Title Paradiplomacy as a Sustainable Development Strategy : The Case of Russia’s Arctic Subnational Actors

Author(s) Sergunin, Alexander; Joenniemi, Pertti

Citation Eurasia Border Review, 5(2), 1-17

Issue Date 2014

Doc URL http://hdl.handle.net/2115/57854

Type bulletin (article)

File Information EBR5_2_001.pdf

Instructions for use

Hokkaido University Collection of Scholarly and Academic Papers : HUSCAP

Paradiplomacy as a Sustainable Development Strategy: The Case of Russia’s Arctic Subnational Actors

Alexander Sergunin Pertti Joenniemi*

Abstract

This paper examines how paradiplomacy is exploited by the Russian Arctic subnational actors (regions DQGPXQLFLSDOLWLHV IRUEXLOGLQJWKHLUVXVWDLQDEOHGHYHORSPHQWVWUDWHJ\0RUHVSHFL¿FDOO\WKUHHUHVHDUFKTXHVWLRQV DUHDGGUHVVHG)LUVWZKDWDUHWKHDFWRUV¶LQFHQWLYHVIRUVXEQDWLRQDOLQWHUQDWLRQDODFWLYLWLHV"6HFRQGZKDWDUHWKH PDLQ SDUDGLSORPDWLF VWUDWHJLHV LQVWUXPHQWV DQG LQVWLWXWLRQV"7KLUG ZKDW DUH WKH LPSOLFDWLRQV RI SDUDGLSORPDF\ IRUFHQWHUSHULSKHU\UHODWLRQVDQG5XVVLD¶VIRUHLJQSROLF\"7KHSDSHUIRFXVHVRQWKHIROORZLQJVWUDWHJLHVPHWKRGV of paradiplomacy: making direct agreements with international partners; attracting foreign investment; creating a SRVLWLYHLPDJHRIWKHUHJLRQVFRRSHUDWLRQZLWKLQWHUQDWLRQDORUJDQL]DWLRQVHVWDEOLVKLQJUHSUHVHQWDWLYHRI¿FHVLQ foreign countries; the twinning of cities; participation in sub-regional arrangements; and capitalizing on national diplomacy and federal infrastructures. The authors conclude that in the foreseeable future paradiplomacy will retain LWVLPSRUWDQFHIRUWKHVXEQDWLRQDODFWRUVRIWKH5XVVLDQ$UFWLFDVDQHI¿FLHQWLQVWUXPHQWIRUEXLOGLQJVXVWDLQDEOH development strategies.

Introduction

7KH H[WHUQDO DFWLYLWLHV RI VXEQDWLRQDO DFWRUV ZKLFK DUH D FRQFRPLWDQW RI WKH SURFHVV RI UH- JLRQDOL]DWLRQKDYHEHFRPHW\SLFDOIRUPDQ\FRXQWULHVLQFOXGLQJ5XVVLD7KHDFWLYHGHYHORSPHQWRI LQWHUQDWLRQDOFRQWDFWVLVFRQVLGHUHGE\PDQ\5XVVLDQUHJLRQVDQGPXQLFLSDOLWLHVQRWRQO\DVDQHI¿FLHQW instrument for problem solving but also for building sustainable development strategies. These actors believe that even their marginal location can be an additional resource or competitive advantage in their development strategies: with international cooperation they can transform themselves from terra incog- QLWDLQWRDWWUDFWLYHSODFHVIRULQYHVWPHQWWRXULVPFXOWXUDOHYHQWVHWF The concept of paradiplomacy denotes international activities of subnational and non-state ac- WRUVWKDWKDYHOLPLWHGFDSDELOLWLHV±LQWHUPVRIUHVRXUFHVDQGOHJDOSRZHUVíLQWKHIRUHLJQSROLF\VSKHUH

* Alexander Sergunin is Professor of International Relations at St. Petersburg State University and the Higher 6FKRRORI(FRQRPLFV3HUWWL-RHQQLHPLLVDUHVHDUFKHUDWWKH.DUHOLDQ,QVWLWXWH8QLYHUVLW\RI(DVWHUQ)LQODQG Corresponding Author: [email protected].

1 Eurasia Border Review < Article >

According to Soldatos1DQG'XFKDFHN2 paradiplomacy is a part of the processes of globalization and UHJLRQDOL]DWLRQ XQGHU ZKLFK VXE DQG QRQVWDWH DFWRUV SOD\ DQ LQFUHDVLQJO\ LQÀXHQWLDO UROH LQ ZRUOG SROLWLFV5HJLRQVPXQLFLSDOLWLHVFRPSDQLHV1*2VDQGRWKHUUHOHYDQWRUJDQL]DWLRQVVHHNWRSURPRWH LQWHUQDWLRQDO FRRSHUDWLRQ DQG DFFRXQW IRU D VLJQL¿FDQW SDUW RI FRQWHPSRUDU\ FURVV DQG WUDQVERUGHU FRQWDFWV7KHSKHQRPHQRQRISDUDGLSORPDF\UDLVHVQHZWKHRUHWLFDOTXHVWLRQVFRQFHUQLQJWKHUROHRIWKH VWDWHVXEVWDWHDQGQRQVWDWHDFWRUVLQLQWHUQDWLRQDODIIDLUVDQGDWWKHVDPHWLPHLWFKDOOHQJHVWKHH[LVWLQJ state system and international law (which together represent the very basis of the international political order in the Westphalian era).3 7KHSDUDGLSORPDFLHVRI5XVVLD¶VVXEQDWLRQDODFWRUVLVDFRQWURYHUVLDOLVVXHLQWKHDFDGHPLF OLWHUDWXUH2QHJURXSRIUHVHDUFKHUVSUHIHUVWRLGHQWLI\WKHQHJDWLYHDVSHFWVRISDUDGLSORPDF\4 They be- lieve that external activities of Russian subnational actors would lead to the disintegration of the Russian Federation and the rise of corrupt and separatist regimes in the Russian regions. The gloomy forecasts UHJDUGLQJWKHLPSOLFDWLRQVRISDUDGLSORPDF\IRUWKHFRXQWU\¶VLQWHJULW\EHFDPHHVSHFLDOO\SRSXODULQ SHULRGVRIFULVLVVXFKDVWKHFULVHVRIDQG±&RQYHUVHO\WKHUHLVDJURXSRIDXWKRUVZKR are absolutely positive about the paradiplomacy of subnational units because the latter are healthy for WKHFHQWHUSHULSKHU\UHODWLRQVKLSDQGVHUYHDVDFKHFNRQWKHJURZLQJDXWKRULWDULDQLVPLQ5XVVLD¶VGR- mestic and foreign policies under the Putin regime.5 There is also a group of scholars who believe that paradiplomacy is a “natural outcome” of the glocalization process and coincides with the global trend of VXEQDWLRQDODQGQRQVWDWHDFWRUV¶JURZLQJLQWHUQDWLRQDODFWLYLWLHV6

13DQD\RWLV6ROGDWRV³$Q([SODQDWRU\)UDPHZRUNIRUWKH6WXG\RI)HGHUDO6WDWHVDV)RUHLJQSROLF\$FWRUV´LQ Federalism and International Relations: the Role of Subnational UnitsHGV+DQV0LFKHOPDQQDQG3DQD\RWLV 6ROGDWRV 2[IRUG&ODUHQGRQ3UHVV ± 2,YR'XFKDFHNThe Territorial Dimension of Politics: Within, Among, and Across Nations (Boulder and London: :HVWYLHZ3UHVV ,YR'XFKDFHN³3HUIRUDWHG6RYHUHLJQWLHV7RZDUGVD7\SRORJ\RI1HZ$FWRUVLQ International Relations” in Federalism and International Relations± 3+HLGL+REEV City Hall Goes Abroad: The Foreign Policy of Local Politics 7KRXVDQG2DNV6DJH %ULDQ +RFNLQJLocalizing Foreign Policy, Non-central Governments and Multilayered Diplomacy (London: Palgrave 0DFPLOODQ 0LFKDHO.HDWLQJParadiplomacy in Action /RQGRQ)UDQN&DVV  4'RXJODV%OXPHGRussia’s Future: Consolidation or Disintegration? %RXOGHU&2:HVWYLHZ *UDHPH +HUGRussia’s Systemic Transformation: Trajectories and Dynamics? (Copenhagen: Copenhagen Peace Research ,QVWLWXWH>&235,:RUNLQJ3DSHUQR@ 3HWHU.LUNRZRussia’s Provinces: Authoritarian Transformation versus Local Autonomy? /RQGRQ0DFPLOODQ *DLO/DSLGXVHGThe New Russia: Troubled Transformation %RXOGHU&2:HVWYLHZ3UHVV 1HLO0HOYLQRegional Foreign Policies in the Russian Federation (London: 5R\DO,QVWLWXWHRI,QWHUQDWLRQDO$IIDLUV 0DUWLQ1LFKROVRQTowards a Russia of the Regions (London: ,QWHUQDWLRQDO,QVWLWXWHIRU6WUDWHJLF6WXGLHV>$GHOSKL3DSHUQR@ -HVVLFD6WHUQ³0RVFRZ0HOWGRZQ&DQ 5XVVLD6XUYLYH"´International Security  ± 53HUWWL-RHQQLHPL.DOLQLQJUDGDVD'LVFXUVLYH%DWWOH¿HOG (Copenhagen: Copenhagen Peace Research Institute >:RUNLQJ3DSHUQR@ 3HUWWL-RHQQLHPLBridging the Iron Curtain? Cooperation around the Baltic Rim &RSHQKDJHQ&RSHQKDJHQ3HDFH5HVHDUFK,QVWLWXWH>:RUNLQJ3DSHUQR@ 3HUWWL-RHQQLHPLDQG-DQ 3UDZLW]HGVKaliningrad: The European Amber Region $OGHUVKRW$VKJDWH *XOQD]6KDUDIXWGLQRYD ³3DUDGLSORPDF\LQWKH5XVVLDQ5HJLRQV7DWDUVWDQ V6HDUFKIRU6WDWHKRRG´Europe-Asia Studies  ± 60LNKDLO$OH[HHY Russia’s Periphery in the Global Arena: Do Regions Matter in the Kremlin’s Foreign Policy?

