Hua Yue: The Chinese Orchestra in Contemporary Singapore This thesis is submitted to the University of Sheffield in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy By Samuel Wong Shengmiao Department of Music University of Sheffield September 2009 11 Summary Hua Vue: The Chinese Orchestra in Contemporary Singapore Samuel Wong Shengmiao The purpose of this study is to construct a comprehensive and authentic picture of the Chinese orchestral scene in Singapore by piecing its history and identifying the social characteristics and relationships within Chinese Orchestras (COs) In Singapore. Specifically, the dynamic interaction of the structural characteristics and the social processes within and without the COs, as well as its impact on the musicians, the orchestra and the quality of their work are analysed. This thesis shows that the formal structures, roles and tacit rules of interaction have not enabled COs in Singapore to produce music as a collective successfully and harmoniously. The disunity within the COs can be attributed to several factors identified in the research process. At the individual level, many of the professional CO musicians perceive that they are working in an oppressive environment characterised by excessive work with little creative stimulus and pay. Even CO musicians at the amateur level, especially school CO musicians, are not fulfilled creatively due to the absence of a nurturing learning environment. They lack enjoyable performance opportunities and suffer from stressful preparations for concerts and competitions. The CO musicians' unhappiness is also exacerbated by high levels of competitiveness and cliquishness within the COs. So instead of a unified CO, each CO is divided into micro­ communities that are at odds with one another. Finally, external forces such as governmental agencies, schools and the general public exert a considerable influence over the existence and the development of these COs. Because of their focus on results, prestige and image, they have fostered an environment that is antithetical to the cultivation of love of CO among CO musicians at the amateur or professionallevels. III Hua Yue - The Chinese Orchestra in Contemporary Singapore Thesis Outline Preface xvi A. Background to this Study XVI 1. My Background in the CO XVll B. Note on Romanisation and on Chinese Terminology xx C. Acknowledgements XXI 1. Introduction 1 A. My Research Subject Matter and Method 1 1. Research Topic 1 2. Research Method: Fieldwork and Research 1 B. Multicultural Ethnomusicology and the Native Researcher-Practitioner Approach 4 1. Multicultural Ethnomusicology 4 2. Rationale of Choosing Multicultural Ethnomusicology as Research Paradigm 5 3. Being a Native Practitioner-Researcher: Advantages and Disadvantages 7 a. Advantages 7 i. Relationship with the CO Community as an Established CO Musician 7 ii. Ease of Access to Information 9 iii. Familiarity with Language and Terminology 9 iv. Motivation of Social Purpose 10 b. Disadvantages 11 i. Susceptibility to Subjective Bias 12 ii. Ethical Concerns 12 iii. Identity Conflict between my Roles as Native Practitioner and Ethnomusicological Researcher 14 IV iv. Barrier of Seniority in Access to Infonnation 14 v. Over-familiarity with CO environment 15 vi. Negative social aspects in fieldwork 16 C. Structure of Dissertation 17 Section I - Historical Development 20 II. Historical Development of Chinese Orchestras 21 A. Introduction 21 B. History of the Modern Chinese Orchestra 23 1. Origins 23 a. Beginnings of the Modern Chinese Orchestra 24 2. The Fonnative Years 28 a. Cultural Revolution and Impact on Chinese Orchestras 35 b. The Revival of the Chinese Orchestra 36 3. Creating the New Wave 40 a. The Chinese Orchestra Today 41 4. Chinese Orchestras Beyond Mainland China 44 C. Conclusion 47 III. Hua Yue - The Chinese Orchestra in Singapore 49 A. Introduction 49 B. Background Infonnation 49 1. The Government and Society of Singapore 49 a. The Musical and Cultural Setting in Singapore 52 b. Music Education in Singapore 56 C. The Chinese Orchestra in Singapore 58 1. Historical Background 58 a. British Colonial Days (1826-1942) 58 b. The 1950s: Fonnation of Chinese Ensembles, Precursor of the Chinese Orchestra 61 c. The First Chinese Orchestras in Singapore: Political and Non­ Political Challenges 64 v 2. Fonnative Years 66 a. 1960s: Early Government Patronage and Cultural Exchanges of Chinese Orchestras 67 b. The First Chinese Music Competition 67 3. The Period of Stabilisation and Growth 70 a. Establishment of COs and Emergence of Full-time Chinese Musicians 70 b. Influence of Professional Musicians from Overseas on CO Music Scene in Singapore 71 c. Accessibility and Impact of Chinese Orchestral Recordings 72 d. Government Assistance 73 4. The National Theatre Chinese Orchestra 74 5. The People's Association Chinese Orchestra 79 D. Contemporary Society 88 1. The Singapore Chinese Orchestra 89 2. National Chinese Music Competition and Graded Examinations 102 a. National Chinese Music Competition 102 b. Graded