Fireflyer Companion & Letter

Vol. 1, Number 1 Winter 1993-94

Fireflyer. firefly + er. n. short for firefly chaser. A person who thinks about Where are the Lightningbugs? lightningbugs.

Last fall the The Wall Street Journal (2 Sep 93) ran a front page article express- ing concern that fireflies may be disappearing. Several activities of humans were mentioned as possibly being connected. I suspect that many of the species that I used to see and census here in Alachua County may no longer be present. There is reason for attention if not concern. In the past decade herpetologists have noted an apparent world-wide decrease in the number of frogs, and even held a confer- ence to discuss it. Among questions for us to ask: is the absence of fireflies appar- ent or real?, is it local or general?, is it a natural phenomenon that could have serious consequences, given the humanization of the firefly world?, are there hard data available, or can we get some and how?, if fireflies are actually on the decline can we do anything about it?, and, is there something we can be doing before we know for sure? I have gotten several letters and phone calls asking about this, and have made this the opportunity to start a firefly-letter a little earlier than I had planned. I can pass along some of my thoughts and perhaps get readers to do Dark summer. some thinking and looking too. A line from a recent letter is a start and a title

affirmative being expected, whether the And, how can one estimate the acre- What can I do fireflies have been poisoned by pesticides. age and diversity of habitats that have When I say that there is no direct informa- been built upon, paved over, and put into to help? tion available on the matter, I sometimes agriculture production. It runs into the mil- Alysse & Daniel get the feeling that my answer may be sus- lions. Remember, Thomas Barbour ex- Leesburg FL pect because of my known connection pressed his concern over Florida and a with Entomology. Vanishing Eden decades before the Dear Alysse and Dan, There are a number of reasons why we booms since World War II. Yours is a good, and embarrassing may not be seeing fireflies so often nowa- Consider too, there is more stray light question. I should have been thinking on days. Ever more of us live in urbanized ar- from street- and yard-lights, and city-light it a long time ago. First I’ll warm up to it eas where there are fewer undisturbed reflections from clouds, that shine in little with some preliminary cogitations, that I grasslands and creek sides; where there eyes. These are pollution to lightningbugs will do here, out loud. Maybe these will give are more streetlights, where more twi- trying to find mates with wee little biolu- you some ideas and you will send them lights are unseen while we watch minescent lanterns in their tails! in. We need observations, ideas, and di- TV-news, and seldom if at all do we sit on Another way that human population rection. the porch reading the newspaper by fad- growth and “progress” has mal-affected ing skylight and watching playing children; fireflies, at distances even greater than the Lightningbugs play a special role in and where there are fewer safe parks and reach of sky-light, has to do with available childhood and its memories. They are a known neighbors. ground water. The level of water-tables part of the personal Currier and Ives Days Even suburbs have had their soils has dropped in many areas because of the of millions of Americans. They are as shoved around, mixed, and structurally amount of water that is pumped from popular as dinosaurs, without benefit of damaged, and made less hospitable for wells. Lowered tables mean loss of habi- Hollywood animations and hype. They lin- earthworms and other firefly prey. And yes, tats—marshes and wet areas around ger in fond recollections, in vivid images where there might have once occurred ponds and streams, the last themselves of chasing them over the lawn just before fireflies, more herbicides and pesticides dependent on water reaching the surface, bedtime when deepening shadows grew have been used to encourage sterile mo- naturally. menacingly at lawn edges. Strangers have nocultures of socially approved vegetation. There is also a focused attack on fire- told me of their personal experiences with I have noted to questioners that it is rea- flies. Tens of millions of them have been Mason and mayonnaise jars and flashes sonable to expect that contaminants from collected over the years for the on their bedstands. various sources, in the water, air, and soil light-emitting chemicals that they have in I am asked, by writers, reporters, teach- that are known to kill other things, certainly ers, and mothers, with an answer in the kill fireflies and their prey too. Continued on page 2, see Save Save, continued from page 1 at specimens that were collected on these Twinkle Twinkle rivers back then, for there are specimens their tails, especially the emission-facili- Half Moon on the horizon tating enzymes generically known as lu- in collections from that long ago. seen through green colored glasses ciferase. These chemicals are used in ba- Insect collections also used to routinely It is time for her to hunt sic research, for illuminating points of ac- “archive” old men with squinting, lens-as- earthbound stars by their flashes. tivity on chromosomes and potentially for sisted eyes, smelly clothes, and bow ties Constellations like Big Dipper looking for life in Space, in medical and (long an outdated curiosity, but bows seemingly simple; really complex. agricultural research, and for disease di- didn’t drape into trays and break speci- mens), that took the welfare of their well- Shining toward earth, agnosis. they’re searching for sex. Of course, the collectors probably curated charges very seriously, and that mostly net common, widely-occurring and worked overtime for life, for nothing, for Cryptic signals are given likely “renewable” grassland species, such love. They were the unsung treasures of from ground toward heaven and back. as the Big Dipper Firefly (Photinus pyralis) research museums, but they too are nearly Timing is everything, and various common Photuris species extinct and few are being cultivated today. for the codes she must crack. [see sl article]. But, undoubtedly rare and I know an elderly insect taxonomist who He flashes for answers to uncommon species are taken, local popu- has even spent most of his home life bent Who? What? and Why? lations certainly have been eradicated, and over his personal microscope studying his She gives patterns of deceit; rare and new (emerging) species have flies. In World War II he was a medical just a twinkle in his eye. entomologist in the tropical Pacific with been wiped out. Mass collectors, children Closer (flicker), the U.S. Army. His wife has said that when and adults alike will not discriminate rare closer (flash), closer still. species, and pecuniary fixation will dis- he dies she will have him stuffed (curated This siren’s light beckons him place other and abstract concerns. by a taxidermist) sitting there at his scope, against his will. A newspaper story a couple of years ago and then she can always see him and not quoted a firefly-tail-collecting mother who notice any difference. He throws caution to the wind and approaches too fast. said something to the effect that every time Such insect taxonomists know and re- spect the past, labor long, personally and The conflict is over, she saw a firefly’s flash she saw a penny. he’s now her repast. [tf] In contrast, another mother sent me a intently in the present, and prepare for a poem that her mother had written about future they won’t see but hope will be fireflies for her daughter. (When I find there, by maintaining and improving col- What was the first scientific name used for a these two filed references I will give more lections, and helping anyone who comes firefly? Taxonomic literature now in use indicates along that shows an interest. Sometimes that Linnaeus first named fireflies in his Systema detail.) Naturae, 12th Edition (1767). Among them was The foregoing introduction warms us up age and destroyed collecting sites make what is now Photinus pyralis. Even he overlooked to addressing the key questions. It reminds them become cynical, and as sour as they his first names. In his 10th Edition (1758), he us that lifestyles have changed, says that sometime smell. More and more they named several fireflies, including pyralis, in the there are reasons to be suspicious that fire- must feel as though they will become (ob- soldier beetle genus Cantharis. Because Zoologi- jective) paleontologists - considering that cal Nomenclature officially starts with the 10th flies are at risk, and that their enemies “is Edition, Cantharis pyralis, Cantharis (now us.” the instant an insect becomes extinct in Lampris) noctiluca, Cantharis (now Luciola) Now, what data would it take to satisfy nature, specimens of it in museums be- lusitanica and a few others, were the first now- skeptics and fence-sitters? Where could come fossils, and perhaps should be officially named species. An earlier non-accept- we find the evidence that is needed? Can placed with those in amber and rocks? able name used by Waller in 1685 was Cicindella But, perhaps I digress? volans —the generic name now being used for we only now begin to gather it? Are there tiger beetles. Waller’s volans was Linnaeus’ no old records that will give tentative but Thus, one source of information on our Cantharis — and then Lampyris noctiluca. Based better answers than the circumstantial firefly question is in these museum ar- on this information answer this question: “What notions that I started with? chives: on the labels and in bodies of the nomenclatural change must be now made to the insects, and in the letters and papers of the scientific name of the European glowworm L. noctiluca Linnaeus?” Why? [jl&lb] Museum Answers solitary curators. What specifically is in Insect collections in museums and the such records depends upon the individual people who care for them are not the taxonomists who observed and collected Fireflyer Companion anachronisms that many people (includ- Specimens, who exchanged information, J.E. Lloyd, (Ed.) Gainesville, FL ing some politicians and university admini- wrote insect labels, and especially those Lesley Ballantyne, Wagga Wagga, NSW strators) think. They are the archives, the who focused their attention on their own Austrailia repositories of stored information of con- personal favorite group of insects, and how Timothy Forrest, Ithaca, NY ditions, ecologies, places, and summers much time and effort have been put into John Sivinski, Gainesville, FL past. Were atmospheric poisons killing off proper curating since the collectors had Steve Wing, Gainesville, FL our insects A) years ago? - look inside the to leave them in a museum’s care. (I re- Production: carcasses of faded and brittle museum member once seeing insect cabinets filled Flora MacColl, Gainesville, FL with Parliament cigarette boxes contain- firefly specimens. Are tests for pesticide Mailing Address: ing crane fly specimens, the love-labor of residues only positive for specimens col- Fireflies lected after the pesticide was used? Test a deceased dipterist (student of flies). I sus- University of Florida specimens that were deposited long ago, pect they are still waiting for someone to Department of Entomology with their carefully prepared labels. Were pick up where death took this enthusiast POB 110620 insect inhabitants of pure water only, from his adventure.) Gainesville, FL 32611 First among the firefly records that are present in the Potomac, Shenandoah, and WWW Address: Susquehanna 50, 80, 110 years ago? Look Continued on page 5, see Save http://gnv.ifas.ufl.edu/~jlloyd/ffcomp.htm