2 Sergunin and Joenniemi

The purpose of this study is to examine how the Russian Arctic subnational actors7 use paradi- plomacy as a resource for problem solving and ensuring their sustainable development. The discussion EHORZIRFXVHVRQWKUHHVSHFL¿FTXHVWLRQV)LUVWZKDWDUHWKHLQFHQWLYHVIRUVXEQDWLRQDODFWRUV¶LQWHU- QDWLRQDODFWLYLWLHV"6HFRQGZKDWDUHWKHPDLQSDUDGLSORPDWLFVWUDWHJLHVLQVWUXPHQWVDQGLQVWLWXWLRQV" 7KLUGZKDWDUHLPSOLFDWLRQVRISDUDGLSORPDF\IRUWKHFHQWHUSHULSKHU\UHODWLRQVDQG5XVVLD¶VIRUHLJQ SROLF\"

Regions and Cities as New International Actors

,QFRQWUDVWZLWKWKH&ROG:DUHUDZKHQVXEQDWLRQDODFWRUVZHUHH[SHFWHGWRUHPDLQH[FOXVLYHO\ ZLWKLQWKH³GRPHVWLF´VSKHUHSUHVHQWO\WKHSUHURJDWLYHRIVWDWHVWRLQVHUWGLYLVLYHERUGHUVKDVJUDGXDOO\ HURGHGDQGFRQVHTXHQWO\YDULRXVVXEQDWLRQDODFWRUVKDYHEHHQDEOHWRHVWDEOLVKLQWHUQDWLRQDOUHODWLRQVRI their own. $VIDUDVWKH(XURSHDQVXEQDWLRQDOXQLWVDUHFRQFHUQHGWKHLUPRWLYDWLRQVZHUHLQWKH¿UVWSODFH LGHDOLVWLFDQGDLPHGDWGHSRODUL]DWLRQWKHEROVWHULQJRIPXWXDOXQGHUVWDQGLQJDQGWKHFUHDWLRQRIWLHV of friendship between people across the East-West barrier. Cooperation itself was symbolic in character DQGUDUHO\GULYHQE\DQ\SUDJPDWLFFRQFHUQVDQGLQWHUHVWV,QUHPDLQLQJSULPDULO\V\PEROLFLQHVVHQFH WKHFRQWDFWVHVWDEOLVKHGDPRXQWHGWRPHHWLQJVEHWZHHQUHJLRQDODQGORFDOOHDGHUVWKHVKDNLQJRIKDQGV FXOWXUDOHYHQWVDQGRUJDQL]LQJIHVWLYDOVEXWWKH\FRXOGLQDIHZFDVHVDOVRFRQVLVWRIGHOLYHULHVRIDLGWR partners from the post-Socialist countries and the establishment of somewhat permanent ties. As far as the Russian Arctic subnational actors are concerned the initial thrust for their external DFWLYLWLHVFDQEHH[SODLQHGE\WKHKDUVKUHDOLWLHVRIWKHV$WWKDWWLPHPDQ\RI5XVVLD¶VIDUQRUWKHUQ territories were almost abandoned by the federal government; they had to develop survival strategies. )RUHLJQDLGDQGLQYHVWPHQWZHUHVHHQDVRQHRIWKHPRVWHI¿FLHQWLQVWUXPHQWVIRUNHHSLQJORFDOHFRQR- PLHVDÀRDW+RZHYHUZKHQWKHVRFLRHFRQRPLFVLWXDWLRQLQ5XVVLDLPSURYHGVXEQDWLRQDOHQWLWLHVWHQGHG to see international cooperation as an integral part of their sustainability strategy rather than as an emer- gency tool. It should be noted that subnational actors do not aim in general at applying and copying the principles and characteristics of state-to-state relations. They do not reach out on behalf of the state but

6DQ'LHJR6DQ'LHJR6WDWH8QLYHUVLW\ $QGUHL0DNDU\FKHYHGMezhdunarodnye Otnosheniia v 21m Veke: Regionalnoe v Globalnom, Globalnoe v Regional’nom [International Relations in the 21st Century: Regional in Global, Global in Regional@ 1L]KQLL1RYJRURG1L]KQLL1RYJRURG/LQJXLVWLF8QLYHUVLW\ $OH[DQGHU 6HUJXQLQ³5HJLRQVYVWKH&HQWHU7KHLU,QÀXHQFHRQ5XVVLDQ)RUHLJQ3ROLF\´Internationale Politik 5 (2000): ± 7$FFRUGLQJWR5XVVLDQOHJLVODWLRQVXEQDWLRQDOHQWLWLHVVWDQGIRUWZRFDWHJRULHVRIDFWRUV  PHPEHUVRIWKH 5XVVLDQ)HGHUDWLRQ QDWLRQDOUHSXEOLFVkrays SURYLQFHV oblasts UHJLRQV DXWRQRPRXVUHJLRQVDQGGLVWULFWV  DQG  PXQLFLSDOLWLHV FLWLHVWRZQVVHWWOHPHQWVRIXUEDQW\SH>WKLVLVWKH5XVVLDQVSHFL¿FV±$6@WRZQVKLSVDQG GLVWULFWVFRXQWLHV 

3 Eurasia Border Review < Article > usually do so for reasons of their own. This is to say that they do not regard the relations established as DQLQWHJUDODVSHFWRIPRUHIRUPDO³IRUHLJQ´SROLFLHV$VQRWHGE\%HDWH:DJQHU if sub-state actors try WRFRS\WKHSROLWLFDOW\SHRIUHODWLRQVWKDWH[LVWEHWZHHQVWDWHVWKH\DUHPRVWO\XQDEOHWRGHYHORSWKH QHFHVVDU\SOXUDOLW\RUEULQJDERXWWKHWUDQVQDWLRQDOTXDOLW\RIWKHLUUHODWLRQV8SKROGLQJWKHGLVWLQFWLRQ between the national and the regional or local departures conceptually as well as a sphere of practice also HQWDLOVWKDWVWDWHVFDQIRUWKHLUSDUWUHPDLQTXLWHOHQLHQWYLVjYLVFRRSHUDWLRQEHWZHHQUHJLRQVDQGFLWLHV 7KH\PD\YLHZWKHUHODWLRQVHVWDEOLVKHGDVEHLQJLQWKH¿UVWSODFHVRFLHWDODQGSUDJPDWLFLQQDWXUH UDWKHU WKDQSHUWDLQLQJWRYDULRXVVSKHUHVRI³KLJKSROLF\´RUVHFXULW\UHODWHGFRQFHUQV WKLVWKHQDOORZVWKHPWR VWD\DORRIIURPDQ\UHIHUHQFHVWR³GLSORPDF\´LQWKHFRQWH[WRIWKHLUTXLWHQRQSROLWLFL]HGUHJLRQWRUH- gion or city-to-city relations. It may also be noted that it has become easier to distinguish between the societal and more stat- LVWGHSDUWXUHVLQWKHVSKHUHRIVXEQDWLRQDOHQWLWLHV¶LQWHUQDWLRQDOFRQWDFWV:KHUHDVWKHSUHYLRXVDQGPRUH LGHDOLVWLFDOO\SUHPLVHGUHODWLRQVRIWKHHDUO\VUHPDLQHGLQVRPHVHQVHVWDWLVWDQGSROLWLFDOLQQDWXUH – the aim of international contacts being one of contributing to statist policies in a constructive manner DQGWRFRPSOHPHQWDQGUHSURGXFHWKHVWDWLVWSROLFLHVRQDUHJLRQDOORFDOOHYHO±WKHLGHDOLVWIHDWXUHVKDYH over time disappeared. They have changed with economic and growth-oriented issues coming to the fore. 5HJLRQVDQGPXQLFLSDOLWLHVQRZFRDOHVFHDFURVVERUGHUVLQRUGHUWRVROYHFRQFUHWHDQGVKDUHGSUREOHPV and this is done for reasons of their own and by employing the competence that they themselves possess. 7KH\DLPDWDGGLQJWRWKHLUVWUHQJWKE\WUDQVJUHVVLQJYDULRXVERUGHUV±EHWKH\FRQFHSWXDOLGHQWLW\UHODW- HGRUVSDWLDO±DQGGRVRE\MRLQLQJWKHLUIRUFHVLQWKHFRQWH[WRIYDULRXVUHJLRQDOHQGHDYRUVRUIRUWKDW PDWWHUWKURXJKOREE\LQJLQYDULRXVEURDGHUFRQWH[WV:KDWXVHGWREHLGHDOLVWLFDOO\PRWLYDWHGDQGPDLQ- O\FLWL]HQGULYHQHQGHDYRUVFRQFHUQLQJLVVXHVVXFKDVSHDFHIULHQGVKLSDQGPXWXDOXQGHUVWDQGLQJKLJK RQWKHDJHQGDKDVPRUHUHFHQWO\WXUQHGLQWRVRPHWKLQJIDUPRUHPXQGDQHDQGHOLWHRULHQWHG,QHVVHQFH WKHGULYLQJIRUFHRQHVSXUUHGE\YDULRXVHFRQRPLFVRFLDOFXOWXUDODVZHOODVHQYLURQPHQWDOFRQFHUQV amounts increasingly to that of self-interest. )XUWKHUPRUHWKHORJLFKDVWXUQHGWUDQVQDWLRQDOUDWKHUWKDQVWDWHRULHQWHG ELQDWLRQDO :LWK VRPH RI WKH ¿QDQFLDO PHDQV DYDLODEOH IRU WKH (XURUHJLRQV WZLQQLQJ DQG RWKHU IRUPV RI FRRSHUDWLRQ FRPLQJIURPLQWHUQDWLRQDOGRQRUVWKHSUR¿OHRIWKHVXEQDWLRQDODFWRUVLQYROYHGKDVEHFRPHRXWZDUGRUL- HQWHG3UHYLRXVO\FORVHGDQGEDUUHGVSDFHVLQWKH5XVVLDQ+LJK1RUWK±ZLWKUHJLRQVFLWLHVDWWKHHGJHRI VWDWLVWVSDFHEHLQJXQDYRLGDEO\VHHQDVSHULSKHUDO±DUHRSHQHGXSDVWKHVHERUGHUHQWLWLHVDLPDWEHQH¿W- LQJIURPFURVVERUGHUQHWZRUNLQJ,WPD\DOVREHREVHUYHGWKDWVXEQDWLRQDODFWRUVKDYHIRUDYDULHW\RI UHDVRQVEHFRPHSDUWRIDQLQFUHDVLQJO\FRPSHWLWLYHORJLFDQGWKH\KDYHEHHQFRPSHOOHGWRGHYLVHDFWLYH VWUDWHJLHVRIWKHLURZQ:KDWLVLPSRUWDQWWKH\VHHPWRKDYHWKHVHOIFRQ¿GHQFHUHTXLUHGWRDFWLQWKLV FRQWH[WDFFRUGLQJWRWKHLURZQVHOIXQGHUVWDQGLQJDQGVSHFL¿FQHHGV 2QDPRUHJHQHUDOQRWHDOWKRXJKWKHQHWZRUNLQJRIVXEQDWLRQDODFWRUVLVXQGHUSLQQHGE\WKH

