a part of the norm. In this case noise is partially controlled by the culture industry and only the more acceptable bands are playing in the festivals and promoting brands. While at the same time, truly rebellious bands that are protesting and even promoting transgression are intentionally left out of such festivals. In some cases they are even prosecuted by the state, like the Oi! Punk band ―Pussy Riot‖, whose music and activism was seen as breaking the laws, and thus led to the imprisonment of some members of the band. (Maţeikis, 2013: 356-358) Their music and their actions are seen as transgressions, thus unacceptable and unwanted as it threatens the norms and rules of the society. It is not what can be considered acceptable as it often criticizes the society and its way of living. Same can be applied to punk genre and its
43 subgenres. While on the outside they differ considerably from one another, what connects hardcore, Ska punk, post-hardcore, straight edge and other punk subgenres is the social critique factor. (Clark, 2003) That may be one of the reasons why punk music is less popular than metal. Even to the extent that sometimes metal music is called the new pop, as many of the heavy music festivals focuses on either less rebellious metal music, or adapted and softened music. This may be true because of the less direct critique or even different topics that are chosen to explore by the genres. While it has to be noted, that metal music may not be directed towards activism or social/political critique like punk music, it also encourages autonomy of the people, as it is quite different from what is generally socially accepted. Both, metal and punk, and their respective subgenres are still often considered to be noise. It is clear that culture industry and vast majority of masses either see such music as noise or deem it to be music only if it is influenced by the culture industry, thus adapted. The conclusion can be drawn that any form of protest or critique becomes assimilated into the mainstream music, thus reducing its influences as they are not as radical, as they may seem otherwise. While there still remain music that is untouched by the culture industry, it is often regarded as noise, this way dismissing it as ―bad‖ and something that cannot be considered art.
3.3 Music and manipulation
While music itself may be employed for the purposes of social critique through various genres, styles and activism, it can also serve as a wakeup call or even tool to rally and influence people. It is especially visible through the effects of rhythm, as people lose themselves in music and does something as a unit. For example, dancing in electronic music concerts or discotheques together, jumping up and down with the rhythm. In heavy music festivals people starts moshing and head banging together. Often circle pits or walls of death are done, so everyone can take part in the same activity. It is the enjoyment of the music in the crowd. However, crowd is easy to manipulate and influence. While typically people are having fun, music can just as easily be used for the sake of rallying people and influencing their actions and decisions. For example, American hardcore punk band ―Stick to Your Guns‖ in response to the events at Wall Street, released a song titled ―Bringing You Down (A New World Overthrow)‖ in order to express their support of the ―Occupy Wall Street‖ movement, and the fact that people are finally standing up for themselves. The support for the ―Occupy Wall Street‖ movement was shown not only through the song and its text, but also
44 by funding the movement with the profits made by the said song. As the band stated on their ―Facebook‖ page, they „<...>recognize the irony that the very system I oppose affords me the luxury of biting the hand that feeds. But that's exactly why privileged fucks like me should feel obliged to whine and kick and scream until everyone has everything they need.“14 In this case, musicians and their music encourage people to join the ―Occupy Wall Street‖ movement. Potentially such music could influence people to support the rebellious group of individuals, both through the text and more importantly through the rhythm, as one is lost in music and therefore gives in to the influence easier. In order to support such example, one has to remember ―Euromaidan‖ in Ukraine. As professor Gintautas Maţeikis argued in his lectures, at ―Euromaidan― the national anthem was sung every half an hour, so the people who gathered there would be ―pumped up‖ and battle ready all the time. Even the first few chords of the anthem should be stuck so deep in one‘s mind, that it would force the adrenaline rush every time they are heard. In this example, music is not only used to influence people, but to make them battle ready at any given time, by just hearing familiar music. It resembles the Pavlov‘s dog experiment, where he trained dogs to respond to the stimuli. Similar thing happens with people and music in ―Euromaidan‖ or at any other concert where music causes one to feel certain emotions or have an adrenaline rush.