2Fireflyer CompanionVol. 1, Number 1 Winter 1993-94 pupate near the surface and emerge as recombinant firefly luciferase (pro- Fireflies at Risk adults about two weeks later, possibly duced by bacteria in the lab) is now When was the last time you saw a within a few meters of where they were commercially available. This recombi- firefly? The last time we saw these flash- first deposited as eggs. Since adult nant luciferase provides a purer form of ing beetles, many of us were probably Photinus fireflies are not strong fliers, the enzyme for research purposes, children. We all remember the fascina- adult dispersal distances are probably eliminating the need to collect and pro- tion we felt as we watched these tiny limited. These aspects of Photinus fire- cess huge numbers of wild fireflies to cordless lights on wings. We ran around fly biology indicate that once a breeding obtain this enzyme. the fields in a frenzy trying to capture as population is disturbed, relocation (“mi- We can preserve the magic of sum- many as we could, collecting them in gration’~ to nearby undisturbed sites of mer nights filled with flying beacons of jars for later examination. After a night similar habitat-form may be unlikely. light. People who care about keeping or two on a bedside table, the captives fireflies around should let Sigma and Firefly Hunting. Another potential would be set free. Despite a few ca- others know that the unnecessary har- cause of declining firefly populations is sualties, our childhood fireflies returned vesting of these beetles should be that fireflies are still being year after year to continue their dazzling stopped. You can write to: Mr. Tom Cori, mass-harvested from wild populations. displays. Chief Executive Officer, Sigma-Aldnich For about 30 years, Sigma Chemical Corporastion, 3050 Spruce St., St. Louis, Where have all the fireflies gone? Company of St. Louis, Missouri, has been Missouri 63103, or call Sigma technical There has been a lot of concern recently harvesting live fireflies as a source of lu- service at 1-800-325-5832. Let them about an apparent decline in the num- ciferase. Luciferasc, an enzyme pro- know that you think they should stop ber of fireflies. Despite lack of long-term duced by fireflies and other luminescent harvesting live fireflies. Let’s keep fire- ecological studies documenting popula- creatures, is widely used to assay ATP flies in the air, flying and flashing. tion trends for any single firefly species, (adenosine triphosphate) levels in cells. [Jeff Monchamp and sl] there is widespread perception that fire- Sigma Chemical sponsors an organiza- fly numbers may be decreasing. There tion called the Sigma Firefly Scientists are several possible reasons for decline Club, which pays amateur collectors a in firefly numbers, including habitat de- penny for each firefly captured from the struction, pesticide use, and collecting wild, regardless of species. After pro- pressure. Several aspects of firefly biol- cessing, Sigma sells these beetles as ogy may make them particularly suscep- Desiccate Whole Fireflies ($12.80 per tible to habitat desctruction, including gram), or as one of several processed the fact that most species of firefly are firefly products, such as Luciferasc Pow- quite habiLat-specific. Particular species der ($41.84 per milligram). arc associated with specific habitats Several millions of fireflies have been such as wetlands, forests, and old fields. collected for Sigma from the Midwest As these habitats recede in the face of and eastern United States over the years, suburban development, appropriate fire- although Sigma will not give an exact fly habitat is reduced. Many firefly spe- number. One proud collector, described cies are also extremely site-specific, as the “Lightning Bug Lady” of Vinton, flashing and mating in the same locality Iowa in a recent article in the Wall Street Because the kids glow for no obvious over many years. For example, we have Journal, catches and sells as many as a reason humans think we must not light been studying the reproductive ecology million fireflies to Sigma each year. Fire- up for sex! of a population of Photinus marginellus fly collectors generally catch anything fireflies in eastern Massachusetts for the that flashes in the night, and Sigma past Mine years. Each year, the local indiscriminately processes all fireflies, Twice when I was growing up I came breeding population of this species is without distinguishing common or rare across an unusual sort of light- restricted to a small grove of cherry species. While mass-harvesting may not ningbug. They had green flashing trees, and their complete life cycle ap- be a problem for some of the more com- lights, prominent eyes, and fat hairy pears to be carried out underneath these mon firefly species, this level of harvest- bodies. They looked like bees with ing sustained over a few years may eas- flashing lights on the ends of their ab- trees. Photinus species devote most of domens. Do you know of any such their adult lives searching for mates, and ily wipe out Populations of many less lightning bug? both males and females mate repeat- common firefly species. Thus, amateur Joseph, edly over their 1-2 week lifespan collectors sponsored by Sigma may in- Pittsburgh, PA (adultspan). Between mating, adult fe- advertently be driving breeding popula- males lay their eggs at the bases of tions of many firefly species to local ex- Dear Joseph, tinction. I am stumped. I have never seen nor grasses. Photinus larvae are subterra- heard of such a one. A fuzzy beetle, to nean, and probably do not travel far Hope for Fireflies. There is hope for say nothing of it having a light too, would afield during the two years they spend fireflies, however, because luciferase be a special treat. Next time I am near below the soil surface feeding on earth- harvesting from wild fireflies is no longer the sw Penn border I shall keep my eyes worms and possibly other softbodied necessary. Several years ago scientists open! [jl] invertebrates. In the spring, the larvae cloned the gene for firefly luciferase, and

Vol. 1, Number 1 Winter 1993-94 Fireflyer Companion 3 Other Fires — Other Flies The Luminescence of Fireflies — Not I. Introducing Phengodid Glowworms Millions of insects live in darkness. They memorable as the insect itself. I recall one mans? It is not much easier to follow the lurk beneath bark and fallen leaves, under- stormy Florida night when a flashlight shone natural lives of insects under an inch of soil ground and under refrigerators. In large part into a flood water caused it to boil with than it is to watch the doings of abyssal they do so to avoid reflecting light and being leeches, and flashlights pointed up illumi- shrimp under a mile of seawater. But no seen. The American cockroach is a too-fa- nated treetrunks plastered with thousands observation platform can dive submarine- miliar example. The long antennae and flat- of earthworms. They were climbing to es- like beneath a willow thicket! tened body mark it as an animal that gets cape drowning in the soaking mud and were Phengodid are representative of another along by its senses of touch and smell while joined by other luckless subterrainean crea- puzzling phenomenon, that of female living under something in the gloom. A hid- tures. Here and there marooned on humps neotony, the continuance of the larval body den life for so small and fragile a creature of ground, pale rare firefly larvae glimmered. plan into adulthood. Like Peter Pan, female makes sense. To venture out only at night, phengodids appear never to grow up. Their to be invisible, is protection against the ap- reproductive organs mature, but they main- petites that relish cockroaches and other tain their “childhood” forms and grow only sheltering creepers. larger — quite a bit larger compared to their Therefore, it is interesting when a boldly males. While the female design is for a wing- colored insect, such as a butterfly, appears less exterior, decked with lights and to be designed to be seen. We must assume stretched over a stuffing of eggs, the male that this self-advertising is due to something juvenile completes his metamorphosis very important in the life of the advertiser. (transformation) into a specialized and un- Luminescent insects are the ultimate in the usual adult beetle. He bears short wing-cov- obvious. Far from trying to avoid reflecting ers (elytra, el’-ih-truh), and his large, feath- light, they actually emit it! By breaching the ery antennae wave over a pair of sharp, night they become the most conspicuous of sickle-shaped jaws (mandibles). In his short, things, lights in darkness. First, we wonder wild life, he is designed to find females, kill at their beauty and then we wonder why it sexual rivals, and mount huge glowing should exist. mates. He will not feed, other than to sip Beauty is an opinion. But for me, of all the moisture from leaves, and he dies a few days lovely shining things, the glowworms of the after growing up. family Phengodidae are the most marvelous. Before looking into one explanation for the These glowworms are actually the juveniles phengodid peculiarity of subterrainean light, and adult females of a beetle and relatives let me introduce our North American of the fireflies. They are long cylindrical crea- phengodid fauna. [js] tures, small-headed, with a sleek, occasion- A male Phengodes nigromaculata, attracted (to be continued) ally plump appearance. Phengodid glow- by a perfume (pheromone) and flying above worms are not often encountered. A pioneer an adult female would see this patern of of bioluminescence studies, Princeton pro- “landing strip” lights upon her back and sides. fessor E. Newton Harvey, noted that he had seen only four living specimens of North A luminous centipede, captured in a cranny American species in twenty-five years. Very by a larger relative, flashed a bright white rarely someone locates a concentration of light in its death struggle. And the greatest them. A friend [sw] once discovered a de- cause for celebration were two phengodid pression in a meadow that held dozens of glowworms found huddled on stumps. young larvae crawling among the blades of The flood, by forcing up the luminous un- grass. Another [jl] came across a species in derworld, revealed the surprising fact that we the jungles of Colombia that was in the un- tread over sunken constellations scattered usual “habitat” of tree branches. But, most through the earth. While phengodids are the phengodid glowworms spend most of their most spectacular, other glowing organisms time under stones, under fallen trees (logs), live underfoot. Besides the centipedes and or underground. If you wish to see a firefly larvae, there are luminous springtails phengodid you must put considerable trust (insectan Order Collembola), click beetle in luck or put considerable effort into the larvae (family Elateridae), millipedes, and search (a California naturalist, the late Dar- earthworms, all that spend at least part of win Tiemann, once dug for 50 hours to find their lives buried underground or in rotting a single larva of the Western Banded Glow- wood. worm, Zarhipus integripennis). The effort is Why do phengodids and these others Science fiction titles “Jurassic Sex” or rewarded once the insect is in hand, for shine in a solid, totally non-transparent envi- “Attraction By a 50-Foot Female” might these often huge (up to 70 mm) animals are ronment? It seems at first to be like trying to capture the flavor of love in phengodid speckled and striped with a score or more shout in a vacuum. The difficulty in answer- beetles. Males fight to the death (c) for a of soft green lights, its movements traced in ing such a question is compounded by the chance to mate with enormously larger rippling light. difficulty of making observations in nature. females (b). Drawing by John Randall from Looking for phengodids can be almost as What habitat could be less available to hu- a book published by Academic Press.

4Fireflyer CompanionVol. 1, Number 1 Winter 1993-94 Save, continued from page 2 initial considerations being shared, I shall available, are the places and dates that fire- use the “Venitian” typeface for key words, flies have occurred. The map of the geo- Venice the city being an Italian city of light graphic distribution of Photinus pyralis that in 14th Century European Renaissance): appears on page 9 uses data from the la- The initial increase of records,is due to an bels of over a 1000 museum specimens increase in entomological interest — that I have examined, from more than a check the records, publications of the New dozen university and other collections. York and the Brooklyn Ent Societies, and Such maps can now be constructed for State lists for New Jersey and New York. many of the roughly 180 species in the The subsequent decrease is due to in- United States. Such a map, based on all creased loss of wet- and woodland habi- specimens deposited since the late 1800s tat and/or decrease in entomological inter- is a summary, a composite. The base data est (but pyralis records increase?) —check are stored in a computer, and can be dis- specimen records for adjacent rural areas, sected, to see, for example, whether some collection records for other insect species, localities have no recent representation. Graph 2. Same data-base as in Graph 1, but and contemporary publications for wan- This could mean that the species no longer Big Dipper records have been graphed ing entomological interest and for studies, occurs in some regions. Also, the relative separately because the ecology of this discussion, and alarm, apropos of habitat number of specimens in museums can apparent “weed species” is conspicuously loss. sometimes give a clue to the abundance different. The firefly history of the area is There was a sudden appearance of of a species. probably very complex and may never be pyralis records, after more than a half Consider the region around New York understood (see text). century of now (post facto) not- City (Map at right). No one would disagree that much of the area has been altered greatly during the past century, and that there are fewer available firefly sites than there were in 1880. The graph below (Graph 1) shows the decade of collection for the 125 specimens of eight species that I found in museum collections. Seven of the species are found in wood- lands or wetlands. The other species, the Big Dipper Firefly, is an inhabitant of grass- land and ecologically disturbed areas, and is commonly found around human habi- tations (see article on page 9). A century ago Charles Knipp* observed that pyralis moved into areas in nw Ohio when virgin forest was cut. One would expect that pyralis records from the NYC area might differ from those of other species, and indeed they do (Graph 2). When pyralis records are separated it Map 1. A map of the New York City area with the sampled counties in New Jersey and New appears that this species may not have York shaded. Manhattan (NYC) is the north-south elongate darker-shaded island in the been present in the region until the 1940s Hudson River, dividing the shaded areas. Long Island (NY) is east-west in the center, and *Science 1939, 89:386. Connecticut is north across L. I. Sound. and since then, like others (?), it has gradu- ably-conspicuous absence — the distribu- ally decreased in numbers, or disapeared. tion map (page 9) shows that the NYC area Now the real detective work begins. We is at the northern limit of pyralis’ geo- need hypotheses to test, and to formulate graphic distribution. —Could we be see- them we first need working (preliminary) ing the effects of changes in two ecological el- interpretations, speculations, and predic- ements, habitat and climate? —Could tions. As examples, observe the changes pyralis gradually have moved northward in firefly specimen records: (1) an initial into the region with the increased availabil- increase (1880-1910), (2) followed by a ity of suitable habitat after (2) the regional cli- long-continued decrease in specimens of mate had moderated with winter warming wet- and woodland species, (3) the ap- from heating by houses, factories, steam pearance of pyralis’ specimens for the vents, etc)? 1940s — recall that this is a firefly that uti- The “terminal” decrease in numbers of Graph 1. Museum holdings of 8 species from lizes man’s lawns, parks, and meadows, all species could be from continuing and 16 NJ and NY counties in the NYC area and, (4) after a peak of 1950s records, a extensive habitat destruction, and a grow- (shaded in the map). By taking into account decreasing number of pyralis records. ing lack of interest in insects, and an in- differences in the ecology of the species more Speculations? (to remind the reader can be learned. See Graph 2 and text. when statements are not conclusions, but Continued on page 10, see Save

