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UC Santa Cruz UC Santa Cruz Electronic Theses and Dissertations

Title An Exploration of the Pipa with a View Towards Expanded Integration into Western Musical Compositions

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Author Griswold, Yunxiang Gao

Publication Date 2021

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UNIVERSITY OF CALIFONIA SANTA CRUZ

I. DISSERTATION ESSAY: AN EXPLORATION OF THE PIPA WITH A VIEW TOWARDS EXPANDED INTEGRATION INTO WESTERN MUSICAL COMPOSITIONS II: DISSERTATION MUSICAL COMPOSITION: FRAGMENTED JADE

A dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirement for the degree of

DOCTOR OF MUSICAL ARTS

MUSIC COMPOSITION

Yunxiang. G. Griswold

June 2021

The Dissertation of Yunxiang Gao Griswold is approved:

______Professor David Evan Jones, Chair

______Professor Karlton Hester

______Professor Ben Leeds Carson

______Quentin Williams Acting Vice Provost and Dean of Graduate Studies

Yunxiang G. Griswold

2021

Table of Contents

Table of Figures and Tables ...... iv Abstract ...... vii Acknowledgment ...... ix Introduction ...... 1 Overview ...... 3 I. A brief history of the pipa ...... 3 II. The Chinese pipa score system ...... 6 Part I: The timbres produced by the pipa ...... 11 A. The timbres of the pipa are highly influenced by the craftsmanship and physical variations of each Pipa: ...... 12 1. Physical description of the pipa: ...... 12 2. Westernized pipa:...... 13 3. The use of metal strings: ...... 14 4. Different strings can produce different timbres in the same pitch: ...... 14 B. The scope of the pipa’s range and correlated effects on timbre: ...... 15 C. Various pipa techniques create various timbres: ...... 16 1. Basic right-hand techniques: ...... 16 2. Various timbres associated with right-hand techniques: ...... 20 3. Basic left-hand techniques ...... 36 4. Left-hand techniques and their associated timbres: ...... 36 Part II: Pipa techniques, as applied, in various stylistic categories ...... 51 A. Chinese traditional repertoires interpreted by pipa performer: Wang Fandi ....53 B. Pieces composed by pipa performer: Liu Dehai ...... 56 C. Examples of new pipa music combining Chinese music elements with Western compositional technique ...... 70 Conclusion ...... 83 Bibliography ...... 84 Discography ...... 87

iii

Table of Figures and Tables

List of Figures Figure 1) Zhixiang pipa ...... 3 Figure 2) Tang Quxiang pipa ...... 4 Figure 3) Tang Zhixiang pipa ...... 5 Figure 4) Modern pipa ...... 6 Figure 5) Dots above or below the note define the different octaves ...... 8 Figure 6) Chords represented in numbered notation...... 9 Figure 7) Example of score in numbered notation...... 10 Figure 8) Example of score in modern Western notation ...... 11 Figure 9) Physical configuration of pipa ...... 13 Figure 10) Pipa range ...... 15 Figure 11) Illustration of single pluck ...... 17 Figure 12) Illustration of double-index finger pluck ...... 17 Figure 13) Illustration of double-index thumb pluck with double-index finger pluck 18 Figure 14) Illustration of double-index thumb pluck with strumming ...... 18 Figure 15) Illustration of five-finger rolling ...... 19 Figure 16) Illustration of index-finger and thumb strumming ...... 19 Figure 17) Illustration of splitting and folding ...... 20 Figure 18) Illustration of shaking ...... 20 Figure 19) Example from the music score “Spring Rain” ...... 24 Figure 20) Example from the music score “A moonlit Night on the Spring River”.....26 Figure 21) Example from the music score “Ambushed from all sides” ...... 27 Figure 22) Example from the music score “Green Lily Folk Song” ...... 29 Figure 23) Example from the music score “The Five Heroes of Langya Mountain” ..34 Figure 24) Example from the music score “Wooden Duck” ...... 38 Figure 25) Example from the music score “The Moon Rises”...... 42 Figure 26) Example from the music score “Chen Sui” ...... 43 Figure 27) Example from the music score “Romance of the Water of Wei” ...... 44 Figure 28) Example from the music score “Chanting” ...... 45

Figure 29) Example from the music score “Ambushed from all sides” ...... 47 Figure 30) Example from the music score “The Conqueror Unarms” ...... 48 Figure 31) Example from the music score “Xu Lai”...... 50 Figure 32) Example from the music score “The Moon Rises”...... 54 Figure 33) Example from the music score “Beyond the Great Wall” ...... 56 Figure 34) Example from the music score “Silkworms in Spring” ...... 58 Figure 35) Example from the music score “Silkworms in Spring” ...... 59 Figure 36) Example from the music score “Aged Child” ...... 60 Figure 37) Example from the music score “Aged Child” ...... 60 Figure 38) Example from the music score “Aged Child” ...... 61 Figure 39) Example from the music score “Swan” ...... 62 Figure 40) Example from the music score “The Terracotta Warriors” ...... 65 Figure 41) Example from the music score “The Terracotta Warriors” ...... 67 Figure 42) Example from the music score “The Points” ...... 74 Figure 43) Example from the music score “The Points” ...... 74 Figure 44) Example from the music score “The Points” ...... 75 Figure 45) Example from the music score “The Points” ...... 75 Figure 46) Example from the music score “The Points” ...... 76 Figure 47) Example from the music score “The Points” ...... 77 Figure 48) Example from the music score “Pipa Words” ...... 79 Figure 49) Example from the music score “Pipa Words” ...... 80 Figure 50) Example from the music score “Pipa Words” ...... 81 Figure 51) Example from the music score “Pipa Words” ...... 81 Figure 52) Example from the music score “Pipa Words” ...... 82

List of Tables Table 1) Music notes represented in the numbered notation ...... 8 Table 2) Duration of the notes in numbered notation ...... 10 Table 3) Basic left-hand techniques ...... 36 Table 4) The Music Structure of the “The Points” ...... 73 Table 5) The Structural Diagram of “Pipa Words” ...... 78

Abstract

AN EXPLORATION OF THE PIPA WITH A VIEW TOWARDS EXPANDED INTEGRATION INTO WESTERN MUSICAL COMPOSITIONS By Yunxiang G. Griswold

Due to its broad range of timbres, unique adaptability, and rich history, the pipa has historically taken the spotlight as the most prominent of Chinese traditional instruments, often being referred to as the “king” of such instruments. Since its inception, the pipa has taken several unique evolutionary paths and has been known by various names throughout its history. In the 20th century the modern pipa was intentionally enhanced and adapted, enabling it to play compositions using both the

Chinese and the Western score system.

This paper explores a brief history of the pipa, the various types and ranges of timbres the pipa can produce, and the physical characteristics of the pipa coupled with the various techniques employed when playing the pipa that enable the production of such timbres. This paper goes on to describe in detail the development of pipa techniques over time as they have been developed and applied by various composers in a wide range of pipa compositions.

Specifically, this paper analyzes pipa compositions that integrate Chinese and

Western compositional techniques produced by composers who have studied compositional techniques abroad and by those who have not.

It is the hope of the author that by providing a systematic explanation of the pipa

as a musical instrument, along with an account of the ways in which it has been

vii

adapted to the West, the pipa’s great potential can be fully realized in the productionof a new generation of innovative and powerfully vivid music.

viii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to offer my special thanks to my thesis advisor Professor David Evan

Jones of the University of California, Santa Cruz who guided me through and proof- read my Dissertation paper and my Dissertation musical piece in extensive detail. I am gratefully indebted to his valuable comments, suggestions, and editing on both the

Dissertation paper and the Dissertation musical piece.

I would like to acknowledge my thesis committee member Professor Karlton

Hester at the University of California, Santa Cruz as the second reader of this thesis; I am also grateful for his valuable comments on this thesis.

I would also like to express gratitude for my pipa teacher Professor Liu Dehai at the Beijing Conservatory of Music, China for all his years of guidance in both pipa practicing and pipa music appreciation, as well as to Professor Jin Ping of the Century

Conservatory of Music, China, for his expertise in validating this paper and for providing score examples.

Finally, I must express my very profound gratitude to my spouse Timothy

Griswold for providing me with unfailing support and continuous encouragement throughout my years of study, as well as with the process of researching, proof- reading, and editing this thesis. This accomplishment would not have been possible without him.

Yunxiang Griswold

Introduction

The pipa is considered one of the most difficult instruments to master among all

Chinese instruments. Such difficulty is primarily attributable to the pipa’s vast variety of left and right-hand techniques. For this reason, and because of pipa composers’ traditional reliance on the Chinese score system, the creation of repertoires for the pipa was previously confined to the realm of pipa players, who often adapted traditional musical tunes for the pipa.

In the second half of the 20th century, however, with the establishment of professional conservatories of music, the dominance of traditional compositions was challenged, as Chinese institutions began emphasizing Western musical principles over traditional principles.

This initially caused a bifurcation in musical development, with traditional and

Western music compositions occupying parallel cultural worlds. Over time, however, such trends began to coalesce, as Chinese composers began attempting to bridge their traditional systems with Western musical concepts. In the context of the pipa, several key individuals discussed in this paper were instrumental in bridging this gap; they did so by not only physically modifying the pipa to make it compatible with Western score systems, but also by exploring innovative sounds and performance techniques in their pipa compositions.

Since that time, the question of how to inherit and develop the artistic aspect of the pipa, from both a Chinese and Western compositional perspective, has become a

proposition for musicians and composers to explore diligently. The possible variations in timbre using innovative performance techniques have taken central stage in this search.

In Part I, this paper introduces the history of the pipa, the pipa’s basic techniques, and the variety of timbres the pipa can produce. In Part II, this paper analyzes the works of several prominent pipa composers based on the information presented in

Part I. Beyond the technical framework of such compositions, Part II of this paper primarily seeks to expound on the cultural and conceptional ideas and emotions that pipa compositions at their finest can vividly bring to life. Special emphasis is given to the works of Liu Dehai, who was one of the most influential pipa players and educators in modern times. He was also my primary pipa teacher, who helped form my own unique pipa performance style. Through his extensive and continuous oral inculcation of musical insight over numerous years, he helped me gain a deep intuitive understanding of the historical and cultural background of many musical pieces. Many comments related to such in this paper can be said to be Liu Dehai, among others, speaking through me, after their ideas settled and crystallized over a long period of time.

The overarching goal of this paper is to serve as a reference guide for experienced musicians and composers, both within and outside the Chinese tradition who may be interested in further exploring and developing the pipa’s vast potential.

Overview

I. A brief history of the pipa

The pipa is a four-string lute-shaped pluck instrument. The name “pipa” comprises the two Chinese characters “pi (琵)” and “pa (琶).” These words describe how the pipa is played. “Pi” is a right-hand pluck outward, and “Pa” is a right-hand pluck inward. They also have an onomatopoeic nature, being a type of short-hand representation of the pipa’s unique sound qualities.

The below pictures show the development of the pipa over the years.