In order to push the argument even further, music has to be placed in the context of the crowd. As Gustave Le Bon argues, crowd is easily influenced by the external stimuli, thus it is easier to influence decisions and actions of the crowd, than it would be to affect people one by one. (Le Bon, 2013:41-53) Because people are not alone, but among other people, they might feel empowered and even unstoppable. For example, everyone in the crowd is listening to the orator speak. Words and sentences create a certain rhythmic that if said right can serve as a spark that calls out an action. If one speaks to the crowd and argues that they are the ―good‖ people, who are constantly played by the government (company or anything else), then crowd will feel uplifted and proud of itself. However, when the orator shifts his argumentation towards the ―enemy‖ that has to be dealt with, an action occurs. Even though this is related to rhythm of the orator‘s speech, same can be applied to music in general, especially protest music and music that is often considered to be noise. While in the crowd, people tend to lose themselves in music more easily. Crowd actions occur as musician
14 ―Stick to Your Guns‖ and their speech about the ―Occupy Wall Street‖ movement is taken from the official band page on Facebook: https://www.facebook.com/notes/sumerian-records/bringing-you-down-a-new-world- overthrow-by-stick-to-your-guns-lyrics/276638775704730
45 encourages people to do something together, like starting moshing.15 In this case the crowd is directed towards aggressive dancing; however, in specific cases, like protest concerts, this could be directed towards actions against (or for) something, and even violence (as a form of protest). It is possible not only because music has such power, but because a crowd in itself is not thinking straight (or at all). Individuals are lost in the mass; rather than act out based on reason or logic, they tend to do so based on impulses and the outside influences.
While music has the potential to manipulate and influence the crowd and its actions, it can be seen as a threat. That is where the dots connect, as music industry promotes softer, more melodic music that rarely (if ever) criticize society and politics. If everyone is listening to what is acceptable and fitting the norms, then there is less opportunities for protest and discontent. The acceptable music that is made by following a certain standard actually acts as a means of manipulation as well. It does not provoke discontent or protest. On the contrary, it acts as a sedative that keeps people happy and content. It grants entertainment and sounds that fill the silence, so they don‘t have to talk. As Herber Marcuse argues, there are false needs that are pleasurable, relaxing yet repressing as one is diverted from what really matters, like social issues, inequality and so on. (Marcuse, 2014:21-27) In this sense music and the pleasure it gives provides reassurance that everything is and going to be fine, like in the famous jingle that is constantly played at ―Akropolis‖ shopping mall. And it is so efficient, to the point that people actually forget everything, all their worries and problems, sometimes even their own children, as they get lost at the gigantic palace of pleasure, lights and consumerism. Music is partially what helps create such atmosphere. As consumers do not have to worry about anything, they are being helped by the vendors, and they are not alone in this. There are other people, and it reassures that it is okay to lose oneself in such place, as everyone else is doing this. In this sense, music is not only a tool of manipulation that can be used to encourage people to take action or express their dissatisfaction, but also a tool that can do the opposite. Rather than sparking revolution it numbs people with more of the same and approved. It is especially true nowadays, as many of the hit songs are very similar. Such music does not emancipate people, even though it is available to the masses. Instead, it erases all the differences and discontent, as only the approved messages are heard. It is the situation
15 Moshing, circle pits and wall of death is often associated with „aggressive― music genres, as people dance by pushing or slamming into each other. While it may seem violent and dangerous (it can lead to serious injuries, or sometimes even death), moshing is considered to be an expression of positive emotions, as one enjoys music and lets the said emotions out.
46 of ―Panem et circenses!‖16, where the industry provides entertainment so the people would be happy, satisfied and in turn more supportive (and less rebellious). Rather than caring for their own freedom people are interested in bread and circuses. In this case, music becomes a soft, positive, melodic background - a lullaby for any and all possible discontent.
3.4 The limits of culture industry
In many instances the culture industry influences music which in turn has an effect on various aspects of people lives and general listening skills. At this point it is clear that the industry indeed affects listening and is one of the reasons why listening regresses. However, it is not the only reason why people are unable to concentrate and listen actively, rather than doing so atomistically. Another important aspect of this is attention and the ability to stay focused on one object for prolonged periods of time. It can be applied to listening, reading and various other activities. However, the main reason behind this is the ever growing pace of life. With internet, computers, super speed trains and planes, smart phones and other technological achievements everything is closer and faster than ever before. Latest news, events, movies and music is at the fingertips of each and every device user. Because of this, even the world itself may seem to be shrinking and getting smaller than ever. It is, As Paul Virilio argues,―<…>the acceleration of reality through new technologies<...>―. (Virilio, 2009:26) Because of the technological advancements one may hear about the tremendous earthquake in Nepal few minutes after it happens, while being at the opposite side of the world. This means that an incredible amount of information is available to one, yet there is no way to understand and go through it all. Naturally it means that only specific things get the attention, while others fall into obscurity and are either ignored or simply treated as background noise. Same can be applied to traveling and seeing images pass by. In many instances one does not notice many of the places outside the bus or train window. Instead, one may be thinking about something and images just come and go. Through the window of such train only specific objects would be seen, because they are either large enough, or the train is slowing down for some reason. Everything else would become a background. The same can be applied when talking about attention. Because of the amount of stimuli (and information) only selected things can be noticed. And the larger the pace is
16 „Panem et circenses!― Is Latin for Bread and Circuses. Oxford dictionaries define it as entertainment or political policies used to keep the mass of people happy and docile. It can also be understood as a technique of distraction from actual problems with food and entertainment, rather than finding solutions for problems or good governing.
