University of Warwick institutional repository: http://go.warwick.ac.uk/wrap A Thesis Submitted for the Degree of PhD at the University of Warwick http://go.warwick.ac.uk/wrap/34764 This thesis is made available online and is protected by original copyright. Please scroll down to view the document itself. Please refer to the repository record for this item for information to help you to cite it. Our policy information is available from the repository home page. THE CHINESE IN PENINSULAR MALAYSIA: A STUDY OF RACE RELATIONS IN A PLURAL SOCIETY BY TING CHEW PEH A Thesis Submitted in Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Sociology University of Warwick COVENTRY June, 1976 SYNOPSIS The present study is concerned with the problems of race relations in Peninsular Malaysia, with special reference to the Chinese community. My main thesis is that Chinese institutions and organizations, together with their values, economic and political activities tend to make interaction and integration difficult in the conflict-prone Malaysian plural society. However, despite the tremendous amount of dissensus and conflict, the society has managed to survive through the fact that the various component segments are bound together not only by political institutions, but also by their being involved in the same economic institutions. The study beg',s with an Introduction, which examines the main structural features of the Malayan society during the colonial period to 3erve as a background for discussion. Chapter 1 deals with the overall stratification and structure of the Chinese community. Particular attention is paid to Chinese guilds and associations which tend to perpetuate social distinctions between Chinese and Malays. Chapter 2 attempts to examine Chinese role in Malaysian economy. It tries to show the relative position of the iii Chinese in Malaysian economy and concludes that the Chinese are far from controlling Malaysian economy as has been alleged. Chapters 3 and 4 trace Chinese politics in pre-war and post-war Malaysia. Three main currents of influence on the Chinese during the pre-war period - Chinese secret societies, The Kuomintang and the Malayan Communist Party - are examined. For the post-war period, an attempt is made to examine Chinese participation in party politics as well as their relatively subordinate position in the Alliance Party. Chapter 5 examines Chinese education in Malaysia. Attention is focused on the various governmental efforts to devise a national education policy and its implications for Chinese education. The political significance of the education issue is also examined. Chapter 6 endeavours to analyse race relations in Malaysia, focusing on the sources of conflj o - : between Chinese and Malays. A brief account of the 1969 iial riots is also provided. Chapter 7 deals with the problems of national unity. It is argued that the Malaysian plural society is held together by political as well as economic institutions. Some deliberate attempts to foster unity are also examined. Chapter 8 attempts to examine some theoretical framework. It focuses on two major problems, namely the inadequacy of some Western theoretical models and the theory of the plural society and its relevance in Malaysia. iv CONTENTS Page SYNOPSIS 0•• 0•• 000 000 ••• ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS • 06 0•• ••0 •O• vii LIST OF TABLES 0•6 00• ••0 ••• viii ABBREVIATIONS O00 ••• ••• ••• ix INTRODUCTION: STRUCTURE OF THE MALAYAN SOCIETY DURING THE COLONIAL ERA 1 Political Domination ••• 1 Economic Domination ••• )7 The Growth of A Plural Society 18 CHAPTER 1 THE STRATIFICATION AND STRUCTURE OF THE CHINESE COMMUNITY 0•• ••• 35 Diversities 000 •00 OS* 35 nhinese Associations 000 000 41 Stratification 000 080 *00 59 2 THE CHINESE IN MALAYSIAN ECONOMY .. 70 Introduction 000 000 000 70 The Chinese in Commerce ... 000 76 The Characteristics of Chinese Business Enterprise •.. •00 000 000 78 The Chinese in Manufacturing Industries 82 The CAinese in Mining ••0 000 86 The Chinese in Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing 00 00• 0•0 000 91 The Chinese in the Rubber Industry 94 Page The Chinese in otner Industries ... 99 Ownership and Control of Malaysian Economy 100 Measures to Correct Economic Imblance Effects of Special Rights and the New Economic Policy •0• goo CHINESE POLITICS IN MALAYSIA: THE 3 119 PRE-WAR 15ERI0D • • • Introduction 0. • • 0 0 • • 0 119 The Secret Societies • • 0 • 0 • 125 The Kuomintang • • • • • • • • 0 133 The Malayan Communist Party • • • 148 4 CHINESE POLITICS IN MALAYSIA: THE POST-WAR PERIOD ... 155 The Malayan Chin( -1 Association 000 163 The United Democratic Party 000 174 The Labour Party ... 000 0 • Z 176 The People's Prop-ressive Party •00 179 The Democratic Action Party •... 180 The Gerakan Rakyat Malaysia 00* 183 The Chinese and the 1955 Federal Election 185 The 1959 General Election 00 000 189 The 1964 General Election 00 0410 205 The 1969 General Election 00 000 207 The Impact of May 13 Communal Disturbance 213 The Chinese Unity Movement . 