Figure 11

The instrument shown above [Figure 1] is called a “Zhixiang pipa (直相琵

琶).” Although there is some scholarly dissension on this issue, this instrument is

1 Photograph provided by Professor Jin Ping.

largely considered one of the predecessors of the traditional pipa. It is widely believed that this pipa appeared around the 2nd century CE during the time of China’s first emperor, Qin Shi Huangdi. (Some scholars, however, suggest this type of pipa was first found in the Han Dynasty as “Qin” was one of the general terms for China from Western or Middle Eastern points of view.) The Zhixiang pipa had a long straight neck and a round soundboard. The front and back of the surfaces were typically bounded with animal skins. This instrument, while largely thought of as being a predecessor of the modern pipa, still exists in China as an independent instrument called the “Ruan.” It is also known as “Qin Handzi.” This pipa was first introduced to China through the silk road and was adapted to be played on horse- back.

Figure 22

The next type of traditional pipa, shown above [Figure 2], has four strings and a bended neck, as does the modern pipa. Unlike the modern pipa, it typically has only four neck frets on the bended neck; some versions of this instrument, however, have

2 Photograph provided by Professor Jin Ping.

five strings. This pipa had a much bigger body compared to the other types of pipa. It first appeared during the 4th century AD, being introduced from Persia, also via way of the silk road. This type of pipa became popular during the early Tang dynasty, hence its name “Tang pipa.” During the Tang dynasty it was used in court music, folk ensembles, and as a virtuoso solo instrument. During this period, the physical method of playing the pipa also changed, going from a horizontal to a vertical angle of play. In addition to being called the “Tang pipa” it is also known as

“The Hu pipa.” The original instrument was called an “oud” or “barbat.”

Figure 33

The third type of pipa had five strings [Figure 3]. It had a pear-shaped body with a straight neck. This instrument also appeared in Tang Dynasty, which period is widely regarded as the Golden age of the pipa, as both the craftsmanship of the

3 Photograph provided by Professor Jin Ping.

instrument and its performance techniques were greatly developed during this time.

The size of its body and the numbers of its frets were also increased during this time.

During the Tang Dynasty, the pipa was introduced to many other Asian countries as well, such as Japan, Korea, and Vietnam. In Japan it is known as the “Biwa;” in

Korea, the “Bipa;” and in Vietnam, the “đàn tỳ bà.”

During the Ming and Qing dynasties, the pipa was gradually standardized into a structure largely similar to the modern pipa.

Figure 44

The modern pipa, shown above in [Figure 4], was developed in the 1950s; it is 40 inches long and has a shallow, pear-shaped wooden body with a straight neck. This is the instrument described in detail in this paper, below.

II. The Chinese pipa score system

The Chinese pipa score system aims not to pass down “tone,” but “experience,” or, in other words, a certain musical “pattern” behind the score. This is the result of

4 Photograph provided by Professor Jin Ping.

traditional oral pedagogies that require a profound understanding of, and experience with, Chinese pipa music. In contrast to the detailed criteria in modern Western scores, the vague suggestiveness of the Chinese score system invites and stimulates the imagination of the player and inspires changes beyond the score. This framework, grounded in a tentative and suggestive score, enables infinite changes of melody rather than a rigid adherence to skeletal tones. It also allows minute ornaments, the free development of rhythm embedded in gradual changes, random loops, turn-to techniques, and so on. Such dynamic elements greatly enrich the potential of each piece’s development. The provision of free space allows the impromptu expression of unique beauty in each musical piece. This freedom of expression also coincides with fundamental aesthetic tenets of Chinese Buddhist belief: the lives of living beings go on without end.

The numbered musical notation system is commonly used in Chinese traditional pipa music. In the Chinese pipa score system, the most frequently discussed feature is the lack of fixed pitch positions and the non-existence of a fixed quantity in rhythm: i.e., pitch has no fixed position and rhythm has no fixed quantity. Different from Western notation, which appears to emphasize the fixed position of pitch and seems to set the tempo precisely, the Chinese score system places a much higher importance on techniques of improvisation. Details of this system are discussed below.

A. Musical notes represented in the numbered notation system:

A fundamental difference between the Chinese and the Western score system is the Chinese system’s utilization of a “movable Do” system, which relies upon scale degrees. This can briefly be shown by the following table:

Example 1. Note Name (C Major Scale) C D E F G A B Notation (Scale Degrees) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Example 2. Note Name (F Major Scale) F G A Bb C D E Notation (Scale Degrees) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Example 3. Note Name (G Major Scale) G A B C D E F# Notation (Scale Degrees) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Table 1) Music notes represented in the numbered notation

B. Octaves: dots above or below the note define the different octaves:

Figure 5

[Figure 5] illustrates the Chinese score system’s representation of octaves based on

Example 1 in section A, above: or, said differently, with the notes C, D, E, F, G, A, B being represented in [Figure 5], Example 1, as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7, according to the movable Do system. The number of dots indicate the different octaves. For example, the “1” without a dot is C4. C3 is represented by one dot underneath the number “1.”

C5 is represented by one dot on top of the number 1. Two dots vertically aligned above the number “1” is C6.

C. Chords:

Similar to Western notation, chords in the numbered notation system are presented by vertically stacking the notes on top of each other. Higher notes are vertically stacked on top of lower notes. See [Figure 6]

Western notation

Numbered notation

Figure 6

D. Duration of the notes

The duration of each note is represented by underlining, dashes and dots in the

Chinese score system:

1. The note with no underline or dash behind the note represents a quarter note.

2. Each dash represents a quarter note.

3. A dot after the note represents a dotted note.

4. Each underline halves the note’s length. For example, one underline

represents an eighth note; two underlines represent a sixteenth note, and so

on.

Whole note 1 - - - Dotted whole note 1 - - - - - Half note 1 - Dotted half note 1 - - Quarter note 1 Dotted quarter note 1. Eight note 1 Dotted eighth note 1. Sixteenth note 1 Dotted sixteenth note 1. Table 2) Duration of the notes

E. Rests:

The number “0” represents a rest.

The following examples in [Figure 7] and [Figure 8] illustrate the same piece written respectively in both Chinese numbered notation and in Western notation:

Chinese numbered notation [Figure 7]:

Figure 75

5 Notation provided by Yang Jing.

Modern Western notation [Figure 8]:

Figure 86

Part I: The timbres produced by the pipa

Part I of this paper, which follows this brief introduction, expounds on the potential array of timbres that the pipa can produce and delves into the origins of its various timbres. It does so specifically by explaining the potential impact on timbres based on the unique craftsmanship and physical variations of each pipa, the different pipa ranges that are correlated to various timbres, and the timbres produced by basic right-hand and left-hand techniques.

6 Score created by Yunxiang Gao

A. The timbres of the pipa are highly influenced by the craftsmanship and physical variations of each pipa:

1. Physical description of the pipa:

The Physical variations in the shape, types of materials, and craftsmanship involved in each pipa can significantly alter its range and correlated timbres. As can be seen in the section of this paper describing the pipa’s history, the pipa has three parts: the head, the neck, and the body. The head section consists of the head, tuning pegs, and peg holes. The pipa’s neck and the head are usually made of wood; its pegs can be made of different materials, such as ivory, bull’s horn, or wood.

The neck section consists of the xiang frets (相), the shankou (山口), and the qinzhen (琴枕). Popular materials for xiang frets include wood, ivory, bull’s horn, and jade. The body of the pipa includes frets, the soundboard, the back of the instrument, the bridge (fushou), and the strings. See [Figure 9]

The bridge (fushou), which is usually made of bamboo, holds the strings in place.

As described in detail below, unlike with traditional pipa strings, which are made of sheep intestines and silk, modern strings are usually made of nylon or steel. The choice of string material is usually based on personal preference.

Figure 97

During the last century, pipa makers have made great improvements to the composition of traditional pipa, as briefly summarized below. Modern pipa has a much larger range and much richer timbres compared to traditional pipa of the past.

2. Westernized pipa:

In the 1950s, Lin Shicheng, a famous pipa player and educator, was the first individual in modern times to make dramatic physical alterations to the traditional pipa; he did so by extending the pipa’s frets from 24 to 30.

He went on to utilize these improvements to compose fifty pipa etudes written in staff notation, 150 equal-temperament pipa etudes, including the "Selected Works of

Pipa Etude," "Thirty Lessons of Pipa," and other systematic pipa practice materials.

7 Photo provided by Man Ruixing, modified by Yunxiang Gao

Later, to meet the needs of the orchestra’s timbre and tuning, pipa-making craftsmanship continued to improve. Specifically, even more frets were added, converting the modern pipa into a twelve-tone equal temperament instrument, much better suited for the modern Chinese orchestra setting.

In the 1980s, the first modern Chinese national orchestra was founded in

Beijing, which partially imitated the Western symphony orchestra’s setting, such as by including the Western Cello and Contrabass to provide a low register to the orchestra.

The Modern Chinese national orchestra also combined instruments from different family groupings, including the following: bowed-string instruments, such as the gao’hu, er’hu, zhonghu, guhu/cello, and contrabass; plucked instruments, such as the liu’qin, pipa, zhong’ruan, da’ruan, zheng, and yang’qin; wind instruments, such as the bamboo flute (bang’di, qu’di, xin’di), sheng, suo’na, and guan’zi; and percussion instruments, such as the pai’gu, Chinese da’gu, ban’gu, tang’gu, timpani, snare drum, gongs, cymbals, yun’luo, mu’yu, qin, bang’zi, and so on.

3. The use of metal strings:

In recent years, the material used in pipa string-making was also changed from silk to steel and nylon-wound steel, which improved the strength of the strings.

Compared with the sounds of the traditional pipa, the new strings produce brighter sounds, which are favored by the audiences of modern concert halls.

4. Different strings can produce different timbres in the same pitch:

Each string on the pipa can also produce different timbres in the same pitch. The pipa has four strings. Each string has its own unique sound quality due to the strings’

varying thicknesses. The first string has a clear and crisp sound; the second string has a mild and relatively soft sound; the third string has a relatively rougher sound; and finally, the fourth string has a deep and thick sound.

B. The scope of the pipa’s range and correlated effects on timbre:

The timbres from different registers have different characteristics. The pipa’s range extends from A to e3.

Illustration [Figure 10]:

Figure 10

This overarching range can be further subdivided into four range categories: namely, the low register, the middle register, the high register, and the highest register. Such divisions are based on the available sound qualities, described as follows:

1. Low Register: the timbre is thick and strong

2. Middle Register: the timbre is clear and bright

3. High Register: the timbre is crisp and firm

4. Highest Register: the timbre is intense and sharp

The middle and high registers are the two most-used ranges in pipa music.

C. Various pipa techniques create various timbres:

Although, as can be in the discussion above, the physical characteristics of each pipa can impact the nature of the pipa’s timbres, the unique array of timbres available on the pipa is primarily attributable to the vast variations in both right-hand and left- hand techniques utilized for pipa play. These techniques are described below with examples:

1. Basic right-hand techniques:

Right-hand techniques for the pipa include the single index finger pluck, the single thumb pluck, the double index finger pluck, the double thumb pluck, two fingers rolling, five fingers rolling, the index finger strumming, the thumb strumming, folding, splitting, shaking, and so on, as well as a combination of these various right- hand techniques.