47 the fewer things are noticeable. It could best be described with a line and multiple points (dots) that are marked on it. Those points are something that one notices and what is important to one. The faster the pace of life is, the less dots line has and even they are far apart from one another. They could range from important aspects of one‘s life, like tasks that has to be done, taxes that has to be paid, worries about home and family, events that one looks forward to and so on. In many instances it is routine that takes away the ability to pay attention. Rather than looking outside or listening to the latest track, one is thinking about everyday problems and events or what will one have for dinner today. It means that both the amount of information and the speed of life influences how much one notices. It also affects listening habits and music itself. Because of this it becomes clear that it is not only music and the culture industry that contributes to the regression of listening. In fact, it is affected by the globalization and the shrinking of the world, enormous amounts of information available that is bombarding people all the time. Above all this lays technological advancements and availability of products and knowledge. As everything is seemingly closer and people have the ability to get what they want just by pressing few buttons, many of the things seem to lose value. One does not have to pay attention to music, movies or the surroundings. If something is missed it can be seen again by rewinding, coming back or simply checking the internet. What is more, many of the things are not even deemed worthy of attention. Rather than enjoying something that was missed, instead one consumes and looks for something new. This means that one does not stop or slow down for a moment. On the contrary, one increases speed and never stops consuming. In this sense, the culture industry plays only a partial role—though, obviously, a critical role—in influencing listening practices and its regression. If the world is smaller and everything is easily obtainable, then it is not the quality that matters, but the amount of things that can be obtained. Thus culture industry provides the numbers and not the quality. At the same time the rising tempo of life influences the ability to pay attention and in turn changes the whole fabric of music. It is adapted to the consumer that has lost the ability to stay focused and prefers shorter, more predictable pieces.
48
4. THEORY IN PRAXIS: THE EXAMPLE OF “ALEXISONFIRE”
It is easy to argue that certain theoretical approaches and theories are true when the examples used to substantiate them are selected conveniently to fit the idea which is presented. At first it may seem that numerous examples provided throughout the theoretical analysis in parts 1, 2, and 3, are merely exceptions and not the rule itself, as other examples are harder to stumble upon. Therefore, in order to provide a richer and more detailed picture of the theory(s) illuminated in the earlier parts of the thesis, this section offers analysis of a particular example that applies those theoretical concerns. In other words, this section demonstrates that the theory itself can be applied in critical practice. The band ―Alexisonfire‖ has been chosen for analysis here. Even though both the genre and the music that the band created is not necessarily popular in the broadest sense, it can most certainly be aptly defined as mainstream, based on how fans of the genre widely accept the band and their music. It is also fairly typical band setup, at least insofar as genre is concerned, because the band has multiple vocalists who either scream or act as the so-called ―clean‖ vocals. Two out of three vocalists also play guitar, which is also fairly typical for the genre. One plays mostly melodic variations, while other one does rhythm guitar parts. In most aspects the band is fairly typical for post-hardcore, yet at the same time it is one of the most famous bands of the genre.