%HDWH:DJQHU³7ZLQQLQJ$7UDQVQDWLRQDO&RQWULEXWLRQWR0RUH,QWHUQDWLRQDO6HFXULW\"´LQFrom Town to Town. Local Actors as Transnational ActorsHG&KULVWLDQ:HOOPDQQ +DPEXUJ/,79HUODJ 

4 Sergunin and Joenniemi

ORJLFRIFRPSHWLWLRQDQGPDLQWDLQHGE\DQLQWHUHVWLQFRQGXFWLQJ³IRUHLJQHFRQRPLFSROLFLHV´ the con- VHTXHQFHVRIVXFKPRYHVUHDFKIDUEH\RQGWKHHFRQRPLFVSKHUH7KHFXUUHQWO\RQJRLQJ³HFRQRPL]DWLRQ´ of inter-regional and inter-city relations implies that these actors now follow a rationale of their own in OLQNLQJXSDQGQHWZRUNLQJZLWKHDFKRWKHU7KH\VHHPOHVVVWDWHRULHQWHGDQGDLPLQVWHDGWKURXJKQHZ IRUPVRIVLJQL¿FDWLRQDQGLPDJLQLQJVSDFHDWEROVWHULQJWKHLURZQVXEMHFWLYLW\DOVRLQWKHVSKHUHRI transnational relations. ,QVXPERWKSUDFWLWLRQHUVDQGH[SHUWVLGHQWLI\±LQTXLWHDSUDJPDWLFZD\íWKHIROORZLQJEHQ- H¿WVIURPWKHH[WHUQDODFWLYLWLHVRIVXEQDWLRQDOHQWLWLHV

• Bolstering economic and business development • Improving service delivery and problem solving • Improving transport infrastructure ‡3URPRWLQJIUHHGRPRIPRYHPHQWRISHRSOHJRRGVVHUYLFHVDQGFDSLWDO ‡$FFHVVLQJLQWHUQDWLRQDORUJDQL]DWLRQVDQG¿QDQFLDOLQVWLWXWLRQVLQVHDUFKRIIXQGLQJ • Promoting community well-being • Promoting stronger community partnerships • Increasing global and regional awareness ‡

Paradiplomacy: Strategies and Methods

6SHFLDOLVWVGLVWLQJXLVKWZRPDLQW\SHVRIVXEQDWLRQDODFWRUV¶LQWHUQDWLRQDODFWLYLWLHV±GLUHFW LH GHYHORSLQJH[WHUQDOUHODWLRQVRIWKHLURZQ DQGLQGLUHFW LQÀXHQFLQJ5XVVLDQIHGHUDOIRUHLJQSROLFLHV  Direct strategies/methods include:

Creating a legislative basis for paradiplomacy. This was particularly important for subnational units in the Yeltsin era when paradiplomacy was in its infancy and in need of legitimacy. The regional and city FRQVWLWXWLRQVFKDUWHUVDQGQRUPDWLYHDFWVRIWKHVDLPHGDWOHJLWLPL]LQJWKHIRUHLJQSROLF\DFWLYLWLHV RIVXEVWDWHHQWLWLHV6RPHUHJLRQDOORFDOOHJLVODWLRQFDPHLQWRFRQÀLFWZLWKWKHIHGHUDOODZ HJWKH

&KULVWLDQ:HOOPDQQ³,QWURGXFWLRQ´LQFrom Town to Town. Local Actors as Transnational ActorsHG&KULVWLDQ :HOOPDQQ +DPEXUJ/,79HUODJ  106XVDQ+DQGOH\Take Your Partner: The Local Authority Handbook on International Partnerships (London: Local *RYHUQPHQW,QWHUQDWLRQDO%XUHDX ±$FFHVVHG0D\KWWSZZZOJDJRYXNOJDDLR 3HUWWL-RHQQLHPLDQG$OH[DQGHU6HUJXQLQLaboratories of European Integration: City-twinning in Northern Europe 7DUWX3HLSVL&HQWHUIRU7UDQVERXQGDU\&RRSHUDWLRQ 

5 Eurasia Border Review < Article >

.DUHOLDQDQG

The use of the “treaty-making power.” 2YHUWKHWZRSDVWGHFDGHVWKLVVWUDWHJ\ZDVDWWKHFHQWHURIWKH KHDWHGGHEDWHRQWKHWUHDW\PDNLQJSRZHUVRIWKHIHGHUDOFHQWHUUHJLRQV PHPEHUVRIWKH5XVVLDQ)HG- HUDWLRQ DQGPXQLFLSDOLWLHV'HVSLWH0RVFRZ¶VUHVLVWDQFHVLQFHWKHHDUO\VPDQ\5XVVLDQERUGHU sub-state actors have concluded direct agreements with similar types of international partners. Since VRPHDJUHHPHQWVZHUHVLJQHGE\SDVVLQJ0RVFRZWKLVOHGWRFRQÀLFWVEHWZHHQWKHIHGHUDOFHQWHUDQG the regions.11 As a compromise between the center and local actors it was stipulated by a special federal ODZRQWKHFRRUGLQDWLRQRIUHJLRQV¶H[WHUQDODFWLYLWLHVRIWKDWVXFKDJUHHPHQWVVKRXOGQRWKDYHWKH VWDWXVRIIXOOÀHGJHGLQWHUQDWLRQDOWUHDWLHV WKLVLVVWLOOFRQVLGHUHGDVDIHGHUDOFHQWHU¶VSUHURJDWLYH WKH\ should be concluded with same-level partners (not with foreign governments) and should be prepared in consultation with the Foreign Ministry. ,QWKHSRVW6RYLHWSHULRGWKH5XVVLD¶VQRUWKHUQUHJLRQVDQGPXQLFLSDOLWLHVFRQFOXGHGKXQGUHGV RILQWHUQDWLRQDODJUHHPHQWV'HSHQGLQJRQWKHVL]HVRFLRHFRQRPLFDQGFXOWXUDOSRWHQWLDOWKHLQWHQVLW\ of the treaty-making policies varied greatly among the subnational actors. )RU H[DPSOH WKH$UNKDQJHOVN DQG 0XUPDQVN UHJLRQV ZKLFK DUH FRQVLGHUHG WR EH UHODWLYH- O\ ODUJH E\$UFWLF VWDQGDUGV  VXEQDWLRQDO DFWRUV SXUVXH UDWKHU LQWHQVLYH WUHDW\PDNLQJ SROLFLHV7KH $UNKDQJHOVNUHJLRQKDVFRQFOXGHGFRRSHUDWLYHDJUHHPHQWVZLWKWZR1RUZHJLDQSURYLQFHVWZR)LQQLVK SURYLQFHVRQH%HORUXVVLDQSURYLQFHDQGRQH$UPHQLDQSURYLQFH7KLVUHJLRQLVDOVRDOORZHGWRPDNH agreements not only with foreign subnational units of the same status but also with foreign governments ±RQVHFWRUDOFRRSHUDWLRQ7KH$UNKDQJHOVNUHJLRQKDVDQDJUHHPHQWRQWUDGHUHVHDUFKDQGKXPDQLWDULDQ FRRSHUDWLRQZLWK$UPHQLDDQGZLWK1RUZD\ RQFKLOGUHQDQGIDPLOLHVDWULVN 12 The city of Arkhangelsk KDVIRUHLJQWZLQFLW\SDUWQHUVKLSVWKURXJKRXWWKHZRUOGLQFOXGLQJIRXU1RUGLFFLWLHVí/MXVGDODQG .LUXQD 6ZHGHQ 2XOX )LQODQG DQG9DUG¡1RUZD\7KH0XUPDQVNUHJLRQKDVELODWHUDODJUHHPHQWV ZLWKWKUHH1RUZHJLDQSURYLQFHVWKUHH)LQQLVKSURYLQFHVDQGRQH6ZHGLVKSURYLQFH0RUHRYHUWKLVUH- gion is a part of the Finnish-Russian intergovernmental agreement on multilateral cooperation in northern Russia.137KHFLW\RI0XUPDQVNKDVHLJKWIRUHLJQWZLQFLW\SDUWQHUVKLSVLQFOXGLQJ¿YH1RUGLFFLWLHVí