The right-hand technique’s symbols, names, descriptions, and examples are as follows:

a. Single-index-finger pluck (Tan \ 弹): The index finger plucks a single

string outward, producing a single sound. Sound textures vary, depending

on how the string is plucked.

b. Single-thumb pluck (Tiao / 挑): The thumb plucks any one string inward,

producing a single sound. Like Tan, the sound textures produced are very

dependent on the dynamics involved in playing such.

Example [Figure 11]: “Spring Rain.” A single index finger pluck and a single thumb pluck are often combined in this musical piece. In the following example,

both Tan and Tiao are annotated in the rectangular box above the score; these musical patterns will be repeated until subsequent indication that such techniques should be changed.

Figure 118

c. Double-index-finger pluck (Shuangtan \\ 双弹): The index finger plucks

any one string outwards from right to left, simultaneously plucking the

adjacent strings to produce one unified sound.

The following example [Figure 12] illustrates how the Double-index finger pluck is notated in a pipa score. In this example, the Double-index finger pluck is paired with a Single-index finger pluck and a Single-thumb pluck to create a musical accent.

Figure 129

d. Double-thumb pluck (Shuangtiao // 双挑): The thumb plucks two strings

from left to right to produce one unified sound.

8 Zhu Yi, We Boqu,“春雨,” (中国曲谱网 February 14, 2014), Accessed April 18, 2020, http://www.qupu123.com/qiyue/Pipa/p98014.html. 9 Nie, Er,“金蛇狂舞,” (古曲网), Accessed April 10, 2021, http://pu.guqu.net/pipa/20060816230031_150.html.

The following examples [Figure 13,14] illustrate how a Double-thumb pluck is notated in a pipa score:

Figure 1310 Figure 1411

The Double-thumb pluck is often paired with either a Double-index finger

pluck or Index-finger strumming.

e. Five-fingers rolling (Lun 轮 ): The index, middle finger, ring finger

and fifth finger pluck one string outward (i.e., from right to left from the

player’s perspective) then the thumb plucks the same string inwards (i.e.,

from left to right). Lun can produce a continuous tremolo with varying

speeds and dynamics. Five-fingers rolling also can be reduced to three-

fingers or four-fingers rolling. The order of the finger rolling can be

altered.

The following example [Figure 15] illustrates how Five-fingers rolling is notated. In this example, the dots after the Five-fingers rolling notation indicates to continue rolling until the end of the note duration.

10 Nie, Er,“金蛇狂舞,” (古曲网), Accessed April 10, 2021, http://pu.guqu.net/pipa/20060816230031_150.html. 11 Nie, Er,“金蛇狂舞,” (古曲网), Accessed April 10, 2021, http://pu.guqu.net/pipa/20060816230031_150.html.

Figure 1512

f. Index-finger strumming (Sao 扫): The index finger brushes all four

strings simultaneously from right to left. This technique usually produces

a loud sound effect.

g. Thumb strumming (Fu 拂): The thumb brushes the four strings from

left to right. This technique is usually paired with index finger strumming

(Sao).

Index-finger strumming and thumb strumming are often paired together as

illustrated [Figure 16]:

Figure 1613

h. Folding (Zhe ( ) 折): The thumb and index finger hook two different

strings inward at the same time, to produce a single sound.

12 Nie, Er,“金蛇狂舞,” (古曲网), Accessed April 10, 2021, http://pu.guqu.net/pipa/20060816230031_150.html. 13 Liu, Dehai, “霸王卸甲,”刘德海传统琵琶曲集,山西教育出版社(1997):56.

i. Splitting (Fen / \ 分): The thumb and index finger pluck two different

strings outward at the same time, to produce a single sound.

Folding and splitting are often paired together as illustrated [Figure 17]:

Figure 1714

j. Shaking (Yao 摇): Using the side index, middle finger, ring finger or

fifth finger pick, one or more strings are plucked at a rapid speed, playing

continuously. The tip of the pick is placed almost parallel to the

soundboard.

The following example [Figure 18] illustrates the Shaking technique:

Figure 1815

2. Various timbres associated with right-hand techniques:

A wide range of different sounds can be produced by touching the strings at different angles, using different parts of the picks, varying the speed at which the strings are crossed, and by the position of the strings when they are touched. Most of

14 Nie, Er,“金蛇狂舞,” (古曲网), Accessed April 10, 2021, http://pu.guqu.net/pipa/20060816230031_150.html. 15 Liu, Dehai, “霸王卸甲,”刘德海传统琵琶曲集,山西教育出版社(1997):53.

the time, within one piece of music, dynamic combinations of these techniques are applied to produce a rapidly changing kaleidoscope of sounds and colors. Some of these combinations and sequences are illustrated in the examples that follow:

Example [Figure 19]: “Spring Rain”

This piece was composed by Chinese composers Zhu Yi and Wen Boqu. It was performed by Zhang Qiang in this recording16. This example starts at 3:44. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GfNBnGvb7bM.

16 Zhu Yi, Wen Boqu, “Spring Rain | 春雨.” YouTube Video, 6:30, September 7, 2007, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GfNBnGvb7bM.

Figure 1917

In the third section of the musical piece “Spring Rain,” the effect of the playing speed is evident in the utilization of an accelerando with a triplet rhythm pattern. In this section, the composer uses four different variations in rhythm and fingering, which give the music four different musical layers. These three layers which are indicated in the score -- peaceful, cheerful, and intense – gradually push the music to its climax. Since the pipa performs music in different genres, a variety of speeds is

17 Zhu Yi, We Boqu“春雨,” (中国曲谱网 February 14, 2014), Accessed April 18, 2020, http://www.qupu123.com/qiyue/Pipa/p98014.html.

required to meet the unique needs of each composition. This allows the player to adapt to the natural flow of the music by dynamically balancing changes.

a. Different finger dynamics will also result in differing sounds:

The pipa’s various dynamics, such as f, p, crescendo, decrescendo, etc. are all performed by the right-hand. The stronger the right hand plays, the brighter and louder the sound will be; the softer the right-hand plays, the more graceful and delicate the sound will be. Changes in right-hand dynamics cause correlated changes in timbre and display varying moods in the musical landscape of each piece.

The following example illustrates the changes in timbre produced by changing the right-hand dynamics.

Example [Figure 20]: “A Moonlit Night on the Spring River”

This piece is from a Chinese folk tune adapted by many pipa schools. This pipa concerto version was performed by Jiang Yang for the finals of the 2011 Golden Bell

Competition18.

18 Traditional Chinese folk tune, “A Moonlit Night on the Spring River.” YouTube Video, 9:51, Accessed September 20, 2020, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aFlJSISCyjs.

The example starts at 02:37. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aFlJSISCyjs.

Figure 2019

In the third section of the "A moonlit Night on the Spring River – Flower Shadow

Overlap," changes in right-hand dynamics form a contrast between strength and softness in tonal color and create fluctuations in the brightness of the timbre. This helps to depict the ever-changing characteristics of a river.

19 Traditional Chinese folk tune, “A Moonlit Night on the Spring River,” score created by Yunxiang Gao.

Example [Figure 21]: “Ambushed from all Sides”

This recording is performed by Liu Dehai20. “Ambushed from all sides” is from the traditional pipa repertoire; the version in this recording was modified by Liu21.

This example illustrates the changes of timbre by combining the changes of dynamic and techniques.

This example starts at 3:19. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1Rx5uqX4mBA.

Figure 2122

20 Liu, Dehai, (13 August 1937 – 11 April 2020) was a Chinese pipa player. 21 Traditional Pipa Repertoire, “Ambushed from All Sides|十面埋伏.” YouTube Video, 5:23, September 20, 2017, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1Rx5uqX4mBA. 22 Traditional Pipa Repertoire, “十面埋伏,” (中国曲谱网 September 6, 2016), Accessed May 11, 2020, http://www.qupu123.com/qiyue/Pipa/p257638.html

In the example “Ambushed from all Sides,” the "War" section is the climax of the whole piece; the change of timbre is also created by changes in right-hand dynamics.

At the beginning of this piece, a loud strumming technique depicts the scene of a fierce battlefield; then the dynamic suddenly changes to mp and remains p, intimating a deep and sad sound arising from a Bass Bamboo flute. The sudden changes in dynamics reveal the humiliation that General Xiang Yu must have suffered under the heavy siege waged by Liu Bang, the founder of the Han Dynasty23. After a bleak and sad musical paragraph, the dynamic suddenly shifts from p to f, pushing the music to a climax and demonstrating a battle scene filled with the sounds of screams and galloping horses.

b. Playing with different parts of the picks can also change the timbre:

When playing the pipa, a pick is attached to each finger and the thumb. Timbre can be altered by playing with different parts of each pick. Picks can be roughly divided into five different parts: namely, the front of the pick, the upper pick, the lower pick, the left side of the pick and the right side of the pick.

i. The sound produced by the front of the pick is very bright, but lacks in

thickness. The sound quality is solid; the timbre is crisp.

ii. The sound produced by the upper pick is thin and lacking in

brightness. The sound quality is graceful, and the timbre is dim and

soft.

23 This descriptive idea was interpreted by my pipa teacher Liu Dehai and passed to me through oral teaching.

iii. The sound produced by the lower pick is thick, but the sound quality is

dark and not sufficiently clear.

iv. The sound produced by the sides of the pick is the thickest compared

to all other angles of the pick. The sound quality is solid and round.

Example [Figure 22]: Chinese traditional pipa repertoire “Green Lily Folk

Songs24,” Lin Shicheng25 version.

“Green Lily Folk Song” is from a traditional Chinese folk tune that has been modified by many pipa schools. The version in this recording is played and modified by Lin Shicheng.

This example starts at 2:36. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Sv5bAReKIdY

Figure 2226

25 Lin, Shicheng, Chinese pipa player. 26 Traditional Pipa Repertoire, “Green Lily Folk Songs,” score created by Zheng Ze.

In the first note, Lin uses the lower pick of the index finger to touch the string at a

45-degree angle. The sound is thick and deep. Combining this with positional changes of the right-hand, from up to down in measures 4 to 6, softens the timbre without losing its vigor, exquisiteness, and atmosphere.

c. Different contact areas of each pick produce different timbres:

Generally speaking, the varying depth of each pick is associated with the area with which each pick contacts the strings.

i. The deeper the pick is inserted, the larger the surface area that touches

the string. This will cause correlated increases in fingertip resistance,

resulting in a full sound, a firm tone, and thick timbre.

ii. The shallower the pick is inserted, the smaller the surface that touches

the string. The resistance of the fingertips will be reduced, and the

sound produced will be soft and thin, but also clear.