In many instances music that is heard does not have any immediate, discursive meaning to the one who is listening. Not necessarily because it does not have any meaning in itself as a piece of art, but because it is perceived as either a background or something that is pleasurable to the listener. In both instances however, one can see the regression of listening, since the music is not assigned any meaning as art, but serves other purposes. One may even sing along the song without ever fully comprehending (or paying attention to) the words that one is singing. Instead, one sings along with the vocalist for the sake of pleasure and deeper immersion into the music. With popular music, most of the lyrics are fairly simple and similar between the songs. Many of them talk about love, women, beautiful life and so on. In some cases the songs are sad and less cheerful, as love life that is portrayed in the song is either gone or undergoing changes, encountering problems. In other cases, song lyrics are criticizing society or revealing the problems in it. For example, the song by Suzanne Vega titled ―Luka‖ may seem another song about a girl and her problems in life. It has everything that is expected out of a pop song, a high note ending, which gives the illusion that
49 everything is going to be alright in the end. It is a typical pop song in its length: short, a bit over three minutes long. There are catchy parts, the so called ―hooks‖ that repeat themselves and get stuck in one‘s head. However, when a regressive listener listens to the song and maybe even sings along, he rarely notices (at least at first), that the song is actually about a young child‘s experiences with violence and physical abuse. To ignore this content obviously means that one is not actively listening and understanding what is being heard. On the contrary, despite the catchy melody that gets stuck in the head of the consumer and perhaps even spontaneously remembered and sung, the lyrics are deeper and much darker than the ‗happy‘ melody suggest—and thus the lyric are likely not well comprehended, if at all. They fall into the background or simply sound ―good‖. In this sense, even lyrics that talk about real issues are consumed in a similar fashion to how typical banal love songs might be. They become background that serves as void filler and silence breaker, or a source of mere pleasure.
The song ―Hey, It‘s Your Funeral, Mama‖17 is one that Alexisonfire sings about go-karts and racing (the music video shows go-kart racing as well). The topic itself seems to be banal, as the song is dedicated to the seemingly pleasurable yet unimportant activity of go- kart racing, instead of social/political problems that would be more typical for post-hardcore and punk music in general. In a sense, the song is very similar to the music that is heavily influenced by the culture industry, as it is around four minutes long, fast paced, bright and positive. The only obvious difference is genre and the way it sounds. Everything else seems to be interchangeable between the songs (it might as well be pop song, as it is hardcore). On the one hand, the song may depict the everyday activities of people, who seek to pass time by doing something that is fun. On the other hand, it is a social critique of the society. Precisely by showing how typical and banal the song and the activity is it shows what it does not show—i.e. that society seeks mere pleasure. It replaces everything else, which is the funeral of ―mama‖, as it is replaced by simple pleasure seeking. However, the song only gives a glimpse of this; it does not state so directly, but allows one to understand it negatively,
17 Extract of the song lyrics is taken from the original booklet included with the album ―Watch Out!‖ released by ―Dine Alone Records‖ on 1st of January, 2004. Verses that are repeated more than once and reoccur are not repeated here:
―The sky is blue, the grass is brown / My head is buried inside this helmet / The ever present threat of parasites / So take my hand, let's get these motors running! / So you drive red (you drive red) / And I'll drive black (I'll drive black) / (We'll see who's machine was most recently serviced) / We'll slit these rows of Goodyears like a knife / We don't fear / These machines / I got the scoop, I got the scoop / And it doesn't look so good, so good for you‖.
50 precisely because the song itself is so simple and banal. This is of course only one of the possible interpretations and in no way has a claim to be one and only correct interpretation of the song, as art does not have only one necessary, static meaning.
Another point that has to be mentioned is the role of music as communication and identity. Music that is owned and preferred serves as a physical representation of one‘s identity. In this sense, one is judged (and judges others) based on the music that is preferred. Music becomes a commodity upon which one constructs who and what s/he is. In turn, it can act as both means of communication and representation. If someone else likes the same bands, they must be similar to one another, and thus they have to be ―okay‖. In one‘s mind, people who listen to similar or the same music may share a similar view of the world or character traits. In other cases, if one knows all the latest pop hits, then one has ―great‖ musical taste and thus is ―cool‖. In any case, music speaks for the people. It both represents what they are, provides the expression of their identity and communicates with others through similar taste and what certain music stands for. Whether it says that one is keeping up with the latest musical trends, appears to be hipster, metal head, punk or something else.
