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ISRAEL LOPEZ "": The Godfather of Cuban Bass

The History and Development of the Bass in Cuban Popular Music

WILLIS MICHAEL JARVIS

A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS

FOR THE DEGREE OF

MASTER OF ARTS

GRADUATE PROGRAM IN MUSIC

YORK UNIVERSITY

TORONTO, ONTARIO, CANADA

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1*1 Canada IV

ABSTRACT

This thesis is an examination of the life and music of legendary Cuban bassist, Israel

Lopez "Cachao" (b. September 14, 1918, d. March 22, 2008). My objective is to identify

Cachao's contributions to the creation of specific Cuban music genres and identify his contributions to the development of the role of the bass in Cuban popular music. In addition, I have composed music that is inspired by the tradition of early twentieth- century Cuban popular music, particularly the compositions of Cachao.

While Cachao's rhythmic advances to the danzon are considered to represent the origins of the mambo genre, Cuban musicians Arsenio Rodriguez and Damaso Perez

Prado have also laid claim to its creation. This thesis examines the contributions of all three artists to this popular Cuban .

This thesis also documents the history and development of traditional bass parts played in Cuban popular music, as well as the instruments used to play these parts.

Having identified the instruments that were used to play the bass parts, I have traced the construction and development of the bass parts themselves. DEDICATION

Dedicated to my dad

Willis O. Jarvis 1926-2000 VI

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank my Humber College colleagues Brad Klump and Brian Lillos for their encouragement and support in helping me complete my undergraduate degree.

Thank you to my York University advisor Professor Michael Coghlan for his guidance and who, along with Professor Mike Murley, gave me the opportunity to teach at York.

Thank you to Professor Robert Witmer for his timely suggestions. Thank you to

Professors David Mott, Alan Henderson and Christina Petrowska-Quilico for keeping things interesting and for opening my ears to new music. Thank you to Memo Acevedo for introducing me to Cuban music and for his instruction in the genre. Thank you to

Andy Gonzalez for sharing his time, experiences and knowledge of Cachao and Cuban music. Thank you to the master bassist Israel Lopez "Cachao," the inspiration for this thesis. Thank you to Dr. Andrew Scott for his invaluable help with the revision of this thesis and to David Johannesson for proofreading. Thank you to Paul DeLong for his help with clarification of rhythm examples. Thank you to Patricia Wheeler, Michael Cado and Bob Rice for their advice and suggestions. Thank you to Tere Tilban-Rios for guiding me through the process and for keeping it all together in the music department.

Thanks to my family, friends and colleagues for their encouragement and support. VII

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Abstract iv

Dedication v

Acknowledgements vi

Table Of Contents vii

List Of Figures ix

Introduction 1

0.1. Chapter Outline 2

PART I - Israel Lopez "Cachao": The Godfather of Cuban Bass

Chapter I: Biography 5 1.1. Early Childhood 5 1.2. Early Music Career 7 1.3. Arcano y Sus Maravillas 12 1.4. The Issue of Composer's Rights 15 1.5. Busy Times for Arcano y Sus Maravillas 17 1.6. Move Out of 22 1.7. Move to 25 1.8. Move to 28 1.9. Resurgence of Career. 29 1.10. 2000s and Eventual Passing 31

PART II - The History and Development of the Bass in Cuban Popular Music

Chapter II: The Development of Bass Parts in Cuban Popular Music 33

Chapter III: Analysis of Cachao's Bass Lines 40

Chapter IV: Bass Instruments and Origins 44 4.1. Tingo-talango orTumbandera 44 4.2. Marimbula and Botija , 45 4.3. Contrabass 46 4.4. Influence of European Classical Bassists 48 4.5. Ampeg Baby Bass 49 viii

4.6. Fender Electric Bass 51

PART III - Cachao's Contributions to Cuban Popular Music

Chapter V: Cachao's Development of the Danzon 53 5.1. Danzon-mambo (danzon de nuevo ritmo) 56

Chapter VI: Who's Mambo Is It Anyway? 59 6.1. Perez Prado's Mambo 60 6.2 The Danzon-Mambo of Israel and Orestes Lopez 63 6.3 Arsenio Rodriguez's "Diablo" 66 6.4 Mambo Conclusions 73

Chapter VII: Cachao's 75

Chapter VIII: Cachao's Bass Technique 78 8.1. Cachao's Improvisational Technique 80

Chapter IX: The Concept Of 87

Chapter X: Analysis of Original Compositions 92

Conclusion 112

Appendix A: Original Scores 116 Espiritu Interior (Danzon-mambo) 116 Descarga Uno (Descarga) 129 Nuevo Afro (Descarga) 138 Pacientemente () 154 Como Metheny (Cha cha cha) 163

Appendix B: Israel Lopez "Cachao" Solo Transcriptions 182

Appendix C: Israel Lopez "Cachao" Selected Discography 195

Works Cited 200 IX

LIST OF FIGURES

CHAPTER II - THE DEVELOPMENT OF BASS PARTS IN CUBAN POPULAR MUSIC

Fig. 2.1: bolero rhythm 33 Fig. 2.2: habanera rhythm 34 Fig. 2.3: habanera rhythm in bass part from "Ojos crillos" (Louis Moreau Gottshcalk) 35 Fig. 2.4: rhythm 35 Fig. 2.5: "Cangrejo fue a estudiar"- Arsenio Rodriguez y Sus (El Alma De

Cuba, Grabaciones Completas RCA Victor 1940-1956 315) 38

CHAPTER III - ANALYSIS OF CACHAO'S BASS TECHNIQUE

Fig. 3.1: Bass tumbao from "Es diferente," (mm. 5-9) (Cachao : The Sessions 1957-59 Yemaya-YY9440) 41 Fig. 3.2: Development of the bolero bass line in "Es diferente," (mm. 24-39) (Cachao Descargas: The Havana Sessions 1957-59 Yemaya-YY9440) 42 Fig. 3.3: One bar tumbao using the tresillo rhythm in "Es diferente,"(mm. 46-51) (Cachao Descargas: The Havana Sessions 1957-59 Yemaya-YY9440) 42 Fig. 3.4: Use of anticipated bass tumbao in "Las boinas de Cachao," (mm. 59-62)

(Cachao Descargas: The Havana Sessions 1957-59 Yemaya-YY9440) 43

CHAPTER V - CACHAO'S DEVELOPMENT OF THE DANZON

Fig. 5.1: cinquillo rhythm 53

Fig. 5.2: two-measure danzon rhythm 54

CHAPTER VI - WHO'S MAMBO IS IT ANYWAY?

Fig. 6.1: mambo rhythm 62

Fig. 6.2: "" rhythm 62

CHAPTER VIII - CACHAO'S BASS TECHNIQUE

Fig. 8.1(a): Use of dotted quarter note cross-rhythm in "Es diferente," (mm. 52-53) (Cachao Descargas: The Havana Sessions 1957-59 Yemaya-YY9440) 81 Fig. 8.1(b): Use of dotted quarter note cross-rhythm in "Es diferente," (mm. 59-61) (Cachao Descargas: The Havana Sessions 1957-59 Yemaya-YY9440) 81 Fig. 8.1(c): Use of dotted quarter note cross-rhythm in "Es diferente," (mm. 76-81) (Cachao Descargas: The Havana Sessions 1957-59 Yemaya-YY9440) 81 X

Fig. 8.2(a): Use of implied 3/4 polyrhythm in "Las boinas de Cachao," (mm. 46-48) (Cachao Descargas: The Havana Sessions 1957-59 Yemaya-YY9440) 82 Fig. 8.2(b): Use of implied 3/4 polyrhythm in "Las boinas de Cachao," (mm. 75-78) (Cachao Descargas: The Havana Sessions 1957-59 Yemaya-YY9440) 82 Fig. 8.3(a): Use of tritone substitution in "Cha cha cha de los pellos," (mm. 55-56) (Cachao Descargas: The Havana Sessions 1957-59 Yemaya-YY9440) 83 Fig. 8.3(b): Use of tritone substitution in "Cha cha cha de los pellos," (mm. 63-64) (Cachao Descargas: The Havana Sessions 1957-59 Yemaya-YY9440) 83 Fig. 8.4: Use of guide notes in "Cha cha cha de los pellos," (mm. 49-52) (Cachao Descargas: The Havana Sessions 1957-59 Yemaya-YY9440) 83 Fig. 8.5(a): Use of left hand pull-offs in "Las boinas de Cachao," (mm. 88-91) (Cachao Descargas: The Havana Sessions 1957-59 Yemaya-YY9440) 84 Fig. 8.5(b): Use of left hand glisses in "Las boinas de Cachao," (mm. 94-97) (Cachao Descargas: The Havana Sessions 1957-59 Yemaya-YY9440) 84 Fig. 8.6(a): Use of chromaticism in "Las boinas de Cachao," (mm. 73-74) (Cachao Descargas: The Havana Sessions 195 7-59 Yemaya-YY9440) 85 Fig. 8.6(b): Use of chromaticism in "Las boinas de Cachao,"(mm. 79-84) (Cachao Descargas: The Havana Sessions 1957-59 Yemaya-YY9440) 85 Fig. 8.7: Use of quarter note triplet in "Cha cha cha de los pellos,"(mm. 59-76) (Cachao Descargas: The Havana Sessions 1957-59 Yemaya-YY9440) 86

CHAPTER IX: THE CONCEPT OF CLAVE

Fig. 9.1(a): 3:2 son clave 87 Fig. 9.1(b): 3:2 rumba clave 87 Fig. 9.1(c): 3:2 Afro-Cuban 6/8 clave 87 Fig. 9.2: "Voy a vivir para siempre" (mm. 67-78) (Fania All Stars - Latin Connection Fania 773 130 362-20) 89-90

CHAPTER X - ANALYSIS OF ORIGINAL COMPOSITIONS

Fig. 10.1: Espiritu Interior melody/clave relationship (mm. 9-12 & mm. 17-20) 93 Fig. 10.2: Espiritu Interior bass line (danzon section) (mm. 9-16) 93 Fig. 10.3(a): bombo-ponche bass pattern 94 Fig. 10.3(b): Variation of bombo-ponche bass pattern 94 Fig. 10.4: Espiritu Interior bass line (mambo section) (mm. 77-84) 94 Fig. 10.5: Descarga Uno melody (mm. 1-16) 95-96 Fig. 10.6: Use of bombo-ponce bass pattern (mm. 1-16) 96 Fig. 10.7: Use of traditional bass tumbao pattern (mm. 22-36) 97 Fig. 10.8: Nuevo Afro melody/clave relationship (mm. 17-24) 98 Fig. 10.9(a): Nuevo Afro bass line (mm. 17-18) 99 Fig. 10.9(b): Nuevo Afro bass line (mm. 49-56) 99 XI

Fig. 10.10(a): Variation of traditional Afro-Cuban 6/8 bass line (mm. 77-78) 100 Fig. 10.10(b): Variation of traditional Afro-Cuban 6/8 bass line (mm. 84-87) 100 Fig. 10.11: Use of bolero bass line (mm. 5-8) 102 Fig. 10.12: Use of pedal point in bass line (mm. 55-62) 102 Fig. 10.13: Como Metheny introduction (mm. 1-16) 104-105 Fig. 10.14: Como Metheny melody (mm. 17-32) 106 Fig. 10.15: Como Metheny melody (mm. 57-90) 107-109 Fig. 10.16(a): One-measure cha cha cha rhythm patterns 109 Fig. 10.16(b): Two-measure cha cha cha rhythm pattern 110 Fig. 10.17: Como Metheny -style bass line (mm. 17-30) 110 Fig. 10.18: Variation of guaracha-style bass line (mm. 91-106) 111 1

INTRODUCTION

As a freelance bassist working in Toronto, 1 have had the opportunity to perform with many local Cuban music ensembles and have had the privilege of performing with a number of world-renowned Cuban artists. Although I have always been able to assimilate what I have heard on record and transfer that to the performance arena, I have desired to acquire a deeper knowledge and a more thorough understanding of the Cuban popular music I was performing. My reasons are twofold. First, I hope to become a better bassist in the genre. Secondly, I wish to impart this knowledge to my students. With the research that I have undertaken, I have moved closer toward fulfilling my goal.

Cuba has a long and rich music tradition drawing on influences from Europe and

West Africa. The music of Cuba was also influenced by American military bands of the late 1800s and jazz music of the early twentieth century.

During the period of the transatlantic slave trade, slaves that were transported to

Cuba from Africa brought with them secular practices of singing, drumming and dancing along with a knowledge of such percussion instruments used in secular ceremonies as drums and bells. Such European musical instruments as the guitar, contrabass1 and were brought to Cuba by the Spaniards. The combination of West African rhythms and

European orchestral music led to the creation of such Cuban music styles as and danzon. Such Cuban music genres as son, , guajira, guaracha, cha cha cha and mambo also evolved and were popularized at various points from the late 1800s

1 The terms contrabass, , upright bass, string bass and acoustic bass all refer to the same bass instrument. 2 through the mid-1950s. Subsequently, these Cuban song styles influenced the creation of such genres as , salsa, songo and .

0.1. Chapter Outline

Chapter one contains biographical material on Israel Lopez "Cachao." My information is taken from secondary-source research, including newspaper and magazine articles and biographical publications. Cachao, known as the "godfather of Cuban bass," is widely acknowledged as one of the most important and influential musicians in the history of Cuban popular music for his contributions to the transformation of the bass from an accompaniment role to that of a melodic and soloing role.

Chapter two examines the development of bass parts in Cuban popular music.

As Cuban folkloric song forms developed and advanced with the addition of more complex harmony and Afro-Cuban rhythms, so too did the role of the individual instruments. One instrument that experienced consistent development was the bass.

Traditionally, the role of the bass in Cuban popular music was predominately rhythmic.

The rhythmic component of the bass parts remained relatively basic until the 1940s when

Cachao revolutionized the function of the bass by incorporating syncopation into the bass parts, which until then, had consisted largely of quarter and half note rhythms played "on the beat."

While Cachao made significant changes to the role of the bass in Cuban popular music, important innovations to the development of the bass were also made by Cuban

Xres player and composer Arsenio Rodriguez, who wrote bass parts that were more independent and melodic than those of such earlier son groups as Sexteto Habanero 3 and Septeto Nacional.2

Chapter three is an analysis of Cachao's bass lines. His repeated rhythmic bass figures called , ushered in the contemporary bass feel of Cuban music and have been among the inspirations for the bass lines of American groove music of the 1960s & 1970s.3

Chapter four traces the history of bass instruments in Cuban popular music. In rural areas of Cuba, the bass parts of late nineteenth-century Cuban music genres were simple in rhythmic and harmonic construction and were performed on relatively primitive folkloric instruments called the botija and the marimbula. By contrast, the contrabass was played in the Havana Philharmonic Orchestra, the Havana Opera Company, and high society dance orchestras during the mid-to-late nineteenth century. The contrabass was introduced to son groups during the 1920s and eventually became the bass instrument of choice for many Cuban son groups.

During the 1960s, Cuban and Puerto Rican musicians living in began merging Cuban music forms with American rhythm-and-blues music. This helped introduce the electric bass to Cuban popular music. Also during this time, the Ampeg instrument company introduced an electric version of the string bass called the baby bass, which quickly became the instrument of choice for many Cuban and Puerto Rican bassists playing in New York City salsa bands during the late 1960s and early 1970s.

2 Sexteto Habanero and Septeto Nacional were two of the most popular son groups in Cuba during the early twentieth century.

3 Ned Sublette, Cuba and Its music: From the First Drums to the Mambo (: Chicago Review Press, 2004)451. 4

Chapter five details the refinements made by Cachao, and his brother Orestes, to the danzon genre with their creation of the danzon de nuevo ritmo. The rhythmic elements introduced by the Lopez brothers in the danzon de nuevo ritmo later became the foundation for the dance genre called the mambo.

Chapter six identifies the contributions made by Israel Lopez, Arsenio Rodriguez and Damaso Perez Prado to the mambo genre and attempts to clarify whom should be credited with its creation.

Chapter seven examines Cachao's descarga recordings of the 1950s. Cachao assembled some of the finest musicians in Havana, Cuba to record his late night "jam sessions." The descarga genre uses traditional Cuban dance forms as the basis for an improvised music designed more for listening than for dancing.

Chapter eight is an analysis of Cachao's bass technique. Throughout his career,

Cachao expanded the boundaries of traditional bass playing by incorporating a deeply complex rhythmic approach combined with an infectious time feel that was fueled by prodigious technique. Specific rhythmic and harmonic techniques applied in his improvisations are identified.

Chapter nine discusses the concept of clave and identifies the three types of clave patterns used in Cuban music. These clave patterns are analyzed and their relationship to melodic and rhythmic patterns is detailed. 5

PARTI

ISRAEL LOPEZ "CACHAO": THE GODFATHER OF CUBAN BASS

CHAPTER I - BIOGRAPHY

1.1. Early Childhood

Cachao was born Israel Lopez Valdes on September 14, 1918, in Havana, Cuba.

The youngest of three children, he was born at 102 calle Paula, in the same house that

Jose Julian Marti Perez lived as an adolescent. Jose Marti was considered a Cuban national hero for his contributions to the liberation of Cuba from Spain in the nineteenth century. Lopez recalled, "Every 28th day of January (Jose Marti's birthday), we had to leave that house on Calle Paula at 6 a.m. and return at 9 p.m. to allow numerous schools from all over Havana to conduct field trips to our home."4 In 1919, the Cuban government requested that the Lopez family move from their home so that it could be turned into the Jose Marti House national museum. The family complied and moved from calle Paula to the Havana suburb of Guanabacoa. It was here that Cachao was raised and where his career as a musician began at age eight.

4 Luis Tamargo, "Cachao: a conversation with the godfather of the Cuban bass," Latin Beat Magazine, online, August 2004. 6

In Guanabacoa, Cachao grew up in an environment replete with music. He recalled,

"My house was filled with music 24 hours a day. I think that even in our sleep, we as children would dream of music. It's the only thing that I have ever wanted to be, a musician."5 The music that emanated from the Lopez house consistently drew the attention of local residents. "Our house was a wreck, with instruments everywhere," he stated. "There were people playing all the time."6

Cachao's father, Pedro Lopez, was a contrabassist who played traditional-style danzones and danzonetes with the Neno Gonzalez Orchestra.1 His mother, Rafaela

Valdes, taught piano, contrabass, "solfeggio" and theory. His older brother, Orestes, was a multi-instrumentalist and his sister, Coralia, was a composer and contrabassist.

There was a prevalence of bass playing in the family and it is estimated that there were approximately 35-40 bass players in the extended Lopez family. Cachao's grandmother played the contrabass, and his grandfather, also a contrabassist, was a founding member of Havana's Municipal Band. The Havana Municipal Band frequently traveled to the to compete with bands from all over the world and consistently won first prize. Cachao's grandfather would bring home music from his trips abroad. In this way, the Lopez children were continually introduced to many different types of popular music of the day.

Cachao's nephew, Orlando Lopez "Cachaito" (1933-2009), was a bassist who

5 Chico Alvarez Peraza, "Cachao speaks: a uniquely candid and no-holds barred conversation with the Cuban music master and innovator," Latin Beat Magazine, online, May 2008.

6 "Bassist was father of mambo style," Los Angeles Times, online, 23 March 2008.

7 Raul A. Fernandez, From Afro-Cuban Rhythms to (Berkeley and Los Angeles: California UP, 2006) 74. 7 garnered fame during the 1950s in Havana with the group and more recently with the Afro-Cuban All Stars. Orlando's daughter and granddaughter continue the Lopez tradition of playing bass.

Cachao was formally trained in the European orchestral tradition and acquired the majority of his music education from his mother, father and brother. His mother taught him "solfeggio" and theory and he studied contrabass with his father. His brother also played an important role in his musical development. Orestes, who was ten years older than Cachao, played bass, cello and trumpet. As a member of Apollo Septet, Orestes was one of the first to introduce the trumpet into the son genre. Cachao studied composition and contrabass with Orestes and he regarded his brother as his idol and his inspiration.

Cachao exclaimed, "He's the reason I'm a musician. I wanted to imitate him, I wanted to be like him. He put the love of music and innovation in my blood."8

1.2. Early Music Career

Israel Lopez began his music career playing bongo in small groups around Havana.

In 1926, he joined the children's son septet Chapman Sport, whose members included vocalist . Faz later became the lead vocalist for Conjunto Casino and was recognized as one of Cuba's great soneros.9 In an interview, Cachao described the group's instrumentation:

Roberto was the singer, Drago [was] the player; since we didn't have a bass, Congri, a black kid, played the marimbula. El Chino was the player and Juan was the advisor. He showed us the process of rehearsing and things like that.

8 Leonardo Padura Fuentes, Faces of Salsa: A Spoken History of the Music (Berkeley and Los Angeles: Smithsonian Books, 2003) 93.

9 Ned Sublette, Cuba and Its music: From the First Drums to the Mambo (Chicago: Chicago Review Press, 2004) 449. 8

This was in Regla, a town that's very close to Havana, near Guanabacoa. We rehearsed at Roberto Faz's house.10

Cachao also acquired an interest in playing trumpet. Lopez related, "With my borrowed trumpet I started imitating the bugle calls that they used to do in the police barracks that were near the house."1' He learned such bugle calls as reveille, midday and payday but his career as a trompetista ended when the barracks sergeant grabbed him on the street and confiscated his trumpet. He would also learn to play the tres and piano, but decided to dedicate himself to the contrabass.