000 215 The Political Disunity of the Chinese 223 New Political Leadership (foe *so 228 The Political Strength of the Chinese 230 Inter-communal Co-operation 000 232 Conclusion ... 000 000 • • • 236 5 CHINESE EDUCATION IN MALAYSIA 239 Introduction , , • • • • • • • • 0 239 A Brief History Of Chinese Education 241 The Barnes Report •00 000 600 245 The Fenn-Wu Report .. ego a.. 247 vi page The 1952 Education Ordinance .•. 249 The Razak Report 000 251 The Talib Education Review Committee 257 The 1967 Language Bill 0410 000 260 Measures Detrimental to Chinese Education 265 Education and Politics •• • • • • 269 Political and Social Consequences of the continued Existence of Chinese Schools 276 Recent Developments • • • 009 278 6 RELATIONS BETWEEN CHINESE AND MALAYS 282 Introduction: The Pre-War Period 282 Post-war Race Relations ••• ••• 284 The Kuala Lumpur Riots of 1969 ... 304 The Aftermath 000 •00 00• 312 7 THE PROBLEMS OF NATIONAL UNITY Chinese Community and Integration 314 Unifying Factors 000 321 8 TOWARDS A SOCIOLOGY OF MALAYSIA: 342 SOME THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS .0 Inadequacy of Conventional Theoretical models • • • • 0 0 • • • • • • 342 The Plural Society Theory 000 352 BIBLIOGRAPHY .. 001 • 0 • • • • • • 0 36 7 vi i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am deeply indebted to my supervisor Professor John Rex for his constant encouragement, suggestions and useful criticisms without which this thesis would not have been completed in time. My thanks also go to many of my teachers, colleagues and friends who have in one way or another helped or encouraged me in the production of the thesis. I am also grateful to the National Uni-.-r-sity of Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur for financial support during m; stay in Britain, and to the University of Warwick library for providing me with the inter- library loan facilities. I would also like to thank the Asia Foundation and its representative in Kuala Lumpur, Mr. Laurence T. Forman, for offering me a travel grant that enabled me to return to Warwick for the completion of my thesis. Last but by no means least, I wish particularly to express my gratitude to my wife for her wonderful patience and unfailing encouragement. viii LIST OF TABLES page 1.1 Population of Malaya: by Race and Percentages, 1911-1970 000 000 • • • 20 1.2 Racial Composition of each State, by Percentages, 1931-1970 000 000 ••0 21 1.3 Racial Composition of Urban Population, by Percentages, 1931-1957 0042 • • • 22 1.A Chinese Organizations 000 060 000 47 2.1 Employment by Race and Sector, West Malaysia, 1970 000 •00 000 83 2.2 c;40 Owner=hip of share capital of limited compani.es by race and sector, West Malaysia, 1970 000 84 2.3 Tin rrouuction: By European and Chinese Mines, 1910-1929, by percentage 88 2.4 European share of Malayan Tin Production, 1946-1 ./61 (selected years) 600 000 90 2.5 Ownership of Assets in modern agriculture and industry, West Malaysia, 1970 93 2.6 Ethnic ownership of rubber estates and smallholdings, 1953 (percentage distribution) 95 2.7 Labour employed on rubber estates by ethnic groups, West Malaysia (selected years) . 98 2.8 Income distribution of households by percentage and race, West Malaysia, 1970 000 000 104 401 The Communal Breakdown of the 1955 Malayan Electorate 000 SOO 000 185 4.2 Communal Breakdown of the Electorate, 1959 Election 000 •00 ••0 190 ix ABBREVIATIONS AMCJA All Malaya Council of Joint Action. API Angkatan Pemuda Insaf (Awakened Youth Movement). DAP Democratic Action Party. FMCE Federal of Malaya Certificate of Education. FMS Federated Malay States, GERAKAN Gerakan Rakyat Malaysia (People's Movement Party). HSC Higher School Certificate of Education. IMP Independence of Malaya Party. KMT Kuomintang. LCE Lower School Certificate Examination. MCP Malayan Communist Party, MDU Malayan Democratic Union. MIC Malayan Indian Congress. MNP Malay Nationalist Party, MPABA Malayan People's Anti-British Army. MPAJA Malayan People's Anti-Japanese Army. MRLA Malayan Races Liberation Army. NLAF National Language Action Front. NOC National Operations Council, PAP People's Action Party. PEKEMAS Parti Keadilan Masyarakat (Social Justice Party). PMIP Pan Malayan Islamic Party. PPP People's Progressive Party. PUTERA Pusat Tenaga Rakyat (Centre for People's Force). SF Socialist Front. SNAP Sarawak National Party. SUPP Sarawak United People's Party. UCSCA United Chinese School Committees Association. UCSTA United Chinese School Teachers Association. UDP United Democratic Party. UMNO United Malays National Organization. UMS Unfederated Malay States. INTRODUCTION THE STRUCTURE OF THE MALAYAN SOCIETY DURING THE COLONIAL ERA The plural society in Malaysia* is largely the legacy of British colonialism. In order to understand the structure of this society in general, it is necessary to look at two very important components of colonialism, namely, the political domination by the colonizing power and its economic exploitation and control. Political Domination To begin with, we should look briefly at the indigenous political system of Malaya.