―Alexisonfire‖ in general could be referred as pro punk band which often criticizes society and reveals its problems. In this sense, music can communicate to others about both one‘s musical taste and serve as a form of critique. For example their most popular song to date, ―This Could Be Anywhere in the World‖18, can be understood as social critique towards the problem of poverty and homelessness as it talks about how the city is haunted by ―ghosts‖ from ―broken homes‖. The people who are poor and homeless are unnoticeable or intentionally ignored, even though their skin cracks match the cracks of the streets that they live in. They make others feel uncomfortable, thus homeless and poor are the ghosts that haunt the city streets. They are lining up endlessly under the sings of salvation, hence, signs of establishments that provide shelter and food for homeless. That is the
18 Extract of the song lyrics is taken from the original booklet included with the album ―Crisis‖ released by ―Dine Alone Records‖ on 6th of January, 2006. Verses that are repeated more than once and reoccur are not repeated here: ―This town has its claws buried in my neck / This town, it takes lives, without mercy, without hate / The streets are in distress / The sun suffocates behind darkened skies / The grass is growing on top of my feet / I'm sinking, won't be long, before I'm too deep to run / The line up seems endless / Underneath the salvation signs / We are the dead ones, we are the lost cause / We are the bend before the break. Our steps seal our fate. / Because this city, this city is haunted / By ghosts (ghosts) from broken homes (homes) / Every step I take I leave a small piece / Of myself behind. / Soon there will be nothing left. / The cracks in the pavement, Match the cracks in their weathered skin / The sky's a brick wall / The ground's a juggernaut / Each day they get a bit closer / Between them, I am caught. / I stare in amazement, / I can't believe this is where I live.‖
51 temporary solution that helps people to feel better about them. They are taken care of, thus they can be ignored and remain unseen. However, such ignorance and the situation itself seems to be shocking and one stares in amazement unable to understand why such problems are ignored or attended cosmetically rather than looking for a real solution. The beauty of the song and what it tells lies in the fact that the same text and music can be interpreted and understood in different ways. From one perspective it is a song about serious social issues, which are presented both through text and music (as music is very rhythmical, almost imitating city life, fast pace, yet melancholic at the same time). From another side, the song and its meaning also spark discussions and even discontent among the fans, as one final meaning of the song is never agreed upon. It might as well be about a society of ghosts, shells that are similar to one another, immersed in consumerism and pleasure seeking. People who no longer notice anything, as everything fall into background, even the music itself that is heard but never comprehended and with every step people lose a part of themselves and become more and more alike. In this aspect, music is art that has multiple meanings and various interpretations. It reveals truth, but the truth is not static; it is constantly changing, never systematically conceptualized, thus maintaining the possibility of different meanings— i.e. it is similar in a way to what Adorno called the nonidentical.
However, above all this, some people claim to be ―true‖ fans of the band, thus they know the ―real‖ meaning of the song based on past of band‘s members (going back as far as their childhood and parenting issues). This means that some people feel that they know the band and their music better than others. They are ―real‖ fans or the insiders, while others are on the outside. Music becomes a commodity (a fetish) that is owned up to the meaning that it has. In this sense it represents people, their identity, and even status (both as social standing, or in this case, of the ―real‖ fan). And the ones who consider being insiders, active music consumers that know everything about musicians, collect their records and life details in fact are more deeply immersed in culture industry and consumerism. Music and knowledge about artists constitute them and their identity, thus it is only regression of listening as music itself doesn‘t matter, what matters is what it can be used for, whether it is background, status, manipulation, marketability and so on.
Regression of listening is made strikingly visible with the song ―It Was Fear of Myself That Made Me Odd‖. Because the song is constantly changing, never being static through repetition and schematics it is hard to follow and remember. While it is similar to many of the mainstream songs because of the typical length (of around four minutes), it also
52 is very untypical in a sense, that both rhythm and tempo changes constantly throughout the song. What starts out as a ballad-like song with chime intro, turns out to be a fast paced hardcore piece. However, it is not only the tempo and rhythm that changes, but melody and tone as well. With multiple different parts that do not repeat themselves throughout the piece it reveals the regression of listening. And it does so precisely because one is unable to follow it, predict what will come next. In this sense it resembles atonal music, thus it is harder to consume and market, as one does not whistle or hum such song when going down the stairs or taking a shower. On the contrary, only the songs that are easy to remember are hummed. They must have a clear hook, a refrain or other reoccurring part of the song that could be easily remembered, predicted and consumed. In this sense it may appear that the band is not under the influence of the culture industry, yet at the same time it is mainstream music (in the context of the genre).