Beginning pipa practitioners generally limit the depth of their pick insertions into the string to one-third of the pick length. It should also be noted that changes to the pick and string contact areas depend on the thickness of the string, the dynamics involved in the techniques, and the mood of the phrases.

For Example:

a) When playing the first and second strings, the pick and string contact

area usually needs to be appropriately reduced;

b) When playing the third and fourth strings, the pick and string contact

area usually needs to be appropriately enlarged;

c) When playing strong notes, the pick and string contact area usually

needs to be appropriately enlarged;

d) When playing soft notes, the pick and string contact area usually

needs to be appropriately reduced; and

e) When playing bright and cheerful phrases, the contact surface

usually needs to be reduced.

Example: "The Spring Snow27"

In "The Spring Snow," the pick contact area should be small to adapt to the quick performance techniques. This emits a bright and flexible sound, making the music appear light, smooth, and lively, and allows a contrast in musical imagery between the winter and spring seasons. The beauty of early spring, when the earth is renewed and life begins to thrive again, can only be represented by minimizing the contact area between the pick and the string during the performance.

d. Right-hand playing in different positions can also alter the timbres:

Different sounds are produced by touching different string positions. The sound quality of the pipa largely depends on the mastery of right-hand positioning:

i. Between the fret and the bridge: the sound is very transparent and

clear; the sound quality is bright and solid;

ii. The closer to the fret, the hollower the sound that will be produced.

The sound quality is wide and softer;

27 Pipa repertoire, “The Spring Snow|阳春白雪,” (中国曲谱网 November 30, 2012), Accessed April 20, 2020, http://www.jianpuw.com/htm/4i/582.htm

iii. The closer to the bridge, the drier the sound that will be produced. The

sound quality is sharp and rigid;

iv. Playing on different positions on the strings will cause different string

tensions and result in different vibrational frequencies. The positions

played on the four strings of the pipa are not the same. That is to say,

typically the touching point on the first string should be lower

compared to the other strings; and the touching points of the second,

third, and fourth strings, in this order, should be increasingly higher.

During actual performances, the corresponding touching points should be reasonably selected according to the intensity and the emotional needs of each piece of music to reach the necessary changes in timbre level.

Generally, each pipa instrument has its own optimal touching points. Taking the first string as an example: it includes the upper, center, and lower touching points.

Among them, the most used touching point is the "center" of the string, which is typically located about 4 to 5 cm from the bridge. The tension of the string at this point is moderate, and the sound is crisp, solid, and bright. As these points may vary depending on each pipa instrument, the performer must be familiar with the particular instrument being played.

Generally, the “upper” and “lower” touching points are the positions used for timbre changes and contrasts. The “upper” position is close to the frets, and the

“lower” position is close to the bridge. If the touching point is higher, the farther the position is away from the bridge, the larger will be the increases in the amplitude of

the base frequencies in the overtone frequency, and the softer and more divergent the resulting tone will be, with a misty and hollow pronunciation ever more present.

Example [Figure 23]: "The Five Heroes of Langya Mountain"

“The Five Heroes of Langya Mountain” is composed by Lv Shao’en. This recording was played by Wan In Chan in March 31, 201728. This example starts at

3:37. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V2A1Kk03toc

28 Lv, Shao’en, “The Five Heroes of Langya Mountain|狼牙山五壮士,” YouTube Video, 9:35, October 9, 2020, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V2A1Kk03toc

Figure 2329

In the second part of this piece, during the performance, the string touching point should be closer to the bridge, so that the timbre will be sharp and dry, vividly portraying the terrifying imagery of the invading Japanese Army.

e. Different angles of the pipa pick create different timbres:

29 Lv, Shao’en, “The Five Heroes of Langya Mountain|狼牙山五壮士,” (乐谱网 July 25, 2020), Accessed April 20, 2020, https://www.cnscore.com/PipaPu/248427.html.

A change in the angle in which the pick is plucked will cause a change in the vibrational direction of the string and a correlating change in sound. Pick angles can be summarized into the following four types:

i. Vertical plucking: the string is plucked in a direction vertical to the

soundboard; the sound produced by the string vibration in this

direction has a firm and strong quality;

ii. Horizontal plucking: the string is plucked in a direction horizontal to

the soundboard; the sound produced by the string vibration in this

direction is thin and bright; the sound quality is clear;

iii. Opposite plucking: the string is plucked in a direction approximately

opposite to the soundboard; under this condition, the sound produced

by the string vibration in this direction is crisp and clear;

iv. 45 degree plucking: the string is plucked in a direction approximately

45 degrees from the soundboard; the sound produced by the string

vibration in this direction is deep and thick.

In most cases, pipa scores do not provide notation that indicates which parts of the picks to use, the necessary contact areas of the picks, and the angles in which the picks should be played. These techniques depend largely on individual performers’ sense of aesthetics and interpretation of each given piece, or else are based on the composers’ specific requests for certain timbres.

3. Basic left-hand techniques

Among the myriad pipa performance techniques, the left-hand techniques can best embody the pipa’s musical charm. The pipa may lose the distinctive beauty of its sound without left-hand enrichment.

Basic left-hand techniques include pressing, glissando, bending, vibrato, overtones, and special techniques such as Sha, Twisting, and others. The following table shows how these techniques are notated.

Table of Symbols Representing the Basic Left-Hand Techniques

Symbol Name

Glissando/Chuo/Zhu

Yin/Rou

Bending

Overtone

Sha

Twisting the Strings (two string, three string and four string twisting) Da

Dai/Sou

Table 3) Basic Left-Hand techniques

4. Left-hand techniques and their associated timbres:

The proper performance of each technique is directly correlated to the beauty of the tone produced. The following discussion provides an explanation of the basic

left-hand techniques, as well as the timbres associated with such techniques. It also provides examples of such techniques.

a. Pressing:

Pressing is one of the most common left-hand techniques, but it requires certain other considerations. The size of the area where the finger muscle touches the string may affect the timbre. The position of the left hand can greatly influence the quality of the timbre. The left hand should be at the point immediately above the frets; otherwise, the sound quality of the pipa will become dull, and the sound will not come out clearly. The position should also not be too far away from the fret, otherwise the string tension will cause friction between the strings and the fret, which will cause noise. Pressing slightly above the fret with the left-hand finger(s) will produce a much more bright, thick, and clean sound compared to pressing directly on the fret or between two frets.

The following example illustrates the composer’s intentional creation of a dull sound to imitate a wooden duck; this is brought about by pressing the string directly on the frets.

Example [Figure 24]: “Wooden Duck” composed and performed by Liu Dehai.

The Example starts from the second measure. This recording was published in

September 6, 2020, and performed by Liu Dehai.

The example starts at 0:4130. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VezI7FaEWMw&t=41sx

Figure 2431

b. Glissando:

Glissando is not commonly used in the traditional pipa repertoire. Glissando (gliss for short, especially when used as a verb) is a technique whereby the performer lightly presses while sliding down on one or more strings. There are primarily two types of Glissando in pipa music.

i. Glissando with right-hand tremolo (two-fingers or five-fingers

continuous roll): the left hand presses one or more notes (on adjacent

strings) and glisses up or down the string(s) while the right hand rolls.

The dynamic of this type of glissando can be controlled by the right

hand. When performing such a glissando, the left hand typically

presses only lightly on the frets.

30 Liu, Dehai, “木鸭,” YouTube Video, 2:33, September 6, 2020, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VezI7FaEWMw&t=41sx 31 Liu, Dehai, “木鸭,”刘德海琵琶作品集,上海音乐出版社(2001):52-53.

ii. Glissando with a right-hand single pluck: the left hand presses one or

more notes (on adjacent strings) with the right hand executing a single

pluck. The left hand immediately glisses to the designated note. The

dynamic during the process of this glissando cannot be controlled.

c. Bending:

Any finger of the left hand except the thumb pushes one or more strings to the right or left. Although it is possible to do more, typically only up to two strings are bent at any time. Most players typically only bend one string when playing.

Anything more than that can be physically difficult to perform and may hurt the fingers. Bending typically raises the pitch from a semitone to a major 3rd depending on the location of the frets where the string or strings are bent. For instance, the interval range produced by bending in the middle part of the pipa is the widest; near the high part of the pipa, however, the interval range is relatively small; the lower part of the pipa usually has shorter frets, so the bending range is limited as well.

d. Left-hand ornamental performance techniques – Vibrato:

Vibrato is one of the most important left-hand performance techniques in pipa music. Vibrato ornaments and polishes the tone; but more importantly, it expresses the intended emotion behind the music, which brings to bear the full charm and beauty of each musical piece.

There are primarily two types of vibratos - Yin and Rou:

i. Yin: Yin is produced after pressing the string with the left-hand fingers,

by bending and stretching the string back and forth on the fret to

produce different changes in pitch, speed, amplitude, and density.

ii. Rou: Rou is the diagonal movement of the left-hand fingers on the fret,

both in upward and downward directions, led by the wrist and arm.

There are many types of Rou, including fast Rou, slow Rou, medium-

motion Rou, and large-motion Rou. Each method of Rou has its own

unique tone.

Applying the correct vibrato technique will enhance the beauty of the pipa’s sound. Both Yin and Rou can produce different timbres through various changes in the methods and movement patterns of their actions. Different Yin and Rou techniques are often used in different musical contexts. Vibrato techniques are roughly divided as follows:

a) Vibrato with a Moderate Speed: the pitch bending should be within a

major 2nd interval; it sounds smooth, quiet and elegant; it is also the

most commonly used in literary music.

b) Vibrato with a Fast Speed: the pitch bending should be within a minor

2nd interval; it belongs to the dynamic vibrato category; it has the

tendency to express a more intense musical emotion.

c) Rhythmic Vibrato: the speed of this type of vibrato can be fast or slow

with a relatively large amplitude. The pitch bending typically is a

major 2nd interval or larger. It is a rigid vibrato, and its progressive

sound has a strong sense of rhythm. This technique was created by

Wang Fandi who gained inspiration from the Kunqu singing style. It

is characterized by changes in vibrato in rhythm with the beat for the

purpose of imitating such style. When the notes are about to end, the

use of vibrato with a rhythmic pattern creates a static yet dynamic

sound within the rhythm.

d) Transitions from Fast, Dynamic Vibrato to Slow, Static Vibrato, or the Reverse:

Based on the various vibrato performance techniques, vibratos can further be classified into the following categories: strong, soft, dynamic, and static.

i. Transitions from fast to slow vibrato are generally used at the end of

each section or coda. The vibrato amplitude goes from dynamic to

static.

ii. Transitions from slow to fast vibrato are borrowed from the Peking

Opera. This special vibrato shows the inherent tension of the music.

The analysis below illustrates various sound effects produced by various vibratos based on changes in speed, pitch, etc, which can dramatically alter the emotions, temperaments, and colors within a piece of music. The following are three pieces that include different types of vibrato, combined with other left-hand techniques:

Example [Figure 25]: “The Moon Rises32”

“The Moon Rises” is a traditional Chinese folk tune that has been adapted by many pipa schools. This recording was made in June 2nd, 2019. Performed by Zhong

Qi’fang.

