Epidamnus S tr Byzantium ym THRACE on R Amphipolis A . NI PROPONTIS O Eion ED Thasos Cyzicus C Stagira Aegospotami A Acanthus CHALCIDICE M Lampsacus Dascylium Potidaea Cynossema Scione Troy AEOLIS LY Corcyra SA ES Ambracia H Lesbos T AEGEAN MYSIA AE SEA Anactorium TO Mytilene Sollium L Euboea Arginusae Islands L ACAR- IA YD Delphi IA NANIA Delium Sardes PHOCISThebes Chios Naupactus Gulf Oropus Erythrae of Corinth IONIA Plataea Decelea Chios Notium E ACHAEA Megara L A Athens I R Samos Ephesus Zacynthus S C Corinth Piraeus ATTICA A Argos Icaria Olympia D Laureum I Epidaurus Miletus A Aegina Messene Delos MESSENIA LACONIA Halicarnassus Pylos Sparta
Melos Cythera Rhodes
100 miles 160 km Crete
Map 1 Greece.
xvii W
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Map 2 Macedonia.
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xxi Philip II and the Rise of Macedonia enemy line the first five ranks of the battalions would lower their sarissas to charge (Figure 10). The sheer length of the sarissa allowed the Macedonian troops to impale their enemies, whose short swords came nowhere near them, thereby thwarting the close-formation hoplite fighting. Even when the two lines actually did meet the Macedonians’ armor of a cuirass, leg greaves, small shield over one shoulder, a short sword, and an iron,
Figure 10 Macedonian phalanx formation carrying sarissas. From N. G. L. Hammond, Alexander the Great: King, Commander and Statesman, 2nd ed. (Bristol: 1989), p. 84.
35 Philip II and the Rise of Macedonia and families to various attendants and even prostitutes, were banned from traveling with Macedonian troops. The slow-moving carts carry- ing provisions and equipment that oxen had previously pulled were also abandoned and replaced by faster-moving pack animals such as mules and horses. The end result was an army that could march quickly and effortlessly regardless of terrain or weather conditions. Philip’s military reforms did not happen overnight but, rather, con- tinued throughout his reign. In about 350 he formed an engineering corps, headed by Polyeides (or Polyidus) of Thessaly, who was designing new siege machinery, including the torsion catapult. This was akin to a spring-loaded crossbow that fired arrows farther and faster than the traditional mechanically drawn catapult (Figure 11).22 Philip first used the torsion catapult at his siege of Byzantium in 340, and the weapon enabled Alexander to take many walled cities and force others into capit- ulation. In fact two of Polyidus’s students, Diades and Charias, accom- panied Alexander on his campaigns. Philip also integrated regular and specialist troops from the areas he conquered into his army. For example, after his campaign in Illyria in 358
Figure 11 Mechanical bow and torsion catapult.
37 The Downfall of Greece
0 1/4 1/2 1 miles
Contour interval 50 metres 204 M T. A K O N T I O N Ce phis sus
ALEXANDER
ANX AL
AN PH emon I a NI H D DO II SACREDBAN CE d Moun CHAERONEA III ACROPOLIS S Kapraina TIAN BOEO Ligh PHILIP MA TRE t Arme CEN d ANS ATHENL S III HO Gree III Ath. II & III k AC light TR Ar PE me as d l
Mo
Hagia Paraskeve
Kerata
PassS 401 398 Phase I Macedonians advance; Greeks stationary Phase II Philip retreats, his centre and le advancing ; Athenians, Centre and Boeotians advance to le front, but the Sacred Band stands rm Phase III Alexander charges, the centres engage, and Philip drives the Athenian wing up the Haemon valley
Map 6 Battle of Chaeronea.
the Athenians in hand-to-hand fighting as they expected, he began to lead his wing sideways to the right, and the rest of his line followed suit. The Athenian left moved to stay with him, but as it did so it opened a gap toward the Greek center. The troops posted there and up to the right flank scrambled to plug it, while the Sacred Band on the extreme right followed orders and stood fast. Thinking that Philip was actually retreating, Stra- tocles allegedly exhorted his men to attack and shut him up in Macedo- nia. His impetuosity proved fatal. Philip’s retreat was a feigned one. He continued for about 100 feet and then stopped by the Haemon to bring his third phase into play. Alexander
87 by the spear
Figure 19 The Philippeion at Olympia. Drawn by D. Boggs, in P. Schultz, “Leochares’ Argead Portraits in the Philippeion,” in P. Schultz and R. von den Hoff (eds.), Early Hellenistic Portraiture: Image, Style, Context (Cambridge: 2007), p. 207, fig. 32. of Greece. Just as the Lion of Chaeronea memorialized the Theban Sacred Band, so the Philippeion memorialized Philip—and Macedonia. We can imagine the grating effect that the building in this religious setting would have on Greeks, with the corollary of empowerment and self-esteem on the part of Macedonians. Philip’s successful campaigns beyond his borders affected the nature of Macedonian kingship. Before Philip the duties and responsibilities of kings were clearly defined but pertained only to the rule of Macedonia. He and kings after him would necessarily have to deal with new issues, from different customs of subject peoples to the administration and stability of newly conquered areas. Philip had already begun to adapt with his meas- ures to control Thessaly (the restoration of the tetrarchy), Epirus (the in- stallation of Alexander as a type of puppet ruler), Thrace (the appointment of a governor answerable only to him), and Greece (the League of Corinth).