In 1927, Cachao began studying the contrabass and before long was playing professionally. He recounted, "My first job was accompanying silent films at the Carral

Theater, where [pianist] (Ignacio Villa 1911-1971) also played."12 Villa, a pianist and composer also from Guanabacoa, was very dark-skinned and had acquired the derogatory nickname Bola de Nieve (Snowball) from children at the movie theatre.

During a typical film screening at the Carral Theater, Cachao and other members of the pit orchestra were required to follow actors on the movie screen and create a soundtrack to accompany their movements. The movies screened were mostly American westerns starring such actors as Tom Mix and Buck Jones. In an interview Cachao recalled:

I remember we had a drummer by the name of Angelito, alias "El Muerto." It was his job to watch for Tom Mix, and when the cowboy would shoot off his gun, he was supposed to hit the drums. Now,

10 Abel Delgado, "Conversing with Cachao, Part 1," Descarga. online, May 2008.

11 Leonardo Padura Fuentes, Faces of Salsa: A Spoken History of the Music (Berkeley and Los Angeles: Smithsonian Books, 2003) 93.

12 Ibid. 9

Angehto would sometimes get a little nervous, and he would bring a bottle of rum with him and lay it next to the drums By the time that Tom Mix was supposed to get his shots off, Angehto was down to the middle of the bottle and by then was as high as the clouds, so he let off a flurry of shots that sounded like a gatthng [sic] gun Just then, someone from the audience would shout "Angehto, a revolver has only six shots, and you let off ninety'" Laughter would fill the theatre The audience loved to do that kind of thing, you see Sometimes the film would tear, and the projectionist, whose nickname was "El Cojo" (The Cripple) had to splice it up, and he would splice it in the wrong place, so that someone who had been shot dead in one scene came out looking alive in the next scene Then someone would yell out "The projectionist is drunk'" 01 "Cojo, you're drunk again'" or even something like "there is only one Jesus Christ, no one else could get killed and be resurrected later"13

Musicians working at the movie houses were paid very little Bola de Nieve and some of the other musicians were paid one peso per day Cachao received no payment but he relished the opportunity to practice the contrabass Cachao worked at the Carral

Theater for about three years until the introduction of the Vitaphone movie, which had its own soundtrack, thus making the live musician format obsolete At age ten or eleven, he went on to join another children's group under the direction of Arsenio Gonzalez and later in 1930, he joined the Havana Philharmonic Orchestra

La Orquesta Filarmonica de La Habana was organized in 1924 and Cachao's father and brother were among the first musicians admitted to the orchestra Lopez was only twelve years old when he joined the orchestra and due to his short stature, had to stand on a wooden crate to play the contrabass

During his tenure with the Havana Philharmonic, Cachao played under the baton of conductor Erich Kleiber as well as such guest conductors as ,

13 Chico Alvarez Peraza, "Cachao speaks a uniquely candid and no-holds barred conversation with the Cuban music master and innovator," Latm Beat Magazine, online, May 2008 10

Thomas Beecham, Antal Dorati, Heitor Villa-Lobos and . He also worked with such symphonic musicians as Jascha Heifetz, Arthur Rubinstein, and Issac Stern.

Cachao stated, "The only one that I didn't have the opportunity to work under was

Toscanini—except for that one, I played with all of them and had the opportunity to travel with many of them."14

On one of his visits to Cuba, Igor Stravinsky went to hear Cachao play with some local Cuban musicians. Cachao recounted:

The maestro was in Cuba directing the symphony, and came to a three day Lecumi feast (Lecumi is a branch of Santeria religion). There he just couldn't notate the rhythms of the descargas we were playing. There are very difficult African rhythms which have no time signature. One can try every which way; there's no figuring them out.15

During his career as an orchestral musician, Cachao performed with the

Philadelphia Philharmonic and the London Symphony Orchestras alongside such musicians as Teodoro Ruiz and Chilean pianist Claudio Arrau. During this time, opera was still very popular in Cuba and Cachao had the opportunity to work with visiting members of New York's Metropolitan Opera including Ezio Pinza, Mario del Monaco, and soprano Renata Tebaldi, in such operas as Rigoletto, The Barber of Seville and Aida.

He also had a six-month residency in Monaco. "Over the years I've played with everyone," he stated.16

Along with his Havana Philharmonic duties, Cachao performed with many Cuban

14 Ernest Barteldes, "Cachao: Mambo Man Israel "Cachao" Lopez," All About Jazz, online, No.63, July 26, 2007.

15 Jorge Socarras, "Cachao," Bomb Magazine, online.

16 Ernest Barteldes, "Cachao: Mambo Man Israel "Cachao" Lopez," All About Jazz, online, No.63, July 26, 2007. 11 music groups at social clubs and dance halls. He had an innate ability to commit to a classical performance while the music that he longed to play resided in the surrounding streets and clubs of Havana. Yet, he never had an issue with separating the different music genres:

1 always respected the music and ascribed each to its own universe. There was serious music; Brahms. Hayden [sic], all that, and also opera; Puccini and what have you. Then there was my music. If, for example, I were playing an opera—any opera, I'd finish up and go to the dance hall. Generally, concerts ended around 11:00 at night. By 11:30 I'd be playing at the dance hall. It was another universe! I'd do both and feel good in either atmosphere. But I liked classical music.17

In 1929 or 1930, Cachao began performing in orquesta tipicasx% (typical orchestras) playing , , and traditional-style danzones. It is believed that the orquesta tipica originated in Cuba at the beginning of the twentieth century.

It would later develop into a , consisting of a string section (usually violins), a five-key wooden and percussion. Such groups as Arcano y Sus

Maravillas, Orquesta Aragon, Orquesta Sensacion and Orquesta America were charangas.I9 One such group that Cachao worked with was that of clarinetist Jose

Belen Puig.

The danzon was extremely popular during the late 1920s and early 1930s primarily because it borrowed material from other popular genres of the time.

According to Cachao:

Most of the melodies came from the classical and ballet school, but many also came from the North American musical theatre and from Hollywood

17 Jorge Socarras, "Cachao," Bomb Magazine, online.

18 For orquesta tipica instrumentation, see Chapter V - CACHAO'S DEVELOPMENT OF THE DANZON.

19 Abel Delgado, "Conversing with Cachao, Part 1," Descarga. online, May 2008. 12

movies. These borrowed materials included operas and , but there were other commercial materials that fit perfectly into the danzon format, such as children's songs.20

During this time, Cachao played in show bands backing up Argentinian tango singers Libertad Lamarque and Hugo del Carril and he played with his brother's charanga group Orquesta Lopez-Barroso, which featured vocalist Abelardo Barroso. He recounted, "In Cuba I did zarzuelas, operas, tangos. I played music and almost all the Cuban rhythms: son, danzon, mambo, Cuban jazz, guaguanco, rumba, boleros. At one point, I decided to count the orchestras in which I had played, and I lost count at

248 It's all been a blessing from God."21

1.3. Arcano y Sus Maravillas

During the 1930s, Cachao continued to balance performances between the Havana

Philharmonic and the various charangas with which he performed. In 1936, he worked as a member of a charanga led by vocalist Fernando Collazo (1909-1939) called Collazo's

La Maravilla del Signo (The Marvel Of The Century). Collazo had earlier attained fame as the featured vocalist for Orquesta Gris and was also the founder of Sexteto Cuba.

Other members of Collazo's group included Cachao's brother Orestes (cello), Jesus

Lopez (no relation - piano), Ulpiano Diaz (timbal), Raul Valdes (violin) and flautist

Antonio Arcano (1911-1991). Oscar Lopez was the group's first vocalist and was later followed by Miguelito Cuni.22 The group specialized in playing boleros, guarachas,

20 Chico Alvarez Peraza, "Cachao speaks: a uniquely candid and no-holds barred conversation with the Cuban music master and innovator," Latin Beat Magazine, online, May 2008.

21 Leonardo Padura Fuentes, Faces of Salsa: A Spoken History of the Music (Berkeley and Los Angeles: Smithsonian Books, 2003) 92.

22 Abel Delgado, "Conversing with Cachao, Part 1," Descarga. online, May 2008. 13

danzones, and danzonetes.23

Collazo's group worked in the cabarets and ballrooms along the beach at Marianao.

At these cabarets, male patrons bought tickets to dance with hostesses for five cents a

dance. The hostesses earned three cents while the house claimed two cents. Musicians

were paid one dollar and seventy cents to play danzones from 9 p.m. to 2 a.m. At the

Marianao resorts, musicians earned three dollars and a meal for seven hours of work

which began at 10 p.m.24

In 1937, Cachao and the other members of Collazo s La Maravilla del Signo left the

group to form their own collective in which the group's earnings were equally divided

among the musicians. At that time, son group had already been

successfully run as a cooperative. Collazo's musicians embraced the idea and ventured

out on their own. Antonio Arcano became the director of the new group now called

La Primer a Maravilla Del Siglo (The First Wonder of the Century), and they debuted at

El Salon Central in .25 Following a legal dispute with Collazo over the name,

the group was later renamed La Maravilla de Arcano.2b

Cachao and Orestes Lopez were given the task of composing and arranging for the

new group. Although Cachao had been composing since 1935, it was not until he joined

Arcaiio's group that he began to mature as a composer. One of his first compositions and

23 Danzonetes were danzones that incorporated a vocalist and included elements of son and bolero.

24 Max Salazar, "Antonio Arcano: Listo, Arcano? - Antonio Arcano, musico pionero de Cuba," Latin Beat Magazine, online, June 2001.

25 Ibid.

26 Ned Sublette, Cuba and Its music: From the First Drums to the Mambo (Chicago: Chicago Review Press, 2004) 449. 14 arrangements for Arcano during this period was entitled "La rareza de meliton," which the Lopez brothers later rearranged for Arcano and recorded for Gema Records in 1957 as

"."27 Cachao explained, "Orestes and I revived it again later, but with a different swing, this time with the mambo added. We called the new version

"Chanchullo."28

In 1963, Cuban timbalero used the rhythmic theme of Cachao's

"Chanchullo,'.' as the basis for his popular cha cha cha entitled "Oye como va."

Cachao articulated:

We wrote that now-famous movement back in 1937. Everyone plays that today, but no one knows the origin of it. The proof of where it comes from is found in those historic recordings we did with Arcano. The rhythm was derived from a danzon called "La Rareza de Meliton." Meliton was a young dancer who followed us everywhere we played, and he would always ask me to write a danzon for him.29

Adding to the historic significance of Cachao's "Chanchullo," was the release of rock guitarist 's 1970 cover version of Puente's "Oye como va," which became an international popular music sensation.

Unfortunately, Cachao was never financially compensated or given composer's credit for his contribution to "Oye como va." He regarded Tito Puente as a brother and didn't want to cause trouble for Tito by demanding royalties or composer's credit for the composition. Santana and Tito Puente later became embroiled in a legal battle over the rights to "Oye como va." Cachao remarked, "Tito may have registered the lyrics to that

27 Max Salazar, "Antonio Arcano: Listo, Arcano? - Antonio Arcano, musico pionero de Cuba," Latin Beat Magazine, online, June 2001.

28 Chico Alvarez Peraza, "Cachao speaks: a uniquely candid and no-holds barred conversation with the Cuban music master and innovator," Latin Beat Magazine, online, May 2008.

29 Ibid. 15 tune, but the music and the rhythm is all mine, straight from "Chanchullo," back in 1937.

What part of it belongs to Santana is a mystery to me."30

1.4. The Issue of Composer's Rights

The theft of composer's rights was not a new issue for Israel Lopez. It was not uncommon for Cuban musicians of the 1940s and 1950s to be exploited by American based recording and publishing companies. Musicians working in the casinos were generally treated well and paid properly because there was a steady flow of money generated from the tourist industry. On the other hand, publishing houses such as Peer

International, did not consistently issue royalty payments to composers. According to

Cachao:

Most of the time there were no advances, so the author had to wheel and deal to get an advance. The composers received almost nothing, and then they were told that the records had not sold enough copies to warrant any royalties. More often than not, the matter had to be taken by them to court. Some composers preferred to retrieve their money the old fashioned way, by resorting to violence, "a pinazo limpio," and that led to some problems because they would sometimes get arrested.31

Cachao, who had served on the board of the Society of Composers and had access to royalty statements sent to composers, realized that compensation was poor for the most part and that royalties were seldom issued on the sales of records. That meant musicians had to make a living solely on income garnered from live performances.

In another example, the rights to Cachao's composition "Descarga Cubana," which he recorded on the "Descarga en miniatura" recording sessions, were stolen by

30 Chico Alvarez Peraza, "Cachao speaks: a uniquely candid and no-holds barred conversation with the Cuban music master and innovator," Latin Beat Magazine, online, May 2008.

31 Ibid. 16 the session's producer, Oswaldo Estivil. The opening bass line of "Descarga Cubana" was an unmistakable Cachao creation:

Estivil was merely the producer of the session, the bass line was mine and the solos entirely represented the work of various instrumentalists. The singers contributed the coros. It was a collaboration between all of us who participated, yet they () stole the piece, registered with it Morro Music, and that was that. Naturally, I took them to court, and believe me, it was a fierce battle, but while Peer and Morro battled it out in court the revolutionaries were slowly taking control of everything that was considered private property in Cuba, nationalizing everything in the name of the people, including the publishing companies and the record labels. Peer won the case, but then they all fled from Cuba to New York, where they continued to make money from my famous bass line. It doesn't matter, as everyone who was present at that session and is still alive knows, I am the real composer of Descarga Cubana.32

Additionally, Cachao was not given composer's credit for his composition "El social club buenavista" (), which appeared on 's

1998 Grammy winning recording of the same name. Orestes Lopez was incorrectly listed as the composer and Cachao, along with Peer Music Publishing, entered into litigation to recover the rights. As a result, Cachao was unable to receive composer's royalties for "Buena Vista Social Club."

The theft of composer's rights was an issue that frequently occurred in the music industry, not only in Cuba but also in the United States. During the eras of

1950s American rock-and-roll and 1960s rhythm-and-blues, there were numerous instances where the rights to composer's works were stolen by unscrupulous music industry executives. It was not until the mid-to-late 1960s that musicians started to take the business of music seriously and began taking legal control of their music.

32 Chico Alvarez Peraza, "Cachao speaks: a uniquely candid and no-holds barred conversation with the Cuban music master and innovator," Latin Beat Magazine, online, May 2008. 17

1.5. Busy Times for Arcano y Sus Maravillas

In 1940, as the era of the danzonete was subsiding, Arcano released the vocalist, changed the group's name to Arcano y Sus Maravillas, and returned to playing instrumental danzones. Cachao explained:

When we took over the band, things changed. We got rid of the singer and started playing only [instrumental] danzones, because we created something. We started playing all danzones. And there was a time in which everybody did the same thing, nobody had singers. Antonio Maria Romeu was the only one with singers.33

During the 1940s, Arcano y Sus Maravillas was one of the most popular bands in

Cuba. The group members were highly regarded for their virtuosity as individual musicians and for their cohesive ensemble playing. The group's slogan was, "A maestro on each instrument, and together a marvel."34 The group worked almost everyday in social clubs or at functions in private homes in Havana and in towns throughout Cuba.

Antonio Arcano acted as his own booking agent and would often book two or three engagements for his band in different towns on the same day. To fulfill these commitments, he would sometimes send other groups impersonating Arcano y Sus

Maravillas to play engagements outside of Havana, while he performed with his own group at one of the social clubs in Havana. He would play one set in Havana and then rush off to front the "imposter" band for one set and then return to Havana to finish with his own band. According to flautist Jose Fajardo:

There was work everyday, at times twice a day. I'm not exaggerating when I tell you the band was working 365 days a year. Charangas posing as

33 Abel Delgado, "Conversing with Cachao, Part 1," Descarga. online, May 2008.

34 Leonardo Padura Fuentes, Faces of Salsa: A Spoken History of the Music (Berkeley and Los Angeles: Smithsonian Books, 2003) 93. 18

Arcaiio's orchestra would work out-of-town gigs. Arcano earned $40 which, at that time was top dollar. Jesus Lopez earned $9.1 earned $8.35

Arcano's group also performed daily radio shows for Radio Mil Diaz along with

Arsenio Rodriguez y Sus Conjunto. Arsenio occupied the 5:00 p.m. time slot while

Arcano performed at 7:00 p.m. Arcano's group premiered a new danzon everyday on Mil

Diaz and Cachao and Orestes had to continually write new music to keep up with the demands of the performance schedule. Cachao recalled, "Arcano never held rehearsal...

We would break in a new tune while broadcasting or at a dance... We were introducing new tunes almost every day. I wrote between twenty and thirty arrangements each week."36 It is estimated that the Lopez brothers composed between 2,500 and 3,000 danzones.

Being a prolific composer, Cachao was able to compose quickly. On days when he wasn't performing, it was not unusual for him to work around the clock composing new music, often with only a few hours sleep. He believed it was important for Arcano's group to have a large repertoire so the band would not always have to play the same material. In this way, the dancers would not grow tired of hearing the group because they would always hear different music. This was another reason for Arcano's popularity among the dancers.

Adding to the demands on Cachao as a composer was the custom for such groups as Arcano's and Arsenio Rodriguez y Sus Conjunto to compose danzones dedicated

35 Max Salazar, "Antonio Arcano: Listo, Arcano? - Antonio Arcano, musico pionero de Cuba," Latin Beat Magazine, online, June 2001.

36 Ned Sublette, Cuba and Its music: From the First Drums to the Mambo (Chicago: Chicago Review Press, 2004) 478. 19 specifically to the social clubs and the youth of the barrios in Havana and surrounding areas. There were hundreds of social clubs in Cuba all requesting their own particular danzon. Like Cachao, Arsenio Rodriguez composed many son motunos dedicated to the youth of the barrios in Havana.

One of the first of these "personal danzones" that Cachao composed entitled

"Centro San Agustin," was dedicated to the club members of a town near Havana called

Alquizar. Cachao articulated:

Lots of danzones came about that had the names of social clubs. That also accelerated the production because the social club in Santa Clara would want one, the one in Matanzas would want one, the ones in Camagiiey and Oriente. You had to make one for everybody. There were hundreds of social clubs. That's why production sped up and we had the enormous repertoire that we had."37

Cachao's sister, Coralia, also composed personal danzones. Her danzon entitled

'Tsora club," was recorded by Arcano's group on several occasions and was a mainstay in

Cachao's repertoire throughout his career. Cachao articulated:

I had a bit of a problem there. Isora was located in Melones St. between Compromiso and Luyano. But when my sister wrote that danzon (Isora Club), I had already written a danzon for the Center of St. Augustin [sic] of Alquizar which had a similar mambo beat. The problem was that all the societies wanted a danzon. And so I wrote, "11 Jovenes de Antorcha," "Buenavista," "de Artimesa," and many other danzones. I even did one in Matanzas entitled, "Club Musical Mecca." They didn't like it if you wrote a danzon for other societies. So I started doing those sort of danzones in order to please everyone. They all wanted their own danzon and that's how the personal danzones came about.38

Cachao composed personal danzones for such social clubs as "Aponte sport club,"

"Marianao social," "Armoniosos de amalia," and "Pueblo nuevo se paso."

37 Abel Delgado, "Conversing with Cachao, Part 1," Descarga. online, May 2008.

38 Andy Garcia, "Cachao: Como Su Ritmo No Hay Dos," CineSon Productions Inc. (Epic Music Video, New York N.Y.) VHS 1993. 20

Cachao had been introduced to the melodies of American musical theatre and

Hollywood movies from his association with orquesta tipicas that used these melodies as material for their danzones. He had developed a fondness for these themes and often incorporated them into his arrangements. Cachao revealed:

I included many American melodies during the second part of the danzon. Tunes like "Over the Rainbow" (Africa Viva) and "Stormy Weather." I began to do this in 1939. It was a commercial gimmick... the dancers requested them. If we didn't play American melodies, another charanga would do it... the American melodies is what the dancers enjoyed the most.39

In their arrangements, the Lopez brothers included such melodies as "Serenade In

Blue" (Broadway), "Chattanooga Choo Choo," "As Time Goes By" (Pasaran los anos),

"Bewitched, Bothered and Bewildered" (Los tres bailadores), "Intermezzo," "Little

Brown Jug," "I Don't Want To Set The World On Fire," and Tommy Dorsey's theme song, "I'm Getting Sentimental Over You" (Los tres grandes).

In 1944 or 1945, Cachao left Arcano's group to organize an orchestra with pianist

Jesus Lopez. Flautist Jose Fajardo recalled, "Jesus wanted Cachao because his arrangements were one of the reasons Arcaiio's band was so popular. Later, Arcano visited Cachao at his home and persuaded him not to leave his band. Jesus Lopez was talked out of leaving also."40

Ned Sublette suggests that in 1949, after twelve years with Arcano's group, and having grown tired of the frantic performing schedule and the demands of writing for the

39 Max Salazar, "Antonio Arcano: Listo, Arcano? - Antonio Arcano, musico pionero de Cuba," Latin Beat Magazine, online, June 2001.