32 Traditional Chinese folk tune, “The Moon Rises|月儿高,” score created by Zheng Chen.

This example starts at 2:43. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Rr-gGeEhBhU

Figure 2533

In Wang Fandi's performance score, for the first note of the second bar “A,” the left hand uses "rigid" vibrato; the fluctuation of the tone has a strong sense of rhythm and produces a rigid sound effect. By pulling and pushing the strings back and forth at a fast speed, different rhythms are produced, which changes the musical expression in the short course of action; in this traditional music’s presentation of a unique rhythmic effect, the sentiment is vividly reflected.

The next example illustrates how the rhythmic vibrato is notated in this piece.

Rhythmic vibrato is usually not notated precisely based on its duration, but is usually interpretated by the performer.

33 Traditional Chinese folk tune, “The Moon Rises|月儿高,” score created by Zheng Chen.

Example [Figure 26]: “Chen Sui” composed and performed by Liu Dehai34.

This example starts at 0:53. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uix34NM5a54&t=54s

Figure 2635

The following example illustrate how bending techniques and vibratos are combined.

Example [Figure 27]: “Romance of the Water of Wei”

“Romance of the Water of Wei” was composed by Rei Hong’xiang36. This recording was played by Zhang Qiang.37

34 Liu, Dehai, “Sounds From the Chen and Sui Dynasties 陈隋.” YouTube Video, 7:05, Dec 27, 2009, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uix34NM5a54&t=54s 35 Liu, Dehai, “陈隋,”刘德海传统琵琶曲集,山西教育出版社(1997):38. 36 Ren, Hong’xiang, Chinese composer. 37 Ren, Hong’xiang, “Romance of the Water of Wei|渭水情.” YouTube Video, 7:19, June 19, 2006, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FAGmTygRGU0

The example starts at 0:52. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FAGmTygRGU0

Figure 2738

In the second measure of Zhang Qiang’s performance video, he uses slow vibrato on the second “D” while bending back to the note “B.” In the third measure of the second system, on both “G” notes, he uses fast vibrato.

“Romance of the Water of Wei” is a new pipa piece composed in the 20th century with a strong regional color, combining both traditional Chinese folk music elements and Western compositional techniques. During the performance, the left-hand is required for the combination of bending and vibrato techniques, which highlights the timbral contrast between the “dot” and “line” in pipa music. The technique brings out the beauty of the joyous style of the Qin Opera in the Weihe River Basin.

38 Ren Hong’xiang, “Romance of the Water of Wei |渭水情,” score created by Chen Zhang.

The following example illustrates how portamento combines with the vibrato technique.

Example [Figure 28]: “Chanting39”

“Chanting” was composed by Wu Hou’yuan. This recording was performed by

Xia Yu’yan during the CCTV Chinese instrumental competition in 200940.

This example starts at 0:00. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jUWhuy5PvZU

Figure 2841

39 Wu, Houyuan, “Chanting|诉-读唐诗《琵琶行有感》,”(中国曲谱网 December 1, 2012), Accessed June 1, 2020, http://www.qupu123.com/qiyue/Pipa/p65103.html 40 Wu, Houyuan, “Chanting|诉-读唐诗《琵琶行有感》.” YouTube Video, 10:46, July 16, 2012, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jUWhuy5PvZU 41 Wu, Houyuan, “Chanting|诉-读唐诗《琵琶行有感》,”(中国曲谱网 December 1, 2012), Accessed June 1, 2020, http://www.qupu123.com/qiyue/Pipa/p65103.html

This piece is unfolded in a free recitation style. The left hand is positioned in the upper frets on the neck of the pipa, combining both portamento and vibrato; the composer uses a special portamento to imitate the sound of wind. The unclear timbre and the wide range left-hand movement create the artistic conception of "Maple Leaf and Divine Flower Autumn," which portends the inherent dramatic conflicts and contradictions of the music’s lonely states and sad tones.

e. Harmonics:

There are three primary types of harmonics commonly used in pipa music: natural harmonics, artificial harmonics, and fake harmonics. As harmonics are not commonly used in pipa music but are used extensively in pieces by the famous pipa performer, Liu Dehai, they are explained later in this paper when analyzing Liu’s piece: “The Terracotta Warriors.”

f. Special Left-hand techniques:

i. Sha: This technique is generally performed on two strings. The fingers

of the left hand press the front string, and slightly touch the bottom of

the adjacent string, while playing both strings with the right hand.

This makes the “qie-qie” sound effect.

The following example illustrates the technique “Sha.” Noted as “ | .”

Example [Figure 29]: “Ambush from all sides.” This recording is played by Liu

Dehai42. This example starts at 3:02. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1Rx5uqX4mBA

Figure 2943

ii. Twisting the Strings: the right string is pushed under the inner string

with the ring finger of the left hand; the index finger is used to pull the

string from the right to the left; then both strings are press tightly with

the index finger. In the meantime, the right-hand typically uses either

two-fingers or five-fingers to produce double-strings tremolo. This

produces the "ca-ca" sound.

The following example illustrates how “Twisting the Strings” is notated.

Example [Figure 30]: “The Conqueror Unarms.” This recording is performed

by Lin Shicheng44.

42 Traditional Chinese pipa repertoire, “刘德海大师琵琶独奏《十面埋伏》，Liu Dehai Master of the Pipa Solo.” YouTube Video, 5:23, September 20, 2017, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1Rx5uqX4mBA 43 Traditional Chinese pipa repertoire, “Ambush from all sides|《十面埋伏》,” (中国曲谱网 December 1, 2012), Accessed April 14, 2021, https://www.qupu123.com/qiyue/Pipa/shimianmaifu.html 44 Chinese traditional pipa repertoire, “林石城琵琶：霸王卸甲 Pipa master Lin Shi-Chen: The Conqueror Unarms.” YouTube Video, 10:20, February 11, 2010, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p39jV1Xmyl8

This example starts at 7:53. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p39jV1Xmyl8

Figure 3045

In this recording, Lin Shicheng uses an old version of the pipa prior to its

subsequent modifications into an equal temperament instrument. It only has four

neck frets and thirteen body frets. This type of pipa can only play songs based on

a pentatonic scale without bending notes.

Note: the sounds produced by both the “Sha” and “Twisting-the-Strings”

techniques are not pure musical tones; they are both considered to be ornamental

performance techniques.

iii. Chuo: the left-hand finger is pressed on the ornamental note (usually

the lower note), and the designated note (i.e., the higher note) is

glissed to immediately, while using the right hand to pluck the string.

iv. Zhu: this is the opposite of Chuo, with the left-hand finger pressed on

the ornamental note (usually the higher note), and the designated note

(i.e., the lower note) glissed to immediately, while using the right hand

to pluck the string.

45 Chinese traditional pipa repertoire, “霸王卸甲,” (中国曲谱网 September 13, 2012), Accessed April 14, 2021, https://www.qupu123.com/qiyue/Pipa/bawangxiejia.html

v. Da (hit): the left-hand finger is lifted as high as possible and hits

immediately above the fret as hard as possible. This typically creates a

relatively softer sounding note with a wood-hitting sound effect.

vi. Dai (lift): after playing a regular note with a right-hand pluck, the left

hand flicks inward from the same fret, and the string is allowed to ring;

this creates a weaker or slightly stronger open-string sound.

vii. Sou: the left-hand finger is used to press the string on the fret, then the

next finger or any convenient finger is used to pluck the same string, at

a spot below that fret (for example, when pressing the string with the

left middle finger, the ring finger is used to pluck the string). Most of

the time, this technique is performed on the same string.

The techniques “Dai” and “Sou” are typically represented by the same symbol;

the difference between these two techniques is that the “Dai” technique is typically

used for open strings, but the “Sou” technique is typically performed while the left

hand is pressing on another note.

Example [Figure 31]: “Xu Lai”

“Xu Lai”” was composed by Liu Tian’hua46 in 1929. This recording was performed by Yang Jing in a commemoration concert for Liu Tian’hua and Hua

Yan’jun47.

46 Liu, Tian’hua, Chinese composer. 47 Liu, Tian’hua, “XuLai|虚籁.” YouTube Video, 5:00, July 18, 2012, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vib9Fx_APLw.

This example starts at 2:16. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vib9Fx_APLw.

Figure 3148

This piece extensively explores left-hand performance techniques, such as "Chuo,

Zhu, Da (hit), and Dai (lift)." For example, in the second beat of the first measure, the composer uses “Chuo” on “F,” and glisses to “A;” in the second half of the third beat, the composer uses “Zhu” on “A” to gliss to “F,” then glisses back to “A” to imitate the sound of the Guqin. The “Da” technique is used in the last sixteenth note of the second beat and is noted as “丁.” The “Dai” technique is used in each measure, and is noted as “ ’ ”.

The emphasized use of “Zhu” and vibrato in this piece, not only ingeniously presents the type of music in Guqin music, but also contains a unique accent. The

48 Liu, Tian’hua, “虚籁,”(中国曲谱网 July 22, 2012), Accessed May 21, 2020, http://www.qupu123.com/qiyue/Pipa/qulai.html

Guqin is one of the most ancient Chinese traditional instruments which has a history of about 5,000 years49.

In addition to the use of different techniques such as gliss, hitting, and lifting, this piece also combines left-hand vibrato with varying speeds, dynamics, and densities, thereby enriching the expressiveness and vitality of the pipa’s musical life.

Part II: Pipa techniques, as applied, in various stylistic categories

Beginning in the 1920s, under the influence of Western music, Chinese instrumental music began to diverge from its traditional esoteric roots. Traditionally, a student would compose by improvising after repeatedly listening to other traditional compositions, often under the guidance of a master musician. Since the 20th century, however, Chinese instrumental music has evolved to a more systematic fixed-score system.

In the early 1920s, the field of national instrumental music creation was still dominated by traditional thinking; shortly thereafter, however, Westernized compositional techniques gradually became a trend. Since the 1980s, when China began opening itself again to the world after the Great Cultural Revolution, the ensuing head-on collision of Western and Chinese cultures catalyzed this trend.

Although certain pipa musical works created after the 1980s still display the characteristics of traditional music, such as by emphasizing traditional performance techniques and using traditional musical titles, during this same period, many professional composers trained in modern Western compositional techniques began

49 Guqin, Wikipedia, last modified May 8, 2021, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guqin.

exploring pipa music composition that extensively adopted Western techniques. With the subsequent free flow of world-wide culture, art, and modes of thinking, the integration of Chinese musical ideas integrated with Western influences have now become the norm.

By the end of the 20th century, the understanding, development, and practice of creative and wide ranging sounds on the pipa had reached new heights, brought about by the physical alterations to the pipa, as well as by the innovation of new performance and compositional techniques for the pipa spurred on by Western influences.

Due to the pipa’s unique musical capabilities, many contemporary professional

Chinese composers have now begun to devote themselves to writing music for the pipa.