111RWRQO\ZLWKSHULSKHUDOEXWDOVRZLWKFHQWUDOO\ORFDWHGUHJLRQVVXFK7DWDUVWDQDQG%DVKNRUWRVWDQ 12$FFHVVHG-XO\KWWSDSSDUDWJRYPXUPDQUXLQWHUFRRSGLUHFWLRQLQGH[KWPO 13$FFHVVHG-XO\KWWSDSSDUDWJRYPXUPDQUXLQWHUFRRSGLUHFWLRQLQGH[KWPO

6 Sergunin and Joenniemi

$NXUH\UL ,FHODQG /XOHn 6ZHGHQ 5RYDQLHPL )LQODQG 7URPV¡DQG9DGV¡ 1RUZD\  ,QFRQWUDVWZLWKODUJHUPXQLFLSDOLWLHVWKH3HFKHQJDGLVWULFW 0XUPDQVNUHJLRQ ZKLFKLVVHHQ DVDUHODWLYHO\VPDOOVFDOHDFWRUKDVRQO\RQHLQWHUQDWLRQDODJUHHPHQWíZLWKWKH6¡U9DUDQJHUFRPPX- QLW\ 1RUZD\ 7KHGRFXPHQWVLJQHGLQLQFOXGHVDSLORWSURMHFWWKDWDLPVDWHVWDEOLVKLQJWZLQFLWLHV EHWZHHQWKHPLQLQJWRZQVRI1LNHODQG.LUNHQHVZKLFKDUHORFDWHGRQWKH5XVVLDQ1RUZHJLDQERUGHU14 'HVSLWHSHULRGLFFROOLVLRQVZLWK0RVFRZPDQ\UHJLRQVDQGPXQLFLSDOLWLHVFRQWLQXHWRVHHWKH TXDVL ³WUHDW\PDNLQJ´ VWUDWHJ\ as an effective instrument both to build their capacities and enhance their domestic and international prestige.

(VWDEOLVKLQJUHSUHVHQWDWLYHRI¿FHV in foreign countries. To facilitate direct co-operation with foreign countries some Russian regions have set up trade and cultural mis- VLRQV DEURDG +RZHYHU VLQFH WKH federal law on foreign trade of VWLSXODWHVWKDWUHSUHVHQWDWLYH RI¿FHV VKRXOG EH IXQGHG E\ WKH regions and municipalities them- VHOYHV LW DSSHDUHG WKDW IHZ UH- gions could afford having missions DEURDG )RU ¿QDQFLDO UHDVRQV WKH vast majority of subnational actors prefer to rely on federal structures Figure 1: Russia and Nordic Countries ± 5XVVLDQ HPEDVVLHV FRQVXODWHV and trade missions – to pursue their international policies.

$FFRPPRGDWLQJ IRUHLJQ FRQVXODU RI¿FHV DQG WUDGH PLVVLRQV To maintain sustainable relations with neighboring foreign countries and facilitate travel for its citizens some Russian regions and municipali- WLHVIDYRUHVWDEOLVKLQJIRUHLJQFRQVXODWHVDQGUHSUHVHQWDWLYHRI¿FHV)RUH[DPSOH$UNKDQJHOVNDQG0XU- PDQVNDUHWKHKRPHVWR1RUZHJLDQFRQVXODWHVZKLOH3HWUR]DYRGVNDFFRPPRGDWHVD)LQQLVKFRQVXODWH

146YHWODQD6PLUQRYD³6RYPHVWQ\H3URHNW\3RJUDQLFKLD=DGXPDQR=QDFKLW6GHODQR´>-RLQW%RUGHU3URMHFWV 3ODQQHG,PSOLHV,PSOHPHQWHG@3HFKHQJD$SULO  $FFHVVHG0D\KWWSSHFKHQKDJD]HWD UX"L KWWSZZZESRUWFRPQHZVDUFKLYHIXOOMSJ

7 Eurasia Border Review < Article >

Attracting foreign investment, promoting joint projects.$QXPEHURI5XVVLD¶VQRUWKHUQUHJLRQVDQGPX- QLFLSDOLWLHVVXFFHHGHGLQFUHDWLQJIDYRUDEOHFRQGLWLRQVIRUIRUHLJQLQYHVWPHQW)RUH[DPSOH&DQDGLDQ companies have invested or plan to invest in the mining industries (gold and silver) in Chukotka and

Creating a positive image abroad.7RDWWUDFWIRUHLJQLQYHVWRUVDQGSURYLGHWKHUHJLRQDOORFDOSURMHFWV ZLWKQDWLRQDODQGLQWHUQDWLRQDOVXSSRUWWKH5XVVLDQ$UFWLFVXEQDWLRQDODFWRUVODXQFKHGDUDWKHUDJJUHV- VLYHSXEOLFUHODWLRQVFDPSDLJQ)RUH[DPSOHWKH\DUUDQJHH[KLELWLRQVKROGVRFDOOHGFRRSHUDWLRQGD\V RUIHVWLYDOVZLWKVLVWHUFLWLHVWDNHSDUWLQLQWHUQDWLRQDOIDLUVDQGSURPRWHWKHPVHOYHVLQWKHORFDOPHGLD of their partners. Regional and municipal leaders undertake regular foreign trips for PR purposes. Some regions and towns run bilingual periodicals and websites oriented to foreign audiences. The main goal of VXFKSXEOLFUHODWLRQVFDPSDLJQVLVWRSUHVHQWUHJLRQDOORFDODFWRUVDVFUHDWLYHDQGLQQRYDWLYHUDWKHUWKDQ as remote and depressed areas.

Cooperation with international organizations.7RFRQ¿UPWKHLUVWDWXVDVJOREDODFWRUVPDQ\UHJLRQVDQG FLWLHVWU\WRGHYHORSUHODWLRQVZLWKLQWHUQDWLRQDORUJDQL]DWLRQV)RUH[DPSOHWKH\FRRSHUDWHZLWK81(- 6&281,'2WKH(8WKH(XURSHDQ&RQJUHVVRI0XQLFLSDODQG5HJLRQDO*RYHUQPHQWVWKH&RXQFLORI (XURSHWKH%DUHQWV(XUR$UFWLF&RXQFLO %($& DQG1RUGLFLQVWLWXWLRQV )RUVRPH5XVVLDQ$UFWLFVXEQDWLRQDOXQLWV WKH$UNKDQJHOVNDQG0XUPDQVNUHJLRQVWKH5HSXE- OLFRI.DUHOLDDQG1HQHWV$XWRQRPRXV'LVWULFW LWZDVSDUWLFXODUO\LPSRUWDQWWRFRRSHUDWHZLWKWKH(8 ZLWKLQWKHIUDPHZRUNRIWKH.RODUFWLFSURJUDP ± ZKHUHWKHQRUWKHUQSURYLQFHVRI)LQODQG 6ZHGHQDQG1RUZD\KDYHEHHQHQJDJHG17 It should be noted that cooperation with international organizations is important for subnational units not only in terms of gaining additional leverage in the power struggle with Moscow but also in terms of opening up to the worldwide processes of globalization and regionalization.