40 Ibid. 21 fourteen-piece Orquesta Radiqfonica de Arcano, Cachao left Arcano's group to play in the house orchestra at The Blanquita Theater.41 Here, he worked in relative comfort as a sideman in the fifty-member orchestra that accompanied the Broadway-style reviews that were booked into the Blanquita showroom. He remarked, "With them I was just another musician, without so many responsibilities."42

By 1950, as the popularity of the danzon had started to wane, Cuban music repertoire had become quite diverse. While charangas and big bands still played the danzon, such other styles as mambo, cha cha cha, son montuno, and were introduced and became popular internationally. Cuban society, which had long been racially segregated, became less segregated and bands played to racially mixed audiences. Cachao believed that the popularity of the mambo in the United States, along with the tourist boom in Cuba during the 1950s, played an important role in the desegregation of Cuban society. It was during this period that he decided to form his own group with the prime goal of capitalizing on the freedom to incorporate more of these diverse styles into his music.

During the 1950s, Cachao continued his freelance work with the symphony, opera and numerous musical revues and orchestras. He worked with the Jose Fajardo

Orchestra for an extended period. This group played a variety of Cuban music genres including the mambo and songs in a style created by Enrique Jorrin in 1950 called cha cha cha. In the late 1950s, Cachao enlisted the services of some of Havana's best

41 Ned Sublette, Cuba and Its music: From the First Drums to the Mambo (Chicago: Chicago Review Press, 2004) 568.

42 Leonardo Padura Fuentes, Faces of Salsa: A Spoken History of the Music (Berkeley and Los Angeles: Smithsonian Books, 2003) 97. 22 musicians to be part of his new descarga project.43

1.6. Move Out of Cuba

Throughout the first half of the twentieth century, many Cuban musicians had moved to the United States to take advantage of career opportunities or to escape political unrest in Cuba. Clarinetist and saxophonist Mario Bauza had been living in

New York City since 1930. Percussionist Luciano "Chano" Pozo and vocalist

Miguelito Valdes worked there during the 1940s and Arsenio Rodriguez moved there in 1950. Relocation to New York City seemed like natural move for Cachao.

By 1959, had led a successful overthrow of the Cuban government of Fulgencio Batista. Many high profile Cuban musicians along with thousands of Cuba's middle and upper-middle class fled Castro's regime to relocate in the United States. Political tension between Cuba and the United States had escalated to the point that in 1961, the United States had broken off diplomatic relations with Castro's regime. During this time, Israel Lopez decided to leave Cuba to join compatriots in New York City:

I had a contract to come and perform in New York. But when I was at the airport and ready to leave, my daughter (who was nine years old at the time) began to cry. I turned the job down, and shortly afterward, I began to think that I would never be able to leave Cuba.44

In 1962, Cachao travelled to Spain to work with the group Sabor Cubano

(Cuban flavor), under the direction of Ernesto Duarte. His plan was to work for a short time in Spain, save some money and apply for political asylum in the United

43 See CHAPTER VII - CACHAO'S DESCARGA.

44 Chico Alvarez Peraza, "Cachao speaks: a uniquely candid and no-holds barred conversation with the Cuban music master and innovator," Latin Beat Magazine, online, May 2008. 23

States. Sabor Cubano played at various venues in and at the Mediterranean resort of Alicante.45 Cachao recalled, "We worked all over the country. It was beautiful, and I felt totally welcome."46 He also worked with Damaso Perez Prado who had arrived in Spain on an international tour. While in Madrid, Prado's bass player became ill. Cachao was contacted and asked to fill in while Prado's bass player recovered:

He [Prado] asked around to see if there was a Cuban bass player in Madrid who could play mambo. Someone told him that I was in town and that's when it dawned on him - who could play mambo better than the man who created the monster? He called me and asked if I would do a series of television shows with him and his band. We did two weeks at Radio Madrid.47

By 1963, Cachao's wife of sixteen years had joined family in and

Cachao was eager to join her. He eventually arranged to reunite with his family in the

United States.

Cachao moved to New York City in late 1963 and immediately began to impact the local scene. One of the first groups he worked with was Charlie

Palmieri's band:

I had just arrived from Spain and I bumped into the great trumpeter Alejandro "El Negro" Vivar. He said that he was going to go play at some hotel dance on the following night; I forget which hotel it was. I told him that I was here to stay and that I was looking for a job. He looked at me and calmly said, "Tomorrow you play with me in 's band." And that's exactly how it happened.48

45 Raul A. Fernandez, From Afro-Cuban Rhythms to Latin Jazz (Berkeley and Los Angeles: California UP, 2006) 78.

46 Rebecca Mauleon, "Cachao!," Bass Player Magazine, online, March 2008.

47 Chico Alvarez Peraza, "Cachao speaks: a uniquely candid and no-holds barred conversation with the Cuban music master and innovator," Latin Beat Magazine, online, May 2008.

48 Chico Alvarez Peraza, "Cachao speaks: a uniquely candid and no-holds barred conversation with the Cuban music master and innovator," Latin Beat Magazine, online, May 2008. 24

The engagement with Charlie Palmieri's group lasted only a few days, but it introduced Cachao to the milieu of New York City Latin music. During his first two years in New York City, he was hired to play such venues as private parties with Puerto Rican vocal/guitar trios, tango bars with Argentinian tango singer Libertad Lamarque, club dates with North American combos, and mariachi performances with Mexican vocalist

Miguel Aceves Mejia. He reconnected with the Jose Fajardo Orchestra, which had fled the and regrouped in the United States. He also worked with the top , charangas and big bands on the Latin music scene. These bands experimented with the Latin sound and worked with the descarga format.

Cachao established himself as one of the most in-demand studio bassists while working for such Latin recording artists as Tito Puente, Joe Quijano, , Johnny

Pacheco, The Alegre All Stars, Chico O'Farrill, and Charlie and .

In 1964, Cachao worked with Pacheco at the New York World's Fair. This engagement led to an opportunity to play with Tito Rodriguez, who's bassist had sustained a hand injury. He ended up working with Rodriguez for two years, during which time he played on a number of memorable recordings.

Cachao and Tito Puente performed as a duo on many occasions. Cachao played bass and sang and Tito played :

We played all over town, and at first, we even tried to write some things out, a sort of routine, but that didn't work, so we simply improvised, in a typical descarga style. That always seemed to come out the best. He was so professional that we really went over big when we played that way.49

49 Chico Alvarez Peraza, "Cachao speaks: a uniquely candid and no-holds barred conversation with the Cuban music master and innovator," Latin Beat Magazine, online, May 2008. 25

Recalling another engagement, Cachao divulged, "We got this little gig in Jersey with

Candito50 on and singer Miguelito Valdes, but 1 was still working with Tito

Rodriguez and Machito's big bands at the time, so I had to be careful not to ruffle any feathers."51 The rivalry between Tito Puente and Tito Rodriguez was reportedly quite intense during this period and musicians had to walk a fine line when working with either of the Latin music super stars.

1.7. Move to Las Vegas

In the late 1960s, Cachao was asked to perform in Las Vegas and ended up staying nine years. According to Cuban drummer Walfredo de los Reyes Sr.:

The reason Cachao went to Vegas was that George Hernandez (a Cuban conductor) got the job at the Thunderbird Hotel conducting a show called Latin Fire Review, which had been there before, but at this time George led the band. Of course, having a top-notch Cuban conductor who did all the arrangements meant we needed a great bass player. We had a bass player but he couldn't do it, so we talked it over and said, "Let's get Papito,"52 and he came from Puerto Rico. As soon as Papito came to Las Vegas, everybody was after him saying "Stay with us, come with us." So finally, Papito got a contract, I think with Paul Anka, or something that he wanted to do, or at the Dunes. So Papito left the show, and Jorge booked Cachao to play the Latin Fire Review, which was amazing because it was all rumba, 6/8, and so on.53

After the "Latin Fire" engagement ended, Cachao worked with entertainer Pupi

Campo at Caesars Palace. Coincidentally, 's brother, Mandy, was the

50 Guerra is a Cuban conga player.

51 Rebecca Mauleon, "Cachao!," Bass Player Magazine, online, March 2008.

52 Papito Hernandez was a Puerto Rican bassist.

53 John Santos, "Walfredo de los Reyes: legendary Cuban drummer Walfredo de los Reyes Sr. reminisces to John Santos about Las Vegas, , Havana, Tito Puente, and the historic Ecue recording," Latin Beat Magazine, online, May 2009. 26 president in charge of gaming at Caesar's Palace.54 Cachao recalled:

I had consistent work with Pupi Campo, even though attendance was pretty bad. People were there to play the slots, so no one really paid attention. Campo even titled the show "El Padre del Trueno" (the father of thunder), but it wasn't the most thrilling time in my career.55

Following the Caesars Palace engagement, Cachao continued to work in Las

Vegas at such hotels and casinos as The MGM, The Hilton, The Dunes, and the Plaza

Hotel. He also played concerts with the Las Vegas Symphony. In a Latin Beat Magazine interview, Cachao recalled:

My last gig in Vegas was at the Hacienda, as a pianist. There was no other work available at the time, so when I was asked to play piano, I said, "yes, of course." We played a lot of Mexican music, but not like the mariachi-style , more than anything else, and even some ballads too. It was really funny, but there was this patron, a happy-go-lucky Mexican, who would come by and ask for requests. One night he asked our singer, Carlos Montiel, if we could play a titled La Perra. We didn't know it, and Carlitos put him off by telling him that we would do it before the night was over, hoping that the guy would have gone home by then. Well, at the end of the night, the guy came back and asked, "What happened to La Perra?" So Carlitos told him, "La perra se muri—de parto" (the bitch died giving birth). With that, the guy pulled out a gun and shot him in the crotch. That was the very last job I had in Las Vegas.56

While working in Las Vegas during the 1970s, Cachao continued to record as both leader and sideman. He reunited with pianists Charlie Palmieri and Lino Frias to record two records for the Salsoul label. One recording from this period entitled "Dos" (Salsoul

1976), received critical acclaim. The recording featured Charlie Palmieri (piano), Barry

Rogers (trombone), Alfredo "Chocolate" Armenteros and Alejandro "El Negro" Vivar

54 Chico Alvarez Peraza, "Cachao speaks: a uniquely candid and no-holds barred conversation with the Cuban music master and innovator," Latin Beat Magazine, online, May 2008.

55 Rebecca Mauleon, "Cachao!." Bass Player Magazine, online, March 2008.

56 Chico Alvarez Peraza, "Cachao speaks: a uniquely candid and no-holds barred conversation with the Cuban music master and innovator," Latin Beat Magazine, online, May 2008. 27

(trumpets), Manny Oquendo (timbales), and Carlos "Patato" Valdez (congas). In 1977, the group performed an historic concert at . Cachao recalled, "The night we played that concert was just incredible. The audience was totally in awe of what we did on that stage. I felt alive again, knowing that the music that I had written forty years earlier had once again been accepted by the mainstream."57

Even with the acclaim that his Salsoul recordings had garnered, and the success that the Lincoln Centre concert had achieved, Cachao still found it very difficult to sustain a career in New York City. The Latin music industry was changing and the record buying public were turning their attention to such Latin singing crooners as Julio Iglesias. Such

Latin music record companies as Salsoul were adding these types of artists to their rosters and abandoning the traditional or experimental Cuban music acts.

Another factor that affected the Latin music industry's ability to promote traditional

Latin artists was the rise in popularity of disco58 music during the 1970s. Even traditional

Cuban music labels like Fania had lost faith in Cachao's ability to sell records. In an interview he lamented:

Those who liked my music bought those , but they were never really promoted properly by the label. So that was the end of it for me. During the previous nine years, I had been living in Las Vegas, up until the Salsoul recordings, and then I tried to make a comeback in New York. Despite the great music that we produced, nothing else was happening for me there. Those two albums are now collector's items, just like the Panart things; at least this is what I hear.59

57 Chico Alvarez Peraza, "Cachao speaks: a uniquely candid and no-holds barred conversation with the Cuban music master and innovator," Latin Beat Magazine, online, May 2008.

58 Disco was a genre of dance music that reached the height of popularity in the mid-to-late-1970s.

59 Chico Alvarez Peraza, "Cachao speaks: a uniquely candid and no-holds barred conversation with the Cuban music master and innovator," Latin Beat Magazine, online, May 2008. 28

1.8. Move to Florida

In 1978, Israel Lopez moved to , Florida. Cuban drummer Walfredo de los

Reyes Sr. suggested that Cachao moved to Miami on the insistence of his wife, Esther, who had grown tired of his gambling habits. Reyes recalled, "After work, he would go to that machine place and bang, bang, until five, six o'clock in the morning, so when he got home, Esther was very upset. So, he decided to go back."60

In Miami, Cachao lived in relative obscurity, playing at quinceaheras,6] weddings, family parties and "jam sessions" in the communities of south Florida. During this time, he backed up the Hansely Raul charanga, which worked the local lounges.

In an interview with the Miami Herald, Cachao told of an incident in which he was forced off 1-95 highway by a young woman as he drove to work one night. He recalled the teenaged girl yelling:

"Move it, old man!" as she forced him to the side of the road and then pulled out a machine gun. "Where are you going?" she demanded. When he told her he was a musician at Papa Grande, a local Big Daddy's lounge and that he played with Hansel y Raul, she eased up. Charanga carried clout back in the day. Cachao recalled her parting words: "Well, I'm not going to kill you because I'm in a good mood." Later that night, Cachao was shocked to see the girl turn up at the club. She asked if she could take a picture with him. Cachao reluctantly posed with her—and her piece.62

In 1985, Cachao traveled to Colombia with Hansel y Raul to perform at the

Caribbean Music Festival in Cartagena. In 1986, he recorded the Hansel y Raul

60 John Santos, "Walfredo de los Reyes: legendary Cuban drummer Walfredo de los Reyes Sr. reminisces to John Santos about Las Vegas, Louie Bellson, Havana, Tito Puente, and the historic Ecue recording," Latin Beat Magazine, online, May 2009.

61 In some Latin American countries, a quinceanera is the celebration of a young girl's fifteenth birthday.

62 Liz Balmaseda, "Cachao, King of Cuban Swing is Still Kicking up the Temp," Miami Herald, online, 3 June 2003. 29

"La Magia de Hansel y Raul," at Miami Sound Studios. He also managed to release a descarga recording during this period, but for the most part, the level of his musical activity diminished.

1.9. Resurgence of Career

In 1989, Cachao traveled to San Francisco to take part in the filming of a documentary on Cuban folkloric drummer entitled Sworn to the

Drum. He also performed at the Conga Summit percussion festival, which featured such percussionists as Aquabella, Julito Collazo, and Patato Valdes. During that year, he performed at the "Evolucion De La Musica Afro-Cubana" concert at San Francisco's

Davies Symphony Hall as a featured artist with the Machete Ensemble during the San

Francisco Jazz Festival. It was at this concert that he met Cuban-born actor/producer

Andy Garcia.

Garcia was first introduced to Cachao's music at age fifteen and one of the first recordings he purchased was Lopez's "Descargas en miniatura." That recording became

Garcia's impetus to study Afro-Cuban percussion, which he currently continues to play.

The two met backstage after the Davies Symphony Hall performance and Garcia made an immediate commitment to support and promote Cachao's legacy and revitalize his career.

Their subsequent collaboration and friendship resulted in a musical rebirth for Cachao. "I came back to life," he recalled.63

In July of 1992, Garcia organized the tribute concert "Cachao, Mambo &

Descarga," in Miami, Florida that was filmed and subsequently released as the

63 Liz Balmaseda, "Cachao, King of Cuban Swing is Still Kicking up the Temp," Miami Herald, online, 3 June 2003. 30 documentary Cachao... Como Su Ritmo No Hay Dos (Cachao... Like His Rhythm There

Is No Other). This was followed by two highly acclaimed recordings entitled "Cachao:

Master Sessions, Volume I and Volume II," released in 1994 and 1995 respectively. The

"Master Sessions Volume I" recording won a Grammy Award in the "Best Tropical Latin

Performance" category.

Interestingly, Andy Garcia's father, Rene Garcia, had met Cachao years earlier in

Cuba. The elder Garcia used to hire Arcano y Sus Maravillas to play Sunday dances at the "Liceo de Bejucal" social club in his hometown of Bejucal, Cuba. It was not until

Andy Garcia began work on the Cachao tribute concert that he learnt of the connection between his father and Cachao.

The "Master Sessions" recordings contained compositions dating back to the danzones of the 1940s social club era and included such Cuban music genres as mambo, rumba, giiiro, guajira, and descarga. The recording sessions featured such Cachao contemporaries as Armando Armenteros (trumpet) and Francisco Aguabella (conga, shekere), along with such contemporary artists as Paquito D'Rivera (clarinet, alto),

Jimmy Bosch (trombone), Nelson Gonzalez (tres), and Nestor Torres (flute). In an interview, Cachao speculated on reasons for the success of the "Master Sessions" recordings:

I'm of the opinion that it's the variation on the recording. It's a history of Cuban music from the turn of the century to the present. I think this makes an impact; when you listen to a whole sequence of things that evolve out of each other, it's exciting. At the same time, it's a cultural experience. You're tracing roots.64

Jorge Socarras, "Cachao," Bomb Magazine, online. 31

The Garcia and Cachao collaboration led to Cachao's appearances on saxophonist

Paquito D'Rivera's 1993 recording "40 Years of Cuban ." He also performed live with and performed on her 1994 Grammy Award winning recording

"," and subsequent "" recording.

1.10. 2000s and Eventual Passing

During the 2000s, Cachao continued to be active as a composer and arranger. In

2000, his work entitled "Mambo Mass," described as "a daring liturgical work encompassing elements of Afro-Cuban music, opera, and classical traditions,"65 premiered at St. Vincent de Paul Catholic Church in Los Angeles.

In 2003, he recorded "," with fellow Cuban musicians Bebo

Valdes (piano) and Carlos "Patato" Valdes (congas), winning another Grammy Award in the "Best Traditional Tropical Latin Album" category. That same year, he was honored with a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.

In 2004, Andy Garcia produced the recording and film documentary entitled,

"Cachao jahora si!" which, in 2005, won a Grammy Award in the "Best Traditional

Tropical Album" category.

In 2006, Cachao was honored at two "Jazz at Lincoln Center" concerts featuring an Afro-Latin Jazz Orchestra and later that year, led a mambo all-star band at a JVC Jazz

Festival program at Carnegie Hall.66 On November 7, 2006, he was awarded an honorary

65 Jason Ankeny, "Cachao Biography." All Music, online.

66 Jason Ankeny, "Cachao Biography." All Music, online. 32 doctorate from in Boston, Massachusetts. During 2007 and

2008, he continued to tour extensively with a fifteen-piece orchestra.

In March of 2008, Cachao became ill and was admitted to Coral Gables

Hospital in Florida, where he died on Saturday, March 22, 2008, of complications resulting from kidney failure. Israel Lopez was 89 years old. 33

PART II

THE HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE BASS IN CUBAN POPULAR MUSIC

CHAPTER II - THE DEVELOPMENT OF BASS PARTS IN CUBAN POPULAR MUSIC

Until the 1940s, bass parts played in Cuban music genres were quite simple, both melodically and rhythmically. Melodically, bass parts consisted of the tonic and dominant of the harmony. Rhythmically, such patterns as tresillo and bolero were used. The bolero rhythm was used extensively in son67 and in other styles evolving from the son including, bolero, mambo, and traditional forms of guaracha and rumba.68

**t~ r^^ Fig. 2.1: bolero rhythm.

67 Son is a folkloric Cuban music genre that originated in the Oriente province of Cuba and became popular during the early twentieth century.

68 Carlos Del Puerto, The True Cuban Bass (Petaluma, CA: Sher Music Co., 1994) 2. 34

Both the tresillo and bolero rhythms evolved from the habanera rhythm, which is the reoccurring rhythmic pattern of the habanera.

Fig. 2.2: habanera rhythm.

According to Peter Manuel, the contradanza habanera originated from the English country dance and the French contredanse and was practiced in Haiti during the eighteenth century. The form was then brought to Santiago, Cuba by black and French refugees of the Haitian revolution (1798-1801) and was disseminated throughout Cuba by the early 1800s.69

Black musicians who played Cuban would often place their own interpretation on simple sheet music melodies. One interpretation was the addition of a rhythmic cell that became known as tango.70 This rhythmic cell was common to music genres throughout the world and was later used in the Argentine tango. Sublette suggests that as the cell travelled from region to region, it acquired different names.71 In Cuba, this rhythmic cell became known as the habanera.

An example of the habanera rhythm appears in the bass part of Louis Moreau

Gottschalk's contradanza for piano entitled "Ojos crillos" (Danse cubaine 1859).

69 Peter Manuel, "The Anticipated Bass in Cuban Popular Music," Latin American Music Review. Vol. 6, No. 2 (Autumn - Winter, 1985) 249-261.

70 Ned Sublette, Cuba and Its music: From the First Drums to the Mambo (Chicago: Chicago Review Press, 2004) 133.

71 Ibid, 134. 35

Gottschalk had earlier used the habanera rhythm in the right hand of his composition entitled "La bamboula" (Danse des negres). In "Ojos crillos," he used the habanera rhythm in the left hand bass part.72

m mu p m zm m 4V i, »> rn. £ £ I £ =£ ^ I £ m m t-i Fig. 2.3: habanera rhythm in bass part from "Ojos crillos" (Louis Moreau Gottschalk).73

Cuban musicians created an important variation to the habanera rhythm by tying together the first and second beats of the cell. This variation became known as the tresillo rhythm. This syncopated rhythm was commonly applied to the bass parts of such Cuban music genres as danzon, son, son montuno, guaracha, as well as such Caribbean genres as and calypso. It would later influence such American popular music styles as boogie-woogie and rock-and-roll.74

S

Fig. 2.4: tresillo rhythm.