108 by the spear
1 km Infantry 0.5 miles Cavalry
xxxx Greek allied cavalry
ALEXANDER Phalanx
us anic Gr Hypaspists Scouts (sarissophoroi, Bactrian and other lancers) Asiatic cavalry
Paeonian cavalry Memnon with infantry Socrates’s squadron
Companion Greek mercenaries Cavalry commanded by Memnon
Persian best cavalry under Persian generals Agrianians (javelineers)
Archers
Map 7 Battle of the Granicus River. the men would cross the river in a diagonal line, no doubt because of the current, to the nearest gravel bed on the opposite side to attack the Per- sian army (Map 7). From Philip’s time the Macedonian phalanx had been trained to cross all manner of terrain, including flowing water, and Alexander was banking on it not missing a beat now. Alexander’s line stretched for a little over a mile. He stationed the Thracian, Thessalian, and other Greek cavalry on his left flank, commanded by
1 km Infantry 0.5 miles Cavalry
xxxx Greek allied cavalry
ALEXANDER Phalanx
us anic Hypaspists Gr
Memnon, probably Socrates with light troops holding a precarious foothold Mercenaries commanded by Memnon Spithridates with cavalry Mithridates with cavalry
Alexander leading Companions with archers and Agrianians
Map 7 Continued.
Parmenion. The right flank comprised the Macedonian cavalry, which Alexander formed into two groups, one under the command of Philotas on the extreme right and the other, immediately next to the massed phalanx at the center, under Amyntas. Next to him Alexander took up his own position. The cavalry was arranged 10 horses deep, and the infantry line, eight men deep. The Battle of the Granicus River witnessed Alexander’s introduction of the stratagem of a pawn sacrifice.15 He ordered Amyntas and a small
147 by the spear writers of 600,000 (Arrian and Plutarch), 400,000 (Diodorus and Justin), and 250,000 infantry and 62,200 cavalry (Curtius) are clearly exaggerated to magnify the Macedonian victory.1 A more plausible number for the Persian army is 100,000 to 150,000, since it included all the manpower reserves of Persis and Media as well as 30,000 Greek mercenaries. The night before the battle Alexander and his men occupied a vantage point by the Pillar of Jonah (the Syrian or Assyrian Gates) from where they could see the Persian campfires on the plain below. It was an uneasy time for all of them, and Alexander took great care to sacrifice to the local deities in an attempt to calm his men. At dawn he led his army the several miles onto the plain, a task that took a number of hours because of the difficult and narrow terrain, and prepared to do battle.2
xxxx
DARIUS D C C
A 6 s 5 B ru Pino 2
M 1 e d i xxxx t e r 3 r a n 4 e ALEXANDER a n
S e a
Macedonian Army Persian Army 1 Greek cavalry A Cavalry Infantry 2 Greek Hoplites B Greek Hoplites Cavalry 3 Phalanx C Kardakes (light Persian infantry) 4 Hypaspists D Other Asiatic light troops 2 km 5 Macedonian cavalry 1.5 miles 6 Light troops
Map 8 Battle of Issus.
166 The Fall of the Persian Empire
Alexander’s army was at 7,000 cavalry and 40,000 infantry.10 A more plausible figure for the Persian army is 100,000, which is still double that of the Macedonian. Darius arranged his line in ethnic units (Map 9). Mazaeus was appointed commander of the right flank with troops from Syria, Mesopotamia, and the central satrapies of the Persian Gulf region. In front of them were
Mazaeus 9 Parmenion
Parthians 12 11
Massed 13 Infantry
Persians and Indians
Rear Phalanx 10 xxxx
elephants DARIUS 6 8 7 Menidas 4 grooms 3 Aretas
2 1
xxxx
5 Bessus ALEXANDER
Map 9 Battle of Gaugamela.
189 Passage to India plan was to attack Porus from one side and neutralize the threat from his elephants while Craterus crossed the river to charge the Indians head-on. This simple but brilliant strategy trapped Porus between two Macedonian attacking lines: whichever one he faced first would expose his rear to the other (Map 10). Alexander and his men set off in their makeshift boats. They were soon past the midstream island of Admana, helped also by a sudden thunderstorm
Alexander’s position
1 Indian chariot engagement
Main Battle
Swamp 2 land Meleager’s position
xxxx spes Hyda
ALEXANDER Infantry
Craterus’s position Porus’s xxxx Cavalry at base camp camp
7.5 km PORUS 5 miles
Map 10 Battle of the Hydaspes River.
245