Examinations 103 3. Amateur Chinese Orchestras - School and Non-School Chinese Orchestras 104 a. School Chinese Orchestras 104 i. Dunman High School Chinese Orchestra 105 ii. CO as ECAs and CCAs 106 iii. Impact of Competitions and Examinations on School Chinese Orchestras 107 b. Non-School Chinese Orchestras 108 i. Singapore Youth Chinese Orchestra 109 ii. Singapore Broadcasting Centre Chinese Orchestra (City Chinese Orchestra) 110 iii. Keat Hong Community Centre Chinese Orchestra 111 E. Conclusion 112 VI Section II - Social Processes and the Chinese Orchestra in Contemporary Singapore 113 IV. Social Processes and the Chinese Orchestra in Contemporary Singapore 114 A. Introduction 114 B. 4.1 - Formal Structures, Roles and Tacit Rules of Interaction 119 1. Formal Structure and Roles 120 a. Singapore Chinese Orchestra (SCO) 120 b. Amateur and School Orchestras 123 c. The Amateur and Professional Divide 126 2. Tacit Rules of Interaction 127 a. Definitions of Guanxi and Ganqing 127 b. Ganqing between Equals 129 c. Ganqing in Hierarchical Relationships 130 d. Rituals of Respect for Seniority 131 e. Utilitarian Ramifications of Guanxi and Ganqing 133 C. 4.2 - Motivation and Agenda of Individual Musicians 139 1. Pursuit of Creative Growth as Musician 139 a. Professional CO Musicians 140 i. Impact of Diminished Musicians' Creative Impulse on SCO 142 b. Amateur CO Musicians 144 i. School CO Musicians 148 2. Pursuit of CO as a Livelihood 152 a. Throsby's Extended Creativity Models and Its Problems 152 b. Inadequacy of Salary of Professional Musicians 155 i. Supplementary Income 1: Teaching Schools and Private Students 156 ii. Supplementary Income 2: Repairing and Sales of CO Instruments 160 iii. Supplementary Income 3: Playing Gigs 161 c. Some Conclusions on the Tension between Economic and Creative Stimuli 162 3. Pursuit of Reputation and Prestige 163 VB a. Professional Musicians 164 b. Amateur and School Musicians 166 i. Pursuit of CO for CCA points 167 D. 4.3 - Social Relationships in the Chinese Orchestra 169 1. Hierarchy and Respect 169 a. Impact of Good and Bad Examples of Authority 169 b. Relative Power Disparity between Musicians from Different Orchestras 172 2. A Competitive Culture 173 3. Existence of Cliques 175 E. 4.4 - Impact of External Forces on Chinese Orchestras 179 1. Professional Chinese Orchestras 179 a. Government and Related Agencies 179 2 Amateur and School Chinese Orchestras 183 a. The Ministry of Education 183 b. The National Arts Council 185 c. School Administrative Leadership and Competitions 186 d. Singapore Youth Festival Central Judging 188 e. Graded Examinations 189 3. The General Public and the COs 193 F. Conclusion 196 V. Conclusion 198 A. Introduction 198 1. Summary of Thesis 198 2. My Reflections on the Research Findings 200 B. Being Researcher - Native Practitioner and Implications 202 C. Applications of My Research Study and Future Research 205 VI. Appendix 209 VII. Glossary 211 VIII. References 222 V111 List of Illustrations Maps 3.1 Location Map of Singapore 50 Figures 2.1 Chinese Orchestra Seating Plan 1 43 2.2 Chinese Orchestra Seating Plan 2 43 4.1 Power Structure of the Singapore Chinese Orchestra (SCO) 119 4.2 Power Structure of Amateur and School Orchestras 122 Photos 1. With Goh Ek Meng, March 2007, Singapore IX 2. With Yu Liangmo, May 2007, Beijing IX 3. Interviewing Toh Koon Swee, March 2007, Singapore X 4. Peng Xiuwen (Quek 2002:330) X 5. Early Singaporean Chinese Ensemble (Goh 1998:2) Xl 6. Taorong Performance (Goh 1998:7) Xl 7. The National Theatre Chinese Orchestra (Goh 1998:37) XlI 8. Zheng Sisen (Quek 2002:288) XlI 9. Li Xueling (Quek 2002:76) Xlll 10. Ng Tai Kong (Quek 2002:76) Xlll 1 1. Ku Lap Man (Quek 2002:290) XIV 12. Hu Bingxu (Quek 2002:168) XIV 13. Qu Chunquan (Quek 2002:345) xv 14. Yeh Tsung (Quek 2002:84) xv IX 1. With Goh Ek Meng, March 2007, Singapore 2. With Yu Liangmo, May 2007, Beijing x 3. Interviewing Toh Koon Swee , March 2007, Singapore 4. Peng Xiuwen (Quek 2002:330) XI 5. Early Singaporean Chinese Ensemble (Goh 1998:2) 6. Taorong Performance (Goh 1998:7) XII 7. The National Theatre Chinese Orchestra (Goh 1998:37) 8. Zheng Sisen (Quek 2002:288) XIIl 9. Li Xueling (Quek 2002:76) 10. Ng Tai Kong (Quek 2002:76) XI 11. Ku Lap Man (Quek 2002:290) 12. Hu Bingxu (Quek 2002: 168) x 14. Qu Chunquan (Quek 2002:345) 15. Yeh Tsung (Quek 2002:84) Preface Background to this Study The subject of this dissertation is the history, characteristics, relationships and interactions of the Chinese orchestral community in Singapore. The Chinese Orchestra (CO) is a product of political reforms in China, as well as the interaction between the phenomena of Westernisation, modernisation and globalisation. Notwithstanding its history of less than 80 years, the CO has experienced phenomenal growth in the past decade. The concept of the CO has spread from mainland China to Taiwan, Hong Kong, Macau, Malaysia, Singapore, and even to Western countries such as the USA and Australia, spawning hundreds of thousands of practitioners in Asia and beyond.