Part II of this dissertation essay focuses on how the pipa techniques discussed in

Part I are applied in three broad categories of works from contemporary composers who have displayed marked innovations to traditional music concepts and performance techniques. These categories, specifically, are as follows: 1) Chinese traditional repertoires interpreted by pipa performer Wang Fandi, such as “The Moon

Rises,” and “Beyond the Great Wall;” 2) pieces composed by pipa performer Liu

Dehai. such as "Aged Child," "Swan," "Silkworm in Spring," and “The Terracotta

Warriors;” and 3) pieces by composers who have studied composition techniques abroad, such as "Pipa Words" by Qin Wenchen and "The Points” by Chen Yi. The structure, expressiveness, and melodic style of these works reflect significant aesthetic departures from traditional music cultural and musical perspectives.

A. Chinese traditional repertoires interpreted by pipa performer: Wang Fandi

The following are examples of performers who have combined traditional and contemporary ideas in their works to greater or lesser degrees; these also provide concrete displays of the techniques affecting timbre:

In Wang Fandi’s works, he focuses on exploring the sound quality of right-hand techniques and demonstrates a comprehensive interpretation of pipa timbre, especially the uses of various pipa-pick angles, as discussed in the first part of the paper.

In Wang Fandi's performances, he emphasizes that the speed of play and the time spent transitioning between notes and between strings will bring about subtle and expressive changes in dynamics. His pieces also display sharp changes in sound quality - i.e., rapid transitions between rigid, soft, solid, and transparent sounds -- caused by impeccably controlled tightening and loosening of the right-hand.

Example [Figure 32]: “The Moon Rises”

“The Moon Rises” is a traditional Chinese folk tune that has been modified by many pipa schools. The recording50 is played by Zhang Shuang, who was guided by

Fan Bo’yan, who in turn studied with Wang Fandi.

50 Traditional pipa repertoire, “小月儿高 | The Little Moon High Above.”YouTube Video, 2:10, September 2, 2007, 2016, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CpKIAv1Yx4M&t=8s

This example starts at 0:00. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CpKIAv1Yx4M&t=0s

Figure 3251

In this short passage, Wang Fandi adopts a variety of performance techniques that reflect changes in timbre. On the first pitch, “A,” he employs the right-hand "pick" technique which utilizes the index finger from the right hand. He pulls the second

“A” in the opposite direction of the soundboard with the left-hand and arm; the slow pulling motion produces a hazy and misty timbre effect, suitable for depicting the bright moon in the sky.

In the third “A” in bar 2, he uses the wrist “pick,” which plucks the string using a greater-than-usual wrist motion, with a faster speed; the bright and crisp sound made by this technique stands in distinct contrast to the previous measure.

The “A” in the third bar at the end of the phrase is played without being deliberately emphasized; the tone is gentle, restoring peace to the entire phrase.

51 Traditional Chinese folk tune, “The Mon Rises|小月儿高,”Score created by Chen Zhang.

The “A” in the fourth bar is played by the right hand near the frets; the change in timbre is enriched by changing the playing position; this also produces a dynamic echo of the end of the previous phrase, connecting the two phrases smoothly.

The “A” in the fifth bar has a bright and strong timbre created by use of the arm for a faster passing pluck; the rigid and soft sound stands in contrast to the previous section.

In the exploration of the diversification of pipa timbre, Wang Fandi has proposed

"six methods”52 that bring about timbre changes in pipa music: 1) string vibrational direction, 2) the speed with which the fingers pass the strings, 3) the depth of pick insertion into the string, 4) changes in right-hand movements, 5) the different playing position on the strings, and, 6) the different locations on the strings where the picks touch.

Example [Figure 33]: “Beyond the Great Wall”

“Beyond the Great Wall” is from a traditional Chinese pipa repertoire. Different pipa schools have their own interpretations of this based on the original score. This recording is performed by Wang Fandi based on his interpretation53.

52 Yang, Tingting, “A study of pipa timbre in its performances(琵琶演奏艺术中的音色)，” Journal of Arts integration, (2012): 85-94 53 Traditional pipa repertoire, “Beyond The Great Wall|塞上曲.”YouTube Video, 6:37, March 17, 2016, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5ykQlb_jGNo

This example starts at 3:03. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5ykQlb_jGNo

Figure 3354 In this traditional melody from the pipa repertoire, expressions of "desolate" and

"sad" feelings are evoked by slow motion plucks, which prolong the decay of each note. Wang Fandi has pointed out that, when playing “Beyond the Great Wall,” the performer should slightly touch the string prior to each pluck; then the right hand should slowly pluck the string55. A subtle noise is created by the pick touching the string, which brings a heavy and sad feeling to the audience.

B. Pieces composed by pipa performer: Liu Dehai

Liu Dehai was a music educator, pipa player, and composer. He was one of the most influential pipa teachers in China. He made great contributions to the development of extended pipa techniques; although such techniques were originally inherited from traditional techniques, Liu Dehai further developed and modified them in substantial ways.

Extended pipa techniques preserve the traditional characteristics of the pipa while making the musical imagery more vivid and alive. Liu Dehai was well versed in

54 Traditional pipa repertoire, “Beyond The Great Wall|塞上曲,”Score created by Chen Zhang. 55 Liu, Meili, “The timbre changes during the pipa performances(谈琵琶演奏中的音色变化)”， Chinese Music,(December, 2012):250-256

traditional pipa techniques; his performances, coupled with his new techniques, display a sublime level of proficiency; yet he often expressed dissatisfaction to the author of this paper about such achievements. Due to his belief that he was never able to fully express the intended spiritual underpinnings in past pieces, he deeply felt that the pre-existing pipa techniques in his original "Pipa Dictionary" were insufficient. He vowed to discover new techniques and new sounds to express the pursuit of his life in pipa. His goal was to "write what has not been written in the past, and to open up a new world in pipa music."

a. "Silkworms in Spring"

“Silkworms in Spring” was composed by Liu Dehai in the 1980s. It is representative of the combination of traditional performance techniques with new extended techniques. This piece was influenced by Western modern music compositional elements. Liu Dehai’s intention was to better adapt to the aesthetic expectations of the audiences due to a perception of waning interest in traditional pipa music. Accordingly, Liu composed a series of pipa pieces rooted in traditional pipa performance inheritance but augmented with new musical language, sound effects, and performance techniques. “Silkworms in Spring” is one such representative work.

In “Silkworms in Spring," Liu Dehai's used a new Uyghur folk tune as the motif, combined with modified five-finger tremolos and other new performance techniques.

He manages to retain an essence of the original tune while modifying its scale, mode, and melody.

For example, by his integration of traditional and new performance techniques, he preserved the seven-tone scale from the Xinjiang folk tune while incorporating the rich flavor of the Chinese national music. The new sound enriches the traditional folk tunes and enhances the artistic expression of the pipa.

Example [Figure 34]: “Silkworms in Spring”

In this example, he used a special sound effect by plucking the strings on the neck to imitate spring silkworm silking.

This recording was performed by Liu Dehai himself56.

This example starts at 7:56. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HVMywoWw4sU

Figure 3457

In the same piece, Liu Dehai inherited Lin Shicheng’s theories of playing on the upper and lower partial strings, which creates a sharp contrast in sound:

a) Lower String Note (上): the note is played close to the bridge to produce a

solid and sharp sound.

b) Upper String Note (下): the note is played close to the frets to produce a

soft and thick sound.

56 Liu, Dehai, “Silkworms in Spring|春蚕.”YouTube Video, 9:09, June 19, 2006, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HVMywoWw4sU 57 Liu, Dehai, “Silkworms in Spring|春蚕,” (中国曲谱网 December 4, 2012), Accessed May 26, 2020, http://www.qupu123.com/qiyue/Pipa/chuncan.html

Example [Figure 35]: “Silkworms in Spring”

This example starts at starts at 8:15. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HVMywoWw4sU

Figure 35

In the coda of this piece, Liu combined a right-hand “upper string note” with a left-hand “lift and hit” to make a slender and softer sound to portray the effect of spring silkworm silking.

b. Another example is Liu Dehai’s “Aged Child”

For "Aged Child", Liu Dehai created new techniques to imitate the movements and forms of humans, such as the following:

a) Fist/Palm Strike (x): a fist is made with the right hand while the pipa

soundboard is hit with the palm; this makes a slightly dull sound to

express the steady and firm footsteps of the aged child.

Example [Figure 36]: “Aged Child.” This recording was performed by Liu Dehai himself58.

This example starts at 1:54. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2A93hx2-N90

Figure 3659

b) String Press With Pick (刺): the fourth string is pressed strongly and

suddenly using the side of the thumb pick, making a "stinging" sound. He

used this percussion-like sound effect to imitate children’s playing.

Example [Figure 37]: “Aged Child.”

This example starts at 3:40. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2A93hx2-N90

Figure 37

c) Outward and Inward Tremolos: Liu Dehai borrowed this technique from

the guitar. The traditional five-finger tremolo uses the front of the picks,

58 Liu, Dehai, “Aged Child|老童.” YouTube Video, 6:35, June 19, 2006, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2A93hx2-N90 59 Liu, Dehai, “老童,” (中国曲谱网 December 1, 2012), Accessed June 3, 2020, http://www.qupu123.com/qiyue/Pipa/laotong.html

playing outward. This creates a bright and clear sound. Liu’s adapted

guitar technique in this piece uses finger-tip muscles to pluck the strings

inwardly, combined with the regular pipa five finger tremolo. The dual

inward and outward technique creates sometimes suggestive, and

sometimes real sound effects, which enriches the sound and

expressiveness of the pipa.

Example [Figure 38]: “Aged Child.” This example starts at 4:11. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2A93hx2-N90

Figure 38

The above example is played twice during the performance. The first time, the right thumb, index finger, and middle finger are played in the typical way (using the front side of the pick to pluck the string). The second time, all three fingers are played backward (using the muscles to pluck the strings inward). Both outward and

inward performance techniques, played alternately, highlight the contrast between solid and unclear tones. The accent of this melody during outward playing is on the thumb; the rhythm is two triplets plus a duplet. The irregular rhythm pattern and the tonal contrast of the music portrays the image of an old man who walks staggeringly and naively.

Example [Figure 39]: “Swan”

“Swan” was composed by Liu Dehai; the recording was performed by Zhang

Qiang60.

This example starts at 0:10. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fi4X-qCFGMk

Figure 3961

In this example, inward finger techniques are used in the following sequence: thumb, middle fingers, index finger, thumb, middle fingers. The first 32nd-note ornament is played at a rapid pace; because of this, the inward technique is primarily accomplished by the small joints of the fingers. Each note must be played very

60 Liu, Dehai, “Swan|天鹅.” YouTube Video, 9:16, June 18, 2006, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fi4X-qCFGMk 61 Liu, Dehai, “Swan|天鹅,”score created by Chen Zhang.

clearly. The note on the first beat “C#” after the ornamental notes, which is also the primary melody note as well as the rhythmic accent, falls on the middle finger. After completing the last note, a corresponding pulling action is accomplished with the forearm to imitate the sound effect of a swan shaking its feathers.