Increasing familiarity. While Murmansk and Arkhangelsk enjoyed some international contacts even in WKH6RYLHWSHULRGDQGWKHHUDRIRSHQQHVVZDVQRWSDUWLFXODUO\IUXVWUDWLQJIRUWKHLULQKDELWDQWVPDQ\

15$FFHVVHG-XO\KWWSSGDZZZPLQUHJLRQUX$UFWLFKWPO 166HHWKH%HULQJLDSDUN VZHEVLWH$FFHVVHG-XO\KWWSEHULQJLDSDUNUX 17 Obshee Prostranstvo Sosedstva [Neighborhood Common Space@  $FFHVVHG0DUFKKWWSZZZ NRODUFWLFHQSLLQIRFGRFXPHQWBOLEUDU\JHWB¿OH"IROGHU,G  QDPH '/)(SGI

8 Sergunin and Joenniemi

RWKHUUHJLRQVDQGWRZQVRIWKH5XVVLDQ1RUWKZHUHEHKLQGWKH³,URQ&XUWDLQ´LQWKH&ROG:DUSHULRGDQG QHHGHGWLPHWRIDPLOLDUL]HWKHPVHOYHVZLWKWKHQHLJKERUKRRG,QVRPHFDVHVWKHSURFHVVRIIDPLOLDUL]D- WLRQZDVIDVWDQGGHHSUHVXOWLQJLQWKHHPHUJHQFHRIWUDQVQDWLRQDOSODFHV )RUH[DPSOHWKHJURZLQJWRZQRI.LUNHQHV QRUWKHUQ1RUZD\ FRQVLVWLQJRIVRPHLQ- KDELWDQWVKDVEHHQDPDMRUPHHWLQJSRLQWIRU5XVVLDQ1RUZHJLDQFRQWDFWVVLQFHWKHVRQDYDULHW\RI OHYHOV,WLVPXOWLFXOWXUDOLQWKHVHQVHWKDWLQDGGLWLRQWRD1RUZHJLDQPDMRULW\WKHUHLVD6ɚPLSRSXODWLRQ LQWKHUHJLRQDFRQVLGHUDEOHQXPEHURI)LQQLVKVSHDNHUVDVZHOODVDQLQFUHDVLQJQXPEHURI5XVVLDQV LQWKHFLW\DQGWKHVXUURXQGLQJYLFLQLW\7KHODWWHUJURXSDPRXQWVWRVRPHWHQSHUFHQWRIWKHFLW\¶V population. $VQRWHGE\5RJRYDDOVRDFRQVLGHUDEOHQXPEHURI5XVVLDQVOLYLQJLQWKH0XUPDQVNUHJLRQ YLHZWKH1RUZHJLDQ5XVVLDQERUGHULQWHUPVRIDVKDUHGERUGHUODQG7KHERUGHUKDVEHFRPHIDUOHVVGL- YLVLYHQRWMXVWSROLWLFDOO\DQGLQDGPLQLVWUDWLYHWHUPVEXWDOVRFXOWXUDOO\5RJRYDFODLPVWKDWDERUGHUODQG KDVHPHUJHG³ZKLFKLVQHLWKHU5XVVLDQRU1RUZD\WRWKHIXOOH[WHQW´ Russians visiting Kirkenes do not KDYHWKHIHHOLQJRIEHLQJDEURDGDVDOVRLQGLFDWHGE\.LUNHQHVEHLQJQDPHG³.LUVDQRYND´RU³.LULN´ ZLWKFRQQRWDWLRQVRIDVPDOOORFDODQGQHDUE\HQWLW\YLOODJHLQWKHODQJXDJHXVHGLQWKH0XUPDQVNUHJLRQ 9LVLWVKDYHEHFRPHPRUHIUHTXHQWIRUUHDVRQVRIVKRSSLQJRUXVLQJ.LUNHQHVDLUSRUWIRUÀLJKWVDEURDG ,QRQHRILWVDVSHFWV1RUZHJLDQ5XVVLDQFURVVERUGHUFRRSHUDWLRQFDQGUDZXSRQWKHVRPH- ZKDWLGHDOL]HGOHJDF\RIWKHVRFDOOHG3RPRUWUDGH7KHVHFRDVWDOWUDGHFRQWDFWVZKLFKODVWHGIRUQHDUO\ WKUHHFHQWXULHVEHIRUHGZLQGOLQJRXWDIWHUWKH5XVVLDQ5HYROXWLRQRIZHUHTXLWHLPSRUWDQWIRUWKH GHYHORSPHQWRIWKHQRUWKHUQDUHDV7KLVOHJDF\LVIUHTXHQWO\UHIHUUHGWRDQGUHDFWLYDWHGZLWKWKHSUHV- ent-day cooperation and border-crossings seen as a return to traditional constellations. 6WLOODQRWKHUPHPRU\LPSDFWLQJORFDODWWLWXGHVLVWKHFRQVLGHUDEOHQXPEHURI*HUPDQWURRSV WKDWZHUHRQFHVWDWLRQHGLQWKHUHJLRQ7KH*HUPDQWURRSVSXUVXHGUHSUHVVLYHSROLFLHVSULRUWRWKHDUHD EHLQJOLEHUDWHGE\WKH6RYLHW$UP\LQ)RUVXUHWKH&ROG:DUSHULRGZLWKSHUFHSWLRQVRIHQPLW\ DVWKHSUHYDOHQWDSSURDFKLPSDFWHGWKHYLHZVRI5XVVLDQV7KHQHJDWLYHYLHZVKDYHKRZHYHUJUDGXDOO\ FKDQJHGDQGQRUPDOL]HG)RULQVWDQFHLWEHFDPHDFRPPRQWUDGLWLRQWRMRLQWO\FHOHEUDWHWKHGDWHRIWKH OLEHUDWLRQRIWKH0XUPDQVNUHJLRQDQG(DVW)LQQPDUNIURP1D]LRFFXSDWLRQLQ2FWREHU

The establishment of twin cities became one of the most successful and interesting forms of cross- and transborder cooperation (CBC-TBC). Establishing twin cities stands for shared citiness and is a manifes- WDWLRQRIQHZXUEDQIRUPV,WWHVWL¿HVDVDQDVSHFWRIUHJLRQDOL]DWLRQZLWKFRQVLGHUDEOHFODULW\WKDWWKH RUGHUSURGXFLQJLPSDFWRIQDWLRQDOERUGHUVLVZDQLQJ1RUWKHUQ(XURSHLVSDUWLFXODUO\GLVWLQFWLQUHJDUG WRH[SHULPHQWLQJZLWKWKHWZLQQLQJRIFLWLHV,QWKLVUHJLRQWZLQQLQJLVXVHGE\FLWLHVDVSLULQJWRFUHDWHD

$QDVWDVLLD5RJRYDFrom Rejection to Re-embracement: Language and Identity of the Russian Speaking Minority in Kirkenes, Norway .LUNHQHV%DUHQWV,QVWLWXWH  $QDVWDVLLD5RJRYD³&KLFNHQLV1RWD%LUG.LUNHQHVLV1RW$EURDG%RUGHUVDQG7HUULWRULHVLQ3HUFHSWLRQRIWKH 3RSXODWLRQLQD5XVVLDQ1RUZHJLDQ%RUGHUODQG´Journal of Northern Studies  

9 Eurasia Border Review < Article >

GLVWLQFWYLVLEOHDQGIDYRUDEOHSUR¿OHDQGLWLVLQWKLVVHQVHSDUWRIWKHLUSROLFLHVRISODFHPDUNHWLQJDQG branding in the context of the increasingly intense and transnational regionalization. To coordinate and institutionalize twinning activities the City Twins Association (CTA) was HVWDEOLVKHGLQ'HFHPEHU$OWRJHWKHUFLWLHVZHUHDVVRFLDWHGZLWKWKH&7$LQFOXGLQJIRXUSDLUV ORFDWHG LQ 1RUWKHUQ (XURSH9DOND9DOJD /DWYLD±(VWRQLD  ,PDWUD6YHWRJRUVN )LQODQG5XVVLD  1DU- va-Ivangorod (Estonia-Russia) and Tornio-Haparanda (Finland-Sweden).20 These pairs differ by their experiences and effectiveness. While Tornio-Haparanda can be seen DV D VXFFHVV VWRU\ 9DOND9DOJDDQG ,PDWUD6YHWRJRUVN FDQ EH YLHZHG DV UHODWLYHO\ VXFFHVVIXO SDLUV ZKHUHDV1DUYDDQG,YDQJRURGDUHFORVHWRDIDLOXUH21 :LWKWKHRXWEUHDNRIWKHZRUOGHFRQRPLFFULVLV  WKHVXEVHTXHQWFULVLVRIWKH(XUR]RQH DQGWKHQHZURXQGRIWKH6FKHQJHQ]RQH¶VH[SDQVLRQ  WKHZKROHWZLQQLQJSURMHFWLQ1RUWKHUQ(X- rope has seemingly stalled (with a rare exception of the Tornio-Haparanda pair). Against this background WKHMRLQW.LUNHQHV1LNHOLQLWLDWLYHWRODXQFKDWZLQQLQJSURMHFW  DQGSODQVWRMRLQWKH&7$ORRNOLNH a bold attempt to revive the very idea and spirit of twinning. Twinning is perhaps still in its infancy and often oriented towards short- rather than long-term perspectives but will probably get more established and stronger over time; thus calling for added theo- UHWLFDOLQVLJKWDVZHOODVIXUWKHUHPSLULFDOHQTXLU\DVORFDOH[SHULPHQWLQJLQWHVWLQJWKH¿[LW\RILGHQWLWLHV DQGTXHVWLRQLQJWKHGLYLVLYHHIIHFWVERUGHUVPD\SRWHQWLDOO\KDYHVRPHIDUUHDFKLQJFRQVHTXHQFHV