However, there are completely different songs in their discography, such as ―You Burn First‖, where the same parts are repeated over and over again, and the hook and melody can be clearly defined. On the one hand songs like ―You Burn First‖ can be understood as territorializers, as the repetition of the same can provide the stability and a sense of control over the situation. In turn it does get easily stuck in one‘s mind and it is easy to lose oneself in music. At the same time, it is the influence of culture industry. Regressed listeners are given exactly what is expected—that is, reproduction of the same. In other words, it is simplicity and repetition, a name that can be bought and consumed. In a sense the genre is diverse and provides something for people who are not into popular music, while at the same time it is easily exchangeable with pop music, as genre itself often does so (by covering many of the pop songs and making them sound heavier). This culture industry includes everyone, despite being given seemingly different products. But these products often are schematized and different from one another just on the outside. Difference and deviation is controlled by the industry, as it is incorporated into the profit making and pleasure providing industry.
In the case of ―Alexisonfire‖ it seems that the music is not entirely influenced by the culture industry, often criticizes society, and addresses social issues. Yet the influence, a residue of the culture industry, is still felt. In this sense, the culture industry promotes further regression of listening practices with its modes of the administration of music culture. Simultaneously it is the music consumption trends as practices by subjects that feed and develop the culture industry. Through consumption and search of similar and familiar, by
53 seeking pleasure and enjoyment people influence the culture industry themselves as it only supplies the existing demand. It is a kind of chicken-and-egg problem that intensifies both sides of the situation. However, a clean synthesis of the two sides does not occur because there are strange moments of paradox, contradiction, i.e. the nonidentical. This is visible even when analyzing a single band like ―Alexisonfire‖. One can see that there are both influences of culture industry, like the lineup of the band, song schematics, repetition, length, and yet the moments of contradiction and the nonidentical exist. For example, social and political critique is visible in songs like ―Hey, it‘s Your Funeral, Mama‖, where a seemingly typical culture industry influenced song indicates banality precisely by depicting the said banality of life. Another example of the nonidentical manifested through ha negative dialectic is the song ―This Could Be Anywhere in the World‖, where one can clearly understand the song as a critique of society, poverty, and ignorance, and at the same time the poppy melody encourages one to sing along, oblivious to the various possible critical meanings that the song has, which contradict that culture industry formula. Even the reproduction of the same (as in the song ―Roll Jordan‖, which is discussed in the reproduction chapter), which is often done for the sake of easy profit, can be presented in a new context, thus making it relevant (or visible) again. However, the most obvious example of the dialectic of regressed listening is found in the song ―It Was Fear of Myself That Made Me Odd‖. Here a regressed listener cannot follow and hum the melody of the song as it is ever-changing, leading most to choose songs that are simpler and easier to remember and hum along with. This tendency towards simpler and easier infects not just the listeners‘ habits, but the bands‘ too. In this case, the band succumbs to the culture industry by creating music that is in general easier to consume, like ―You Burn First‖ that repeats itself over and over, both through lyrics and melody. The band is supplying the demand, thus here is where the regressive dialectics are most visible. The variety of genres and songs that are introduced in fact becomes interchangeable with one another, especially when song like ―You Burn First‖ could as easily be a pop song as it is made in a similar manner, to repeat, get stuck easily in the listener‘s ear, and, of course, to be sold. In this sense, different genres are not the result of progress, but the result of the regressed listening and regressive dialectics.
54
CONCLUSION
1. The analysis of regression of listening revealed the following effects on cultures and practices of musical consumption: 1) Music is consumed passively and serves as a background that breaks the silence, as regression of listening influenced the listening capabilities of people. In many instances one is unable to pay attention and actively listen to music, thus changing how the music is perceived and understood. The role of music as art is often replaced by consumerism, commodification and pleasure; 2) Music is seen as a commodity that is used as a physical expression of identity and as a substitute for communication that can be bought, sold and consumed. It is commodified; 3) Culture industry reproduces old pieces in order to make them profitable again. The familiarity of the piece replaces its quality. Melody, structure and name that proved to be profitable in the past are reused over and over again, creating more of the same. Musical genres have certain specifics and schemes that are reproduced in supposedly new music, making both genres and pieces interchangeable with one another; 4) Music serves as territorializer that gives new meanings to space, both from the people who territorialize space and the outsiders who mystify the said space. EDM holds both the potential of territorialization and deterritorialization, and