Example: “The Terracotta Warriors:”

In "The Terracotta Warriors," the most prominent feature related to its performance techniques is the combination of various new techniques and new sound effects with traditional methods.

a) The use of artificial harmonics:

As briefly mentioned above, the three primary types of harmonics commonly used in pipa music are natural harmonics, artificial harmonics, and fake harmonics.

i) Natural harmonics have a clear and elegant sound quality.

Examples of these are given below.

ii) Artificial harmonics are special overtones created by Liu Dehai.

The number of the overtones are no longer limited by the

acoustics of the instrument; harmonics can be made on almost all

the notes. Examples of these are also given below.

iii) Fake harmonics: these are accomplished by placing the fifth

finger from the right hand against the string next to the bridge,

then plucking and releasing the string at the same time – that is,

the fifth finger is lifted immediately after plucking; the sound is

not as clear as with regular harmonics.

Also mentioned above, harmonics are not commonly used in traditional pipa music. Liu makes extensive use of harmonics, however, in his work "The Terracotta

Warriors," which depicts the feelings of an ancient battlefield.

Example [Figure 40]: "The Terracotta Warriors" This recording was performed by

Liu Dehai himself62.

This example starts at 1:49. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HkbAYO_doDQ.

62 Liu, Dehai, “Terra-cotta Warriors 秦俑.” YouTube Video, 6:20, December 29, 2009, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HkbAYO_doDQ.

Figure 4063

In the third part of this work, Liu Dehai’s use of harmonic techniques are in full display. He uses harmonic techniques to portray the musical imagery. At the beginning of the music, the perfect 5th harmonics, leaping into the high register, are bright and consonant, giving the music great energy. This motif continues to repeat, and modulates to an extremely high register, giving a suffocated feeling, which depicts a vivid battlefield scene. Then, the melody is played by using natural harmonics, followed by two artificial harmonics. The melody is primarily

63 Liu, Dehai, “秦俑,” (中国曲谱网 December 1, 2012), Accessed July 18, 2020, http://www.qupu123.com/qiyue/Pipa/qinyong.html.

constructed by major/minor 2nd and major/minor 3rd intervals. The melodic line is peaceful and graceful; it alleviates the intense atmosphere of war, and finally brings the music back toward a feeling of peace. Then, following the previous contrast, Liu reintroduces the perfect 4th interval; the harmonics sound appears even more clear and graceful, and the smoke of war gradually dissipates, returning people's thoughts back to reality.

In this piece, he uses "octave artificial harmonics" for the pipa (below the 18th frets). He also found new natural harmonics located on the second fret and the second to the last fret on the neck of the pipa, which occur only if the right hand plucks the string strongly enough.

These harmonics vividly express the content of the music, while also delicately portraying its imagery. Liu’s applications of harmonics had never before been used in traditional pipa music; in such innovative applications, he has given the pipa a new life.

b. The uses of "on fret twisting " and "off fret twisting:"

Liu Dehai not only extensively uses regular string-twisting techniques in "The

Terracotta Warriors," but also utilizes new types of string-twisting techniques he developed, which are called "on fret twisting " and "off fret twisting.”

i. “On fret twisting” has a sharp metallic sound created by twisting the

string on the bamboo fret.

ii. "Off fret twisting" sounds blunter by twisting the strings when they are

not pressed down.

For both twisting techniques, the strings are twisted while pulling and pushing them back and forth to change the pitch; this develops the music tension to its highest potential. The sound produced is hoarse in nature.

Example [Figure 41]: “The Terracotta Warriors”

This example starts at 0:07. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HkbAYO_doDQ.

Figure 41

In this example, Liu combined both “On fret twisting” and “Off fret twisting” to portray the image of the Terracotta Warriors.

c. Adapting Western music form:

“The Terracotta Warriors” not only represents a variety of special performance techniques, but also an adaptation to Western musical forms.

The form of "The Terracotta Warriors" is binary (i.e., A + B + Coda):

The whole piece is roughly eight minutes long, depending on the player. The A and B sections have a sharp color contrast, leaving a strong impression with the audience. The ending briefly recapitulates the music material from section A.

Section A primarily uses unpitched sounds, produced by the “Twisting-the-

Strings, discussed above, as its motif, along with various other pipa performance techniques to present the magnificent scene of Terracotta warriors and horses. Based on the different performance techniques and musical imagery, it can be roughly divided into three small parts.

Section B stands in stark contrast with Section A. The tempo of the entire section is dominated by a Rubato tempo. In terms of tonal arrangement, it departs from E major, then goes to A major, D major, and G major; at last, it returns back to

D major, A major, E major, and G major. This type of modulation, reflecting the composer’s elaborate tonal design, had never before appeared in the traditional pipa repertoire. The melody is based on the perfect 4th interval, leaping up, and on the 3rd interval, falling downward, in sequence. Combining modulations with long five- finger tremolos gives the sensation of flickering, as if the composer’s thoughts travel through time and space. The registral range of this section is exceptionally large: from

the "open string" to the highest pitch, the timbral, registral, and dynamic range changes level in an increasingly slow fashion, gradually pushing the music to climax.

Through the constant drifting tonality, images of Terracotta warriors, with various unique postures and expressions, can be seen and felt in the composer's work: some of the soldiers are sophisticated and calm; some are simple and lively; some are standing at the front; some are bowing in contemplation, as if they were fledgling neophytes, ready to fight vigorously, but also hesitant and fearful. The music not only portrays the lifelike attitudes of the soldiers, but also stands in admiration of the arduous labor and superb skills of the craftsmen of the Qin Dynasty.

The Coda is a massively reduced recapitulation of Part A. It only has ten bars.

The eight bars at the end of Section A are fully recapitulated in the Coda with the addition of two bar extensions. The technique is extremely concise, but the overall structure of the music has reached a high degree of thematic, harmonic, and timbral unity. Liu Dehai categorizes the music of "The Terracotta Warriors" into the three distinct time and space scopes of "ancient, modern, and future."

The unique, dynamic, and broad-ranging sound effects of the pipa are not seen in any other instruments. Liu Dehai fully used the pipa’s unique sound to vividly express the music’s content. His unique creativity in exploring sound made great contributions to the field of pipa and other music practitioners. Liu Dehai's various techniques for developing sound effects not only displayed his technical skills in evoking complex and meaningful imagery, but also maximized the beauty and variety of sound that the pipa can produce. His focus on naturally bringing forth

powerful emotions through musical imagery creates such "avant-garde" music effects without pretense or affectation.

C. Examples of new pipa music combining Chinese music elements with Western compositional technique

Following the gradual opening of China in the 1980s, the faster pace of exchange between Chinese and Western cultures in the 1990s promoted the rapid development of Chinese music. With the integration of other cultures, many non-traditional music composition methods appeared in China, and various musical elements were added to

Chinese musical instruments. Since then, modern Western compositional techniques have become ever more popular in China, especially the use of twelve-tone equal temperament and contrapuntal techniques. This kind of creative musical thinking significantly enhanced possibilities in the development of pipa music. Many Chinese composers who studied abroad have focused on developing new performance techniques to create new timbres. Due to this trend, hundreds of different notational signs have appeared to indicate timbral variations. These include a variety of methods to produce tremolo, vibrato, glissando, pitch inflection and harmonics. pipa notation has also reached a new level of sophistication in terms of representing tempo, rhythm, meter, performance techniques, and expression marks.

a. Analysis of the pipa solo piece: “The Points”

The pipa solo piece “The Points” (1991), composed by the Chinese American composer Chen Yi. This piece is one example in which Western notation has been augmented in the above-described ways. “The Points” premiered in Columbia

University on October 17, 1991. The American-Chinese pipa player Wu Man revised the fingerings.

Quoting Chen Yi: “The musical structure of ‘The Points’ comes from the eight standard brushstroke movements of the Chinese character Yong (永) in Zhengkai calligraphy; the eight strokes have different shapes, gestures and speeds and the ink is sometimes dark or faint64.” The Chinese character “Yong” means “forever.”

Within different sections, gripping portamenti, colorful vibratos, and vigorous strumming are brightly displayed.

The piece is extremely virtuosic. Examples include the composer’s nontraditional position-jumps and string-spanning techniques borrowed from the Paganini violin repertoire and converted into pipa techniques. Harmonically, “The Points” falls well within the contemporary Western musical composition framework by re-configuring the normal A-D-E-A tuning into A#- D#-E-A notes to facilitate the creation of dissonant intervals.

a) Scale used in the piece:

This piece incorporates the elements of Shaanxi’s Qin Opera. Qin Opera is a very ancient opera genre of the Han nationality. Qin Opera pays great attention to the quality of the melodies, especially the ones using the “Bitter Tones” (苦音) scale.

64 Chen, Yi. “Tradition and creation.” Current musicology, International Index to music Periodicals 67-68 (Fall-Winter 1999) :59-72. http://gateway.proquest.com/openurl?url_ver=Z39.88- 2004&res_dat=xri:iimp:&rft_dat=xri:iimp:article:citation:iimp00298349 (accessed : 26/11/2020)

One of the major innovations of this piece is its use of the pipa to play this opera-like musical element.

The “Bitter Tones”(苦腔) scale is based on the Yan (燕乐) seven-note scale, but

“Bitter Tones” (苦腔) primarily focuses on notes G – Bb – C – D – F, whereas the

Yan scale is (燕乐) is C – D – E – F -G – A – Bb- C.

In this piece, the intervals G-Bb, D-F, B-D are predominantly used in the melody, forming a gloomy, desolate, and sad minor-scale feeling.

b) Structure of the piece:

The eight strokes of the Chinese character “Yong” determine the musical structure of this piece. If this piece is analyzed based on tempo, it can roughly be divided into three parts: slow, fast, and slow. Although each section can be further subdivided, the rough overarching Western-style three-part structure is readily apparent.

By translating such concepts into music, the composer constructed the entire piece based on the traditional method of drawing each stroke in Chinese characters, one after another, in careful order. Mirroring this calligraphic concept, along with the multitude of permutations that each Chinese character can take, musicians are given ample free space to play the pieces differently; the same phrase or tone is often interpreted differently, making use of various changeable skills, such as by applying different types of pressing techniques with the left hand and plucking the strings with the right.

Section A B C D E F G H Measure 1 - 6 7 - 13 14 - 25 26 - 50 51 - 61 - 70 - 130 - 60 69 129 160 Tempo Allegro Largo Allegro Presto Table 4) The Music Structure of “The Points”

This piece embodies both Chinese and Western musical influences and integrates the logical thinking of both Chinese and Western styles of music creation.

c) Techniques used in “The Points”

Example [Figure 42]: “The Points”

i. The use of bending techniques: Bending is one of the most important

performance techniques used in “The Points.”

In the following example, the performer, WuMan combines bending with the vibrato technique. She bends the note from “E” to “G” on the second beat and gradually bends back to “E,” while using the dynamic vibrato technique discussed in detail in Part I. This special combination of bending with vibrato is often seen in music that makes use of “Bitter Tones.”