Euroregions. A number of the Russian border regions and municipalities were involved in the Euroregion SURMHFWVLQWKHVDQGV(XURUHJLRQVDUHLQHVVHQFHDGPLQLVWUDWLYHWHUULWRULDOHQWLWLHV7KH\KDYH been established in order to promote cross-border cooperation between neighboring local or regional DXWKRULWLHVRIGLIIHUHQWFRXQWULHVORFDWHGDORQJVKDUHGODQGRUPDULWLPHERUGHUV,QIDFWWKH\FRQVWLWXWH ZLGHO\NQRZQPHFKDQLVPVRIFRRSHUDWLRQEHWZHHQUHJLRQV)RUH[DPSOH.DUHOLDKDVSDUWLFLSDWHGLQ WKH(XURUHJLR.DUHOHQWRJHWKHUZLWKWKUHHUHJLRQDOFRXQFLOVRI)LQODQGí.DLQXX1RUWKHUQ.DUHOLDDQG 1RUWKHUQ2VWURERWKQLD22 It should be noted that despite the implementation of some successful projects within the Eu- URUHJLRQVIUDPHZRUNWKHLURYHUDOOUHVXOWVUHPDLQUDWKHUPRGHVW0RUHRYHUTXLWHRIWHQWKH(XURUHJLRQV DUH EDVLFDOO\ UHGXFHG WR ZKDW FRPPRQ 5XVVLDQV FDOO ³EXUHDXFUDWLF WRXULVP´ LH H[FKDQJHV EHWZHHQ UHJLRQDODQGPXQLFLSDORI¿FLDOV:LWKUDUHH[FHSWLRQV(XURUHJLRQVGRQRWSURPRWHFRRSHUDWLRQRUKRU- L]RQWDOOLQNVDWWKHSHRSOHWRSHRSOHFRPSDQ\WRFRPSDQ\RU1*2OHYHOV,QRWKHUZRUGVWKH(XURUH- JLRQVFRQFHSW±EHLQJDSRWHQWLDOO\LPSRUWDQWWRROIRUVXEUHJLRQDOFRRSHUDWLRQíGRHVQRWZRUNSURSHUO\ To improve the performance of the Euroregions the Russian and international experts recom-

20 History of the City Twins Association&LW\7ZLQV$VVRFLDWLRQ  $FFHVVHG2FWREHUKWWSZZZ FLW\WZLQVRUJHQSDJH 21-RHQQLHPLDQG6HUJXQLQLaboratories of European Integration. 22$FFHVVHG-XO\KWWSHXUHJLRNDUHOLDUXDUWLFOH"ODQJ HQJ

10 Sergunin and Joenniemi mend (1) to clarify the legal status of Euroregions both in the Russian national legislation and European ODZ  WRSURYLGH(XURUHJLRQVZLWKDVXVWDLQDEOH¿QDQFLDOEDVLVWKURXJK(8DQGQDWLRQDOORQJWHUP IXQGLQJVFKHPHV  WRUHFHLYHIXQGLQJWRWKHORFDOUHJLRQDOEXGJHWVDFWLYLWLHVRI(XURUHJLRQVVKRXOGEH KLJKOLJKWHGDQGYLVXDOL]HGVRWKDWOREE\LQJIRUUHFRJQL]DEOHSURMHFWVLQQDWLRQDODQGLQWHUQDWLRQDOERGLHV becomes much easier.23

Indirect methods are: ,QÀXHQFLQJWKHIHGHUDOOHJLVODWLRQ The local legislation not only legitimizes the external relations of WKHUHJLRQVDQGPXQLFLSDOLWLHVEXWDOVRDIIHFWVIHGHUDOOHJLVODWLRQ)RUH[DPSOHVRPHUHJLRQDOODZVRQ protection of foreign investment and special economic zones were later used by the federal parliament to draft similar legislation.

Capitalizing on national diplomacy. Since the national law envisages the participation of pertinent Rus- VLDQUHJLRQDODQGORFDOJRYHUQPHQWVLQLQWHUQDWLRQDODFWLYLWLHVVXEQDWLRQDODFWRUVVWULYHWRKDYHDQLPSDFW RQIHGHUDOGLSORPDF\)RUH[DPSOHWKH0XUPDQVNDXWKRULWLHVDVVLVWHGWKH5XVVLDQ)RUHLJQ0LQLVWU\LQ QHJRWLDWLQJWKH5XVVLDQ1RUZHJLDQDJUHHPHQWRQWKHGHOLPLWDWLRQRIPDULWLPHWHUULWRULHVLQWKH%DUHQWV Sea (2010). The Murmansk regional government helped Russian diplomats and border guards prepare for WKH5XVVLDQ1RUZHJLDQDJUHHPHQWRQDYLVDIUHHUHJLPHIRUERUGHUUHVLGHQWV ,WVKRXOGEHQRWHGWKDWVXEQDWLRQDOXQLWV¶LQWHUQDWLRQDOFRRSHUDWLRQSURMHFWVGRQRWVWDQGRXW as something isolated but are instead part and parcel of a broader Russian strategy of cooperation with (XURSH7RVXPXSQDWLRQDOGLSORPDF\DQGSDUDGLSORPDF\PXWXDOO\UHLQIRUFHDQGFRPSOHPHQWUDWKHU than contradict each other.

&RQÀLFWSUHYHQWLRQDQGUHVROXWLRQ:LWKWLPH0RVFRZKDVUHDOL]HGWKDWUHJLRQDOL]DWLRQFDQVHUYHDVDQ LQVWUXPHQWIRUSUREOHPVROYLQJZLWKUHVSHFWWR5XVVLD¶VUHODWLRQVZLWKQHLJKERULQJFRXQWULHV)RUH[DP- SOHFRRSHUDWLRQEHWZHHQ)LQODQGDQGWKH5XVVLDQ5HSXEOLFRI.DUHOLDZDVFRQGXFLYHWRSURGXFLQJDQ HYHQWXDOVROXWLRQWRWKH.DUHOLDLVVXHLQ)LQQLVK5XVVLDQELODWHUDOUHODWLRQV0XUPDQVN1RUZHJLDQFR- RSHUDWLYHOLQNVZHUHKHOSIXOLQVWULNLQJDFRPSURPLVHEHWZHHQ0RVFRZDQG2VORRQWKHGHPDUFDWLRQRI the Barents Sea. The Alaska-Chukotka cooperation has eased U.S.-Russian tensions on the delimitation of the Bering Sea.

Exploiting parliament. The Russian regions use the Federal Assembly to lobby their foreign policy inter- ests at the federal level. The Council of the Federation (the upper chamber) made up of regional repre-

23.DWUL/LLV/HSLN³(XURUHJLRQVDV0HFKDQLVPVIRU6WUHQJWKHQLQJ&URVVERUGHU&RRSHUDWLRQLQWKH%DOWLF6HD 5HJLRQ´TRAMES: Journal of the Humanities and Social Sciences    ±0DUNXV3HUNPDQQ ³&URVVERUGHU5HJLRQVLQ(XURSH6LJQLILFDQFHDQG'ULYHUVRI5HJLRQDO&URVVERUGHU&RRSHUDWLRQ´European Urban and Regional Studies  ±$OH[DQGHU6HUJXQLQKaliningrad and the Euroregions 1L]KQLL 1RYJRURG1L]KQLL1RYJRURG6WDWH/LQJXLVWLF8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV 

11 Eurasia Border Review < Article >

VHQWDWLYHVLVWKHPRVWSRSXODUYHKLFOHIRUUHJLRQDOOREE\LQJ7KHVHQDWRUVRIWHQXVHRI¿FLDOIRUHLJQWULSV WR¿QGQHZSDUWQHUVIRUWKHLUKRPHUHJLRQVDQGSURPRWHWKHPRQWKHLQWHUQDWLRQDODUHQD

Capitalizing upon federal infrastructure. 7RLQÀXHQFHIHGHUDOIRUHLJQSROLF\WKHUHJLRQVXVHWKHLQVWLWX- WLRQDOVWUXFWXUHFUHDWHGE\0RVFRZ)RUH[DPSOHWKH5XVVLDQ)RUHLJQ0LQLVWU\KDVHVWDEOLVKHGDVSHFLDO XQLWRQLQWHUUHJLRQDODIIDLUV$ORQJZLWKWKHGLSORPDWLFDJHQF\RWKHUPLQLVWULHVDQGIHGHUDOERGLHVVXFK DV0LQLVWU\RI,QGXVWU\ &RPPHUFH&XVWRPV&RPPLWWHH)HGHUDO%RUGHU6HUYLFHHWFKDYHHVWDE- OLVKHGRI¿FHVLQWKHUHJLRQVHQJDJHGLQLQWHQVLYHLQWHUQDWLRQDOHFRQRPLFDQGFXOWXUDOFRRSHUDWLRQ7KH- RUHWLFDOO\WKHVHDJHQFLHVVKRXOGFRRUGLQDWHDQGFRQWUROUHJLRQV¶LQWHUQDWLRQDOFRQWDFWV+RZHYHUWKH\ often provide additional leverage for regions to put pressure on Moscow rather than being instruments RIWKHIHGHUDOFHQWHU7KHSUREOHPLVWKDWWKH\DUHGHSHQGHQWRQORFDODXWKRULWLHVLQWHUPVRIKRXVLQJ VDODULHVSURIHVVLRQDOFDUHHUDQGVRRQ0RUHRYHUWKHVHDJHQFLHVDUHXVXDOO\VWDIIHGE\ORFDOVZLWKFORVH connections to regional elites. 7KHJURZLQJGHSHQGHQFHRIWKHVRFDOOHGSRZHUVWUXFWXUHV DUPHGIRUFHVSROLFHVSHFLDOVHU- YLFHV RQVXEQDWLRQDODXWKRULWLHVíHYHQXQGHUWKH3XWLQUHJLPHíFDVWVGRXEWRQWKHLUOR\DOW\WRWKH center.

Exploiting international organizations. To put pressure on Moscow the regions managed to use not only IHGHUDOLQVWLWXWLRQVEXWDOVRLQWHUQDWLRQDORUJDQL]DWLRQV)RULQVWDQFHWKHQRUWKHUQDUHDVRI5XVVLDUHSUH- sented at the Barents Regional Council (BRC) use this forum to develop direct ties with the neighboring UHJLRQVRI)LQODQG1RUZD\DQG6ZHGHQDVZHOODVWRJDLQDPRUHSULYLOHJHGVWDWXVLQVLGHWKHFRXQWU\ YL- VDIUHHUHJLPHIRUERUGHUUHVLGHQWVDPRUHOLEHUDOFXVWRPVUHJLPHIHGHUDOIXQGLQJIRUWKHGHYHORSPHQW RILQWHUQDWLRQDODFDGHPLFFRRSHUDWLRQHWF  It should be noted that in the real life subnational units usually combine both direct and indirect methods because they are complementary rather than mutually exclusive.