the complete influence of music industry and commercialization; 5) the variety of genres does not introduce any significant differences between them, as they are essentially interchangeable between one another, it is regressive dialectics of musical consumption. It is a regressive dialectic—a dialectic that does not obtain progress but regresses backwardly as differences exist only between the forms and not the content of the art. 2. Music can effectively be used for social control and influence as well as provide the hope and possibility of emancipation from social/cultural hegemony. Music that does not fit the acceptable norms of the culture industry is incorporated into the industry by making it ―softer‖ and easier to consume or by excluding and dismissing it by considering the unacceptable music to be noise. Genres that are directed towards social and political critique are stripped away of such elements and turned into pleasurable commodity. It can be applied to most of the heavy music, punk and metal scenes. While the culture industry incorporates many of the resistance elements into cultural production, the nonidentical emerges and some bands retain the protest and
55
critique elements in their music. It is used to rally people and criticize society in turn supporting proliferation of identities and differences. The nonidentical also indicates that social hope still exists and the damage done by the regression of listening perhaps can be undone. 3. The theory of the regression of listening still maintains its validity 70 years after its initial theorization; however, it must be updated accordingly in order to include new technological advancements, such as internet, widespread availability of music, algorithms of taste and so on. It also takes into account the introduction of variety of genres and culture elements that the genres offer. The thorough analysis of music has to include both elements of the identical and the nonidentical, as it provides new possibilities for critical insights. 4. The analysis of the band ―Alexisonfire‖ supports the thesis that most of mainstream music, regardless of its genre, is influenced by the cultural industry and the regression of listening. In many regards it can be analyzed, interpreted and criticized with the use of the theory and concepts provided in the thesis.
56
SANTRAUKA
Edvinas Visockis. Regresyvioji muzikos vartojimo dialektika: Mainstream muzikos ir kultūros industrijos kritika: socialinės ir politinės kritikos studijų baigiamasis darbas / mokslinis vadovas doc. Dr. Jay Daniel Mininger; Vytauto Didţiojo Universitetas, Socialinės ir Politinės Teorijos Katedra.- Kaunas, 2015. 60p
Magistro baigiamąjame darbe siekiant išanalizuoti kultūros industriją ir jos poveikį muzikai ir klausymosi įpročiams naudojama ir atnaujinama T. W. Adono regresyvaus klausymosi teorija. Kalbama apie muzikos kaip fono, prekės, reprodukcijos, imitacijos ir teritorializacijos vaidmenis. Prieinama išvados, kad ţanrų įvairovė nesukuria reikšmingų skirtumų tarp jų, nes ţanrai gali būti sukeičiami tarpusavyje (interchageable). Darbe tai vadinama regresyviaja dialektika. Tai dialektika kuri ne progresuoja, bet regresuoja atgal, nes skirtumai egzistuoja tik tarp meno formų, o ne turinio. Tikrinama muzikos, kuri naudojama socialinei kontrolei ir poveikiui, bei suteikia socialinės vilties emancipacijai nuo socialinės ir kultūrinės hegemonijos, galimybė.
Paskutinėje darbo dalyje pateikiamas grupės „Alexisonfire― ir jos kuriamos muzikos pavyzdys, kuriuo siekiama atskleisti teorijos taikymo galimybes praktikoje.
Reikšminiai žodžiai: Adorno; regrsyvioji dialektika; muzika; estetika; kultūros industrija
57
LITERATURE
1. Adorno, T. W. (1976). Introduction to the Sociology of Music. New York: Seabury. 2. Adorno, T. W. (2002). Late Style in Beethoven. In Essays on Music. Los Angeles: University of California Press, 565-568. 3. Adorno, T. W. (2004). Aesthetic Theory. London: Continuum. 4. Adorno, T. W. (2005). On the Fetish Character in Music and the Regression of Listening. In The Culture Industry. Selected Essays on Mass Culture. New York: Routledge, 29-61. 5. Adorno, T. W., Horkheimer, M. (2006). Apšvietos dialektika. Vilnius: Margi Raštai. 6. Anderson, T. L., Kavanaugh, P. R. (2007). A ―Rave‖ Review: Conceptual Interests and Analytical Shifts in Research on Rave Culture. In Sociology Compass. Vol. 1. No. 2. 499-519. 7. Attali, J. (2009). Noise: The Political Economy of Music. Minneapolis/London: University of Minnesota Press. 8. Barthelmes, B. (2002). Music and the City. In Music and Technology in the Twentieth Century. Baltimore and London: The John Hopkins University Press, 97-105. 9. Benjamin, W. (2007). The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction. In Illuminations. New York: Shocked Books, 217-253. 10. Bolaños, A. P. (2007). A Critical Role of Art: Adorno Between Utopia and Dystopia. In Kritike Vol. 1. No. 1. 25-31. Retrieved May 4, 2015, http://www.kritike.org/journal/issue_1/editorial_june2007.pdf 11. Černevičiūtė, J. (2008). Gyvenimo stiliaus stratifikacija, naratyvai ir sukonstruoti tapatumai. Filosofija. Sociologija. Vol. 19. Nr. 1. 26-34. 12. Clark, D. (2003). The Death and Life of Punk, the Last Subculture. In The Post- Subcultures Reader. Oxford: Berg 223-226. 13. Deleuze, G., Guattari, F. (2005). 1837: On the Refrain. In A Thousand Plateaus: Capitalism and Schizophrenia. Minneapolis, London: University of Minnesota Press. 14. Fiske, J. (2008). Populiariosios kultūros supratimas. Vilnius: Ţara. 15. Giddens, A. (2000). Modernybė ir Asmens Tapatumas. Asmuo ir visuomenė vėlyvosios modernybės amžiuje. Vilnius: Pradai. 16. Gunn, J., Hall, M. M, (2008). Stick it in Your Ear: The Psychodynamics of iPod Enjoyment. In Communication and Critical/Cultural Studies. Vol. 5. No. 2. 135-157.