Vol. 1, Number 1 Winter 1993-94 Fireflyer Companion 5 What are the glowing larvae just be- Roadside Attractions neath the surface of a small nearby A forum for fireflyers lake? Gunther, Kalamazoo MI Suppose your mission was to design ter sunset as the twilight fades, until an Dear Gunther, an insect that could easily be found. You hour or two after sunset is a good time might make a large insect with brightly to find many different species. Some are I believe your lights were those of fire- colored, flapping wings, like a butterfly, active all night long, while other species fly larvae. Larvae of some Pyractomena that would be conspicuous in daylight. are active for only a few minutes each species are semiaquatic and go under- But for the nighttime, could you imag- night. water to hunt snails. Note whether there ine anything easier to see than You are more likely to find fireflies dur- are flying, flashing adults (males) over a flashing firefly? You ing the warmer months of the year, dur- the adjacent shore of this lake in early might try de- ing spring, summer, and fall. Exactly June. If they emit 4-6 rapid, yellow pulses signing an in- which species you can find will change each 3-4 sec (ca 15°C) they are Py. dis- sect that from month to month. Adults of some persa; if a 0.3-0.4 sec yellow flare, they makes loud species are active during only a few are Py. linearis; if an amber flicker of 8- sounds so weeks each year, while other species 12 rapid pulses (too fast to count) they that you may be found month after month. In could some warm climates, fireflies can be are Py. angulata; and if a dim glow of 3- locate found year round. Where the winters are 10 sec with the OFF between glows of a it in the cold, though, your best bets are the similar duration, they are Py. sinuata. Of dark. But if you have ever tried to pin- warmer months. During their cold “off” course you could have something that is point the location of a cricket or katydid seasons nearly all live as larvae in dead unknown— Michigan’s LP has some spe- by its chirps or trill, you know it isn’t easy. logs, the earth, or in leaf litter. cial features, perhaps due to its isolation, Their sounds disclose their vicinity, but When you are at a location looking for being open only to the south now, with the exact location is often difficult to find. fireflies, be sure to look in all the differ- this door having opened after a postgla- You might want to make a large, light col- ent levels of vegetation. Different species cial prairie barrier(?). [jl] ored insect. It would show up in moon- of fireflies may be seen in different parts light; but that light would be from an- of the same habitat. Some fly close to Where can I find some general in- other source, reflected from your insect. the ground, while others fly above the formation on fireflies? The firefly makes its own light. That treetops, and others fly in between. means that the firefly flashes with or Finding fireflies is easy, and the advice John, Ames IA without a moon. And each flash shows above can make it even easier! Please Dear John, you exactly where the firefly is at that mo- share your tips and experiences. Send There have been no recent books on ment. these, and your questions to the Fireflyer. fireflies, other than those for juveniles, Where should you look for fireflies? [sw] some of which we will list in the next is- Your own back yard might be the first place to try, even if you live in a city. More sue. Your best bet, if you have access to often, though, a drive in the country is a pretty good library, is to look up some the way to find places where fireflies live. of the reviews and others listed below. Always take every precaution for your One and 5 give references on various own safety, of course. It is helpful to have I never saw a flashing bee, topics. If your library does not have the two people, one to drive and one to nor anyone who’d seen one; ones you need, drop me a line and I can watch. Peaceful roads without heavy I wonder if their honey glows? send you thermocopies. [jl] traffic offer fewer distractions, and driv- ing slowly makes it easier to spot the I’d flash myself to tree one! 1. Annual Review of Entomology, vols for flashes. Often fireflies can be found right [jl] 1971 and 1983, Annu. Reviews, Inc. beside the road, which is very conve- 2. Chapter 8 [in] How Animals Communi- nient for collecting and making obser- cate, 1978, Thomas Sebeok, Ed., Indiana University Press. vations. Roads cut through various habi- 3. Chapter 8 [in] Sexual Selection and tats including forests, fields, and Reproductive Competition in Insects, marshes, and run beside lakes and 1979, M. & A. Blum, Eds. Academic beaches. Bridges cross creeks and riv- Press. ers. So, from a car you can check many 4. 1984 Yearbook of Science and the Future different kinds of places easily. Fireflies Ency. Britt., Inc. pages 188-201. might be found in or near any of these 5. Insect Bioluminescence [in] Biolumines- habitats. cence in Action, 1978, P. Herring, Ed., The best time of day to look for fire- Academic Press. flies is almost always in the dark. (We’ll “just because we glow a little, one should 6. Mimicry in the Sexual Signals of Fireflies, consider exceptions in a later issue.) Af- not presume we are sexually active!” Scientific American. 1981, 245:138-145.

6Fireflyer CompanionVol. 1, Number 1 Winter 1993-94 run.” You’ll see why this certainly is true uriless we hold special searches, and Firefly Tailsr for fireflies, later. classes to train them in what they know ^ Males flash at clumps of tall dark weeds, they need and ask for and then learn to with Bean which are like black holes in space warps leave them alone. that seem to attract more than their share From a little distance the Lone Hemlock We leave the truck pulled off the road in of hexapod pulsars. But these holes don’t Flasher looks to be one of the little twi- a solitary campsite clearing, and walk capture and swallow their prey, and turn light Photinus species, and here in west- down the hill the last 200 feet to the bridge, them into anti-fireflies. Would a firefly on ern Maryland that would probably be and a very cold stream called Lone Hem- the other side of a real black hole have its Photinus marginellus. But it isn’t — up lock Run. We are at 2500 feet in the for- light on all of the time and emit darks? That close this firefly is not that little and it is ested mountains of Garrett County in west- would be more expensive for fireflies in not even a Photinus! It is a Photuris spe- ern Maryland— one of my favorite states this world, for searching anyway, but it cies. — in the “northern” Appalachians by some could work up close. As shadows fill in, blacking out the de- reckoning. Below us, after tunnelling a I once had a professor who declared tails of the edges under the trees and quarter of a mile further through the drip- that I would have to deal with astronomy’s shrubs, another flash pattern appears. This ping hemlock, yew and laurel, the Run Doppler redshifts in firefly luminescence one is clearly, almost, the flash-dash pat- caucuses with the rocky North Fork of the for my firefly studies. He was serious too. tern that H.S. Barber described for Potomac, what there is of it. I came up here A color-shift that firefly eyes could detect Photuris pennsylvanica. A sharp flash, the first time several years ago, to see if would be emitted by a firefly that was trav- OFF, and then an immediate sharp ON Photuris potomaca, a species origi- eling so fast that he would be again for a 2-3 foot/second streak. But this nally found along the river just heated to an incandescent is a long way from the tidal marshes above Washington, got this glow from the friction of where Barber found his pennsylvanica? far upstream. If it did I fig- passing air— and might The flash-dashers fly amongst the ured that it might have get someone a grant short-flashers, looking for love in all the jumped the divide go- from the Department same places, it would appear, They fly ing west and gotten of Defense. I have along the road, over the ditch, goldenrods into the drainage of wondered whether and ferns, under an overhanging bank, the Ohio River. No by manipulating the and later, up into the trees. Up there you telling how far west it position of firefly can really see the structure of their pat- could be, if it got over black holes on a tern, and also see that they are not all ex- the divide. Settlers lawn, you would be actly the same. The OFF doesn’t go com- went west, and this able to control the pletely off in all of them. I have seen the River Firefly might search of the Big same thing in populations many miles have crossed the di- Dipper Firefly, north of here at the edge of the glacial vide and gone west Photinus pyralis, in a moraine south of the Mohawk Valley in too— but, maybe it got predictable and quan- New York State. into the Potomac by going tifiable way. All this intense and life-serious activity east through the divide? The flash of the Lone and ageless competition is pursued in a Anyway, that is why I was in the Hemlock Firefly looks simple roaring, silence that sounds like a moun- mountains, where Lone Hemlock Run enough. You always want to look tain stream. Under the roar, and especially joins an embryonic Potomac River. close at the flashes of a firefly from the side when alone and after dark, there is an in- In the twilight under the shrubs by a near and below to see if it has any structure to termittent, deep-throated murmur, or corner of the bridge, a firefly has started to it. If he is flying fast enough, the flash will rumble, like low conspiring voices. It’s fly, emitting his short flash each 3-4 sec- be stretched out in space so you can see spooky. Boulders rubbing, or cavities reso- onds. No, he’s stopped. There must still be time along the flight axis. Sometimes nating like an organ, maybe. Now the a little too much light for him, and he could smeared out flashes twinkle, ripple, or penn-flashers have completely taken over. see that only after he had left his shady hitch. The human eye may be confusing The short-flashers had only 20-30 minutes perch and flew out into the open. Five min- time and space and flash intensity, and a of search at most, and they have been re- utes later there are a dozen more like him, coleoptical illusion may give some diag- placed for the night. each hovering and flashing, and moving nostic assistance, but its not fool-proof. Tomorrow we can compare to flash again a yard later— space is time From underneath, the flash of an upstate flash-voucherspecimens of the two flash to Einstein and a firefly, but the fireflies New York Photuris firefly looks like a bow patterns, but it will do no good. Even un- dealt with this truth first. How much space/ tie that isn’t tied exactly in the middle. der the stereomicroscope they will look time does a male have each evening, in a There is an unnamed Photinus in Arkan- the same. They are the same, the very lifetime, to search for a mate or mates? sas that I found on the bank of the Arkan- same males, and if short flashers had been At dusk, when ambient light is high, fire- sas River, that has a flash something like marked with a tiny dot of piper-cub-yellow flies sometimes pick their places to flash. it, but it flies so low to the ground that it is airplane dope on an elytron (wing cover), They aim their flashes at nooks and cran- hard to see a bow tie. This is the only North they would have turned up later giving the nies that are more likely to harbor females. American Photinus I know of whose flash-dash pattern. There is an easier and When the females see the correct flash males have a rapidly modulated flash but faster way than marking them, to see if it they flash back and attract them. Some- there are several in Jamaica and South is one species doing both things. If you times it takes a dozen or more such flash America. I plan to name this species after hold the tip of a penlight on the ground in exchanges, actually coded dialogues, be- an antique coleopterist from Indiana front of a short-flashing male — the pen- fore a male reaches the female. Some- named Willis Blatchley. He put in his time light isn’t the best decoy for this but it is times the approaching male just “gives up” as State Geologist, retired early, and did small and easy to carry between fireflies and leaves. This reminds me of a line from what he wanted to, he wrote several de- — he will switch and emit the penn-flash a Kenny Rogers song: “You’ve got to know finitive books on insect taxonomy — in- as he comes to your answering decoy, if when to hold em, know when to fold em; cluding “The Coleoptera of Indiana.” I you have timed your flash correctly after Know when to walk away, know when to doubt there will be any more like him his. [jlwb]