Institutional Framework

7KHDERYHPHQWLRQHGWKHRULHVVXJJHVWWKDWWREHHI¿FLHQWSDUDGLSORPDF\VKRXOGEHSODFHGLQ DIDYRUDEOHLQVWLWXWLRQDOVHWWLQJ:LWKRXWSURSHULQVWLWXWLRQDOVXSSRUWSDUDGLSORPDF\LVGRRPHGWRIDLO 2QWKHFRQWUDU\LIWKHUHLVDVXSSRUWLYHLQVWLWXWLRQDOIUDPHZRUNLQSODFHVXEQDWLRQDOXQLWVWHQGWREH ERWKPRUHDFWLYHDQGVXFFHVVIXOLQWKHLUSDUDGLSORPDWLFLQLWLDWLYHV,WVKRXOGEHQRWHGWKDWIRUH[DPSOH 1RUWKHUQ(XURSH 1( KDVRQHRIWKHGHQVHVWLQVWLWXWLRQDOQHWZRUNVLQWKHZRUOGDQGWKLVFDQH[SODLQZK\ 5XVVLD¶VQRUWKHUQVXEVWDWHDFWRUVZHUHLQFOLQHGWRLQWHUQDWLRQDOFRRSHUDWLRQDQGUHODWLYHO\VXFFHVVIXO DV compared to other regions). 7KH1(LQVWLWXWLRQDOQHWZRUNLQFOXGHVVHYHUDOOD\HUV VHH)LJXUH  2QWKHWRSVXSUDQDWLRQDOOHYHOWKHUHDUHLQVWLWXWLRQVVHWXSE\WKH(8WKHODUJHVWUHJLRQDO

12 Sergunin and Joenniemi

DFWRU)RUH[DPSOHWKH(XURSHDQ7HUULWRULDO&RRSHUDWLRQ (7& SUHYLRXVO\NQRZQDVWKH,17(55(* &RPPXQLW\,QLWLDWLYHVKDVEHHQSDUWRIWKH(8SROLF\VLQFHSURYLGLQJDIUDPHZRUNIRUWKHLPSOH- PHQWDWLRQRIMRLQWDFWLRQVDQGSROLF\H[FKDQJHVEHWZHHQQDWLRQDOUHJLRQDODQGORFDODFWRUVIURPGLIIHU- HQWPHPEHUVWDWHVDQGQHLJKERULQJFRXQWULHV7KH(7&KDVJURZQIURPDUHODWLYHO\VPDOO,17(55(* SURJUDPWRDIXOO\ÀHGJHGVWUDQGRI(8UHJLRQDOSROLF\ZLWKDVHSDUDWHUHJXODWRU\IUDPHZRUNHQYLVDJHG for the period 2014–2020.

Figure 2: Paradiplomacy Framework

,Q±WKH.RODUFWLFSURJUDPZDVUXQE\WKH&%&SURJUDPRIWKH(XURSHDQ1HLJKERU- KRRG3DUWQHUVKLS,QVWUXPHQW7KH.RODUFWLFSURJUDPKDVLQFOXGHGWKH1RUZHJLDQSURYLQFHVRI1RUGODQG 7URPVDQG)LQQPDUNWKH6ZHGLVK1RUUERWWHQWKH)LQQLVK/DSODQGDQGWKUHH5XVVLDQVXEQDWLRQDOXQLWV ±WKH$UNKDQJHOVNDQG0XUPDQVNUHJLRQVDQGWKH1HQHWV$XWRQRPRXV'LVWULFW7KH5HSXEOLFRI.DUHOLD and Leningrad region were eligible for some Kolarctic-related projects as well. The Finnish province of Lapland was responsible for the administration of the program. About 50 projects related to the develop- PHQWRIHFRQRPLFDQGWUDQVSRUWLQIUDVWUXFWXUHVORJLVWLFVVPDOODQGPHGLXPVL]HGEXVLQHVVHVLQQRYDWLYH HQWUHSUHQHXUVKLSSUHVHUYDWLRQRIWKHHFRQRPLHVDQGFXOWXUHVRILQGLJHQRXVSHRSOHVUHVHDUFKDQGHGXFD- tion were supported and implemented by the Kolarctic program in northern Russia.24 $VIRUWKHIXWXUHRIWKH(7&WKHWKUHHVWUDQGV FURVVERUGHUWUDQVQDWLRQDODQGLQWHUUHJLRQDO 

24$FFHVVHG-XO\KWWSZZZNRODUFWLFHQSLLQIRUX

13 Eurasia Border Review < Article >

ZLOOEHPDLQWDLQHGLQWKH¿QDQFLDOSHULRGRI±+RSHIXOO\WKLVZLOOIDFLOLWDWHLWVLPSOHPHQWDWLRQ and the use of the already gained experience. To avoid unnecessary inter-institutional duplication it is important that in the future the ETC place stronger emphasis on thematic concentration and the strengthening of links to other EU programs. +RZHYHULWVKRXOGEHJXDUDQWHHGWKDWWKHWKHPHVWREHSUHVHQWHGE\WKH(XURSHDQ&RPPLVVLRQDUHVXI¿- FLHQWWRFRYHUWKHGLIIHULQJQHHGVRI&%&7%&$GHOLFDWHEDODQFHEHWZHHQDJUHDWHUUHJLRQDOÀH[LELOLW\ DQGWKHQHHGWRDFKLHYHUHVXOWVZLWKVFDUFHUHVRXUFHVKDVWREHIRXQG+RZHYHUEDODQFHFDQEHDFKLHYHG only if all the parties treat each other as partners. $V+EQHUHPSKDVL]HVWKH(7&VKRXOGEHHQFRXUDJHGQRWRQO\ZLWKZRUGVEXWDOVRZLWK money.25 This is why the European Parliament (where various regional interests are better represented) SXVKHGIRUWKHWDUJHWLQWKH(7&VSHQGLQJLQDOOLWVWKUHHVWUDQGVDQGDOOLWVGLPHQVLRQVLQWHUQDODQG H[WHUQDOLQWKHPXOWLDQQXDO¿QDQFLDOSURJUDPPLQJSHULRGIRUWKH\HDUV± 7KHLQWHUJRYHUQPHQWDOOHYHOLVUHSUHVHQWHGE\VHYHUDOLQVWLWXWLRQV7KH1RUWKHUQ'LPHQVLRQ 1' ZKLFKKDVEHHQWUDQVIRUPHGIURPDQ(8SURMHFWWRDV\VWHPRIHTXDOO\IXQGHGSDUWQHUVKLSVEH- WZHHQWKH(8DQGWKUHHQHLJKERULQJFRXQWULHV ,FHODQG1RUZD\DQG5XVVLD LVWKHPRVWLPSRUWDQWRQH &XUUHQWO\ 1' LQFOXGHV IRXU SDUWQHUVKLSV RQ HQYLURQPHQW WUDQVSRUW DQG ORJLVWLFV SXEOLF KHDOWK DQG social well-being; culture) which are seen as promising venues for CBC-TBC with Russia. Since 2007 ZKHQWKHWUDQVIRUPHG1'ZDVODXQFKHG GR]HQVRISURMHFWVLQWKHDERYHDUHDVZHUHLPSOHPHQWHGLQWKH UHJLRQVRI.DOLQLQJUDG.DUHOLD0XUPDQVNHWF7KHVHSURMHFWVZHUHVXSSRUWHGE\LQWHUQDWLRQDO¿QDQFLDO LQVWLWXWLRQVVXFKDVWKH(XURSHDQ%DQNRI5HFRQVWUXFWLRQDQG'HYHORSPHQW1RUGLF,QYHVWPHQW%DQN DQG1RUGLF(QYLURQPHQW)LQDQFH&RUSRUDWLRQ 7KH1RUGLF&RXQFLORI0LQLVWHUV 1&0 LVDQRWKHULPSRUWDQWUHJLRQDODFWRURIWKHLQWHUJRYHUQ- PHQWDOW\SH$FFRUGLQJWRWKHJXLGHOLQHVIRUWKH1&0¶VFRRSHUDWLRQZLWK1RUWK:HVW5XVVLD WKH&RXQFLO¶VSULRULW\DUHDVLQFOXGH D HGXFDWLRQUHVHDUFKDQGLQQRYDWLRQLQFOXGLQJFUHDWLYHLQGXVWULHV E  WKH HQYLURQPHQW FOLPDWH DQG HQHUJ\ F  SURPRWLRQ RI FRQGLWLRQV IRU HFRQRPLF FRRSHUDWLRQ DQG WUDGHLQFOXGLQJOHJLVODWLYHFRRSHUDWLRQDQWLFRUUXSWLRQPHDVXUHVDQGWKHSURWHFWLRQRILQWHOOHFWXDOULJKWV DQGSDWHQWV G WKH1'¶VSDUWQHUVKLSV±HVSHFLDOO\IRUSXEOLFKHDOWKDQGHQYLURQPHQW H SURPRWLRQRI GHPRFUDF\DQGFLYLFVRFLHW\WKURXJKFRRSHUDWLRQRQORFDOJRYHUQPHQWDQGJRRGJRYHUQDQFHFRRSHUD- WLRQEHWZHHQSDUOLDPHQWDULDQVFRRSHUDWLRQEHWZHHQWKHPHGLDDQGMRXUQDOLVWVDQGFRRSHUDWLRQEHWZHHQ 1*2V267KH1&0KDVVHYHUDOLQIRUPDWLRQRI¿FHVLQQRUWKHUQ5XVVLD 7KHSUREOHPZLWKWKH1'SDUWQHUVKLSVDQG1&0LVWKDWWKH\KDYHDPXOWLIRFXVHGDJHQGDDV