72 Ned Sublette, Cuba and Its music: From the First Drums to the Mambo (Chicago: Chicago Review Press, 2004) 151.

73 Ibid.

74 Ibid, 134. 36

The tresillo rhythm is c/ove-neutral (played on both sides of the clave15) and chord changes occur on the downbeat of each measure in the tradition of European orchestral music. This is typical of the music of early son groups. In the early 1920s, the contrabass replaced the marimbula and botija16 as the bass instrument in the son groups of Havana. The contrabass was a more flexible and powerful instrument and as a result, the bass lines changed, becoming more independent. Traditionally, bass parts emphasized beat one of each measure, but during this time, the "and-of-two" became more important.

The tres part emphasized beat four in the offbeats of its pattern, which implied that the harmony was changing on beat four of the measure rather than on the downbeat of the following measure. This allowed for more freedom in the bass part while the repetition of the clave kept the group together.77

This development of the bass part, known as the bombo-ponche pattern, accented the "and-of-two" and beat four. This pattern, which Peter Manuel referred to as the anticipated bass pattern,78 became a common bass tumbao leading up to the developments of bass parts made by Israel Lopez "Cachao" and Arsensio Rodriguez in the 1940s.

In 1940, Cuban tres player Arsensio Rodriguez contributed several innovations that changed the Cuban son. He added a montuno section to the traditional son creating a

75 For a definition of clave, refer to Chapter IX: THE CONCEPT OF CLAVE.

76 For a definition of marimbula and botija, refer to Chapter IV: BASS INSTRUMENTS AND ORIGINS.

77 Ned Sublette, Cuba and Its music: From the First Drums to the Mambo (Chicago: Chicago Review Press, 2004) 342.

78 Peter Manuel, "The Anticipated Bass in Cuban Popular Music," Latin American Music Review Vol. 6, No. 2 (Autumn - Winter, 1985) 249-261. 37 genre called son montuno. He also added piano, tumbadora and a second trumpet to the traditional septeto, thus creating the conjunto. Another important innovation to Arsensio's son montuno texture was the role of the bass.

Whereas conventional bass patterns used in such styles as bolero and guaracha accented the downbeat of each measure, Arsenio favoured bass patterns consisting of numerous offbeats. Arsenio's bass parts accented the offbeats as well as the vocal refrain parts. Conventional bass patterns consisted of the root and fifth scale degrees of the corresponding chord. This gave the bass part a strictly harmonic role. Contrastingly,

Arsenio's bass patterns consisted of scale tones as well as chord tones, thus making them more melodic.

In a 1977 interview with David F. Garcia, Arsenio's brother Raul Travieso recounted, "Arsenio insisted that his bass players make the bass sing because if the bass didn't sing, the music would be weak."79 Kevin Moore cites the composition "Cangrejo fue a estudiar," as an example of Arsenio's "singing bass" (bajo cantado) innovation. The first three notes of the bass tumbao double the melody of the word "cangrejo," the next two notes reinforce it rhythmically, while the last three notes supply a countermelody.80

79 David F Garcia, Arsenio Rodriguez and the Transnational Flows of Latin Popular Music (Philadelphia: Temple UP, 2006) 43.

80 Kevin Moore, "The Roots of Timba. Arsenio Rodriguez and the Development of Cuban Bass Tumbaos 1940-1951." Timba, online. 38

Cangrejo fue a estudiar Son montuno - = 129 Aiseosio Roduauez

\oice t J p%i=f^fmmi-'ican are 10 ican are ]0

Bajo fe§ £ ss ^r^P^EJ ^frTfl i ^

Claves 4T 4 J J i i J • it-^L 11 J J-q ^Ji_I

BO.- (bczt^Si^^effl^^iS rr ^ff IT Fig. 2.5: "Cangrejo fue a estudiar" - Arsensio Rodriguez y Sus Conjunto (EI Alma De Cuba. Grabaciones Completas RCA Victor 1940-1956 Tumbao 315).

The interweaving of parts within the conjunto was another of Arsenio's innovations. This became important with the addition of the conga to the conjunto ensemble. In the conventional septeto format, the bongo player alternated between a basic rhythmic pattern called a martillo and improvised patterns. To avoid clashing with the conga part, Arsenio's bongo player eliminated the improvised sections in favour of auxiliary slaps that interwove with the conga creating a call-and-response relationship with the accented rhythms of the conga and bass. The conga and bass parts also interwove with the basic dance footwork of the son.8i

The innovations to the bass parts introduced by Arsensio Rodriguez were reflective of changes that were adopted by Cuban arrangers of the period who created more active

81 David F Garcia, Arsenio Rodriguez and the Transnational Flows of Latin Popular Music (Philadelphia: Temple UP, 2006) 46. 39 parts for the contrabass. Israel Lopez was also one of the main protagonists of this movement to give the contrabass a more interactive role in the music. 40

CHAPTER III - ANALYSIS OF CACHAO'S BASS LINES

Cachao is recognized as one of the most influential musicians in the history of

Cuban popular music. Not only did he influence generations of Cuban bassists, his strong sense of feel and groove has had a major impact on contemporary music in the United

States and elsewhere around the world. Sublette contended that the modern feel of Cuban music began with Cachao. He explained, "What Cachao played wasn't just bass lines; they were tumbaos, motivic germs in themselves, which worked together with the piano part."82

Cachao's influence can be heard in the bass line of the /Mario

Bauza composition "Night In Tunisia," which the two musicians first worked on in 1938.

Gillespie had noticed that Cuban bass players were playing bass lines consisting of short, broken-up ostinato figures. Dizzy recalled, "In the early '40's I wrote 'Night In Tunisia,' which was the first tune in our music with the kind of bass the Cubans were playing."83 Another Gillespie composition, "Manteca," which he co-wrote with Cuban percussionist Chano Pozo, also used a Cachao-inspired, ostinato bass line. Mario Bauza articulated:

We made changes starting from the bottom - the bass, the drums Before they started to listen to us in the 1940s, all the American bass players played nothing but dum-dum-dum, 1-2-3-4, 'walking' bass. Then they heard the Cuban tumbaos (bass riffs) Cachao was playing, and they started to go da- da-dat - stop and rest - da-dat\

82 Ned Sublette, Cuba and Its music: From the First Drums to the Mambo (Chicago: Chicago Review Press, 2004)451.

83 Ibid, 536. 41

Da-da-datl - stop and rest - da-dat\m

The following excerpts taken from Cachao's composition "Es diferente," are examples of his creativity in developing the bass tumbao. The composition begins with one of Cachao's signature bass ostinatos (tumbaos) played under the long-tone moaning of a trumpet.

NC

fe^ EJ3E a ^ ^

Fig. 3.1: Bass tumbao from "Es diferente," (mm. 6-9) (Cachao Descargas: The Havana Sessions 1957-59 Yemaya-YY9440).

The introduction is followed by a trumpet solo. Here, Cachao's rhythmic brilliance is revealed as he develops the bass tumbao. In the first measure of the trumpet solo, he plays a bolero-style bass line that quickly develops into a two-bar pattern. The first bar of the pattern contains a number of constantly changing rhythms, while the second bar consistently anticipates the following chord on beat four of the measure.

Rather than using the traditional note choice of root of the chord on beat one, he uses inversions by playing the fifth or third of the chord on beat one of the measure.

84 Ned Sublette, Cuba and Its music: From the First Drums to the Mambo (Chicago: Chicago Review Press, 2004) 539. 42

Inimpet Solo Bi C -e^E SE £ ^=2= £

S 3=Z :^:? £ Tilimpet Solo Continues hvsi c Bb Bb s\'s

a ^=^ M^E£^ ^-H^"

c -3-—, B-> C -3 ! Bb

£## ^^ ^ 3 ^^ ^

Fig. 3.2: Development of the bolero bass line in "Es diferente," (mm. 24-39) (Cachao Descargas: The Havana Sessions 1957-59 Yemaya-YY9440).

During the flute solo, Cachao employs the tresillo rhythm in a traditional tumbao bass line.

C Flute Solo C Bb c Bb £ prn* ,/ * -i—J L--i —i v >'3 2 ^=? £=^# Flute Solo Continues 8X's

C 8X's « m_ m f rr 'T if • ft 'T I^ ^ S %

Fig. 3.3: One bar tumbao using the tresillo rhythm in "Es diferente," (mm. 46-51) (Cachao Descargas: The Havana Sessions 1957-59 Yemaya-YY9440). 43

The following excerpt taken from Cachao's composition "Las boinas de Cachao," is an example of his use of the anticipated bass tumbao. Here he plays a variation of the bombo-ponce pattern whereby the "and-of-two" bombo note is moved to beat three.

D D m pEE£ fe £E^ 59 « W ## Fig. 3.4: Use of anticipated bass tumbao in "Las boinas de Cachao," (mm. 59-62) (Cachao Descargas: The Havana Sessions 1957-59 Yemaya-YY9440). 44

CHAPTER IV - BASS INSTRUMENTS AND ORIGINS

"The bass is an instrument that in one word describes itself.

We're the depth of the music." - Israel Lopez "Cachao"

4.1. Tingo-talango or Tumbandera

In some areas of Cuba, such as the eastern province of Oriente, son groups that did not have access to the contrabass used instruments of African origin to provide the bass part. One such instrument was the tingo-talango, which derived from the African Pygmy earth-bow. Paul Schebesta described the Pygmy earth-bow as a cross between a drum and a bass-viol:

A piece of bark is placed over a cavity hollowed out in the earth and held firmly in position by upright blocks of wood. This is a drum that is beaten with a cudgel. Through a hole in the centre of the bark a piece of rattan string is introduced, and tied at one end of a horizontal stick on the inner surface of the drum, while the other end is attached firmly to the branch of a tree. Then the player twangs the string and pounds the drum to the accompaniment of the strains of the singers.85

Similar to the Pygmy earth-bow, the tingo-talango consisted of a sapling that had one end of a cord tied to it and pulled downward. The other end of the cord was tied to a rock that was placed in a hole in the ground. A contrabass-like sound was created by plucking the cord. Moving the sapling up or down altered the tension of the cord, thus changing the pitch.

The tingo-talango was used in the Cuban music genre called nengon. The nengon is considered to be the predecessor of both the changui and son genres. The nengon dance

85 Ned Sublette, Cuba and Its music: From the First Drums to the Mambo (Chicago: Chicago Review Press, 2004) 50. 45 was performed by coffee farmers while heaping pulped coffee into piles.

4.2. Marimbula and Botija

The marimbula, which has as its roots the African mbira (or sanza), was also used by Oriente son groups to produce bass tones. Similar to the mbira, the marimbula consists of a wooden resonator with metal strips attached to the front. The rigid strips are tuned to a gapped diatonic scale and when plucked, sounds similar to a plucked acoustic bass.86 The resonator of the marimbula is significantly larger than that of the mbira, thus allowing the player to sit on top of the instrument. The marimbulero reaches down between his knees to pluck the metal tongues or strike the wooden resonator to create an added rhythmic effect.

Sublette explained that the African sanza was not an equal tempered instrument designed for use as a harmonic bass instrument.87 The harmonies of the first sons were simple and repetitive using primarily tonic, dominant and sub-dominant harmonies.

To adapt the instrument to the son group, marimbuleros played a minimal number of notes, often no more than three in a song.

Another instrument that was used to produce bass tones was called the botija or botijuela. The botija was an earthenware jug similar to those used by the Europeans to transport oils and olives. The botija was held horizontally and the player sang bass parts through a hole in the side of the vessel while the top hole was covered and uncovered by

86 Raul A. Fernandez, From Afro-Cuban Rhythms to Latin Jazz (Berkeley and Los Angeles: California UP, 2006)31.

87 Ned Sublette, Cuba and Its music: From the First Drums to the Mambo (Chicago: Chicago Review Press, 2004) 340. 46 the player's hand.88

Although the contrabass replaced both the botija and the marimbula in the 1920s, the marimbula was not totally abandoned and is still being used in Cuba by such traditional son and changiii groups as Changiiide Guantdnamo.

4.3. Contrabass

In Havana, the contrabass was used in such Cuban music genres as contradanza, danza, son and danzon, and had been played in such orchestras as The Havana Opera

Company in the early 1800s. The contrabass was most likely brought to Cuba by the

Spaniards and by touring European orchestras. The fact that both Havana and Matanzas are sea ports would explain the availability of the contrabass in those large cities.

Havana's proximity to the United States meant that touring European orchestras could easily travel from New York City to Havana to perform.

An early reference to the contrabass was included in the nineteenth-century novel

Cecilia Valdes by Cuban poet and novelist Cirilo Villaverde, which contained a baile de cuna scene that was considered to be one of the most famous set-pieces in Cuban literature.89 The scene included an orchestra of seven Negro and mulato musicians: three violins, a contrabass, aflautin, a pair of timbales and a clarinet. The scene took place in

1832 and although the instrumentation for playing had yet to be standardized, this combination of instruments was representative of the time.90

88 Ned Sublette, Cuba and Its music: From the First Drums to the Mambo (Chicago: Chicago Review Press, 2004) 340.

89 Ibid, 136.

90 Ibid, 136-137. 47

Musicians working in danza groups were highly trained classical players who could read music. The contrabass parts for the danza groups were written out and played arco

(with bow).

During the mid-1800s, the contrabass was the bass instrument of choice for many music groups that played the danza and contradanza for high society functions in

Havana. The contradanza, which was a combination of waltz and quadrille, was danced at high society functions and public dances at gambling halls in Havana. Lower social status dances were also held at the academias de bailes (dance academies). The bailes de cunas, which were held in private homes, were a lower class social dance.

In the 1870s, danzon groups in the city of Matanzas, such as Miguel Failde's group, also incorporated the contrabass. By the 1920s, the contrabass had replaced the marimbula and botija in many of the mainstream son groups in Havana. Son pioneers

Sexteto Habanero had incorporated the contrabass into their instrumentation in 1923.

Unlike danzon groups, in which the contrabass was played arco, son group bassists plucked the contrabass with their fingers (pizzicato). Interestingly, some son group bassists removed one of the strings and played their parts with just three strings. Since the players adapted marimbula parts to the string bass, there wasn't a need to use many different notes.91

The incorporation of the contrabass into the son groups in 1923 came about as the groups attempted to bring the music of the streets into the salons. The contrabass was more versatile and had an air of sophistication, which made it more acceptable to the elite

91 Ned Sublette, Cuba and Its music: From the First Drums to the Mambo (Chicago: Chicago Review Press, 2004)341. 48 of Havana.92 Throughout the remainder of the twentieth century, the contrabass remained the instrument of choice for many son groups, charangas, conjuntos, and big bands.

4.4. Influence of European Classical Bassists

During the late 1840s, The Havana Opera Company was renown for being one of the premier Italian-style opera companies in the northern hemisphere.93 The well-paid

Havana company was a dynamic institution with many talented musicians. One such talent was contrabassist Giovanni Bottesini (1821-1889). Bottesini was one of the first contrabass virtuosi and he revolutionized the way in which the contrabass was played by incorporating violin bowing technique. This gave him increased freedom in the right hand.

Bottesini was in his early twenties when he joined the Havana company. In 1847,

The Havana Opera Company travelled to New York City to perform the American premiere of Verdi's opera Erani, and they were enthusiastically received. The Havana company was Bottesini's first major employer and his New York City triumph with the company was a milestone in his career.94

In the 1930s, classical bassist Serge Koussevitzky visited Havana to play a series of concert performances and Cachao attended these concerts. Koussevitzky was one of the first classical contrabassists to record bass solos. American jazz bassist Milt Hinton recalled meeting Cachao on one of his visits to Cuba with the Cab Calloway Orchestra.

Hinton remembered jamming with Cachao to the theme of Koussevitzky's composition

92 Ned Sublette, Cuba and Its music: From the First Drums to the Mambo (Chicago: Chicago Review Press, 2004)341.

93 Ibid, 143.

94 Ibid. 49

"Chanson Triste."95 Cachao later adapted the Koussevitzky piece and recorded it in 1940 with Arcano y Sus Maravillas as "Canta con trabajo." Bassist Andy Gonzalez stated:

On the recording, Cachao plays the melody and it's a melody with sort of the beginnings of a montuno at the end of it. Cachao or Arcano re-recorded it maybe twenty years after that with a charanga band including a couple of woodwinds. It was Cachao's arrangement and he did the original solo bass part with a bow and then added a few little things here and there. It was really interesting.96

4.5. Ampeg Baby Bass

With the introduction of the bass amplifier in the early 1950s, acoustic bass players could at last compete with the high levels of volume being generated by the hom sections of the jazz and Latin big bands in which they played. The acoustic bass was amplified with the use of a pickup that fit into the "f-holes" and under the bridge. While the bassists gained a measure of volume, the problem of feedback existed, especially in outdoor concert situations. In 1962, the American instrument company Ampeg, introduced a portable, electric version of the acoustic bass called the baby bass that eliminated the feedback issue.

Since the 1930s, guitar instrument companies had been experimenting with ways of amplifying the upright bass. Such instrument makers as Rickenbacker (formerly Electro

String Instrument Corporation) and Gibson Inc., produced electric upright prototypes in the mid-to-late 1930s. In 1956, Franconian Musical Instruments (Framus) introduced the

Triumph electric upright bass, which was one of the first mass-produced electric upright

95 Raul A. Fernandez, From Afro-Cuban Rhythms to Latin Jazz (Berkeley and Los Angeles: California UP, 2006) 76-77.

96 Andy Gonzalez, Interview By Author, June 15, 2010, Bronx, New York, Audio Recording. 50 basses.

The Ampeg baby bass evolved from an electric upright bass called the Zorko bass conceived and designed by Ed and Rudy Dopyera (also spelled Dopera), who had created the widely popular Dobro, National and Supro guitars. The Zorko bass featured a hollow

"reinforced glass" body, full bass scale, adjustable maple neck and telescoping stand.98 In

1962, Ampeg Company founder Everett Hull purchased the rights to the Dopyera brothers' Zorko bass. Although early versions of the baby bass were essentially Zorko basses with a redesigned pickup and bridge assembly, further refinements included a fiberglass body filled with expandable foam.

In an interview conducted by the author, Andy Gonzalez recalled one of the earliest appearances of the baby bass on the New York City Latin music scene. Gonzalez said:

The founder of the Ampeg company had the prototype models. He gave one to Cachao, he gave one to Bobby Rodriguez. He gave one to Julio Andino who was the bass player with the Tito Rodriguez orchestra and he would go to the gigs that they played at and they would give him pointers on how to make the sound more to their liking. So that became the instrument.99

Gonzalez went on to describe his own innovations to the baby bass:

My father bought me one when I was 13 years old. I still play it today. When it came out, I made a couple of adjustments on it. I changed from gut strings to steel strings. Somebody hipped me to the fact that steel strings were too tight on the baby bass. The Tomastik orchestral strings? They're too tight.... but if you use Tomastik solo gage strings, which are meant to be tuned a note higher than original, you bring them back to the original bass tuning, and they're just right for the baby bass. So I've been using them for almost 40 years. That has become the

97 Dave Pomeroy, "1956 Framus Triumph Electric Upright," Bass Player Magazine, online, Jan. 2006.

98 Gregg Hopkins, Bill Moore. Ampeg: The Story Behind the Sound (Milwaukee: Hal Leonard Corporation, 1999) 101.

99 Andy Gonzalez, Interview By Author, June 15, 2010, Bronx, New York, Audio Recording. 51

string of choice for the baby bass and I was the one who sort of popularized it. All the bass players wanted it because it gave you the sustain of a steel string. The punch. The pickup gives you the punch. The baby bass with the original pickups can really punch those notes out. It cuts through a rhythm section real good.100

Bassist Dave Pomeroy stated that the baby bass pickup, in combination with its non-resonant body, created some very apparent sonic limitations. He explained, "Rolling down the tone control knob created a certain 'thuddiness' in the sound that fit perfectly in the Latin music genre."101 The Ampeg baby bass, along with other electric upright basses such as those produced by instrument builder Steve Azola, continue to be played in many genres of Cuban music.

4.6. Fender Electric Bass

The Fender electric bass, which was invented by Leo Fender in 1950 and introduced in 1951, was quickly adopted by the North American music industry and praised for its portability, sound and playability. During the mid-to-late 1950s, it was used by country and western, rock-and-roll, and jazz musicians. By the 1960s, it had become an industry standard that was widely copied by other instrument makers.

In Cuba, the electric bass made its appearance in the late 1960s and early 1970s.

Due to the United States embargo against Cuba in the 1960s, Cuban musicians could not acquire the Ampeg baby bass or Fender electric bass. They could, however, import electric basses from Japan, which they did in large numbers. Andy Gonzalez commented,

"When Orquesta Aragon switched to bass guitar, I was heartbroken because I really

100 Andy Gonzalez, Interview By Author, June 15, 2010, Bronx, New York, Audio Recording.

101 Dave Pomeroy, "Ampeg Baby Bass," Bass Player Magazine, online, Jan. 2007. 52 loved the [original] sound."102

In New York City during the 1960s, musicians who were unable to acquire the baby bass turned to the electric bass. During this time, Cuban and Puerto Rican musicians were combining American rhythm-and-blues and soul music with Cuban music to create new styles such as boogaloo. The creation of these styles contributed to some Latin musician's decision to use the electric bass, which could be amplified and played at a loud volume without the feedback problems associated with the amplified acoustic bass.