Vol. 1, Number 1 Winter 1993-94 Fireflyer Companion 7 Finding Obscure Nomenclature: Getting Names Right Collecting Localities How about De Geer, as in Chas. De Geer? An obscure collecting locality is a Taxonomists often have interests and ies wrote his name, and various other placename that appears on the locality specialties beyond their intimate knowl- sources, practices, and variations. Gurney label of a museum specimen that can edge of the group of organisms they noted that 1. most differences in the ren- not been found (with certainty) on maps taxonomize. A few actually understand the dering of De Geer’s name involve the way or in gazeteers (by a taxonomist that has structure and proper use of the Classical ‘de’ is combined with ‘Geer,’” that De Geer identified the specimen and wants to put languages that are used in formal taxo- had on occasion used CARL DeGEER, a a spot on a distribution map). One of the nomic names, and often their interests ex- latinized CAROLO De GEER, and Carol. De big-little pleasures of being an insect tax- tend to history and philosophy. Such men, Geer. Linnaeus, the originator of the es- onomist is that of digging out such lo- and sometimes women, are among the sence (pun intended) of the scientific calities, and then, sometimes, visiting treasures that museum ranges (collection naming system in use today, and a them to make observations or to collect rooms) harbor and protect. They help the fellow-countryman and friend of De Geer, more specimens. Such a name may be rest of us select terms to use for scientific used the form “De Geef” in the 10th Edi- the collectors’s nickname for the site names, they tell us when we have assigned tion of his Systema Naturae. (the Shack), or an acronym (Canara), or a word to the wrong gender, when a com- Gurney’s paper demonstrates the care use an ambiguous abreviation (F. = Fort bination we suggest is inappropriate, vul- that many taxonomists put into their use or Fred? Smith), or a slip of the pen or gar, or otherwise awful, and they help us and studies of names of biologial signifi- memory. put the correct ending (inflection I think it cance. His research and analysis could be Thirty years ago Marjorie Townes and may be called) on our undeleted epithets used in history and English, as well as bi- Ellen Linna* published the names of ology. His bottom line was, “it is concluded ect. many localities they had searched for, The taxonomic-language-experts that I that De Geer is the correct rendering of the including those they had found, those know, or knew, received their education surname.” Unfortunately, Gurney is now that were used for two or more sites, and before World War II. I know not whether extinct, and his own, an endangered spe- there are any coming down the trail, but I cies. [jl] those that they had not found. One of their obscure localities used by a fireflyer suspect not. One such student, Ashley B. Bull. Brooklyn Ent. Soc., 1956, 51:127 Gurney, for a long time was associated (H.S. Barber) was Difficult Run VA They with the Entomology Research Branch of identified it as “Stream flowing into the USDA, in Washington. Some time ago* Fireflies, Lightningbugs, Potomac River in Fairfax Co., 2 ± miles he turned his attention to the proper ren- down river from Great Falls.” dition of the name Charles DeGeer (1720 - and Roses Here are a few of the yet-unknowns from their list for your hunting pleasure. 1778)— The man De Geer named the What’s in a name? Most people in the American firefly now known as Photuris United States refer to flashing lampyrids Send me your findings: Aden MI; Ante- pennsylvanica (De Geer). For nearly a cen- as lightningbugs, but for more than a lope Mt. OR; Atila, B.C.; Camp Holsum tury almost every Photuris firefly in the century the term firefly has been used CA; Club Hill MD; Cookshire PA; Hatch- United States was called by this name, almost exclusively in scientific literature. ery Arm, B.C. Kelley’s Camp on Gaspé, because of the (then) impossibility of dis- Of course fireflies are neither bugs (Or- Que., Livingston ME, WY, & PA -, Mt. tinguishing among Photuris species with der Hemiptera) nor flies (Order Diptera), Manitou CO; Orestum, Ont. -, Snake characters present in dead specimens. but which name did you grow up with? River at Divide Creek ID; Sugar, B.C.; Among other “factoids” concerning this Where did you grow up, and who did Woodkill DE. (more later) [jl] firefly name is that De Geer originally you learn the word from? Where did *Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash. 1993, 65:233. spelled pennsylvanica with one “n” and they grow up? Please drop us a line, and that the specimen he attached the name we will begin to put spots on a map. to (what we now would call the holotype The only color lightningbug you see specimen) came from the area of today is yellow. Everyone thinks I am Wilmington, Delaware, then part of the nuts, but when I was a child they came Territory of Pennsylvania — a firefly story Exotic Fireflies in different colors? to tell later. Deborah, De Geers name, as it has appeared in There are many organisms in North Rockford IL. the formal presentation of the scientific America that have arrived from other Dear Deborah, names of insects, say, “Lampyris continents in the past 500 years. Some You are absolutely correct. Fireflies emit pensylvanica De Geer, 1774,” was written were brought on purpose, some hitch- light of different colors. The common in many different forms. Among those hiked. A firefly arrived with ballast, and Photinus pyralis emits yellow light; most Gurney mentioned were DeGeer, Degeer, survived nearly 150 years. Another is Photuris fireflies emit green biolumines- de Geer, and Geer. He noted that when known only from two very old speci- cence, most species in the genus Pyrac- used as the author of insects, the name had mens, and one was intercepted re- tomena emit orange-yellow light, but the been abbreviated as DeG. and Deg. Gur- cently at a Florida quarantine station. flicker of Py. angulata is orange. In South ney examined the evidence for how De One firefly was brought from “Ceylon” America there is a species of Phengodid Geer himself presented and accepted his to Hawaii in the 50s to control pest called the railroad worm, that has spots of name, in signature and set type, how his snails, but didn’t work out [jl] green light along its sides and a brilliant biographers, publishers, and contemporar- ruby-red light shining from its head. [jl]

8Fireflyer CompanionVol. 1, Number 1 Winter 1993-94 ably either too hot, too dry, or flooded, there is plenty of oxygen sealed in with her maybe, from sprinklers). Perhaps you for a day or more. Try to find two or three could let a patch of lawn or an additional females. Put a thin slice of washed apple yard-wide strip at the edge grow tall (go in the jar to maintain humidity and for the back to nature) as a sort of nursery. Fe- females to sink their mandibles into. Put males released there, we hope, will lay in a small wad of fresh grass to give their eggs at the bases of grass stems. A “cover” and places to climb. week or so later the eggs will hatch into Next, catch four or five males and put worm-eating larvae. After finishing larval them in the jar, and give them some pri- development and the pupal period, the fol- vacy (kidding of course). We will hope that lowing June adults will appear above if the females had not mated before you ground and the males fly over the lawn caught them, they will within a couple of looking for mates. days, with the males you put in the jar with How can I attract fireflies to my yard Finding females may not be as difficult them. Put the jar with the fireflies in a place and garden? as you might think. Give it a try. Then, you where they can see (only) the light from Joann, Beltsville MD must be certain they are mated. Even this outdoors, which will keep them on a natu- is not too difficult. Here’s a guide: Photinus Dear Joann, pyralis is the firefly that makes the J-flash There are many species of fireflies in over grass at twilight. It should be active in your region, but not all are candidates for Maryland for several weeks in summer. your lawn and garden. Most of them have The flying J-flashers are the males giving a rather narrow range of habitats to which their species’ mating signal. Their females they are suited and probably would not are perched in the grass, and when they survive in the place you offer. However, see a half-second flash they count 2-3 sec there is one species in particular that is and flash a half-sec answer. The male fly adapted to meadows, pastures and other closer, flash his signal again, etc, etc, till grassy habitats, and is sometimes referred he reaches the female. The males will be to as “the lawn firefly”. You might say it is your competitors when you try to find fe- sort of a “weed” species, though it is a males. They will not quickly find females native American, not an introduced exotic. that are in brush or back under trees at the This is the Big Dipper Firefly, Photinus edge of the lawns and field where you pyralis (L.) (see figure). This firefly occurs should look — a firefly chaser selects sites throughout much of eastern North to search by the presence of males, and America (see map) and often is seen over specific female perches by looking in lawns, in parks, and along roadsides. It is shady spots and nooks that males are the lightningbug that children know be- more likely to miss. You will get better with cause it flies and flashes shortly after sun- experience. I don’t know whether fireflies set for a half hour or so, and flies low over do. the grass (up to 4-5 feet) where they can Take a penlight and walk around the chase and catch it. edge of the grassy area at sites you locate Like larvae of other firefly species, those (don’t go alone), and flash half-sec flashes, of pyralis are predators and they and other first here, then there, etc. After you flash ral daylength and cycled properly. Do not Photinus larvae may perhaps feed exclu- each time, wait, and look for the yellow put them in a sunlit window, the heat of sively on earthworms. They are answering flash at the 2-3 sec delay. If their greenhouse will kill them. If you find subterrainean, and should you manage to none, move on to the next likely spot etc. more females, up to maybe six or seven, get them into your yard, you may occa- When you get an answer, flash again and sionally find larvae and pupae while dig- get closer, until you can see the answer- Continued on page 10, see Dipper ging in the garden. However, fireflies do ing female, and carefully not seem to occur in areas where recent pick her up and put her Known geographic distribution of the Big Dipper construction, lawn-making, and bulldoz- in a jar. It is probably bet- Firefly, Photinus pyralis (L.) ing have shuffled and disturbed the struc- ter to gently brush her ture and composition of the soil. Also, into an open bottle that when chemicals are used in an area (pes- is held below her, but do ticides, lawn fertilizers) they may do dam- not bump her perch! Put age to the soil, to the worms, and to the no holes in the lid of her things the worms need, and thus keep the motel, for she will surely fireflies from getting established. dry out and die. Each Your mission not impossible is to give day that you have her, re- them a start, and then hope they survive. move the lid and blow Finding eggs would probably be out of the gently across the mouth question. You must find females and re- of the jar. Thiswill stir lease them in your yard to lay eggs — not fresh air (oxygen) down on the lawn, but at the edge where you into the jar. With the lid 1 or few records have let the grass get a little deeper and kept on, the air in the jar where the atmosphere near the soil is apt will remain humid, an many records to be better controlled (lawn grass is prob- absolute necessity, and