25'DQXWD+EQHU³5HJLRQDO3ROLF\DIWHU7RZDUGV1HZ(XURSHDQ7HUULWRULDO&RRSHUDWLRQ´Baltic Sea States Subregional Co-operation Newsletter'HFHPEHU  ±$FFHVVHG-DQXDU\ZZZEVVVFFRPXSORDG GRNXPHQW\IBSGI 261RUGLF&RXQFLORI0LQLVWHUVGuidelines for the Nordic Council of Ministers' Co-operation with North-West Russia 2009-2013  ±$FFHVVHG6HSWHPEHUZZZQRUGHQRUJHQQRUGLFFRXQFLORIPLQLVWHUV PLQLVWHUVIRUFRRSHUDWLRQPUVDPUXVVLDGRFXPHQWVJXLGHOLQHVIRUWKHQRUGLFFRXQFLORIPLQLVWHUVFRRSHUDWLRQ with-northwest-russia

14 Sergunin and Joenniemi their activities cover not only the Barents and Arctic regions but also the Baltic Sea Region (BSR). Both LQVWLWXWLRQVVKRXOGDYRLGGXSOLFDWLRQVDQGQHHGWRHVWDEOLVKDPRUHHI¿FLHQWGLYLVLRQRIODERUEHWZHHQ them. This is especially important in view of the scarcity of resources available to regional actors. ,QDGGLWLRQWRWKH1'DQG1&0WKH%DUHQWV(XUR$UFWLFFRRSHUDWLRQLVSUHVHQWLQWKHUHJLRQ $ORQJZLWKWKHLQWHUPLQLVWHULDO%($&WKHUHLVWKH%5&ZKLFKLQFOXGHVFRXQWLHVIURP)LQODQG1RU- ZD\6ZHGHQDQG5XVVLD ¿YHRIWKHPEHORQJWRWKH5XVVLDQ1RUWK )RUH[DPSOHDWLWV.LUNHQHVPHHWLQJ -XQH WKH%5&DGRSWHGWKHQHZ%DUHQWV3URJUDP±ZLWKWKHDLPWRSURPRWHFUHDWLYH businesses and fast growing enterprises in the region; increase CBC to achieve economies of scale and TXDOLW\RIOLIHVXSSRUWMRLQWPDQDJHPHQWDQGSUHVHUYDWLRQRIQDWXUDOUHVRXUFHVLPSOHPHQWDMRLQWFOL- mate change adaptation; enhance innovation and research cooperation by increasing critical mass; focus RQPLVVLQJFURVVERUGHUOLQNVLQWUDQVSRUWLQIUDVWUXFWXUHIRVWHUPRELOLW\DFURVVWKHERUGHUVIRUZRUNHUV HQWUHSUHQHXUVWRXULVWVDQGVWXGHQWVIRFXVRQFXOWXUDOFRRSHUDWLRQLQRUGHUWRGHYHORSPXWXDOXQGHUVWDQG- ing and regional development.27*LYHQWKHQXPHURXVRYHUODSVZLWK³VLVWHU´LQVWLWXWLRQVLQYROYHGDWWKH VXEQDWLRQDOOHYHO 1'1&0$UFWLF&RXQFLO %($&DQG%5&DUHVHHNLQJV\QHUJ\ZLWKWKHP7KHVH FRXQFLOVPDQDJHGWRHVWDEOLVKFRRSHUDWLRQWKURXJKVSHFL¿FSURMHFWVVXFKDVFOLPDWHFKDQJHUHVHDUFKDQG the Barents environmental hot spots elimination. ,QDGGLWLRQWRWKHVXSUDQDWLRQDODQGLQWHUJRYHUQPHQWDOOHYHOVWKHUHLVDOVRDSXUHO\VXEQDWLRQDO OD\HUUHSUHVHQWHGE\WKH&LW\7ZLQV$VVRFLDWLRQQHWZRUNVRIVLVWHUWRZQVDQG(XURUHJLRQV7KHVHRU- JDQL]DWLRQVDQGDUUDQJHPHQWVDUHH[WUHPHO\LPSRUWDQWLQHQFRXUDJLQJSDUDGLSORPDF\LQWKH1(DVWKH\ operate at the subregional and municipal levels. The problem with the upper institutional levels is that WKH\DUHUXQE\VXSUDQDWLRQDOERGLHVDQGRUQDWLRQDOJRYHUQPHQWVQRWE\VXEQDWLRQDOXQLWVWKHPVHOYHV DQGIRUWKLVUHDVRQPRVWO\DLPDWWKHPDFURUDWKHUWKDQPH]RDQGPLFURUHJLRQDOOHYHOVQHJOHFWLQJ FRRSHUDWLRQEHWZHHQVXEVWDWHXQLWV,QFRQWUDVWZLWKJRYHUQPHQWVSRQVRUHGLQVWLWXWLRQVWKHDERYHIRUD were created by subnational units themselves from the bottom up. $SURSHUGLYLVLRQRIODERUEHWZHHQDOOWKHVHDFWRUVVKRXOGEHHVWDEOLVKHG)RUH[DPSOHWKH%5& and the ETC could be especially useful in developing and implementing joint projects with Russian re- JLRQVLQDUHDVVXFKDVHQYLURQPHQWDOSURWHFWLRQHQHUJ\GHYHORSPHQWRIORFDOWUDQVSRUWDWLRQFURVVERU- GHULQIUDVWUXFWXUHSXEOLFSULYDWHSDUWQHUVKLSVDQGIXQGUDLVLQJIRUVSHFL¿FSURMHFWV,QVRPHVSKHUHVWKH 1'DQG1&0FRXOGWDNHDOHDGLQVXFKDUHDVDVUHJLRQDOWUDQVSRUWV\VWHPVSXEOLFKHDOWKDQGTXDOLW\RI OLIHVFLHQFHHGXFDWLRQDQGFXOWXUH7KH&7$LVKHOSIXOLQVKDULQJWKHEHVWSUDFWLFHVLQXUEDQGHYHORS- ment as well as solving common municipal problems. 7RVXPXSDOPRVWDOOWKHDFWRUVLQYROYHGPRUHRUOHVVFOHDUO\XQGHUVWDQGWKDWWKHLUWDVNLVWR HQVXUHWKHULJKWIXODUFKLWHFWXUDODQG¿QDQFLDOGHPDQGVIRUIXUWKHUFRRSHUDWLRQLQWKH1(

277KH%DUHQWV(XUR$UFWLF&RXQFLOThe Barents Cooperation  $FFHVVHG-DQXDU\ZZZ EDUHQWVLQIR¿EHDFGRFV%DUHQWVB&RRSHUDWLRQBLQIRUPDWLRQB(QJOLVKB2FWREHUBSGI

15 Eurasia Border Review < Article >

Conclusions

7KLVSDSHUKDVH[SORUHGDGHPRQVWUDEOHVKLIWLQWKHVXEQDWLRQDOXQLWV¶PRWLYDWLRQUHJDUGLQJ SDUDGLSORPDF\:KLOHLQWKH

16 Sergunin and Joenniemi

PDQDJHPHQWSROLFLHVLQ±WKHFULWLTXHKDVFRQWULEXWHGWR0RVFRZ¶VGHFLVLRQWRUHLQVWDOOWKH old system of popular gubernatorial elections. ,QJHQHUDOWKHUHLVDJURZLQJIHHOLQJDPRQJWKHVXEQDWLRQDODFWRUVWKDWWKHYHU\SKLORVRSK\RI WKHFHQWHUSHULSKHU\UHODWLRQVLQWKH¿HOGRIH[WHUQDOUHODWLRQVVKRXOGEHUDGLFDOO\FKDQJHGDVWKHFXUUHQW RQHKDVSURYHGWREHLQHI¿FLHQW7KHUHLVDQREYLRXVQHHGRQWKHIHGHUDOVLGHWRLPSURYHLWVUHFRUGLILW is to cope properly with the challenges that sub-state entities are facing in the context of glocalization DQGLQWKHLUSXUVXLWRISDUDGLSORPDF\)HGHUDOSROLFLHVVKRXOGXQGRXEWHGO\EHPRUHLQWXQHZLWKDQG FRPSOHPHQWUDWKHUWKDQFRQÀLFWZLWKWKHSROLFLHVRIWKHVXEQDWLRQDODFWRUV,QVKRUWWKHVHDUFKIRUEHWWHU FRRUGLQDWLRQDQGDQRSWLPDOFRPELQDWLRQRIWKHLQWHUQDWLRQDOVWUDWHJLHVRIUHJLRQDOORFDODQGFHQWUDOJRY- ernments is bound to continue. In the foreseeable future paradiplomacy will retain its importance for the 5XVVLDQ$UFWLFVXEQDWLRQDODFWRUVDVDQHI¿FLHQWLQVWUXPHQWIRUEXLOGLQJWKHLUVXVWDLQDEOHGHYHORSPHQW strategies.

17