During his stay in Las Vegas, Cachao played the baby bass, the Fender bass as well as the acoustic bass.103 Currently, bass parts played in Cuban music are executed equally on acoustic bass, electric bass and electric upright bass.

102 Andy Gonzalez, Interview By Author, June 15, 2010, Bronx, New York, Audio Recording.

103 Raul A. Fernandez, From Afro-Cuban Rhythms to Latin Jazz (Berkeley and Los Angeles: California UP, 2006) 80. 53

PART III

CACHAO'S CONTRIBUTIONS TO CUBAN POPULAR MUSIC

CHAPTER V - CACHAO'S DEVELOPMENT OF THE DANZON

The danzon is a Cuban music genre that was the national dance of Cuba during the mid-1800s. The danzon developed from the danza, which had evolved from the contradanza. Early references to the danzon can be traced back to Cuban composer

Manuel Saumell, whose contradanza entitled "La tedezco," contained elements of danzon (although it did not contain the danzon s characteristic cinquillo rhythm).

" 4 ^ ^^EE£EEE^^^^ Fig. 5.1: cinquillo rhythm.

Peter Manuel explained:

The cinquillo is presumably of West African origin. It figures prominently in several Afro-Caribbean traditional music contexts, including Santeria batd rhythms (toques) played for the orishas (spirits) Obatala, Ochun, and Olokun, certain Haitian Vodou rhythms (such as banda), Martinican bele, and in the sicd and cuembe styles of Afro-Puerto Rican bomba. Possibly deriving from Franco- Haitian influence, it went on to play a prominent role in Creole Caribbean music, especially contradance variants. In Haiti and Martinique, where some musicians

104 Ned Sublette, Cuba and Its music: From the First Drums to the Mambo (Chicago: Chicago Review Press, 2004) 247. 54

call it the quintolet, it pervades Creole music, including the biguine and the traditional meringue (including such songs as "Chouconne," whose melody is better known elsewhere as that of "Yellow Bird").105

Similar to the contradanza habanera, the cinquillo was brought to eastern Cuba by refugees of the Haitian Revolution in the beginning of the nineteenth century. During the 1850s, it appeared in Havana and Santiago contradanzas and later became the basic rhythm of the danzon, in which the cinquillo rhythm was followed by a measure of two or three eighth notes.106

Fig. 5.2: two-measure danzon rhythm.

One of the earliest danzones entitled "Las alturas de simpson," was written in 1877 by the twenty-seven-year old composer Miguel Failde (1852-1921). Failde, considered to be one of the originators of danzon, had written "Las alturas de Simpson" in honour of the Simpson barrio in Matanzas. Although the danzon genre had existed in the province of Matanzas since 1855, Failde's premiere of "Las alturas de Simpson" at a New Year's dance on January 1, 1879, marked Cuban society's acceptance of the danzon.m

Failde's music group was an orquesta tipica. The instrumentation consisted of a cornet, a valve trombone, afigle (English ophicleide), two C clarinets, two violins, a

105 Peter Manuel, Creolizing Contradance in the Caribbean (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2009) 21.

106 Ibid.

107 Ned Sublette, Cuba and Its music: From the First Drums to the Mambo (Chicago: Chicago Review Press, 2004) 247. 55 contrabass and timpani drums.108

During this time, the contradanza-danza-habanera-danzon complex greatly influenced the music of the United States, especially that of ragtime pianist Scott Joplin.

Louis Moreau Gottschalk biographer S. Frederick Starr concluded:

The Saumell-Joplin link may be direct, via Gottschalk, or through later Cuban composers, whose works filtered into the United States in original form or through Mexican or North American copies. Whatever the route, it is undeniable that many chord progressions, bass lines, and even melodic devices employed by Saumell and Gottschalk recur later in [Scott] Joplin's music.109

The music of jazz pioneers Jelly Roll Morton and W.C. Handy was also influenced by the habanera-tango mixture, inspiring such Handy compositions as "Memphis Blues" and

"St. Louis Blues."110

During the early decades of the twentieth century, orquesta tipicas played the danzon in the tradition of European military-style marching bands. Cachao explained,

"The brass is what permeated throughout the orchestra, it was the dominant sound. It was a big, loud sound, like that of a marching band. They did not even use a piano back then, because it was too soft."1'' Andy Gonzalez revealed, "The first danzon was written for a brass band. Then they started having strings play it. The original influence was what they called the municipal band."112

108 Ned Sublette, Cuba and Its music: From the First Drums to the Mambo (Chicago: Chicago Review Press, 2004) 247.

109 Ibid, 154.

110 Ibid, 328.

111 Chico Alvarez Peraza, "Cachao speaks: a uniquely candid and no-holds barred conversation with the Cuban music master and innovator," Latin Beat Magazine, online, May 2008.

112 Andy Gonzalez, Interview By Author, June 15,2010, Bronx, New York, Audio Recording. 56

5.1. Danzon-mambo (danzon de nuevo ritmo)

By the 1930s, orquesta tipicas were moving away from the traditional danzon rooted in French parlor music and toward a more African-influenced rhythmic approach combining the danzon style with syncopated percussion. Agiiiro was added to the ensemble and timpani drums were replaced by timbales. Also, brass instruments were abandoned in favour of and strings creating an ensemble called a charanga.

As composers for Arcano y Sus Maravillas, Cachao and Orestes experimented with ways of making the danzon more energetic and more exciting for the dancers. In somewhat of a sibling rivalry, the brothers pushed one another to come up with new ideas to incorporate into the traditional danzon. Cachao explained:

My brother and I were always coming up with different things. There was between us, not exactly a competitiveness, because he was 10 years older than me, but... he'd create something, so I'd try to create something different, and from each of our different styles, we came up with many versions of the danzon.113

One important innovation came in 1937, when the Lopez brothers altered the form of the danzon by adding a rhythmic final section. Originally, the form of the danzon consisted of three sections. The first section was the introduction. The second section, called elpaseo (the walk), featured the flute. In this section, the dancers walked in a circle. The third section, called la comparsa (main theme), was played by the string section. In this section, the dancers faced each other and danced.114

The Lopez brothers' final section revolved around the syncopated

113 Jorge Socarras, "Cachao," Bomb Magazine, online.

114 Max Salazar, "Orestes Lopez and the mambo," Latin Beat Magazine, online, Sept 2002. 57

(rhythmic figures) of Cachao's bass lines, which interwove with the repeated rhythmic pattern of the conga (tumbao). Cachao's bass lines derived from the rhythmic patterns played by the tres in the Cuban son. These bass lines created a solid foundation over which the violins played repeated guajeos, while Arcano's floreos (improvisations) floated above.

Harmonically, the final section consisted of a repeated rhythmic pattern played by piano (montuno) based on a simple chord progression, often dominant to tonic or an indefinite repetition of the dominant. Originally called danzon de nuevo ritmo, this variation of the danzon later became known as danzon-mambo.]]5

The increased energy of the danzon-mambo was a result of not only the syncopated rhythm of the final section, but also a result of the addition of the tumbadora to Arcano's group, which Arsenio Rodriguez had introduced to his group in 1940, and the addition of the cow bell to the timbales set. The combination of these elements led to a new rhythmic style that resulted in the modernization of the danzon and created a new sound that became popular with the dancing public. In a Latin Beat Magazine interview, Cachao articulated:

Through our efforts, the danzon took a 180 degree turn, acquiring a totally new dimension. For example, we would take the music of Mozart, so beautiful and simple, and give it a whole new twist, all the while trying to enrich it both harmonically and rhythmically. We introduced the previously unheard concept of syncopation and expanded on the existing theory of counterpoint. These were revolutionary ideas back then, and we were young and eager to experiment with new ideas and concepts. Arcaiio's band offered us a vehicle in which to do our thing. That's how the mambo came about, through the relaxing of traditional taboos.

115 Morton Marks, "Cachao, Mambo, and Descarga: A Latin Music Legend." American Folklife Center The Library of Congress. Vol. 17, No. 1 Winter 1995. 58

We were in the twentieth century, and all around us new things were being invented. It was an era of inventiveness, and we dared to make changes.116

116 Chico Alvarez Peraza, "Cachao speaks: a uniquely candid and no-holds barred conversation with the Cuban music master and innovator," Latin Beat Magazine, online, May 2008. 59

CHAPTER VI - WHO'S MAMBO IS IT ANYWAY?

In the early 1950s, such Cuban music artists as Damaso Perez Prado (in ), and Tito Puente and Machito (in New York City), helped popularize the mambo, which subsequently became an international dance sensation. Controversy has existed for many years as to who actually created the mambo. While Perez Prado was the self-proclaimed

"King of Mambo," both Israel Lopez and Arsenio Rodriguez have laid claim to the creation of the music genre.

The word mambo has its origins in the language of the Bantu people of Africa.

Author Ned Sublette suggested that the word mambo was likely being used in Cuba soon after the Bakongo people had arrived in the sixteenth century.'17 While the meaning of the word mambo is complex, it is generally thought to mean "song." Arsenio Rodriguez, whose grandfather was Congolese, stated that the word mambo was African, from the

Congo dialect. He explained, "One singer says to the other: abre cuto giiiri mambo, that is: 'open your ear and listen to what I'm going to tell you.'""8 According to Cachao:

The story goes, according to the people from Congo, the word 'Mambo,' so they say, I wouldn't like to confirm that, means story, like telling a story. They told the children, "I'm going to tell you a story." A "mambo." And they would sing it. Sing the children to sleep. Like a lullaby. That is the version I have of the word mambo. Even Perez Prado didn't know its origin. "I heard the word mambo," he said. But he didn't know its origin.'19

117 Ned Sublette, Cuba and Its music: From the First Drums to the Mambo (Chicago: Chicago Review Press, 2004) 53.

118 Ibid, 54.

119 Andy Garcia, "Cachao: Como Su Ritmo No Hay Dos," CineSon Productions Inc. (Epic Music Video, New York N.Y.) VHS 1993. 60

6.1. Perez Prado's Mambo

Damaso Perez Prado was a pianist who grew up in the barrio of Simpson in

Matanzas, Cuba. In the early 1940s, he moved to Havana where he played in various low-scale cabarets until joining Pulina Alvarez's band. He then worked as an arranger for Ernesto Roca at Peer Music before joining the renowned band Casino de la Playa as the group's pianist and arranger. Prado had acquired a unique sense of showmanship and had developed a taste for the dissonant arrangements that were an integral part of the

Stan Kenton Orchestra. According to Sublette, by the mid-1940s, Prado had already been calling some of his tunes mambos, but had trouble getting his music recorded because his arrangements were thought to be too dissonant. In fact, Fernando Castro, an executive with the very powerful Peer-Southern Publishing firm, spoke at a meeting of his arrangers and composers in Havana where he stated that Cuban popular music was being adulterated by the extravagant orchestrations of some arrangers. At the meeting, he stipulated that no composer or arranger working for his company could contract Damaso

Perez Prado to orchestrate their music.120 The enforcing of this decree substantially limited Prado's employment possibilities, so he left Havana and eventually settled in

Mexico City.

Perez Prado quickly established himself in Mexico and in 1949, his mambo recordings exploded onto the Latin American music scene. Prado's sound was unlike anything heard before in Cuban music. The tempos were faster, the horns played higher and louder and every arrangement teemed with excitement. The energy of Prado's

120 Ned Sublette, Cuba and Its music: From the First Drums to the Mambo (Chicago: Chicago Review Press, 2004) 554. 61 arrangements contributed to the success of the mambo during the postwar era in the

United States. Following the second World War, the mood of that nation was buoyant and people sought out things that would lift their spirits.

Prado's band closely resembled a jazz orchestra rather than a conjunto. The instrumentation consisted of four saxes, five trumpets, a trombone and a percussion section. The percussionists were Cuban, which helped maintain the fiery rhythm and the second trumpet, also a Cuban, led the phrasing.121 The remainder of the musicians were mostly Mexican. Prado's sound was achieved by writing the trumpets high above the repetitive rhythmic parts of the low-register saxophones. Having the blistering trumpets high above the saxophones gave the impression that they were pitched higher than they actually were.

Prado also made use of dissonance in his arrangements, which included minor second intervals in the trumpets along with piano clusters and a liberal amount of chromaticism. This use of dissonance along with rhythmic tension, brilliant sounding horns, and clean, crisp arrangements executed by a highly polished ensemble, created an intensity in his music that was groundbreaking for its time. Prado also mixed in his own brand of humour by inserting vocal grunts during breaks in the music that were traditionally reserved for the percussion instruments.

In examining Damaso Perez Prado's recording of "Mambo no. 5" (1950), David F.

Garcia suggests that Prado's arrangements were, for the most part, unconventional because they did not contain a call-and-response section. Traditional arrangements, such

121 Ned Sublette, Cuba and Its music: From the First Drums to the Mambo (Chicago: Chicago Review Press, 2004) 559. 62 as those by Arsenio Rodriguez, contained call-and-response sections between the trumpet and lead vocals and especially between the lead and chorus vocals. Perez Prado's mambo section did however contain the basic mambo figure, played by the saxophone section, and the "Oye como va" rhythm played by the trumpet section.

i g^ ^ Fig. 6.1: mambo rhythm.

^ ft^

Fig. 6.2: "Oye como va" rhythm.

The major difference between Arsenio's recordings and Prado's "Mambo no. 5," is that

Perez Prado's recording used the bolero bass line. Arsenio abandoned the bolero bass line as early as 1942 while conjuntos in both Havana and New York City continued to use it into the 1950s.'22

As the mambo became established, Prado began appearing in low-budget, Mexican motion pictures. The first of these was Coqueta (Tease), which was filmed in Mexico in

1949 123 Tn 1950, his music was featured in a number of Mexican movies and he also made on-screen appearances with his orchestra. Through his movie appearances, along with his recordings, radio and live appearances, Perez Prado had become firmly

122 David F Garcia, Arsenio Rodriguez and the Transnational Flows of Latin Popular Music (Philadelphia: Temple UP, 2006) 70.

123 Ned Sublette, Cuba and Its music: From the First Drums to the Mambo (Chicago: Chicago Review Press, 2004) 560. 63 established and extremely well known in Mexico. Prado was being heard and seen all over the Latin world in movies and in 1950, he acquired international fame with his recordings of "Mambo no. 5" and "Que rico el mambo."124

While the success of Perez Prado's recordings had triggered an international mambo frenzy, he was not the "King of the mambo" in New York City. That honour fell to Machito, primarily because Prado could not work in New York City due to union regulations requiring him to live in the city for six months without working prior to performing.125 Eventually, Prado was able to negotiate a deal with Los Angeles Local 47 of the musician's union and was able to mount a west coast tour and eventually record in

New York City.

Despite the international attention that the mambo had garnered, it was more popular in the United States than it was in Cuba. In Havana, the mambo had enjoyed a period of popularity, but it was still the music of the conjuntos, the son montuno and danzon-mambo, that was danced in the households and social clubs.126

6.2. The Danzon-Mambo of Israel and Orestes Lopez

Israel and Orestes Lopez are credited by such musicologists as Leonardo Acosta with creating the origins of the mambo with their 1937 composition entitled "Mambo."

Inspired by Cachao's composition "Chanchullo," the Orestes Lopez composition is considered to be one of the earliest examples of the mambo genre. Later recordings of

"Mambo," by Arcano and Cachao did away entirely with the middle sections and

124 Ned Sublette, Cuba and Its music: From the First Drums to the Mambo (Chicago: Chicago Review Press, 2004) 560.

125 Ibid.

126 Ibid, 571. 64 consisted only of an introduction and the final section.

Other musicologists, including Odilio Urfe, argue that the final configuration of the mambo rhythm came later in 1949 with a danzon composed by Cachao entitled "Se va el mantancero."127 In his book "Panorama de la musica popular Cubana," musicologist

Radames Giro stated:

Orestes and Israel Lopez, with Arcaiio's charanga, made a tumbao that would come to be a characteristic rhythm of that orchestra and others of the same type, but it should not be identified with the mambo a la Perez Prado.128

Cuban musicologists Odilio Urfe and Fernando Ortiz describe the mambo not as one particular rhythm, but as a combination of rhythms.129 David F. Garcia suggested that

Cuban dance music of the 1940s consisted of several rhythms that were interwoven between instruments. By the 1950s, one such rhythm eventually became known as the mambo rhythm. Cuban musicians of the era suggest that many groups of the early 1940s were already playing "with a mambo flavour" before the mambo became commercially popular.130 Even before 1940, Cuban musicians used the word mambo to identify the solo section of the danzon-mambo. Antonio Arcano recalled:

In 1937, Orestes and Jesus Lopez were my pianists... there were a great number of times when Orestes wanted to repeat an estribillo. He would say, 'vamos a mambear,' or nod to me and say, 'mambo ahora,' words which were signals to

127 Leonardo Padura Fuentes, Faces of Salsa: A Spoken History of the Music (Berkeley and Los Angeles: Smithsonian Books, 2003) 93.

128 Ibid, 94.

129 David F Garcia, Arsenio Rodriguez and the Transnational Flows of Latin Popular Music (Philadelphia: Temple UP, 2006) 47.

130 Ibid. 65

improvise.131

Damaso Perez Prado is often credited with creating the mambo because he was the one who made it famous. Cachao explained that Prado, "Transformed the mambo from a into a true spectacle."132 While Prado was at the forefront of the mambos popularity in the mid-1950s, some of the underlying rhythmic components of the mambo had already appeared in the music of Israel and Orestes Lopez and in several recordings by Arsenio Rodriguez almost a decade earlier. In interviews with Leonardo Padura

Fuentes and Abel Delgado, Cachao described his contributions to the mambo:

When I began to play in 1926, danzon was still a formal ballroom dance, very traditional, with very rigid steps, in spite of the fact that it had a final coda that allowed a more lively improvisation. In 1937, when Arcano y Sus Maravillas was founded, we carried out a complete renovation of danzon, although without harming it: in reality what we did was modernize it, and in the process we started working with the mambo rhythm, which was the tumbao used to improvise in the final section and could last an indefinite amount of time as long as people were dancing. When the first "mambo" that sounded like danzon was created, what we did was to speed up the danzon rhythm, but without changing its structure because the dancers were not yet prepared for such a drastic change. Even that first "mambo" was too fast, and the following ones had to be slower, just like danzon.133 In that era, romanticism was important. People danced very slowly and suddenly this came out and no one knew how to dance it because it was too fast. So people didn't like it. [We thought] "Let's slow down the tempo, let's create a mambo-danzon." And so the people did dance to that.134 By 1950, when Perez Prado began working with the mambo, things had changed, and he was able to introduce the rhythm at its full speed. Besides, his goal from the beginning was to work with a more complicated, more active

131 Max Salazar, "Antonio Arcano: Listo, Arcano? - Antonio Arcano, musico pionero de Cuba," Latin Beat Magazine, online, June 2001.

132 Leonardo Padura Fuentes, Faces of Salsa: A Spoken History of the Music (Berkeley and Los Angeles: Smithsonian Books, 2003) 94.

133 Ibid.

134 Abel Delgado, "Conversing with Cachao, Part 1," Descarga. online, May 2008. 66

choreography. But the original mambo was our creation.135

Although Perez Prado enjoyed enormous success with the mambo, Israel Lopez, unlike Arsenio Rodriguez, held no animosity towards Prado. Cachao and Perez Prado were great friends and they treated each other like brothers. They even worked together in

Spain in 1962. Cachao explained, "There's a tendency for people to think that Damaso and I were rivals, but that was not the case." Lopez felt strongly that Prado should be applauded for giving the mambo its universal stature. Lopez conceded, "If it weren't for him, the mambo wouldn't have become known the world over."136

6.3. Arsenio Rodriguez's "Diablo"

By the mid-1940s, the recorded music of artists such as Arsenio Rodriguez and

Antonio Arcano consisted of offbeat accentuated rhythms, which gave their music a

"mambo flavour." Also, the so-called diablo and mambo sections of their respective arrangements were predominated by contratiempo (offbeat accentuation) and interweaving patterns. These innovations of rhythm and arrangement schemes changed the dance styles of son and danzon and were eventually adopted into the music of Cuban big bands of the era such as that of Julio Cueva.137

By the late 1940s, the mambo rhythm was so consistently used by musicians that they were being chastised for lacking variety in the rhythmic patterns that they played. As well, Cuban big band arrangers consistently used the mambo rhythm when writing for the

135 Leonardo Padura Fuentes, Faces of Salsa: A Spoken History of the Music (Berkeley and Los Angeles: Smithsonian Books, 2003) 94.

136 Ibid, 94-95.

137 Ned Sublette, Cuba and Its music: From the First Drums to the Mambo (Chicago: Chicago Review Press, 2004) 508. 67 saxophones and brass in the mambo sections of their arrangements. Arsenio Rodriguez also used the mambo rhythm in his arrangements, but rather than relying solely on the use of one particular rhythm, he continued to interweave a variety of rhythms throughout his music.