Vol. 1, Number 1 Winter 1993-94 Fireflyer Companion 9 A Firefly Paper true. Two speculated on male and fe- male differences, and one, a zoology I have fond childhood memories of major, said that, “all different species fireflies, like a lot of other people. I re- have basic differences in mating rituals, member going out into the soft spring so logically, different firefly species evenings to watch the sun set and lis- should be different too.” Impressed by ten to the sounds of nature waking up. her answer, I asked this particularly as- I would sit on the wide soft lawn be- tute student another question. Do all fire- hind my house and watch the first flies look the same? I was much disap- sprinkle of flashes of the spring turn into pointed by her answer, “I guess so, I’ve a shower. Each spring I would stare into never really paid attention.” Here we the darkness searching for the blinking come to the great truth of the firefly story. lights, and I remember finding those Many people watch fireflies to be enter- lights and being captivated — by the tained by their bright lights, but very few firefly. That was in Wisconsin. I also re- actually know anything about the in- member the short time we lived in Ja- sects. It doesn’t it seem as if the firefly is pan, looking for fireflies, and wonder- being, well...well used? We need to rem- ing if they spoke the same language as edy this case of mass ignorance of gen- American fireflies. Unfortunately for me eral firefly information. I never found out, because firefly is a Adventures in Researching. First I language I’ve never gotten a chance to turned to my good friend “Webster” learn. In Iowa, too, I would journey out (you know, the one who wrote the dic- Whoo? What? How? Why? with my little brother to watch, then tionary—he’s very smart) for a definition capture them in a jar for closer obser- of a firefly. This is what he told me. “Fire- vation. And yes, even in Louisiana I fly: any nocturnal beetle of the family Dipper, continued from page 9 would go outside on warm evenings to Lampyridae having a light-producing watch for those bright little flashes. organ at the rear of the abdomen. Also all the better. Put in a few extra males. I had no idea why or how these called lightning bug. Compare glow You might divide your stock into two jars. strange creatures could make their fas- worm”. So, I looked up glow worm as After two to three days put the jars out cinating little flashes, I guess I just ac- well. “Glow worm: the larva or wingless at the edge of your lawn, in the shade, cepted it as a part of nature. Even now I on their sides with the lids off, and gen- see Paper, continued on page 11 know very little about fireflies (but I’m tly slide the loose grass wads to the learning!), and I’ve started to wonder mouths of the jars — keping it loose in about the rest of the general (human) Save, continued from page 5 the mouth for easy escape of your population. What do people really know creased danger in nocturnal outdoor ac- propagules. Then hope. You might take about fireflies? I decided to take an in- tivity in and near cities. But, I can say from some pictures of the process. It certainly formal survey of my friends to see what personal field experience, that there are is one of the first American firefly “re- they knew (if anything) about fireflies. still some fireflies present in the Bronx, and lease programs” and deserves to be re- “Facts” and Misconceptions. I de- Nassau, Westchester, and Bergen Coun- corded. Good luck, and please write and cided to start with the basics. First I ties. keep me informed of your progress and asked my friends if they had ever seen The map for one apparently rare spe- success. [jl] a firefly before. Quite happily, all of them cies, shows that it once occurred from had, so I proceeded to the next ques- New England to the High Plains. There are tion. What are fireflies? This question no archival records for New England after was followed by much laughter, jesting, the 1920s. Considering the ecology of the and a jumble of answers ranging from species, as understood through observa- wrong to somewhat correct — “Bugs! tions I made in Nebraska and North Da- Insects! Their eyes glow. Don’t their kota, stream and pond pollution could have butts light up? Yeah, don’t they have, been involved. Fortunately, there have Trivial Flashlets like, headlights or turn signals or some- been three sightings during the 1. What State in the U.S. has more firefly thing?” Since I was obviously in a group past two summers, in Connecticut, species than any other? of incredibly aware and intelligent be- Massachusets and Vermont. 2. What city has a firefly festival every year and ings, I decided to ask if anyone knew In the next issue I will detail the na- has been designated the firefly capitol of the why fireflies flashed. Once again I re- ture of my observational records for fire- U.S.? ceived a wide range of answers. “Is this flies in Alachua County FL, dating from 3. What continent has no fireflies at all? a pornographic question? Doesn’t it 1964. In the meantime, you might begin 4. What city built a monument to honor the boll have something to do with mating? Is to list and photograph the sites in your weevil, another beetle? this a sex thing?” area where you have seen fireflies in the 5. What town has a 3-ft high statue of a Encouraged by these responses, I de- past and that you could closely monitor mosquito in the square by the flagpole and a cided to push my luck and ask a slightly on a continuing basis in the future. Have mosquito festival and queen? more technical question — do all fire- any of your early sites been polluted with 6. What is the largest firefly in the world and flies have the same flashes? While the street light emissions, or taken out of fire- where does it occur? general group consensus was that they fly production for other reasons? 7. Are any firefly species cave-dwellers? did, three of my friends’ answers rang [jl] (to be continued) (answers next issue)

10 Fireflyer Companion Vol. 1, Number 1 Winter 1993-94 Paper, continued from page 10 female of a beetle, Lampyris noctiluca, PUZZLE CLUES which emits a sustained greenish light”. While this information was somewhat ACROSS 46. our Twinkle2 poet helpful, as it gave me a more specific 1. out of this world (as in “UFO”) 47. foot, or spider’s palp name to look for, it basically reviewed 3. handy pocket decoy 48. computer disk, not hd or low d what I already knew. I turned next to the 8. winter firefly color 49. a predator’s move encyclopedia, which wasn’t much help 11. firefly first defense DOWN either. The Encyclopedia Brittanica told 12. Big Dipper time-o-day 1. elytron (abbr. in morphol. text) me that fireflies were soft-bodied beetles 13. pyralis arena (I guess they don’t work out very often), 2. space for data in text (abbr.) 14. posteni or: insect= _____: ship about 5 to 25 millimeters in length, that 4. most common word for firefly 17. most evidence for firefly loss use a complex system of flashes as a part 5. intestine: fore___ , mid___ , hind___ 2 1. a family related to fireflies of their mating ritual. Needing more in- 6. Big Dipper’s substrate (i.e. carpet) 24. stipes (abbr. In morphol. text)) depth information, I then consulted my 7. when Winter Firefly transforms 25. upper leg (abbr. in morphol. text) friend LUIS, at Library West. He gave me 8. necktie for insect museum taxonomist and 26. no. modes in bimodal flash a list of possibly useful sources, includ- pinned-specimen sorter 27. furcula (abbr. in morphol. text) ing a book entitled “Studies on the Flash 9. flash characteristic flawed by observers’ own 28. sex of J-flasher over grassland Communication System in Photinus Fire- detectors 29. either ____ (facultative behavior) flies,” by some guy named James E. 10. fireflyer’s querulous associate 30. Appalachian pass: water ______Lloyd at the University of Michigan. I re- 15. firefly enzyme (generic name) 31. crow’s close, blue relative trieved this book and a few others, and 16. living (chemically produced) light 32. no. native Hawaiian fireflies began my search in earnest. 18. Garrett Co. branch (i.e., stream) 33. Latin (feminine plural) ending From the above mentioned book, I 19. Collembola common name was able to extract some general infor- 35. male driving force (poetic) 20. “100” legged arthropod mation about firefly flash terminology. 36. cane- ______22. wingless emitter According to Lloyd, a steady emission of 37. sperm source/male progenitor 23. Photinus underground prey light is called a glow, a series of flashes 38. Macintosh user group (abbr.) 36. entomology (old abbr.) from the male to the female is called a 42. American tree killed by Dutch disease 39. integripennis emission flash pattern, and a response flash is the carried by a beetle 40. swarm: fireflies =____: buffalo female’s responding flash to the male 43. tarsal claw (colloq.) 41. ice ___ , when few bogs open flash pattern. These different signals are 44. gastropod prey of certain fireflies utilized by different species to attract and 45. a service for specimen delivery communicate with potential mates, and are specific to each species. 12 3 4 56 The next source I consulted was a the- sis paper by Lawrent Lee Buschman, 7 8910 “Biology and Bioluminescence of Se- 11 12 lected Fireflies in Three Genera: Pyrac- tomena, Photinus, and Photuris.” This 13 14 study was fairly useful to me because it presented general information about 15 16 flash patterns in the introduction. 17 18 Buschman detailed the two main flash systems that were first presented by 19 20 Lloyd. In the first system, one firefly (usu- ally the female) stays in one place while 21 22 23 24 emitting a signal to attract a firefly of the 25 same species but opposite sex. He noted that in species that use this system, the 26 27 28 female has a large, bright light, but the male often does not. In the second sys- 29 tem, one firefly (the male) flies around 30 31 32 while emitting a signal to stimulate a fe- male firefly of the same species, and the 33 female responds with a signal. 34 35 36 37 Another book I looked in was a doc- toral thesis entitled “Photinus 38 39 40 collustrans: Reproductive Ecology of Flightless Female Fireflies” by Steven 41 42 43 Rae Wing. Although he inadvertently cre- 44 45 46 ated a new tongue twister for firefly stu- 47 48 49 Continued on page 12, see Paper Vol. 1, Number 1 Winter 1993-94 Fireflyer Companion 11 The Winter Firefly Paper, continued from page 11 It may come as a surprise, but summer is dents, he also presented a large volume not the only season that adults of North of information of which I could only uti- American fireflies are abroad. There is “one lize a small amount. Wing discussed fe- species” of rather broad occurrence in east- ern U.S. and Canada that ecloses to males of this species, describing them adult-hood in late surnmer and fall, and as “pale, soft bodied, conspicuous, and hangs around until the following summer. relatively slow-moving.” He also noted This is the Winter Firefly, Ellychnia corrusca that Lloyd had pointed out an interest- (L.). I have been collecting data on this fire- ing fact about the species. Males only fly for as long as I have been watching fire- spend about 18 minutes per evening flies and it is one of the most interesting “spe- looking for mates, as compared to over cies” that I know. First, it apparently is not a single species, belong to the beetle family. Lampyridae. Ac- 8 hours in some other species, a fact I but a mixture of separate entities that has so tually, there are dozens of lampyrid species find extremely interesting. far defied taxonomic resolution- I keep mea- that do not have lightorgans in the adult stage. A Glitch in the Process (a.k.a. suring museum specimens and collecting Having said this, I must go on to say that Where’s the Conclusion?). It is at this incidental notes on the “complex,” but since adult corrusca sometimes do emit light. Ju- point where I ran out of relatively gen- I only very rarely see it in Florida I can only veniles of all fireflies, as far as now known, eral information to include in this paper. do have light organs. In the Winter Firefly the wait for another winter trip up north. One All of the remaining sources I located “sort” that is worth noting, is the small and larval lanterns remain functional through the broad one that the early entomologist and pupal stage and into the adult stage. For a few were either checked out, too specific, physician Dr. Frederick Valentine days after adults eclose, these larval lanterns unsuitable material for this paper, or Melsheimer named autumnalis, in 1835. continue to emit light when the firefly is couldn’t be persuaded to talk for the Second, though adults do not have light- “roughly” handled, say, by gently being meager amount of money I offered organs and certainly must use pheromones shaken in a loosely closed fist. (Say not “seven them. Unfortunately, that brings my pa- (chemical signals) for sexual communica- come eleven,” but “bug come a light.”) per to an abrupt end, an occurrence that tion, all of their other features — morphol- Finally, for now, one might expect that Win- ogy, life-history, etc — reveal that they clearly ter Fireflies would hole up for the winter, and (for me) is rare and upsetting. I do hope, remain in crevices under bark and logs, to however, to get a chance in the future escape the dangers and accidents of wind, to expound on the ideas presented so hungry birds, and rapidly-changing tempera- far. Also, I hope that as I learn more tures. They don’t, at least some don’t. They about the interesting insects commonly are often found up on tree trunks, freezing known as “the firefly”, so that I can edu- temperatures and all, even with tiny piles of snow on their backs. Fred Hough and I are cate my friends and clear up the miscon- putting together a paper on this firefly that will ceptions and misinformation they hold. give some details of winter activity and adult (— turn signals, pornography, and glow- glowing. We will be putting our findings in a ing eyes? They really do need to be edu- research-teaching journal that several cated!). [Holly Saigo, U of F] fireflyers are developing. More later. [jl]

pronotum. n. shield-like plate par- tially or totally covering the head of fire- flies. It is the roof (dorsal sclerite) of the first thoracic segment. pheromone. n. molecules emitted by Editor’s Note an individual organism that are de- There are many reasons for begin- tected by another of the same species. ning a newsletter. Among ours is the Carried on the wind in what is called a shared belief that the best things in This ink drawing of the Winter Firefly plume. life, the stars, the moon, and the fire- flies ought to be free, and available. was made by a student many years ago. eclose. n. to emerge, as when an The many phone calls and letters that When I find her name I’ll give her proper adult emerges from the pupa or larva we get from children, parents, report- credit, but note the initials below the tip from an egg. ers, and editors, asking about fireflies of the right elytron. Note the diagnostic Lampyridae. n. family of beetles tell us that there is a “market.” A need. dark bands at the lateral margins of the known as fireflies. It is closely related We don’t know how long this will last. pronotum, the raised lines on the elytra, to the soldier beetles and glowworm It depends on interest, demonstrated the general broad and black habitus beetles. The ending -idae identifies the by letters and questions. We will try (body “look”). The light-colored areas on word as a family name in zoological for two years as a start. To get a copy each side of the median vitta (spot) on nomenclature. There are about 2000 write us a letter at the address given the pronotum often have red, yellow, or named species of Lampyridae, and on page 2. Next time we will note orange pigment. The distribution map is many more to be named and work to publication costs, that we ff hermits pick up this time. Get your penlights preliminary, and was put together from be done to understand what a “species” and fishpoles we go! data on labels of museum specimens. really is in nature.