58
17. Hall, M. M., Zukic, N. (2013). The DJ as Electronic Deterritorializer. In DJ Culture in the Mix. Power, Technology, and Social Change in Electronic Dance Music. New York, London, New Delhi, Sydney: Bloomsbury. 18. Hegel, G. W. F. (2000). Extracts from Aesthetics: Lectures on Fine Art. In The Continental Aesthetics Reader. London: Routledge, 35-52. 19. Jameson, F. (2009). Foreword. In Noise: The Political Economy of Music. Minneapolis/London: University of Minnesota Press. vii-xiv. 20. Kant, I. (2000). Extracts from ‗Analytic of Aesthetic Judgment‘ and ‗Dialectic of Aesthetic Judgment‘, Critique of Judgment. In The Continental Aesthetics Reader. London: Routledge, 16-34. 21. Kelts, R. (2006). Japanamerica. How Japanese Pop Culture Has Invaded the U.S. New York: Pallgrave Macmillan. 22. Lacan, J. (1994). The Four Fundamental Concepts of Psycho-Analysis. London: Penguin Books. 23. Le Bon, G. (2013). Minios Psichologija. Vilnius: Vaga. 24. Marcuse, H. (2014). Vienmatis Ţmogus: brandţiosios industrinės visuomenės ideologijos tyrimai. Vilnius: Kitos Knygos. 25. Maţeikis, G. (2005). Filosofinės antropologijos pragmatika ir analitika. Šiauliai: Saulės Delta. 26. Maţeikis, G. (2013). Įsikitinimai: Sąmoningumo Metamorfozės. Vilnius: Kitos Knygos. 27. Mindess, H., (1971). Laughter and Liberation. Los Angeles: Nash Publishing. 28. Reynolds, S. (2005). Rip It Up and Start Again: Postpunk 1978-1984. London: Faber and Faber. 29. Reynolds, S. (2012). Energy Flash: A Journey through Rave Music and Dance Culture. Berkeley: Soft Skull Press. 30. Shepherd, J. (2007). Muzika kaip kultūros tekstas. In Muzika Kaip Kultūros Tekstas: Naujosios Muzikologijos Antologija. Vilnius: Apostrofa, 161-186. 31. Storey, J. (2011). Cultural Studies and the Study of Popular Culture. Third Edition: Revised and Expanded. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. 32. Udo, T. (2002). Brave Nu World. Trowbridge: Sanctuary Publishing. 33. Valery, P. (1964). The Conquest of Ubiquity. In Aesthetics. New York: Pantheon Books, 225-228. 34. Virilio, P. (2009). Grey Ecology. New York, Dresden: Atropos Press.
59
35. Visockis, E. (2014). Many Meanings of Jokes: A Study of Black Humor. In Inter- Studia Humanitatis Nr. 16. 153-163.
36. Von Appen, R., Frei-Hauenschild, M. (2015). AABA, Refrain, Chorus, Bridge, Prechorus — Song Forms and Their Historical Development Retrieved April 21, 2015, from http://www.gfpm-samples.de/Samples13/appenfrei.pdf 37. White, N. I. (1928). American Negro Folk-Songs. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
60