A significant component of Arsenio's conjunto arrangements was the so-called diablo section. According to Arsenio, the diablo section was intended to give the dancers a boost of energy leading to the climax of the song. The diablo section was preceded by an ensemble rhythmic break called a cierre, after which Arsenio would cue the diablo section by yelling out, "Diablo!"138 These rhythmic breaks were usually one, two or four measures in length. Following the cierre, the entire ensemble entered the diablo with the first and second voices, while the trumpet continued the call-and-response theme from the montuno section. Typically, after one cycle of the alternating voice and trumpet theme, the pattern was shortened to where the vocalists sang half of the phrase, leaving the second half open for the trumpet section. As the diablo progressed, the trumpet section gave way to the lead trumpet, which improvised during the second half of the cycle. The diablo concluded with a restatement of the sung refrain or with the rhythmic break that preceded the diablo. The climax of the diablo occurred in the first segment when the entire conjunto interwove their parts to create a mass of sonic complexity.

Typically, the guitar and maracas maintained a steady eighth note pulse while the rest of the instruments interwove and overlaid their parts. In some examples, the energy in the diablo continued to increase as the trumpets introduced additional contrasting rhythms

138 David F Garcia. Arsenio Rodriguez and the Transnational Flows of Latin Popular Music (Philadelphia: Temple UP, 2006) 50. 68 producing a "rhythm-against-rhythm" effect. The interwoven trumpet parts, along with the bass part, corresponded to and accentuated the dancers' son footwork.'39

Arsenio's conjunto style, with its montuno and diablo sections, led to a new style of dancing the son. This was in contrast to the dancing of traditional son leading up to the

1940s. Dancers of traditional son concentrated almost entirely on the footwork and used little or no upper body movement. Contrastingly, Arsenio's dancers used a great deal of upper body movement and they also coordinated their choreography with the son montuno arrangement scheme.140

During the late 1940s, the mambo began to emerge as a popular dance form in

Mexico, and eventually New York City in the early 1950s. When Arsenio moved to New York City in 1950, he was somewhat taken aback by the popularity of the mambo and the sheer number of artists who were performing the mambo there. The

Palladium Ballroom had become the mecca of Latin dance music and the home of the mambo. The ballroom featured amateur and professional dancers as well as big bands led by Machito, Tito Puente and Tito Rodriguez. These three groups were known as the

"Three Kings of the Mambo." The popularity of the mambo had become so great in New

York City that other elements of traditional Latin music, dance and culture were largely ignored during this period.

In East Harlem and , various dance halls and social clubs continued to cater to the local Cuban and Puerto Rican population. Arsenio's music was very popular

139 David F Garcia, Arsenio Rodriguez and the Transnational Flows of Latin Popular Music (Philadelphia: Temple UP, 2006) 52.

140 Ibid, 54. 69 in these areas because of its connection to Cuban culture. For this reason, his music was often preferred over that of the mambo big bands of the era. The members of these social clubs found that dancing to bolero, danzon and son was more gratifying than dancing to mambo. Andy Gonzalez commented, "Up here in New York, the dancers didn't care for

Perez Prado too much because they said, 'It was too Mexican.' It didn't swing like the

Cuban stuff."141

Arsenio was particularly critical of the state of the mambo and felt that, "The final section of his arrangements and, in general, his son montuno style, constituted the original and authentic model of the mambo"]42 Arsenio felt that such artists as Damaso

Perez Prado presented a "watered down" version of the mambo by combining it with

American music copied from the Stan Kenton Orchestra. For this reason, Arsenio felt that he could never forgive Perez Prado for popularizing the mambo or himself for creating it.

Aresenio Rodriguez thought it necessary to claim responsibility for creating the mambo and he did so in interviews and from the bandstand. Arsenio was not so much claiming ownership of the mambo form as it existed in the 1950s, or the instrumentation of the mambo big bands. Big bands of this type had been popularized in Cuba during the

1940s. More so, he was claiming ownership of the underlying rhythmic approach present in the mambo. These rhythmic innovations had existed in his own conjunto s recordings as well as those of Antonio Arcano's charanga dating back to 1944. This rhythmic approach was characterized by contratiempo. The basic mambo rhythm did not become a

141 Andy Gonzalez, Interview By Author, June 15, 2010, Bronx, New York, Audio Recording.

142 David F Garcia, Arsenio Rodriguez and the Transnational Flows of Latin Popular Music (Philadelphia: Temple UP, 2006) 64. 70 part of the typical rhythmic scheme of guaracha until two years later in 1946. David F.

Garcia stated that Arsenio also co-created the big band mambo section, which like the diablo and mambo sections of the danzon-mambo, was the most exciting and danceable section of the Cuban big band mambo arrangement scheme.143

Although Arsenio's son montuno shared some musical concepts with the mambo of

New York City big bands, the two styles maintained their own identity. It was the style of the big bands that most audiences in New York City and worldwide identified as mambo.

This is partly due to the attention and promotion that the New York City mambo big bands were given internationally by the American recording industry.

For most native New Yorkers who had not been exposed to Arsenio's music, his son montuno style sounded different and unfamiliar. Even some of the Latin musicians in

New York City were uncomfortable with the sound of Arsenio's rhythm section, although others embraced the newness of the conjunto s sound.

In contrast to Arsenio's conjunto, the rhythm sections of New York City mambo big bands sounded different and the musicians had a different style of playing the music.

David F. Garcia cited these differences in two recordings of the era. Arsenio's recording of "Esas no" (1951), consisted of a characteristic offbeat accentuated bass line that accented the vocal melody and interlocked with the son dance footsteps. In contrast, Tito

Puente's recording of "Ran kan kan" (1949), consisted of a bass line that accented beats three and four of each measure and used the root and fifth of the chord. Arsenio's recording contained sequences of call-and-response in the bass, bongo and conga parts,

143 David F Garcia, Arsenio Rodriguez and the Transnational Flows of Latin Popular Music (Philadelphia: Temple UP, 2006) 69. 71 whereas the bass, bongo and conga parts in Tito Puente's recording contained less interaction between the parts. Also, the tres was prominently heard in Arsenio's recording.144 Until the mid-1950s, Arsenio's conjunto was one of the few groups in

New York City that used the tres.

In contrast to most of the mambo recordings of the era, Machito's recording of

"Tremendo cuban" contained two of the defining aspects of son montuno. First, the bongo, bass and conga interwove in a manner common to son montuno. Secondly, the bass line rhythmically and melodically accented the sung chorus, both of which accented the "and-of-four" on the two-side of the clave)45 Garcia argued that, "The son montuno s emphasis on the "and-of-four" on the two-side of the clave and the "and-of-two" on the three-side of the clave coincided with the son footwork, which includes a step on each of these syncopated beats."146 Garcia speculated that it was probable that most mambo dancers of the era executed the mambo footwork and dance style rather than the son footwork and dance style.

The basic steps for dancing the mambo were executed on three of the four strong beats of each measure, starting on either the first or second quarter note beat.147 The bass patterns that were contained in most mambos also accented the strong beats. The mambo dance style of the 1950s was highly energetic and involved an assortment of dance steps and routines that were borrowed from such dance styles as tap and "Lindy."

144 David F Garcia, Arsenio Rodriguez and the Transnational Flows of Latin Popular Music (Philadelphia: Temple UP, 2006) 70.

145 Ibid, 71.

146 Ibid.

147 Ibid. 72

In contrast to the fast-paced mambo, such Cuban dance genres as son montuno and bolero were much slower. Because of this, mambo dancers of the era had difficulty relating to Arsenio's son montuno style. Such musicians as Mario Bauza, who was the director of Machito's big band, suggested that Arsenio pick up the tempo of his arrangements, but Arsenio refused to do so. The inability of modern mambo dancers to identify with the son montuno s moderate tempo was a major reason for Arsenio's lack of commercial success and recognition in New York City.

Interestingly, Cachao's original danzon-mambo was too fast for the dancers of

Havana, while Arsenio's son montuno was too slow for the mambo dancers of New York

City. Ultimately, Arsenio's reluctance to change his musical approach along with his resistance towards international trends in Latin dance music led to his eventual demise.

The mambo reached the height of popularity between 1950 and 1955. Audiences in

North America, Latin America and worldwide could not get enough of this phenomenon, which had become more of a spectacle for audiences rather than just a music and dance style. Mambo artists such as Tito Puente and Miguelito Valdes considered showmanship and entertainment value to be an important aspect of mambo. They even went as far as advising other musicians to either become showmen or quit being musicians. These artists, along with others such as Perez Prado and Tito Rodriguez, were aware of the importance of the spectacle in popular entertainment and each of them created their own unique stage identity.

Arsenio Rodriguez, on the other hand, was not interested in becoming an entertainer in order to capture the interest of American and Latin American audiences. 73

Arsenio's conjunto was considered to be simply providers of authentic Cuban music

whose style was better suited for social club dances rather than the spectacles of Latin

clubs like the Palladium. According to some New York City audiences, Arsenio's style

did not change and remained true to its Cuban roots.

Arsenio Rodriguez maintained until his dying day that the mambo had come out of

the diablo section of his son montuno. He remained bitter about not receiving the

recognition he felt had evaded him for his part in creating the mambo and he resented the

fact that artists such as Perez Prado enjoyed success and popularity with the music that

he, in part had created, while his own career languished.

6.4. Mambo Conclusions

Clearly, the concept of mambo as a music term had been adopted in the language

and music of both Israel Lopez and Arsenio Rodriguez as early as 1935. Their subtle

"tweaking" of the final section of the danzon-mambo and son montuno was intended to

create a more energetic section for the dancers. Perez Prado simply continued with the

refinements that Lopez and Rodriguez had initiated.

While similarities exist between the Lopez/Arcano danzon-mambo and the

Rodriguez diablo, there are major differences in presentation between the aforementioned

groups and the mambo of Perez Prado. Arcano's smooth and gentile sound was generated by flutes and violins while Prado's edgy, high intensity sound was created with blaring trumpets, dissonance and fast tempos. Prado was intent on attaining a high level of

commercialization in his show, and he did so by using such onstage theatrics as jumping

and kicking. Arsenio Rodriguez, on the other hand, refused to become an entertainer, 74 which directly contributed to his lack of success in the United States.

The debate over who created the mambo is one that may never be totally resolved, but clearly, with his fast tempos and sound of his orchestrations, Perez Prado created an original dance sensation. It is unclear if Prado ever publicly credited Israel and Orestes

Lopez for their part in creating the mambo, but in an interview he readily admitted, "1 combined jazz riffs with Arcaiio's syncopated mambo in 4/4 time ... I called this new sound 'mambo.' The mambo may have occurred to me in Cuba, but in Mexico it became a reality ... In 1949,1 began recording mambos for RCA."148 This statement clearly supports the fact that the basic structures of the mambo were in place long before Perez

Prado attained success with the genre.

Certainly, credit must be given to Israel Lopez and Arsenio Rodriguez for developing their respective genres, but Perez Prado must also be given credit for creating and promoting a sound and spectacle that captured the attention of millions of people throughout the world. As Prado said in an 1984 interview, "Do you believe that my music became popular because I called it mambo? I could have called it La Chunga or El

Dengue and it still would have caught on."149

148 Max Salazar, "Orestes Lopez and the mambo," Latin Beat Magazine, online, Sept 2002.

149 Ned Sublette, Cuba and Its music: From the First Drums to the Mambo (Chicago: Chicago Review Press, 2004) 585. 75

CHAPTER VII - CACHAO'S DESCARGA

In the late 1950s, Cachao enlisted some of Havana's premier musicians to be part of a new music project. What started out as informal get-togethers in private homes, turned into a series of recordings and a new category of Cuban music called descarga

(discharge). These so-called "jam sessions" occurred in the early morning hours after the musicians had finished their regular music engagements at various resorts, showrooms and social clubs in Havana and surrounding areas. Similar to playing sessions conducted by American jazz musicians, the descarga genre combined the improvisational characteristics and relaxed atmosphere of the jam session, but with distinctly Cuban rhythms and chord progressions.

The music emanating from these playing sessions created a new sound that combined different instruments from a variety of Cuban music genres. The five-key flute, the giiiro and the palais came from danzon and charanga orchestras. The tres, trumpet and bongo came from Cuban son groups. African influences were derived from conga, while call-and-response vocal choruses were acquired from rumba. Inspired by American jazz music, saxophones and trombones became part of the Cuban jazz genre. As well,

Cachao ventured away from the danzon genre for these recordings and applied bass tumbaos that were influenced by son and folkloric .

The first of Cachao's descarga recordings was entitled "Descargas en miniatura" (1957). The title of the album referred to the limited duration of the music pieces in contrast to lengthier versions that were played in live situations. The short 76 duration of the pieces ultimately allowed for more musical diversity on the recording.

The recording featured such premier musicians as Tata Giiines (congas), Guillermo

Barreto (timbales, pailas), Rogelio Iglesias (bongo), Gustavo Tamayo (giiiro), Andres

Echevarria (tres), Alejandro Vivar (trumpet), and Richard Egties (flute). Later recordings included trumpeter Armando Armenteros and flautist Julio Guerrero.

The "Descargas en miniatura" recording became a critical success and is widely regarded as one of the earliest and most influential of the descarga style. This recording, and ones that followed, helped transform Cuban music from solely a dance style to a style suited more for a listening public. Cachao did not expect that the descarga recordings would achieve the degree of popularity that they did. He initially thought that recording jam sessions was "una locura," a purely crazy idea.150 He described the recording sessions as a spur-of-the-moment idea:

I had to wait until 4 a.m. until all the musicians that I wanted to participate in the jam session had finished their regular jobs at the casinos or wherever -1 had to wait until they were all together in the Panart studio before we could start. The tapes started rolling around 4 a.m. and we played nonstop until 9 a.m. We even did some material that was never used on that recording. Anyway, when we finished, I said to the guys: "Fellows, you all better go out and get yourselves an armored suit, like the ones that the medieval knights wear in the movies, because we are going to be showered with tomatoes." Look how wrong I was!151

Following the release of Cachao's 1957 recording, the descarga became a Cuban music tradition that ultimately influenced Latin music circles worldwide. In New York

City, local record labels sought to emulate the recordings that Cachao had made at the

Panart studios in Cuba. Cachao did not anticipate that the descarga idea would last, nor

150 Chico Alvarez Peraza, "Cachao speaks: a uniquely candid and no-holds barred conversation with the Cuban music master and innovator," Latin Beat Magazine, online, May 2008.

151 Ibid. 77 did he plan on it becoming a tradition among Cuban and Latin musicians everywhere in the world. Cahcao revealed, "I believe the improvisation allowed us to investigate our thoughts and souls with respect to the music."152

Israel Lopez "Cachao," Cachao Descargas: The Havana Sessions. CD. Liner Notes. 78

CHAPTER VIII - CACHAO'S BASS TECHNIQUE

Having been classically trained, Cachao played using both pizzicato and arco technique. When performing in the environs of Cuban music, he would alternate between both techniques as he played. He thought of the bass as an extension of the percussion section and he would create conga-like sounds by percussively striking the bass and strings with his hands or bass bow as he played, creating rhythms and counter-rhythms that interwove with the percussion section. He played every part of the contrabass when he performed, sometimes playing a conga pattern with his left hand on the back of the bass while plucking open strings with his right hand. In an interview with The Brooklyn

Rail, Andy Gonzalez analyzed Cachao's technique:

Instead of plucking the way that most bass players do—to the side, like jazz players—he has a way of plucking outwards—bing, bing —and getting a more percussive sound. He brought techniques to Latin music that were never heard before. He was a virtuoso bow player, having played with symphonies in Havana. He has ways of playing and hitting the bow on the string at the same time, which I'd never seen anybody do—he would go 'kum-ba-ba, kum-ba-ba, kum-ba-ba.' The 'kum' is his plucking, and the 'ba- ba' is hitting the string with the bow to follow. It was beyond my comprehension the time that I first heard it.153

In 1993,1 attended a bass master class conducted by Cachao where I was able to witness his mastery firsthand. At one point, while playing a bass tumbao, he began playing a conga pattern on the back and sides of the bass with both hands and then returned to playing the tumbao. He would often pluck or bow the strings below the bridge of the instrument creating a harmonic, bell-like sound. His entire body was filled with

153 Alan Lockwood, "Bass Rules: Israel "Cachao" Lopez and Andy Gonzalez: From Mambo to Salsa: Part Seven," The Brooklyn Rail, online, March 2008. 79 music and he created music using every part of the bass instrument or with whatever was within his reach, be it a music stand or the floor of the concert stage.

Cachao explained, "When I'm playing a serious concert, I handle the bass in the classic form, but when I play my own music, anything goes—a hand here, another there.

I'll play one way and then another, however the whim hits me. It's just another of my creations. I like people to see something they've never seen before."154

Cachao's rhythmic approach to bass playing was truly revolutionary for its time.

Puerto Rican bassist Oskar Cartaya explained, "Cachao reformatted the whole idea of the tumbao. Before him, bassists were playing them very strict and straight. Cachao added rhythmic syncopation and melodic ideas, while still retaining the traditional foundation of the conga drum pattern."155 Sublette noted that Cachao's bass parts were simultaneously melodic, harmonic and rhythmic. Cuban pianist Bebo Valdes stated that, "Before Cachao,

Cuban music had contratiempo (countertime) but no syncopation."156

Cachao recognized that the dancers of Cuban music tended to listen very closely to the bass and he believed that since the bass was the instrument that set the rhythm, a good bassist should know how to dance. He commented, "Whether the dancers dance to the back beat or in time, they all dance to the bass." He thought that a bassist had to have a strong sense of rhythm and a great amount of imagination. "It's a coarse instrument," he explained, "and if you don't play it well, it sounds like an elephant throwing stones. It's

154 Jorge Socarras, "Cachao," Bomb Magazine, online.

155 Rebecca Mauleon, "Cachao!," Bass Player Magazine, online, March 2008.

156 Ned Sublette, Cuba and Its music: From the First Drums to the Mambo (Chicago: Chicago Review Press, 2004)451. 80 hard to be a good bassist."157

8.1. Cachao's Improvisational Technique

In this section, I have extracted excerpts from my own transcriptions of Israel

Lopez bass solos and have identified specific rhythmic and harmonic techniques that he applied in his improvisations. Four complete transcriptions can be found in Appendix B:

Cachao - Descarga Transcriptions. The bass solos that 1 have transcribed are taken from compositions entitled "Cha cha cha de los pellos," "Es diferente," "Los tres golpes," and

"Las boinas de Cachao." These compositions are included on the recordings Cachao

Descargas: The Havana Sessions 1957-59 (Yemaya-YY9440) and Master Sessions,

Volume 11 (Crescent Moon/Epic 64320 - Released 1994).

NOTE TO READER: Some of Cachao's improvisational note choices are not always in agreement with the piano harmony and corresponding chord symbol.

I have identified the following rhythmic and harmonic techniques in Cachao's solos.

1. Use of dotted quarter note cross-rhythm 2. Use of implied 3/4 polyrhythm 3. Tritone substitution 4. Use of guide tone notes 5. Left hand articulation 6. Chromaticism 7. Use of quarter note triplet rhythm

157 Leonardo Padura Fuentes, Faces of Salsa: A Spoken History of the Music (Berkeley and Los Angeles: Smithsonian Books, 2003) 97. 1. Use of dotted quarter note cross-rhythm

In the following excerpt from his composition "Es diferente," Cachao utilizes a dotted quarter note cross-rhythm technique. Throughout his solo, he uses this technique starting on the "and-of-one" of the measure.

C Bb 3 fe £ 1

Fig. 8.1(a): Use of dotted quarter note cross-rhythm in "Es diferente," (mm. 52-53) (Cachao Descargas: The Havana Sessions 1957-59 Yemaya-YY9440).

Bb

:£ ^ 1 1

Fig. 8.1(b): Use of dotted quarter note cross-rhythm in "Es diferente," (mm. 59-61) (Cachao Descargas: The Havana Sessions 1957-59 Yemaya-YY9440).

c B;

^

B> Bb :£ ^ m^ ?g£ ^

Fig. 8.1(c): Use of dotted quarter note cross-rhythm in "Es diferente," (mm. 76-81) (Cachao Descargas: The Havana Sessions 1957-59 Yemaya-YY9440). 82

2. Use of implied 3/4 polyrhythm

In the following bass solo excerpt from his composition "Las boinas de Cachao," Cachao regularly makes use of an implied 3/4 polyrhythm. He starts the rhythmic figure on the "and-of-four" (Fig. 8.2a) and the "and-of-one" (Fig. 8.2b).

D D7 <$H & & £z mm ±d= at -fc= # 45 p #

Fig. 8.2(a): Use of implied 3/4 polyrhythm in "Las boinas de Cachao," (mm. 46-48) (Cachao Descargas: The Havana Sessions 1957-59 Yemaya-YY9440).

D m ^ ?= $ p # #

Fig. 8.2(b): Use of implied 3/4 polyrhythm in "Las boinas de Cachao," (mm. 75-78) (Cachao Descargas: The Havana Sessions 1957-59 Yemaya-YY9440).

3. Tritone substitution

In Cachao's bass solo on Tito Puente's composition "Cha cha cha de los pellos," he implies the technique of tritone substitution. By playing a Bb bass note on the

E7(#9) chord, Cachao implies a Bb7 chord. By playing an Ab bass note on the D7(#9) chord, he implies an Ab7 chord. 83

Bnf'P > E7'-l,» Ami' D7,;U| 0 0 \>0 0 0 k f\0 4 V *•w V ^ // • H 55 56

Fig. 8.3(a): Use of tritone substitution in "Cha cha cha de los pellos," (mm. 55-56) (Cachao Descargas: The Havana Sessions 1957-59 Yemaya-YY9440).