12 Fireflyer Companion Vol. 1, Number 1 Winter 1993-94 ￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿✍

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Vol. 1, Number 2 Spring 1996

Fireflyer. firefly + er. n. short for firefly ￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿ chaser. A person who thinks about lightningbugs.

FIREFLIES USA — 26/4/96: For many years, without success I have tried to get entomologists who are knowledgeable of pesticides, their modes of action, application and side-effects, interested in determining the impact of various chemicals on fireflies and firefly populations. — As you may recall from the first issue of the Companion the question was raised as to whether such chemicals are adversely affecting fire- flies and may be contributing to the obvious decline in their numbers that has been noted b so many firefly watchers. It is easy to imagine that they could, directly and/or indirectly through the food chain. — Recently an entomologist in west Florida who is involved in a mosquito control program contacted me about re- search he wished to conduct on the effects of mosquito adulticides on fireflies. Though the investigation is being slowed by the unusually cold spring, we may eventually have our first hard data on the matter. ￿￿￿￿

￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿ ￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿ Fireflies are not flies, they are beetles and various chemical treatments, or when firefly genes are put into other most Americans call them lightningbugs. Not only do different organisms, the photochemicals and photochemistry can be used for people call them by different names, but they have used them for several applications in research and medicine, but it destroys the different ideas, concepts and spirits — ghosts of ancestors, bits of magic that inspired poets such as Tagore and Shelley. Some might truth in a dark world, foreboding of evil, triviality. They comprise argue that it is a new poetry for a new century that has been pro- one of several families of so-called Leatherwing Beetles, and are duced, but would they miss the point, about reaching for finer things? found on every continent except Antarctica. Their formal family While there may well be a poetry in technology, for many of us name is Lampyridae. Worldwide there are over 1900 species that technology is never poetry, and is perhaps one of the many reasons have been formally named, but I am certain that this is but half or we seek out poetry. fewer of those that are out there to be named. Over 170 species If you spent your childhood with the flashing species of eastern occur in North America, more than 50 on the tiny island of Jamaica, North America, then fireflies are more than mere insects. They are at least 30 are found in New York state and over 50 occur in Florida. glowing stripes smeared on shirts and foreheads, a Mason jar of The firefly-richest region of North America probably occurs along flashes gathered from the front lawn at dusk and carried quickly- a 30-mile-wide swath on the Florida-Georgia border from the Big off-to-bed-to-be-watched-under-the-pillow-where-it-was-really- Bend Coast to the Okefenokee Swamp. In spring and summer in dark. Flashing fireflies met the colonists in Jamestown, and danced the eastern United States thousands of flying flashing males of many on the prairie with a fiddle and Sweet Betsy from Pike. Once there different species can be seen as they fly over meadows, fields, and were plans for them to go with an even bigger fire in the tail - though marshes, emitting their amber, yellow, or green-yellow light, but in a form retaining little of their romantic selves — to outer space to west of Kansas flashers are a novelty in spite of past failed attempts hunt for extra-terrestrial life, but they were bumped. by enthusiasts to introduce them. A firefly’s luminescence first appears in the embryo stage when The firefly’s living light, which is a form of chemiluminescence the beetle is still within the egg “shell,” though the shell (chorion) known as bioluminescence, is neither electrical spark nor brief of the egg may also have been smeared with a short-lived glow as it glimpse into a flaming furnace within. It is a chemical reaction in passed down its mother’s egg canal. After hatching and for the next which visible light energy is released. The reaction involves the weeks, months, or years — depending on the lifecycle and local oxidation (a chemical burning) of luciferin, the light-emitting mol- ecology of the species — the larva glows from its two tiny posterior ecule; adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the energy-rich molecule that lanterns. The known larvae of all fireflies are luminous, even the is the immediate source of energy for the numerous functions in- larvae of species in which the adults have lost (over a very long volved in movement and growth in all organisms; luciferase, the time), their ability to shine. Why do larvae glow, for they are too enzyme that catalyzes the reaction; and a co-factor, magnesium or young for sex, we presume? There have been numerous guesses manganese, which works with luciferase to “facilitate” the reac- over the past 100 years, yet no one knows for certain. You might tion. The emission of a flashing firefly is triggered by nerve im- look into this, and it should sustain your faith in nature and appre- pulses to the lantern. When removed from the tail of the firefly by ciation of pure biology. Is it not true that a subject too complex for us to ever fully comprehend is thus especially appealing, reassur- But back to Photuris’ metamorphosis habits: the larvae dig a pit ing, and beautiful for the right-minded and thoughtful? in the soil, climb in it, and continue to dig. They make soil crumbs The function of larval light could be related to the predatory be- into little pellets, and from the inside of their digs they form it into havior of the larvae. They hunt snails, earthworms, larvae of other an igloo-shaped hut. After a few days in seclusion they shed their insects, and probably other soft-bodied animals on and in the soil, larval skins, and, in a reclining position on their back, reorganize depending on what kind of firefly they are. Once it was suggested their form and function and become born-again lighting-up bugs. that the glowworms (a term sometimes applied to firefly larvae) The verb eclose is used to refer to both the hatching of the egg — attract prey with their light. This idea is a natural, and may have when the embryo emerges from the shell to become a first instar been stimulated by accounts of the predatory habits of luminous larva — and the emergence of the untanned and ghostly pale (teneral) fungus gnats in New Zealand caves, or by watching flying insects adult, fresh from the pupa. attracted to porch lights. One guess is that the larvae of some spe- Two features of Photuris firefly pupation are really different from cies may use the glow as a call to arms. Because they sometimes those of Pyractomena fireflies, and are related to the site that it hunt large snails or other prey, and each larva has a limited poison uses for its metamorphosis — that is, its transformation. The reserve with which to stun prey and could not possibly eat a big Photuris pupa is not pigmented, but is ghost white, and it readily snail all by itself, maybe larvae call others to join a chase and gang turns on its light when it is touched. The lack of pigment may be up to subdue a giant. There is little evidence, circumstantial or oth- adaptive in two respects. First, when the light is turned on the en- erwise, to support this notion. Commonly several larvae are found tire animal glows because its translucent tissues conduct the light. feeding upon the same kill, and after larvae of one species redis- The light in this case may deter potential predators or subterranean covered the trail of a snail that they had been following, but mo- wanderers that break into the chamber and might damage the trans- mentarily lost, they again began to luminesce. Probably the light is former. This idea was generated (“notioned”) by one of my stu- used in several ways for several functions. Another promising but dents long ago, Larry Buschman, from his work on soil-inhabiting difficult to prove notion would be that larvae sometimes use their species, and me, from studies of species that spend their juvenile glows to coordinate life history events, such as pupating. In Japan stages in rotten pine logs. We have not tested it, but it is thusly when aquatic larvae leave the water to pupate on shore they all stated: since animals that live in the humid confines of the soil, glow brightly as they walk up the bank to find a spot. rotten wood, or other dense media may have evolved negative re- When the larval form of the beetle has completed its function sponses to light — because light would be an indicator of the lethal (i.e., role, purpose) — that of growing larger and storing energy — outside world of low humidity and sharp-eyed predators — the light the insect begins the dramatic, almost magical transformation dur- of the juvenile firefly may mimic daylight (above ground) and some- ing which it will rebuild itself completely and produce the body- times cause a soil- or log-inhabiting predator to quickly, at first form that is adapted for sex and reproduction. The period (=growth sight, turn and move in another direction. Secondly, to build pig- — stage) of rebuilding, generally termed the pupa, has sometimes ments may be expensive in ATP coinage of stored energy. A saving been referred to as the resting stage, and it takes place in many in pigment cost could be used to build more eggs, or make avail- insects including butterflies, flies, and fleas. Far from resting, the able more stored energy for mate-seeking activities later. Cost-ben- firefly builds wings, flight muscles, wing-covers, big and complex efit ratios and energy budgets are of some importance in the lives eyes with innumerable facets, long antennae, new neural circuits, of many organisms, though perhaps sometimes their presumptive and a new set of behavioral and physiological programs, patterns, penny-wisdom is greatly overrated. I am not fond of either of these and responses. ideas, but they are there to think about, test, and improve on or put For this change of life, which may take a week or a month, the at the bottom of the plausibility list. firefly hides itself. Larvae of Pyractomena limbicollis Green (a fire- After the new Pyractomena limbicollis adult is formed, the fire- fly of southeastern United States) climb up on tree trunks, bushes, fly bursts through the front end of the pupal skin and crawls, squirms, and vines, and sometimes in a crack or crevice they glue their tails and wriggles, and slides slowly out of it. The cuticle of the new down. They “undress” by wriggling and squirming, while hanging adult is mostly white at this moment, but it gradually becomes char- upside down by what might be called their tail-end toes. Then they coal- and rose-colored, and then black and red. Color changes are hang like a butterfly chrysalid for nearly two weeks. The pupa is accompanied by hardening of the cuticle and a firming of the muscle cryptically (concealingly) colored and on some tree bark can be attachments within, and in a few hours the adult beetle, fresh and difficult to find. The larvae of Pyractomena fireflies are occasion- sparking like a new automobile, is able to move about with vigor, ally seen glowing, and on damp nights in damp woods they are and to fly the first time it tries, virtually without practice. Amazing sometimes found lit up as they walk up the trunks and along the magic on the wing and all lit up. branches of shrubs and trees. In general, Pyractomena species are With the setting of the sun on the first day of adulthood the events rarer than those of our other flashing genera, Photinus and Photuris, that are most apt to catch and the habitats of many species are easily made unsuitable for them the human eye and fancy — low woods cut (as useless wasteland), and swamps and marshes can begin. Because there J.E. Lloyd (Ed.), with Mara drained. is an incredible amount of Addison, and Joshua Trotter. In contrast to the aerial/arboreal transformation of Pyractomena variation among the fire- Mailing Address: Fireflies, De- fireflies, species of Photinus and Photuris are subterranean pupaters. flies, a single description partment of Entomology & Larvae of the genus Photuris are the most commonly seen glow- could not serve them all. Nematology, University of Here is a brief sketch to worms in North America, for not only are they very common, as Florida, PO Box 110620, give a basic pattern that is larvae they spend much time walking on the ground, presumably Gainesville, FL 32611. found in North American hunting, and often glow while doing it. Larvae of Photinus fireflies WWW: http://gnv.ifas.ufl.edu/ spend most of their time underground and rarely are seen glowing; flashing fireflies. The though there are exceptions. adult mating behavior of