This example65 starts at 0:00.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=13yWIDbWasg

Figure 4266

The following example [Figure 43] illustrates the combination of bending, slow- to-fast vibrato, as well as the rhythmic vibrato.

This example starts at 5:54.

Figure 43

65 Chen, Yi, “Wu Man plays "Dian" 吴蛮演奏《点》.” YouTube Video, 8:56, November 19, 2020, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=13yWIDbWasg 66 Chen, Yi, “点,” (中国曲谱网 May 8, 2004), Accessed December 12, 2019, http://www.qupu123.com/qiyue/Pipa/p104725.html

In bar 130 and 132, the composer uses rhythmic vibrato in a relatively free rhythm as interpreted by Wu Man. From the end of bar 135 to 136, composer uses slow to fast vibrato.

This example [Figure 44] starts at 2:31

Figure 44

In this section, the composer uses vibrato and glissando in bar 18, 20, and 22 to represent the pitch drifting commonly found in “Bitter Tones.” In bar 21, the uses of portamento represent the Chinese calligraphy-writing motion.

ii. Four-string strumming technique:

Example [Figure 45]: “The Points”

Figure 45

In Measure 7, the right hand primarily uses the “four strings strumming” technique in 16th notes, along with the twisted sting technique and left-hand bending.

The “four strings stumming” technique is commonly used in the traditional Chinese repertoire to portray high energy and spirit.

In the following example, the composer combines the four-string stumming technique with glissando to represent the chaos-within-order, and the order-within- chaos principle, which is the essential principle of the Chinese calligraphy.

This example [Figure 46] starts at 2:53.

Figure 46

iii. Extended technique used in “The Points”

In the following example, from bar 61 to bar 63, the notes on the top bass clef,

Chen uses a new type of vibrato first seen in one of Liu Dehai’s piece - “King

Chu Doffs his Armour.” This type of vibrato bends the string off the frets; along

with the wide range of vibrato, it also creates a clicking sound.

This example [Figure 47] starts at 3:41.

Figure 47

b. Analysis of the pipa solo piece “Pipa Words”

“Pipa Words” was composed in 2006 by the Chinese composer Qin Wenchen, and was commissioned by the Switzerland Ensemble. Qin has stated in his program notes: “[the] pipa is such a difficult instrument to write for, not to mention about studying the left-hand and right-hand technique.” As Qin admires the harmonics produced by the pipa, he decided to use harmonics as a primary performance technique in this piece. “Pipa Words” is organized by timbral changes through the alteration of performance techniques, as well as by changes in tempo. In “Pipa

Words,” Qin also applies both timbral and time/rhythmic improvisation.

a) Overall Structure

According to Qin’s explanation, this piece is influenced by the concept of water; due to this, it is not composed in a sectional manner. Different performers have subsequently further embedded their own interpretation into this piece. Huang

Xiaohe’s recording is one such example.

Example: “Pipa Words,” as played by Huang Xiaohe

This piece primarily has three parts and can be further divided into roughly five sub-sections. The structure is defined by its use of different performance techniques and by the following changes in tempo: Rubato – Lento – Moderato - Allegro –

Rubato.

b) The Tuning:

Instead of using the traditional A – D – E – A tuning, Qin uses the non-traditional

B - D – E – A tuning. This change in tuning does not permit more variation in harmonies but enriches the sound. Due to raising the fourth string, the density of the string is increased; this produces a more intense sound.

c) Structural Diagram:

The following is the structural diagram of this piece:

Sectional Division Main Performance Technique Used Intro Beginning to ♩= 66 Single pluck (tan) Section A ♩= 66 ~ ♪=112 Single pluck (tiao) Section B ♪=112 ~♩=72 Three finger tremolos Section C ♩=72 ~ ♩= 66 Combination of single pluck and tremolo Section D ♩= 66 ~ ♩=146 yaozhi Section E ♩=146 ~ ♩= 62 Single pluck (tan and tiao) Coda ♩= 62 to the end Single pluck (tiao) Table 5) The Structural Diagram of “Pipa Words”

d) Different Timbres Produced by the Pick:

Qin creates different timbres by using different angular movements of the picks as discussed in detail in Part I; these can be organized into four groups:

i. 45 degrees toward the soundboard: moderately thick sound

ii. 90 degree toward the soundboard: thick sound

iii. 180 degree toward the soundboard: thin but bright sound

iv. 180 degree toward the back of the soundboard: very thin but bright

sound

e) Performance Techniques:

Glissando, harmonics and bending are the most dominant left-hand techniques used in this piece.

“Zhuo (绰),” as mentioned in Part I, is also used; “Zhuo” belongs to the gliss/bending category.

Example (page 6) [Figure 48]: “Pipa Words”

This example67 starts at 3:39 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_PHcE1wngqE

Figure 4868

67 Qin, Wenchen, “《琵琶辞》琵琶:黄晓賀.” YouTube Video, 10:42, July 3, 2020, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_PHcE1wngqE 68 Qin, Wenchen, “Pipa Words,” score provided by Qin, Wenchen.

In the example, instead of using the regular bending on “F#,” the “Zhuo” technique is utilized: “A” is glissed to in a faster speed while emphasizing “F#, and producing the “A” note as an ornamented sound.

Example (page 7) [Figure 49]: “Pipa Words”

This example starts at 4:00

Figure 49

Immediately after the Tempo = 80, the music gradually reaches its climax; it is the loudest part of this section; the composer has marked an arrow by the note-head to indicate bending should be utilized. The simple use of the bending technique is not sufficient to express the dynamic and emotional tension, however, so this section not only requires bending, but also pushing the string towards the soundboard to keep the music at high tension and density.

Example (page 1) [Figure 50]: “Pipa Words”

This example starts at 0:08

Figure 50

The last note of the quintuplet is an “A” with an f dynamic. The composer uses the lower side of the pick to create a thick sound in contrast to the previous three notes, which have a crystal-clear sound quality, and according to the composer’s notes, mimics the image of water drops on the ground

Example (page 1) [Figure 51]: “Pipa Words”

This example starts at 0:22

Figure 51

In this example, the composer pays special attention to dynamic changes. By means of a decrescendo without a ritardando, the composer creates a decaying sound

effect. He uses the pick 180 degree parallel to the string to play the harmonics, which begin at tempo 66. This creates the effect with a similar dynamic but possesses a different level of brightness.

Example (page 16) [Figure 52]: “Pipa Words”

This example starts at 9:35

Figure 52

In this part, the composer arranges the rhythmic changes in a relatively tight rhythm, but with great inherent flexibility. For the three notes in the first phrase the picks are used in the following order: the upper pick, the upper pick, and the upper side of the pick; the tempo is moderate. In the second phrase, the upper pick is used with a stronger dynamic at a faster speed to create a feeling of tightness. The rhythm of the third phrase then begins to slow down: the first “E” note uses the upper pick with a slow pluck speed; the following “B” and “A” notes are played by the muscles of the left-hand ring finger; the last note uses the same technique as the beginning

“E.” The changes in techniques, using both the left and the right hands, creates a gradually dimmer sound.

In the process of incorporating traditional Chinese folk music, many contemporary musical works inherit the linear beauty of traditional music while falling somewhere between the traditional and the modern in their musical creation techniques. This method of music creation is a paragon of music-culture integration, allowing people to feel the charm and rich beauty of traditional Chinese national musical instruments in a familiar folk music setting.

Conclusion

With the modern pipa’s broad and colorful ranges of timbres, its ability to evoke powerful emotions and vivid imagery, and its flexibility in adapting to a wide range of musical backgrounds, the pipa truly lives up to its name as “King” of the Chinese instruments. However, due to the difficulty in mastering the pipa, and therefore, the limited number of performers and composers who possess mastery over the pipa, its potential has been significantly underdeveloped.

This paper seeks to explain the rich and varied opportunities that have been left unexplored with the pipa. It is the hope of the author that by explaining the pipa’s broad range and unique array of timbres, along with its physical characteristics and various performance techniques, the pipa’s potential can continue to be developed to the maximum extent possible.

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Discography

Dehai, Liu. “Spring Silk|春蚕.”YouTube Video, 9:09, Posted June 19, 2006, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HVMywoWw4sU.

Dehai, Liu. “Aged Child|老童.” YouTube Video, 6:35, Posted June 19, 2006, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2A93hx2-N90

DehaI, Liu. “Swan|天鹅.” YouTube Video, 9:16, Posted June 18, 2006, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fi4X-qCFGMk.

Dehai, Liu. “Terra-cotta Warriors 秦俑.” YouTube Video, 6:20, Posted December 29, 2009, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HkbAYO_doDQ.

Gang, Chen.“阳光照耀着塔什库尔干.” YouTube Video, 7:11, Posted November 6, 2011, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2oyzoYgGDBc.

Hong’xiang, Ren. “Romance of the Water of Wei|渭水情.” YouTube Video, 7:19, Posted June 19, 2006. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FAGmTygRGU0.

Hou’yuan, Wu. “Chanting|诉-读唐诗《琵琶行有感》.” YouTube Video, 10:46, Posted July 16, 2012, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jUWhuy5PvZU.

Rimsky-Korsakov, Nikolai. “Flight of the Bumblebee|野蜂飞舞.” YouTube Video, 1:54, Posted September 8, 2020, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ahbh37f- Eag.

Shao’en, Lv. “The Five Heroes of Langya Mountain|狼牙山五壮士.” YouTube Video, 9:35, Posted October 9, 2020. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V2A1Kk03toc.

Traditional pipa repertoire. “A Moonlit Night on the Spring River|春江花月夜.” YouTube Video, 9:51, Posted November 7, 2011. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aFlJSISCyjs.

Traditional pipa repertoire. “Ambushed from All Sides|十面埋伏.” YouTube Video, 5:23, Posted September 20, 2017. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1Rx5uqX4mBA.

Traditional pipa repertoire. “Green Lily Folk Songs|青莲乐府.” YouTube Video, 8:18, Posted August 7, 2018, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Sv5bAReKIdY.

Traditional pipa repertoire. “The Moon Rises|月儿高.” YouTube Video, 13:28, Posted August 21, 2019. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Rr-gGeEhBhU.

Traditional pipa repertoire, “Beyond The Great Wall|塞上曲.”YouTube Video, 6:37, Posted March 17, 2016, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5ykQlb_jGNo.

Tian’hua, Liu. “XuLai|虚籁.” YouTube Video, 5:00, Posted July 18, 2012, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vib9Fx_APLw.

Wenchen, Qin. “《琵琶辞》琵琶:黄晓賀.” YouTube Video, 10:42, Posted July 3, 2020, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_PHcE1wngqE.

Yi, Zhu. “Spring Rain | 春雨.” YouTube Video, 6:30 , posted September 7, 2007. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GfNBnGvb7bM.

Yi, Chen. “点.” YouTube Video, 10:29, posted March 24, 2017, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DUA-qSDaV4Q.