7 7 7 Bll! <> E '^ Ami D7i^: , 3 S E± 63 64 ^m Fig. 8.3(b): Use of tritone substitution in "Cha cha cha de los pellos," (mm. 63-64) (Cachao Descargas: The Havana Sessions 1957-59 Yemaya-YY9440).

4. Use of guide tone notes

Cachao's bass solo on Tito Puente's composition "Cha cha cha de los pellos," maintains a highly rhythmic quality and his use of the guide tone notes G# on the E7(#9) chord and F# on the D7(#9) chord clearly outline the harmony of the chord progression.

7 7 5 7 7 j^timi Ami' Bni ib > E7i?W Ami D7(=9, Bm 'b5> D i^) I 3- I 3- f f ; m r—0- HH^fff 1 Sfc3 49 50 51 571

Fig. 8.4: Use of guide tone notes in "Cha cha cha de los pellos," (mm. 49-52) (Cachao Descargas: The Havana Sessions 1957-59 Yemaya-YY9440). 84

5. Left-hand articulation

The use of such left-hand articulations as pull-offs, glisses and slides were an integral part of Cachao's soloing technique. In the following excerpt from his composition "Las boinas de Cachao," he uses left hand pull-offs and glisses.

NOTE - Fig. 8.5(a): The symbol 'o' above the G note indicates a pull-off to the open G string.

D D m m 0 |* m m \ m 0 m W 0 m m m \ m 0 m m m 0 m m i m 0 m m m 0~m m 88

Fig. 8.5(a): Use of left hand pull-offs in "Las boinas de Cachao," (mm. 88-91) (Cachao Descargas: The Havana Sessions 1957-59 Yemaya-YY9440).

D 2/tSS- —--- ; — gli": * m -O. m m^E 94

Fig. 8.5(b): Use of left hand glisses in "Las boinas de Cachao," (mm. 94-97) (Cachao Descargas: The Havana Sessions 1957-59 Yemaya-YY9440). 6. Chromaticism

Chromatic movement is an important part of the improvisational language of Cuban jazz music. The following two excerpts from Cachao's solo on his composition "Las boinas de Cachao," demonstrate his use of chromaticism.

Fig. 8.6(a): Use of chromaticism in "Las boinas de Cachao," (mm. 73-74) (Cachao Descargas: The Havana Sessions 1957-59 Yemaya-YY9440).

D m ==2 ^ P P P P

D ^-^ i £ 3^f— r=^L If 7 f P^^

Fig. 8.6(b): Use of chromaticism in "Las boinas de Cachao,"(mm. 79-84) (Cachao Descargas: The Havana Sessions 1957-59 Yemaya-YY9440). 86

7. Use of quarter note triplet rhythm

Cachao uses the quarter note triplet rhythm extensively in his solo on the Tito

Puente composition "Cha cha cha de los pellos." He introduces the rhythm early on in the solo and uses it generously as the solo progresses, thus creating a strong sense of forward motion.

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im $ 0 0 59 m ^ f^

Bm7lb--> Ami7 D7'^) Bm7,bM E7(it9' Ami" D7<<*9> i 3- i 3- -3—n -3 1 r—3" ^ m ^ 63 p Pitched Shmp

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7 7 7, 7(3y 7 7 Bm ^' E7()*9) Bm b5> E > Ami D '^ Ami r~-3- r 3" i 3- ^^ pyip^Fii #

Fig. 8.7: Use of quarter note triplet in "Cha cha cha de los pellos,"(mm. 59-76) (Cachao Descargas: The Havana Sessions 1957-59 Yemaya-YY9440). 87

CHAPTER IX: THE CONCEPT OF CLAVE

Clave is a repeated two-measure pattern that binds together the rhythmic and melodic elements of Cuban music. The pattern is traditionally played on two rounded, polished sticks called claves or on such other percussion instruments as timbales. The clave pattern consists of one measure containing three accented beats and one measure containing two accented beats and can be played in either a "three-two" (forward) direction or a "two-three" (reverse) direction depending on which measure is played first.158 There are three types of clave in Cuban music: son clave, rumba clave and Afro-

Cuban 6/8 clave.

3E ; r P r ^^ Fig. 9.1(a): 3:2 son clave

\^mF^£ ^ ^^ Fig. 9.1(b): 3:2 rumba clave lH r r • p '- p ' p * Fig. 9.1(c): 3:2 Afro-Cuban 6/8 clave

The "three-side" of the clave pattern contains notes that are "off-the-beat," while the "two-side" contains notes that are "on-the-beat" All percussion patterns, rhythm section comping]59 patterns, vocal and horn arrangements, as well as melodic and

158 Rebecca Mauleon, Salsa Guidebook for Piano and Ensemble (Petaluma, CA: Sher Music Co., 1993) 47.

159 The term comping is jazz parlance for accompaniment. 88 improvisational phrases are all governed by the direction of the clave.

In most situations, the direction of the clave pattern within a composition does not change. Usually, once the clave pattern starts, it is not reversed. For example, the "two- side" of the clave pattern would not be played twice in a row. However, there may be instances when a change in the direction of the clave within a composition may be desired. This is achieved with the use of "continuos clave" or by "jumping the clave" (also referred to as clave license))6®

When using "continuos clave," the two-measure clave pattern is not reversed, rather there is a perceived change in clave direction. This is achieved by adding or subtracting a measure of music at the end of the section where the change in clave direction is to occur.

This results in an odd-measure phrase (e.g. 7 measures, 9 measures, etc.). The last measure of the odd-measure phrase often contains a rhythmic figure that is played by either the percussion instruments or the entire ensemble. The next section of the arrangement is then played with the clave in the opposite direction. The following excerpt from Willie Colon's composition "Voy a vivir para siempre," is an of example "continuos clave." Here, an extra measure has been added at the end of the A section. This allows the clave to change direction from "two-three" to "three-two" in the B section.

160 Kevin Moore, "The Roots of Timba. Arsenio Rodriguez and the Development of Cuban Bass Tumbaos 1940-1951," Timba. online. 89

Voy a vivir para siempre . = 100 Willie C olon A IVeisel

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Congas m m =" #

1 Civ r4L I J J j -* ^—* C 0- -* J J *- -0 f—0 f 0- Fig. 9.2: "Voy a vivir para siempre" (mm. 67-78) Fania All Stars - Latin Connection (Fania 773 130 362-20). 90

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B Chorus

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Fig. 9.2: "Voy a vivir para siempre" (mm. 67-78) Fania All Stars - Latin Connection (Fania 773 130 362-20) - cont. 91

A change in clave direction can also be made by "jumping the clave." In this instance, either the "two-side" or "three-side" of the clave pattern is played twice in a row to keep aligned with the music.16'

Regardless of the method used to change the direction of the clave pattern, the instruments are also affected because the phrase of each instrument pattern will begin in the opposite clave direction.162

161 Kevin Moore, "The Roots of Timba. Arsenio Rodriguez and the Development of Cuban Bass Tumbaos 1940-1951," Timba. online.

162 Rebecca Mauleon, Salsa Guidebook for Piano and Ensemble (Petaluma, CA: Sher Music Co., 1993) 54. 92

CHAPTER X - ANALYSIS OF ORIGINAL COMPOSITIONS

Espiritu Interior

Espiritu Interior is a contemporary danzon that is composed using the danzon- mambo form created by Israel and Orestes Lopez and made popular by Antonio Arcano's group Arcano y Sus Maravillas. The Lopez brothers transformed the danzon by adding a syncopated final section. This so-called montuno section featured extended solos by piano and/or flute, thus creating more energy for the dancers.

Espiritu Interior begins with an eight measure introduction followed by an A section in which violins state the melody. The A section is repeated with flute playing a variation of the original melody. This section concludes with a traditional rhythmic break or cierre. The final section consists of a montuno that is played by piano and strings and includes a piano solo and flute solo. The piece ends with a traditional danzon ending.

Espiritu Interior is arranged for a traditional charanga group. The instrumentation consists of piano, flute, 2 violins, viola, bass, timbales, congas and giiiro. In keeping with traditional danzon-mambo, the congas are not played until the montuno section.

Melody/clave relationship

The melodic motif consists of long duration note values connected by eighth note and quarter note triplet figures. The melody aligns with the clave in the third measure of each melodic phrase clearly indicating a "three-two" son clave pattern. 93

A Ami' EinT r—3 i^ ^ m P m 11 3E -^c—- € X— m r M1 ? r

G/A im m m IS 19 20 3E pup -* x- ^p^f P? Fig. 10.1: Espiritu Interior melody/c/ave relationship (mm. 9-12 & mm. 17-20).

Analysis of bass line

The bass line in the danzon section is typical of the genre in that it is locked with the two-measure rhythmic pattern of the danzon. Traditionally, danzon bass parts consisted of two half notes on the "three-side" of the clave pattern and quarter note or eighth note figures on the "two-side" of the clave pattern.

A Ami Emi7 ^ W^ tr-HH Mr \^m Two measure danzon ihytlimic pattern /'

FMa7 Anil7 m ~Z? m

EE u • v' p'r 3=3p=£

Fig. 10.2: Espiritu Interior bass line (danzon section) (mm. 9-16). 94

The bass line in the mambo section is a typical anticipated bass tumbao common to the Antonio Arcano charanga of the 1940s. The rhythm of the bass pattern is a variation of the bombo-ponche pattern in which the bass note on the "and-of-two" is moved to beat three of the measure.

ggrq-^—rj » * -h w—w £ Fig. 10.3(a): bombo-ponche bass pattern.

S^ £ m Fig. 10.3(b): Variation of bombo-ponche bass pattern.

Piano Solo - Open Ami E7 Dmi E7 m P £ *EEE m

:J£ =-*-

Fig. 10.4: Espiritu Interior bass line (mambo section) (mm. 77-84). 95

Descarga Lno

Descarga Uno is a Cachao inspired descarga composed in a mambo style and arranged for a typical Latin jazz combo of the 1950s. The instrumentation consists of piano, bass, flute, timbales, congas and bongo. The sixteen-measure form is one that is common to the Latin-jazz genre and the extended minor blues chord progression is reminiscent of such compositions as Kenny Dorham's "Blue Bossa."

Melody/c/ave relationship

The melody is aligned with the "two-three" direction of the son clave pattern with melody notes falling on beat two on the "two-side" of the clave pattern and on the "and- of-two" on the "three-side" of the clave pattern.

Cmi7 Fmi7 i m ^^=g^p ^^B HI / J s' 7— S—ri •j t f i P^ P=pEip ITppifc f—^~t

Dmi7

Fig. 10.5: Descarga Uno melody/clave relationship (mm. 1-16). 96

. Bbmi7 E?7 AbM.r

^ ^ =^^E:P E 9 I 70 ^ ^_L__ ffi -^-A-^

7( 7 Dnii" !>•"" G7(i>y) Cmi" Dmi b» G 'W i a S E^SEEEE » 75" P 16 iTff 75 J - ^JpgJFF ^—i^-f Fig. 10.5: Descarga Uno melody/clave relationship (mm. 1-16) - cont.

Analysis of bass line

The bass line in the A section consists of a fully developed bombo-ponce pattern.

This tumbao evolved from the simpler anticipated bass tumbaos of the 1940s and is now the standard in Cuban music forms such as mambo, rumba and Cuban jazz.

A Cmi7 Fnn7 %y^ BESB m m£

5 Dmi"

0 I 0~ m—m- m ^ fe£

7 7 Bomi Eb7 A'Ma Wy^-tf-f=1t ms

7 Dmi 7 7 G {b") Cmi Dmi7lb5> G7^> Cmi7 * I * 0 * £ •^ m ^ 13 f-^-^i Fig. 10.6: Use of bombo-ponce bass pattern (mm. 1-16). 97

The bass line in the B section is constructed using an anticipated bass tumbao used extensively in the son montuno genre of the 1940s. The bass tumbao is later developed into a more contemporary tumbao with the use of rhythmic variations.

Open Flute & Piano Solos B Cmr Fmi7 ^M m i P¥

DmW &0 Cm"

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7 7 Bbmi E?7 AbMa

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Fig. 10.7: Use of traditional bass tumbao pattern (mm. 22-36). 98

Nuevo Afro

Nuevo Afro is a descarga composed in an Afro-Cuban 6/8 style. The AABA form is one that is common to American popular music of the 1930s and 1940s. The modern harmonic progression is one that is found in contemporary jazz compositions and consists of modal minor chords in the A section and altered dominant chords in the B section. The bass line is constructed using a traditional Afro-Cuban 6/8 tumbao that develops into a more contemporary tumbao during the solo sections. Nuevo Afro is arranged for a typical

Latin jazz combo of the 1950s. The instrumentation consists of flute, trumpet, piano, bass, timbales, shekere, congas and bongo.

Melody/clave relationship

The melody is aligned with the "three-two" direction of the Afro-Cuban 6/8 clave.

The melody and clave intersect on beats one, three and six of the first measure and beat four of the second measure.

Fniii' fe r r 7 p ff^^ \i" I I I ; IlllpipTjilp ^^ f-f-^ ' i> M Afio-Cuban 6/8 clave

Fmi11 t^ir^rt $ I 1 1 I S3 r r '^ ^ i' r ' p fESEjSE Fig. 10.8: Nuevo Afro melody/clave relationship (mm. 17-24). 99

Analysis of bass line

The Nuevo Afro bass line in the A section is a traditional bass tumbao that is derived from the Afro-Cuban 6/8 . In this instance, bass notes in the first measure of the two-measure pattern align with beats one, three and five of the Afro-

Cuban 6/8 bell pattern. This creates a hemiloa between the bass line and the dotted quarter note pulse of the Afro-Cuban 6/8 meter.

*;•<-» i -E^EEEEE fm 0 - « J = . m Afro-Cuban / 6 S bell pattern] h h h -4 h 1i . ^. *•' IK * * TF^S —~T— r~ T— —r— Fig. 10.9(a): Nuevo Afro bass line (mm. 17-18).

The bass line in the C section is a variation of the traditional tumbao pattern. Here the second and third notes of the hemiola are played. The piano and congas reinforce the bass part.

g,'rSu|5i fi^Z &S51 +5i^A ^ ^ £ 49

,7(S«S , A 5 Dp7t^! D7^ E(,7i4w £7(Syj 3Sft"=F £^¥6E 5i Fig. 10.9(b): Nuevo Afro bass line (mm. 49-56). 100

The bass line during the solo section is a variation of the traditional bass pattern and is aligned with the Afro-Cuban 6/8 bell pattern. These variations are played randomly throughout the solo section.

S ^ Afro-Cuban 6/8 bell pattern £__! A T* T T= Fig. 10.10(a): Variation of traditional Afro-Cuban 6/8 bass line (mm. 77-78).

Tf^^E S ^ i r r - CXJ Afro-Cuban 6'8 bell pattern JL th J> $ \ In LA A sp^ r r r=r* f1 r Fig. 10.10(b): Variation of traditional Afro-Cuban 6/8 bass line (mm. 84-87). 101

Pacientemente

Pacientemente is composed in a Cuban bolero style. The bolero evolved in the late 1800s from the traditional style of Santiago de Cuba and was the first Cuban vocal music to cross international boundaries and gain worldwide recognition.163 First sung by single trovadores (troubadours), the lyrics were derived from poetry and accompanied on the Spanish guitar. The single trovador later evolved into duos and trios singing lush harmonies and accompanied by several guitars. By the 1950s, big bands in

Cuba and New York City incorporated jazz harmony into the bolero style.

Pacientemente is arranged for a Latin jazz combo. The instrumentation consists of flugelhorn, piano, bass, timbales, congas and bongo. The harmony alternates between minor tonality in the A section and major tonality in the B section, which was common to the Cuban bolero. The rich, complex harmony in the A section is achieved with the use of mi(Ma7) and altered dominant chords. Contrastingly, the B section harmony is simplified with the use of diatonic major harmony that modulates up a minor third interval in the second half of the section.

Analysis of bass line

The bass line uses a typical bolero pattern that is reminiscent of several Cuban music genres of the 1930s and 1940s and is still the prime rhythmic figure used in today's bolero bass lines.

163 Helio Orovio, Cuban Music from A to Z (Bath UK: Duke UP, Tumi Music, 2004) 30. 102

Fmi'M.-f G'Ma7 Gmi"''-" C7'b*> Fmi" Emi1

^ 2=* PJ U^Li Fig. 10.11: Use of bolero bass line (mm. 5-8).

While the traditional bolero bass line is used extensively throughout the composition, there are occasional rhythmic variations in specific areas of the arrangement. During the recapitulation of the melody in the B section, a pedal point is used in the bass part to create tension. This tension is then increased in the modulation and subsequently released at the end of the B section.

Dmi7 G/(sus4) Emi7 Ami7 Dmi G7 CMa7

Fmi7 Bi>7lsus4! Gmi7 Cmi7 Fmi7 Bb7 Gmi7,bs> C7 m^HHmjTTTT^ j y J ^Mfigi 59

Fig. 10.12: Use of pedal point in bass line (mm. 55-62). 103

Como Metheny

Como Metheny is composed in a cha cha cha style. The cha cha cha genre was created in 1950 by violinist and composer Enrique Jorrfn. As a member of Antonio

Arcano's group Arcano y sus Maravillas in the 1940s, Jorrfn experienced the Israel and

Orestes Lopez danzon de nuevo ritmo firsthand. In the 1950s, he joined another charanga group called Orquesta America. It was during his tenure with Orquesta America that

Jorrfn created the cha cha cha, which is derived from the mambo section of the danzon- mambo. One of the first cha cha cha's called "Silver Star," was recorded by Orquesta

America in 1950.

Como Metheny is a contemporary cha cha cha written in the spirit of the "Cachao" descargas with open solo sections that allow the instrumentalists the opportunity to

"stretch out." It is arranged for a Latin Jazz combo in the style of .164 The instrumentation consists of flute, vibraphone, flugelhom, piano, bass, timbales, congas, bongo and giiiro.

The introduction consists of three mixed meter phrases of 4/4, 3/4, 4/4 and 2/4.

The melody is layered with flute entering in the first phrase followed by vibraphone in the second phrase playing a harmonization of the melody. Flugelhom enters in the third phrase with a contrapuntal melodic line.

64 Cal Tjader was an American vibraphonist who specialized in Cuban jazz music. 104

Intio

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Melody/c/ave relationship

The melody in the A section contains several offbeat rhythmic attacks. This, along with the eighth note anticipations of the harmony, creates an ambiguous clave direction.

Both "three-two" and "two-three" son clave fit the rhythm of the melody. While "three- two" rumba clave perfectly aligns with the melody, rumba clave is not used in the cha cha cha genre. The B section can more easily be classified as "two-three" son clave, although there are melodic accents that occur on the "and-of-two" in both measures of the two-measure pattern. In instances where the clave direction is not immediately apparent, the clave direction that "feels" best with the rhythm of the melody is generally used.

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Fig. 10.14: Como Metheny melody (mm. 17-32). 107

The melody in the C, D and E sections is layered in a canon-like manner. The flute states the melody at letter C and the vibraphone echoes a variation of the melody in the following measure. In the D section, the flugelhom takes over the flute melody while the vibraphone continues with a canon-like variation and the flute plays a new counter- melody. The melodic roles of the three instruments continue into the modulation at section E.

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Fig. 10.15: Como Metheny melody (mm. 57-90). 108

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Analysis of bass line

The bass line in the A section uses a guaracha rhythmic pattern typical of the cha cha cha genre of the 1950s. The guaracha rhythmic pattern is combined with various traditional one-measure rhythmic patterns.165

3E v r P »r P r r »r P^

^—^ I ^

Fig. 10.16(a): One-measure c/ia c/ia cha rhythm patterns.

165 Oscar Stagnaro, The Latin Bass Book (Petaluma, CA: Sher Music Co., 2001) 106 - 108. 110

^F=f^ p r U' IP Fig. 10.16(b): Two-measure cha cha cha rhythm pattern.

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The bass line in the solo sections uses a more conventional two-measure rhythmic pattern. The rhythm of the two-measure pattern is varied throughout the solo sections.

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Fig. 10.18: Variation of guaracha-sty\e bass line (mm. 91-106). 112

CONCLUSION

This thesis has presented an historical overview of the life and music career of

Israel Lopez "Cachao," his contributions to the creation of the mambo and descarga genres and his contribution to the role and development of the bass in Cuban popular music. An examination of Cachao's groundbreaking innovations to the danzon and his overhaul of previous conceptions of Cuban bass playing revealed specific compositional and structural techniques. These revelations have strengthened both my compositional approach and my approach to performing the bass parts on the accompanying recorded music.

Israel Lopez was blessed with formidable musical skills and raised in an environment that contributed immensely to his rapid musical development. He began playing the contrabass at age ten and by age twelve had joined the Havana Symphony

Orchestra. Throughout his teen years, Cachao played every conceivable genre of Cuban music while he amassed a career's worth of playing experience and continued to grow as a performer and composer.