14 Fireflyer Companion Vol. 1, Number 2 Spring 1996 the Big Dipper Firefly, Photinus pyralis (L.) was first described by maybe, perhaps a chemical “by-your-leave,” the male mounts and Baron von Osten Sachen 130 years ago. It was studied in more transfers sperm to her. This takes her full cooperation, because if detail in the early 1900s by the father of American fireflyology, she turns her tail down he will never find the right place to put the Frank McDermott. A little before dusk females climb up on blades sperm in. of grass or herbs. Males take flight and emit a half-second flash The mating behavior just described generally applies for flash- every 5 to 6 seconds. As they flash they make a swoop, a swooping ing fireflies, the lightningbug fireflies. There are two other major U or J in flight, then pause and hover for 2 seconds or so, then they communication systems found in fireflies in North America. In fly several feet in one big flying hump, drop down low and aim, glowworm fireflies usually only the females have lights. They live and swoop-flash again. in underground burrows but come to their doorway above ground When a female sees the male’s flash she waits for 2-3 seconds to show their glowing light and attract a mate. Then they retire and emits her half-second flash. Her flash is presented during the underground to lay their eggs and they eventually die there. Be- period when the male is hovering, immediately following his flash cause there are only a few species of glowworm fireflies, and be- — that is why he has remained there hovering for more than two cause males of most of them do not have lights, they are seldom seconds before flying on to deliver his next advertisement. He then seen. Adults of some firefly species have no lights, and they use turns and flies a few feet towards where he saw her flash, and flashes chemical signals (pheromones) for sexual signaling. These dark again. The pair continues a dialogue that lasts for a minute and fireflies apparently fly exclusively in the daytime. sometimes much longer. Eventually he lands near and walks to her, Quiet and mysterious trails,￿￿￿￿￿ still talking but sometimes whispering to her. Then, with possibly,

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enry David Thoreau — author of the American liter-ary What kind are these? Thoreau asked in his journal. But Thoreau classic, Walden, or Life in the Woods (1853) —was a would never know that the fireflies he had so carefully described Hcompetent naturalist, especially a very good botanist. But, were doubtless or at least most likely Phengodes plumosa larvae or for various reasons, when he tried his hand at coleoptera, despite all larviform females, a species of the Phengodinae sub-family of the his efforts, he had little or no success at identifying the two batches beetle family Phengodidae. As early as 1790, Guillaume Antoine of luminescent worms that his friend Marston Watson, a very suc- Oliver described and pictured the Phengodes plumosa adult female; cessful Plymouth, Massachusetts, horticulturist, had twice depos- but Thoreau’s may be the first description, so far as we know, in ited to his care. English and the first recorded instance of the Phengodes plumosa The first batch from Watson awaited Thoreau when he returned larviform female having been found in Massachusetts. In fact, Walter to Concord and Walden Pond on 8 August 1857 from a twenty-day Wittmer in his discussion of the “Genus Phengodes in the United sojourn in the Maine woods. On the very day Thoreau set out from States (Coleoptera: Phengodidae)” in a 1975 number of The Co- Concord for Maine, Watson had shipped him six “fireflies” that he leopterist Bulletin does not indicate that any Phengodes plumosa had found in the hills above Plymouth. They had been found in the Oliver worms, so far as he could discover, were found in Massachu- grass under the wild cherry trees, where it is very dry, Watson told setts before 1894. Thoreau described the worms forty-seven years Thoreau in a note that accompanied the worms. But when Thoreau earlier. got back to Concord on 8 August, only two of the worms still had Nonetheless, despite Thoreau’s meticulous examination of his all their luciferin firepower. The other four were definitely worse worms, in the fall of 1857 he was not able to determine what he for the wait. had. He went to his own library but without success. He complained In his note, Watson had declared these fireflies to be very scarce. in a letter to Watson that Kirby and Spence’s An Introduction to Nonetheless, he wanted to know the species. He wanted Thoreau to Entomology (London, 1856), John Knapp’s TheJournal of a Natu- find out what they were, and Thoreau sought to do so. He gave the ralist (London, 1829), and James Rennie’s three companion vol- two hardy worms careful goings-over by night and by day and care- umes — Insect Architecture, Insect Miscellanies, and Insect Trans- fully entered his observations in his journal (10:3-5). By night, one formation — all three published in London in 1830-31 — contained of them had two bright dots near together on the head and two more no minute, scientific descriptions. But if Kirby and Spence, Knapp, bright dots at the other extremity, wider apart than the first. The and Rennie had contained detailed scientific descriptions, Thoreau firefly was composed of twelve segments or overlapping scales di- should have been aware that they would have been of little or no vided by nine transverse lines of light, with a bright dot on each help. All of these works have an Old World (English) orientation side opposite the transverse lines. The bright dots glowed with a and were not likely to be a means of providing the identification greenish light. and classification that Thoreau sought to determine. By light of day, the smaller worm measured seven-eighths of an However, while Thoreau was pondering his firefly problem, the inch long, one-sixth of an inch wide, and about one-twelfth of an Boston Daily Evening Traveller on 12 August 1857 carried an un- inch thick, with a head nearly one-twentieth of an inch wide, and titled front page account of two fireflies exhibited on 2 July by Dr. with a tail wider than the head. They have six light-brown legs, Silas Durkee, a Boston physician, at a meeting of the Boston Soci- Thoreau noted, within a quarter inch of the forward extremity. The ety of Natural History. Thoreau was struck with the similarity be- smaller worm had six short antennae-like projections from the head, tween his worms and what Durkee said of his. Could Durkee’s batch the two outer on each side the longest, the two inner very short. The and Thoreau’s be the same species? Possibly, Thoreau thought. But worms were a pale brownish-yellow or buff. The head was dark two things bothered Thoreau. One was Durkee’s claim that his worms brown; the antennae were chestnut and white or whitish on the sides often glowed with a light equally diffused throughout the entire and beneath. length of the worm. The other was Durkee’s claim that his worms Vol. 1, Number 2 Spring 1996 Fireflyer Companion 15 were the so-called common English glowworm firefly, Lampyris other segments were very narrow in proportion to their breadth, and noctiluca — the firefly the English literary writers most often wrote successively narrower, slightly recurved at tip and bristle pointed. about. Thoreau was convinced that Durkee’s worms were not These little worms, Thoreau especially noticed, had light organs Lampyris noctiluca. Durkee quoted from Kirby and Spence to back only on the apical. sternites of the abdomen. Had not Kirby and up his claim that his were L. noctiluca. But Thoreau no doubt read Spence said that this was a characteristic of the Lampyris noctiluca? Kirby and Spence more carefully than Durkee had; and Thoreau no So Thoreau jumped to the conclusion that the worms indeed were doubt noticed that Kirby and Spence had noted specifically that L. noctiluca this time. authors who have noticed the luminous parts of the common fe- Of course they were not — could not have been. In fact, Thoreau’s male glowworms have usually contented themselves with stating journal description was a very accurate portrait of a larva of a spe- that the light issues from the last ventral segment of the abdomen cies of a Photuris firefly (subfamily Photurinae of the family Lampy- (p. 539). Durkee claimed that his worms diffusely glowed equally ridae). The larva Thoreau described in detail was one of several throughout. Kirby and Spence indicated that L. noctiluca did not species, which, in Thoreau’s day and well into this century, were glow in such a fashion. Thoreau went along with Kirby and Spence, lumped under the name Photuris pennsylvanica. Although there and Thoreau was right. Lampyris noctiluca was an Old World beetle; were several taxonomic studies dealing with Photuris in Thoreau’s and to this day, there is no documented record of even an accidental time, there is no evidence that he was acquainted with them or had arrival of L. noctiluca in the United States in ballast or otherwise. access to them. Yet he needed more light and different light from Thoreau was convinced that his worms were of a species distinct what was available to him in Kirby and Spence, Knapp, and Rennie from L. noctiluca, though he would never know just what species with their lack of minute, scientific description and their Old World he had. orientation. It is too bad that Thoreau, in his day, did not have some- Unsuccessful as Thoreau was in identifying the first batch, thing similar to Ross H. Arnett’s The Beetles of the United States (A Marston Watson nevertheless sent a second batch of worms that he Manual for Identification) [Ann Arbor: The American Entomologi- found in Lincoln, Massachusetts, on 15 September 18 5 7. They cal Institute, 1968] to enable him to corrrectly identify the Photuris were, Thoreau noted in his journal (10:33-34), deep brown crea- females and the Phengodes plumosa worms that Marston Watson tures. They averaged about five-eighths of an inch long, with six sent him. brown legs within about one-fourth of an inch of the forward ex- F. B. Dedmond (Boone, NC tremity. The worms, he observed, were composed of twelve scale- — The Firefly Capital of America) like segments, including the head, which, at will, is drawn under the foremost scale. When he touched one of the worms, it stretched Reference: The Journal of Henry D. Thoreau, ed. Bradford Torrey and showed its light for a moment, only under the last segment. The and Francis H. Allen (14 vols; Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., worm’s first segment was broadly conical, much the largest. The 1906).

Notes From A Firefly Sadist which such experiments are prelude. I didn’t become the scientist that an intensity of such interests J.E. Lloyd, in response to my request for some material on fire- presaged in several of my children, but neither did I become some- flies, sent me a couple of pounds of it. I’d barely digested the open- one who idly sprays to kill. I became an interested participant in ing ounces when I remembered something gruesome from my child- the systems by which my former victims are supported, and which hood. I used to squish the rear ends of fireflies in hope of harvest- they in turn support. I think I learned something. ing for my own use a stash of their luminescent paste. Firefly luminescence, I can tell you, doesn’t even last ‘til bed- With that memory returned a flood of images dating from be- time. But the realization that it fades because it dies, that only the tween the ages of three and ten. Only one was patently untrue: I living body of the firefly itself can keep it glowing, lights the adult couldn’t have outfitted a cicada with a harness, and walked it along mind as vividly as those viscous smears so transiently lit my fin- the lawn as on a leash. More smacking of the truth was the memory gernails fifty years ago. Of all creatures, insects are the most abun- of poking sticks into cow patties to expose the grubs. I recalled dant and the most available to children, the most various and en- inserting any item that resembled a cocoon into a wooden match chanting, and the most correctly scaled in that they fit into small box, and waiting to see what would emerge. Some were moths. hands and boxes, and the most desirably alien in that they do not Others were spiders. One was a wasp. Certainly I fed crickets on scream or bleed. bread and milk; when they died, they turned belly up in their make- Of all insects, fireflies are the best. They are the best because shift tin-can cages. Green katydids faded when killed by chloro- parents must let their children stay up past sunset to indulge their form; caterpillars rotted. Grasshopper “tobacco juice” did not make joy; because the beetles speak a common language of flashes in the a good ink. The ones with red legs kicked so hard they kicked them night; because they make mayonnaise jars into bedtime lanterns; off. Ants make a hissing or popping sound when burnt with a match. because they are easy to catch. Decapitated horse flies walked headless. And because — boluxing as they may be to Dr. Lloyd and fellow These were cruel and revolting memories to adult sensibilities, systematists whose childhood chasings now can be weighed by the but they were suffused with glee. I discerned in them not the slight- academic pound — fireflies all look pretty much alike. It’s hard to est tinge of moral difference between the image of rescuing a sil- answer butterfly questions: Is it nymph or satyr, comma or ques- verfish from drowning in the bathtub (by drying it on a bed of folded tion mark? It’s easy to answer sparkles in the night: toilet paper) and that of tearing heads off flies in attempt to acquire Yes, my dear, they are fireflies. S. Stein, July 14, 1994 their emerald eyes. Eyes, juice, chirp, kick, glow, and even the re- covering twitch of antennae on a near-drowned silverfish are phe- Sara Stein is the author of gardening books but recently turned nomena of great interest to children, and if moral judgement is per- her attention, writing skill, and botanical knowledge to conser- tinent at all, it is to be found in the intimacy with other creatures to vation/restoration in her book Noah’s Garden.