Cachao was positioned at a pivotal time in the history of Cuban popular music. By

1940, the final configuration of the danzon had been completed. The tumbadora and giiiro had been added to the charanga group, the era of the danzonete had ended and

Cuban music was ready for a change. Through his daring imagination and understanding of what the Cuban public desired in dance music, Cachao took the bold step of changing the form of the danzon, a form that had been intact for more than eighty years. His changes to the danzon became the basis for the mambo genre, which became an 113 international dance sensation in the 1950s. His creativity and adept compositional and arranging skills led him to compose over 2,500 danzones.

While composing my own danzon entitled "Espiritu Interior," I realized the challenges of remaining stylistically true to a song form that was over 150 years old, while still following my creative instincts as a composer of instrumental music. The challenge was to remain within the boundaries of both the traditional danzon form and the innovations to that form that Israel Lopez had defined in the creation the danzon- mambo.

These boundaries include:

- an introduction of eight measures

- a rhythmic break leading to the main melody

- flute and violin instrumentation in the melody sections

- a standard rhythmic break before the mambo section

- the introduction of the tumbadora and giiiro in the mambo section

- the use of a traditional ending

I believe that I was able to strike a compositional balance by adhering to the structural guidelines of the danzon-mambo, while inserting my own more contemporary melodic and harmonic language.

As Cachao was recreating the danzon, he was also transforming the role of the contrabass. Bass parts that had traditionally anchored the harmony with chord roots on the downbeat of each measure had become syncopated and melodic. His bass parts connected and interwove with the percussion instmments and became an integral part of 114 the musical arrangements. Adding to this was Cachao's deep understanding of melody and rhythm, which became more evident as he brought the contrabass into the spotlight through his improvised solos.

In the 1950s, Israel Lopez redefined Cuban popular music again as he spearheaded the descarga movement. Inspired by the recordings of American jazz music, he created a uniquely Cuban approach to the "jam session." His descarga recordings took such traditional Afro-Cuban song forms as son, son montuno, rumba, giiiro and cha cha cha, and presented them in a listening environment unlike anything that the

Cuban public had experienced before.

My own descarga compositions entitled "Descarga Uno" and "Nuevo Afro," continue in the tradition of 1950s Cuban jazz music. I chose the Cuban music styles of mambo and Afro-Cuban 6/8 for my descarga compositions. When composing these pieces, it was cmcial to write melodies that aligned with the direction of the two-measure son and Afro-Cuban 6/8 clave patterns. All subsequent melodic background lines and percussion rhythmic breaks were also required to align with their respective clave patterns.

When recording the music that accompanies this thesis, my goal was to recreate the sound of the Cachao recordings. Accomplishing this required identifying specific rhythms that were played by all instmments during the period that Cachao recorded his danzones and descargas. The percussion rhythms were required to be traditional as was the piano accompaniment.

The bass parts that I chose to play on the recorded material combine traditional bass 115 tumbaos derived from the 1940s and 1950s with more contemporary bass tumbaos currently played in Cuban popular music. I feel that 1 was able to strike a sonic balance between the sound of Cachao's recordings and those of contemporary Latin music.

While each one of the compositions presented in this thesis explore a different genre of Cuban popular music, they are all irrevocably connected to the legacy of Israel

Lopez "Cachao." It is a legacy that has shaped and defined Cuban popular music and has influenced a legion of musicians that have followed in his footsteps. 116

APPENDIX A: Original Scores

Espiritu Interior

Composed By Will Jarvis

Instrumentation

Piano Bass Two Violins Viola Flute Timbales Congas Giiiro 117

Danzon-mambo Espiritu Interior . = 130

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Descarga Uno

Composed By Will Jarvis

Instrumentation

Piano Bass Flute Timbales Congas Bongo 130

Mambo Descarga Uno c =94 Will Jams A %

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Nuevo Afro

Composed By Will Jarvis

Instrumentation

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Pacientemente

Composed By Will Jarvis

Instrumentation

Piano Bass Flugelhom Timbales Congas Bongo 155

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Composed By Will Jarvis

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APPENDIX B: Israel Lopez "Cachao" Solo Transcriptions

Cha Cha Cha de Los Pellos

Es Diferente

Las Boinas De Cachao

Los Tres Golpes 183

Bass Cha Cha Cha de Los Pellos tiom the leeouling C achao Debcaiaa^ - The Ha\ana Seyions C ha cha cha ]9S--S Tito Puente Ari b\ Israel Lopez Cachao . = 148 Transcribed b\ \«\ ill Jar\ is

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Bass Es Diferente lioni the recoidmg Cachao De^caigas - The Ha\,ina Sessions Isnel Lopez C ii.hao Debcaiga 195"-™ fYema> a-YVQ-440) Tnnsci the J Lv W^ili Tarw -, =112

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APPENDIX C: Israel Lopez "Cachao" Selected Discography

Lopez, Israel "Cachao." Cuban jam sessions in miniatura: Discharges, Cachao y su ritmo caliente. Lp (2092) 1957.

. Camino Juan Pescao - Cachao y su tipica.

Recorded at Radio Progreso Studios, Havana. Lp (Duher 1603) 1958.

. Descarga Guajira. CD (Caney 516), Released 1959; Re-Issued 2002.

. Cachao y su tipica Vol.2. Recorded at Radio Progreso Studios, Havana. Lp (Duher 1611) 1959. . Jam session with feeling - Descargas cubanas - Cachao y su orquesta.

Lp (Maype 122) - no date.

. Descarga con Cachao y su combo. Lp (Maype 168) 1961.

. Cachao - Cuban music in jam session. Lp (Modiner 278 and Lp Velvet 1100)

- no date.

. Cachao y su tipica gigante, Superdanzones. Lp (Egret 0225) Havana 1961.

. Descargas cubanas - Cachao. Lp (Musicalia 22-105 and Lap Bonita 105) 1961. . Cachao y su ritmo caliente: From Havana to New York. (CCD 501)

New York, 1961.

. More legendary descarga sessions CCD (510) New York, 1963.

. Cachao tepone a bailar - Cachao y su orquesta. Lp (Teca 596) - no date.

.Dos. (Salsoul) 1976.

. Cachao y Su Descarga, Vol. 1. Lp (Salsoul 4111) 1977.

. Descarga Cachao Vol.2. Lp (Salsoul 4115) New York, 1978.

. Latin Jazz Descarga, Pt. 1. (Tania)1981. 196

. Latin Jazz Descarga, Pi. 2. (Tania) 1981.

. Maestro de maestros: Israel Lopez ''Cachao " y su descarga 86. Lp (Fania TRLP 13) Miami, 1986.

. Cachao Master Sessions Volume 1. CD (Crescent Moon EK 64320) Los Angeles, 1994.

. Cachao Master Sessions Volume 11. CD (Crescent Moon EK67319) Los Angeles, 1995.

. Cuba Linda. CD (Emi-CineSon H2 7243 5 25329 2 6) 2000.

. Sonesy tradiciones, Enrique Chia featuring Cachao. CD (Begui 21232) Miami, 2003.

. Cachao jahora si! Andy Garcia Presents Cachao; CD & DVD Set, CD (Univision 100750)2004.

Appears on:

Arcano y Sus Maravillas, Danzon Mambo 1944-51. CD (reissued on Tumbao) 1993.

Bellson, Louis, Walfredo de los Reyes. Ecue Ritmos Cubanos. Lp (Pablo 2310807)-no date.

Castellar, Jose. Man From San Juan. With Cachao, Chocolate, Jose Mangual Jr., Ray Santos CD (Jokaso Music 12182) Released 1994.

Chaparro, Pedro Rafael. Chaparro y Su Orquesta Gozando. CD (Rico Records 717) Released 1974; Re-Issued 2005.

Chia, Enrique. Piano Con Sabor. CD (Begui Records 9619) Released 1996.

Chia, Enrique. Sonesy Tradiciones Featuring Cachao. CD (Begun Records 2132) Released 2003.

Chia, Enrique. Mi Cielo Tropical: A Gozar Con Enrique Chia. CD (Begui Records 2141) Released 2007. 197

Chirino, Willy. Grandes Exitos En Vivo. CD (Sony Norte/Eventus 20111) Released 2008.

Danzon By Six. Elegante - With Federico Britos. CD (Universal/Pimienta 360637) Released 2004.

Delgado, Issac. Issac Delgado y Su Group En Primera Plana. CD (Univision/Universal 30044) Released 2007.

De Los Reyes, Walfredo. Walfredo Reyes Sabor Cubano - Walfredo De Los Reyes Y Su Orquesta. CD (Rumba 55550) Released 1960; Re-Issued 2004.

D'Rivera, Paquito. Paquito D'Rivera Presents 40 Years Of Cuban Jam Session. CD (Universal/Pimiento 360632) Released 1993; Re-Issued 2004.

Estefan, Gloria. Mi Tierra. CD (Sony) 1993.

Estefan, Gloria. 90 Millas. CD (Sony BMG Burgandy 709055) Released 2007.

Fajardo, Jose. La Flauta de Cuba. Fajardo y Sus Estrellas (Tania) 1966.

Hansel y Raul. La Magia de Hansely Raul. CD (RCA) 1986.

Jimenez, Generoso. Generoso Jimenez And His Orchestra Trombone Majadero. CD (Malanga Music 804) - includes the albums "Trombone Majadero" (1965 ) and "Ritmo." (1960) Re-issued 2007.

La India De Oriente. La Reina De La Guajira. CD (Caiman 9012) Re-Issued 1996

La Sonora Miami, Juan Vicente Zambrano YLa Sonora Miami. CD (SAR/Guajiro 1052) Released 1992.

Montes, Chano. Recuerdan A Chapatti. CD (SAR/Guajiro 8006) Re-Issued 1995.

Mora, Pepe, Torres, Roberto. Present A Su Amigo...Pepe Mora. CD (SAR/Guajiro 1045) Re-Issued 1995.

Palmieri, Eddie. Champagne. CD (Fannie/Musical-Remastered Edition 130 196) Released 1968; Re-Issued 2007.

Pike, Dave. Manhattan Latin - The Sensuous Rhythms Of Spanish Harlem. CD (Verve 74568) Released 1964; Re-Issued 2004.

Recordando A Celina Y Reutilio. Recordando A Celina YReutilio Con Norberto Y Marisela. CD (SAR/Guajiro 8005) Re-Issued 1994.

Rodriguez, Tito. Tito, Tito, Tito. CD (WS Latino 4088) Re-Issued 1989. 198

Santos, John. John Santos Tribute To The Masters - John Santos And The Machete Ensemble. CD (CuBop 025) Released 2000. Tico-Alegre All Stars. Live At Carnegie Hall. CD (Fannie/Emusica-Remastered Edition 130 171) Released 1974; Re-Issued 2006.

Torres, Roberto. Elegantemente Criollo. CD (SAR/Guajiro 1043) Released 1986.

Torres, Roberto. Roberto Torres y Sigo Criollo! CD (SAR/Guajiro 1046) Released 1988.

Torres, Roberto. Tropicalisimo. CD (SAR/Guajiro 1049) Released 1989.

TropicanaAll Stars. Tradition Con Israel Kantor. CD (Regu Records 1105) Released 2005.

Valdes, Bebo. Bebo Valdes El Arte Del Sabor: Bebo Valdes Trio Con Cachao Y Patato. CD (EMI/ Lola / Chrysalis 532869) Released 2001.

Valdes, Carlos "Patato." Patato y Totico. CD (Verve 86244) Released 1968; Re-issued 2004.

Various Artists. Rosendo Rosellpresenta sus interpretes. Lp (RR-217) - no date.

Various Artists. Remembranzas cubanas. Lp (RR-218) 1984 Lindo Paris RRo - no date.

Various Artists. Cuban Masters Los Originales. CD (Universal/MusicHaus 160509) Released 2001.

Various Artists. Calle 54: Music From the Miramax Motion Picture. Various Artists CD (Blue Note) 2001.

Various Artists. The Lost City: Original Soundtrack. CD (Univision) 2005. 199

Films & Documentaries

Aguabella, Francisco. Sworn To The Drum: A Tribute To Francisco Aquabella. Flower Films 00117. Released 1995; Re-Issued 2007. DVD.

Chirino, Willy. En Vivo 35 Aniversario. Sony Norte Eventus 201129. 2008. DVD.

Lopez, Israel "Cachao." Cachao jahora si! Andy Garcia Presents Cachao. Univision 100750. Released 2004. DVD.

. Cachao... Como Su Ritmo No Hay Dos. CineSon Productions Inc. Epic Music Video, New York N.Y 1993. VHS.

. Cachao: Una Mas. ICA Doc Film Institute, directed by Dikayl Dunkley. 2008.

More, Benny. Al Barbaro Del Ritmo. Regu Records 1102. Released 2005. DVD.

Trueba, Fernando. Calle 54. © Cineteve/Femando Trueba PC./SGAE/Arte France Cinema. 2000. DVD. 200

WORKS CITED

Bibliography

Del Puerto, Carlos. The True Cuban Bass. Petaluma, CA: Sher Music Co., 1994.

Fernandez, Raul A. From Afro-Cuban Rhythms to Latin Jazz. Berkeley and Los Angeles, California: University of California Press, 2006.

Garcia, David F. Arsenio Rodriguez and the Transnational Flows of Latin Popular Music. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2006.

Hopkins, Gregg, Bill Moore. Ampeg: The Story Behind the Sound. Milwaukee: Hal Leonard Corporation, 1999.

Manuel, Peter. Creolizing Contradance in the Caribbean. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2009.

Mauleon, Rebecca. Salsa Guidebook for Piano and Ensemble. Petaluma, CA: Sher Music Co., 1993.

Orovio, Helio. Cuban Music from A to Z. Bath, United Kingdom: Duke University Press, Tumi Music, 2004.

Padura Fuentes, Leonardo. Faces of Salsa: A Spoken History of the Music. Washington and London: Smithsonian Books, 2003.

Stagnaro, Oscar. The Latin Bass Book. Petaluma, CA: Sher Music Co., 2001.

Sublette, Ned. Cuba and Its music: From the First Drums to the Mambo. Chicago: Chicago Review Press Inc., 2004.

Web Publications and Additional Sources

Alvarez Peraza, Chico. "Cachao speaks: a uniquely candid and no-holds barred conversation with the Cuban music master and innovator." Latin Beat Magazine, online, May 2008. http://findarticles.eom/p/articles/mi_m0FXVis_4_18/ai_n31903261/. 201

Ankeny, Jason. "Cachao Biography," All Music, online, no date. www. allmusic. com.

Balmaseda, Liz. "Cachao, king of Cuban swing is still kicking up the temp." Miami Herald, online, 3 June 2003. http://www.havanajournal.com/culture/entry/ cachao_king_of_cuban_swing_is_still_kicking_up_the temp/.

Barteldes, Ernest. "Cachao: Mambo Man Israel "Cachao" Lopez." All About Jazz, online, No. 63, 26 July 2007 http://www.allaboutjazz.com/php/ article.php?id=26059&pg=2.

Delgado, Abel. "Conversing with Cachao, Part 1." Descarga.com. May 2008. http://www.descarga.com/cgi-bin/db/archives/Interview557JjX.

Diaz-Ayala, Cristobal. "Encylopedia Discography of Cuban Music." Dr. Cristobal Diaz-Ayala. Florida International University. 2002. http://latinpop.fiu.edu/discography.html.

Gonzalez, Andy. Interview By Author. Audio Recording. Bronx, New York. 15 June 2010.

Griffin, Jon. "Nengon - The First Form Of Son In Cuba." Jon Griffin's Blog. online, no date, (http://jongriffin.com/articles/roots-cuban-music- cuban-son-complex/.

Hoffmann, Frank. "Survey of American Popular Music - Dicso." modified for the web by Robert Birkline. Sam Houston State University, online, no date. http://www.shsu.edu/~lis_fwh/book/hybrid_children_of_rock/ Disco2.htm.

Lockwood, Alan. "Bass Rules: Israel "Cachao" Lopez and Andy Gonzalez: From Mambo to Salsa: Part Seven." The Brooklyn Rail, online, March 2008. http://www.brooklynrail.org/2008/03/music/bass-rules-israel-cachao- lopez-and-andy-gonzalez.

Los Angeles Times, "Bassist was father of mambo style." Los Angeles Times, online, 23 March 2008. http://articles.latimes.com/2008/mar/23/local/me-cachao23

Marks, Morton. "Cuban Counterpoint: History of the Son Montuno." Rounder Records Corp. Cambridge. Massachusetts, liner notes. 1992. 202

Marks, Morton. "Cachao, Mambo, and Descarga: A Latin Music Legend." American Folklife Center The Library of Congress. Vol. 17, No. 1 (Winter 1995). http://www.loc.gov/folklife/news/Winter95.txt.

Manuel, Peter. "The Anticipated Bass in Cuban Popular Music." Latin American Music Review / Revista de Musica Latinoamericana, Vol. 6, No. 2 (Autumn - Winter, 1985): 249-261. University of Texas Press http://www.jstor.org/stable/780203

Mauleon, Rebecca. "Cachao!" Bass Player Magazine, online, March 2008 http://www.bassplayer.com/article/cachao/mar-08/33745.

Mauleon, Rebecca. "National Geographic Music/Bolero Music." National Geographic, online, no date, http://worldmusic.nationalgeographic.com/view/ page.basic/genre/content.genre/bolero_694/en_US.

Moore, Kevin. "The Roots of Timba. Arsenio Rodriguez and the Development of Cuban Bass Tumbaos 1940-1951." Timba. online, no date. http://www. timba.com/artists/bookpre/index. asp ?page=01 arsenio_bass.htm.

Pomeroy, Dave. "Ampeg Baby Bass." Bass Player Magazine, online, Jan. 2007. http://www.bassplayer.com/article/ampeg-baby-bass/jan-07/25342).

Pomeroy, Dave. "1956 Framus Triumph Electric Upright." Bass Player Magazine, online, Jan. 2006. http://www.bassplayer.com/article/1956-framus-triumph/ jan-06/16464.

Salazar, Max. "Antonio Arcano: Listo, Arcano? - Antonio Arcano, musico pionero de Cuba." Latin Beat Magazine, online, June 2001. http://findarticles.eom/p/articles/mi_m0FXV/is_5_ll/ai_76963.

Salazar, Max. "Orestes Lopez and the mambo." Latin Beat Magazine, online, Sept 2002. http://findarticles.eom/p/articles/mi_m0FXV/is_7_12/ai_92403678/.

Santos, John. "Walfredo de los Reyes: legendary Cuban drummer Walfredo de los Reyes Sr. reminisces to John Santos about Las Vegas, Louie Bellson, Havana, Tito Puente, and the historic Ecue recording." Latin Beat Magazine, online, May 2009. http://goliath.ecnext.com/coms2/ gi_0199-11939626/Walfredo-de-los-Reyes-legendary.html. 203

Socarras, Jorge. "Cachao." Bomb Magazine, online, no date. http://www.bombsite.com/issues/51/articles/1863.

Tamargo, Luis. "Cachao: a conversation with the godfather of the Cuban bass." Latin Beat Magazine, online, August 2004. http://findarticles.eom/p/articles/mi_m0FXV/is_6_14/ai_n6167578/.

Discography

Cuban Counterpoint. History of the Son Montuno. CD (Rounder Records Corp.) Cambridge, Massachusetts 1992.

Fania All Stars. Latin Connection. CD (Fania) 1981.

Lopez, Israel "Cachao." Cachao jahora si! Andy Garcia Presents Cachao. CD (Univision 100750), Released 2004.

Lopez, Israel "Cachao." Cachao Descargas: The Havana Sessions. CD (Yemaya YY9440) Recorded in 1957 and 1958 - Re-Issued 2007.

Lopez, Israel "Cachao." Master Sessions, Volume II. CD (Crescent Moon/Epic 67319), Released 1995.

Rodriguez, Arsenio. Arsenio Rodriguez y Su Conjunto El Alma De Cuba. Grabaciones Completas RCA Victor 1940-1956 (Tumbao 315), Released 2008.

Video And Documentary

Cachao jahora si! Andy Garcia Presents Cachao. Prod. Andy Garcia. Perf. Lopez, Israel "Cachao." Univision 100750, 2004. DVD.

Cachao... Como Su Ritmo No Hay Dos. Prod. Andy Garcia. Perf. Lopez, Israel "Cachao." CineSon Productions Inc. Epic Music Video, New York N.Y. 1993. VHS. 204

Additional Works Referenced

Arcano, Antonio. Arcano Y Sus Maravillas. CD (Egrem 918), Recorded in 1953, 1954 and 1975 - Re-Issued 2008.

Borden, Timothy. "Contemporary Musicians - Israel "Cachao" Lopez." Encyclopedia.com. May 2002. http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Cachao.aspx.

Calle 54. Dir. . Perf. Lopez, Israel "Cachao," Tito Puente and others. © Cineteve/Femando Trueba PC./SGAE/Arte France Cinema. 2000. DVD.

Lopez, Israel "Cachao." Cachao Master Sessions Volume I. CD (Crescent Moon EK 64320) Los Angeles, 1994.

Lopez, Israel "Cachao." Descarga Guajira. CD (Caney 516), Released 1959; Re-Issued 2002.

Patino, Manny, Jorge Moreno, Aaron Stang. Afro-Cuban Bass Grooves. Van Nuys, California: Alfred Publishing Co., Inc., 1997.

Rickenbacker. "History: Early Years." Rickenbacker International Corporation, online, no date, http://www.rickenbacker.com/history_early.asp