16 Fireflyer Companion Vol. 1, Number 2 Spring 1996 Answers to Trivial Flashlets 1. What State in the U.S. has more firefly species than any other? Answers to last Crossword Ans.: Georgia, with about 56, though recently Florida has appar- 12 3456 ently matched this number. But, what is a species? et penl ight 7 8910 2. What city has a firefly festival every year, and has been desig- fblacko iuu 11 12 nated the firefly capitol of the U.S.? Ans.: Boone, North Carolina, aobotwilightr 13 14 with a queen, art, and good food, so I am told. lawn l l o h aft 15 16 3. What continent has no fireflies at all? Ans.: Antarctica. loltb 4. What city built a monument to honor the boll weevil? Ans.: 17 18 circumstantial Enterprise, Alabama. 19 20 sc ct ioo 5. What town has a 3-ft high statue of a mosquito in the square by 21 22 23 phengod i dae n l s t the flagpole, and a mosquito festival and queen? Ans.: Effie, Min- 25 rnl f faguti nesota, away up north. 27 28 29 itwoefrbmale 6. What is the largest firefly in the world and where does it oc- 30 niwortuia cur? Ans.: To the best of my knowledge it is probably one of the 32 33 tropical species in the genus Cratomorphus, that lives (lived?) in gap o l ay h g none 34 the forests of Brazil. Length?, 1.5 inches or more. Cratomorphus is teo s w aed 35 36 37 38 in the tribe Cratomorphini, with our Pyractomena species. ardor e pole si re 39 40 41 7. Are any firefly species cave-dwellers? Ans.: Herbert S. Bar- iemughrncu 42 43 44 ber, the Great-Uncle of firefly biosystematics noted the possibility lalelmtoen 45 46 47 of cave-living species in Jamaica. In New Zealand there is a slug forrest n 48 49 50 cave-dwelling fungus gnat (Diptera, Mycetophilidae) that is lumi- ped w dd at t ack nous, and snares prey in sticky webs hanging from the cave ceiling.

Firefly Lifehistory Across (Down cont’d) 1. midthoracic prefix 26. earthworms, snails, and dead insects 3. prey for Pyractomena 18. not a firefly climate 28. flash-signal detector 5. notum of a segment 20. steady emission of light 29. in an ecosystem, fireflies are a tiny one 8. tarsal sole 22. snail supressor used by fireflies 30. first thoracic segment (prefix) 10. Australia slang (abbr.) 11. firefly 13. transition stage 12 3456 14. mouthpart fingers 17. firefly flightwing segment 19. first lifestage 89 10 21. single species (abbr.) 23. three (prefix) 11 12 24. feature of larval firefly mandibles 25. srotective bleeding 13 27. amaica 29. English nickname for mating 31. location of Photinus larvae 14 15 Down 16 17 18 1. plot of firefly locations 2. Photuris egg receptacle 19 20 3. Pyractomena prey 4. light 21 22 23 6. cap on cop 7. vertebrate nerve sensitive to firefly poison 24 9. mating life stage 25 26 10. sexlife onset 11. predaceous juveniles 27 28 29 30 12. yellow-light time 14. prefix meaning tail

15. elytral texture of fireflies and kin 31 16. marsh herb for some Pyractomena pupation

Vol. 1, Number 2 Spring 1996 Fireflyer Companion 17 PHENGODIDS: well lit. I have seen P. l a t i c o l l i s suffused with a greenish glow that gradually dims and expires over the insect’s brief life. Zarhipis males Giant Glowworm Beetles have a feeble luminescence that requires allowing the eyes to be- come dark-adapted before it can be seen. Cenophengus ciceroi, from (A Taxonomic Survey of Lanterns and their Use) Arizona saguaro country, has faint green spots on the tip of the abdomen that glow continuously. However, an early description of (continued from Companion 1) a male Distremocephalus texanus with conspicuous lights in the head and tail sounds more prepossessing. We will look into explanations for the phengodid peculiarity of The value of luminescence to a beetle larva is a mystery. It is subterranean light after introducing our North American giant glow- particularly puzzling when the larva lives and glows underground. worm fauna. The most commonly collected species belong to the A number of reasons for carrying lights have been proposed, but widespread genus Phengodes and the western/southwestern genus the first one to consider is aposematism” or “warning coloration.” Zarhipis. Euryopa is a less known member of the same tribe, the The great 19th century naturalists, particularly H. W. Bates, pointed phengodini. The obscure ranks of the tribe Mastinocerini consist of out that some insects were distasteful to birds and other predators seldom seen and little known genera such as Cenophengus, and that poisonous species often “advertise” their unpalatability with Paraptorthodius, Distremocephalus and Mastinocerus. Due to the bright warning colors. The familiar Monarch butterfly contains car- variety of forms within populations, the number of North American diac glycodide heart poisons and its bright orange and black wings species is open to debate. In Zarhipis, there are at least three spe- stick in the memory as well as in the craw of a bird that eats one — cies. Z. integripennis is the most widely distributed species, being and later vomits it up. A few such trials will cause a bird to avoid found in western Washington and Oregon, throughout California to Monarchs and butterflies that look like Monarchs. In addition to the southern half of Arizona and Baja Mexico. In Arizona it is re- orange, red (as in lady bird beetles) and yellow (as in wasps) are stricted to mountains and appears to favor somewhat moister re- used to advertise nauseous secretions and venoms, the same colors gions than Z. truncaticeps, which is a desert dweller, found in Ari- found in eye-catching traffic signals. The brighter and more obvi- zona, California and New Mexico, and possibly southwestern Texas. ous an animal is the earlier a predator will take note and the less Z. tiemanni is most abundant in the China Lake district of Califor- likely it is to complete an attack that would have a bad effect on nia, but has been collected in Nevada and Arizona as well. both participants, In some cases, then, it pays to be noticed. Among Phengodes, P. m e x i c a n a is known from Arizona, New A light in the dark is very noticeable. If this obviousness could Mexico and Durango. P. arizonensis, inflata and fenestrata are like- be coupled to evidence of a potent defense, then warning colora- wise western and southwestern species. P. fucipes inhabits both sides tion could be a plausible explanation for luminescence in of the Mississippi River. R. plumosa lives in the east and Midwest, phengodids. Unfortunately, the rarity of phengodids makes it diffi- from Ontario to Georgia and New York to Nebraska. P. cult to experimentally test the idea. However, there is indirect evi- nigromaculata is a southern native. Larvae are a pale cream and dence of defensive chemicals. When handled, P. laticollis secretes brown color like those of R. plumosa. The geographic range of R. copious amounts of yellow fluid that quickly spreads over the en- laticollis overlaps those of nigromaculata and plumosa, but laticollis tire insect. Once I put one in a cage with a large centipede that it is a much larger insect. The larva is black with orange blotches. attacked but did not eat, though the predator immediately afterwards As far as anyone knows all glowworms are specialized hunters ate a large mealworm. When roughly handled, Z. integripennis se- of millipedes. There is a 19th century record of a Texan cretes a clear amber fluid from U-shaped pores on abdominal seg- Distremocephalus (= Mastinocerus) larva subsisting on small snails, ments 2-9. Phrixothrix, a Latin American genus, discharges an irri- but since mollusks are a typical prey of firefly larvae, this may have tating reddish oily substance from the anus when disturbed. It will been a mistaken identification. The detailed observations of the late turn the end of its body towards its attacker and swing it from side Darwin Tiernann on Z. integrepennis are similar to what I have seen to side while ejecting its anal fluid. A collector bitten on the hand of millipede stalking and killing by Phengodes laticollis and by a Phrixothrix larva noticed a brown substance on the wound and nigromaculata and suggest a long and close evolutionary relation- the surrounding skin remained inflamed for several days. The Old ship. A larva “races” alongside a millipede much larger than itself, World tropic genus Rhagophthalmus has a caustic odor. All of this mounts its back, and then coils around it. It stretches full length, at least suggests a chemical defense that might be advertised by and reaching the vulnerable neck articulation, severs the main nerve. phengodid glows. A bit of circumstantial evidence is that the lights Both Zarhipis and Phengodes will drag their bulky trophy under- of many glowworms brighten or light up when the insect is dis- ground, where they remove the head. A larva then pushes its own turbed. They may be intensifying their warning as danger approaches head into the wound and eats its way into the body cavity, some- — just as a rattlesnake may increase the frequency of its buzzes. times entirely disappearing into the hollowed-out “shell.” It can take Even if phengodids pack a potent chemical punch, could a warn- days for a glowworm to complete its meal. ing signal that can’t be sent through the surrounding soil be of any All stages of the phengodid life cycle bear lights. Embryos can use? Well, yes it could, if it were the first thing a burrowing preda- be seen glowing inside the egg and the larvae and larviform fe- tor saw as it broke in upon its prey. To insure being noticed an males sport multiple light organs, the pattern varying somewhat underground light display should be spread over the surface of the among species. In Zarhipis and Phengodes there are points of light insect. Phengodids tend to have numerous light organs dispersed on the sides of the second through twelfth body segments and stripes over their bodies. Phengodes and Zarhipis species have already been of light shine between the segments. One species of Phengodes, described. Among tropical genera there are some spectacular varia- whose identity is not yet confirmed, has a double row of lights down tions. Besides 11 pairs of thoracic and abdominal lights, its belly. Mastinocerus opaculas has two very large lights on the Rhagophthalmus has large firefly-like taillights, as does Dioptoma head with much smaller and dimmer organs glowing along the ab- adamsi. Diplocladon hasselti bears a line of lights down the middle domen. Pupae are also luminous and while the light pattern is larva- of its back as well as blue-green lights on the sides of every body like, its intensity is greater. North American males are generally not segment except the head and tip of the tail. Phrixothrix has rose-red

18 Fireflyer Companion Vol. 1, Number 2 Spring 1996 headlights and yellow-green lights from the middle of the thorax to weakly and only for a short time. It seems they are less likely than the ninth abdominal segment. The light arrangement is similar in their tropical relatives to be broadcasting sexual messages. But it is Stenophrixothrix, headlights plus lateral spots on the last 8 abdomi- important to remember that only a few of our native species have nal segments, though their lights are yellow-green in color through- been seen mating and those only rarely, so no one really knows out. Ceratophengus is much like Stenophrixothrix, but some what sort of fireworks may take place under the right conditions. Mastinocerus possess headlights and a row of 9 lights down the Female phengodids have the same compliment of light organs as middle of their back. In an undescribed and colorful Brazilian spe- the larvae, but females are often more brightly luminous. Lights cies, the headlights are orange and the body lights yellow. could supplement chemical sexual signals females emit to guide Ceratophengus males are reported to have a pair of lights on their potential mates. Female glows might be particularly important in head and another pair near the tip of their tail, while Dictenum males genera such as Dioptoma, in which males have large eyes and much- bear greenish-yellow light organs on each body segment. In sum, reduced antennae. In others, such as our native Zarhipis adult fe- Phengodids are well lit, all over. males, lights probably continue to function for the same reason that Besides being spread out, a subterranean signaling system should they shine in the larvae… whatever that may be! Males have small be on a lot of the time. There may be little warning of an unseen eyes and mating occurs in daylight. predator’s attack. It would be better to signal continuously so as not The following are papers someone with an interest in phengodids to be literally in the jaws of death before giving your luminous warn- can refer to for More detailed information. Notice as you read how ing. Many Phengodids spend most or all of their lives illuminated. little is known and how nearly every careful observation will be of Of course, all of this argument about warning lights and chemi- interest to your fellow naturalists. Just this year I have found new cal warfare is educated guesswork. The naturalists who will invest light organs on one of our most common species and finally dis- the energy and time to watch phengodids and design experiments covered the millipede prey of another. (John Siviniski, USDA to discover why glowworms glow may not as yet have turned over Gainesville) their first log or lifted their first spade of soil. There is much work REFERENCES: Linsdale, D.D. 1964. A revision of the genus that could be done by the patient amateur. But, before leaving the Zarhipis LeConte (Coleoptera: Phengodidae) Wasmann J. Biol. always-agreeable land of “maybe,” there is one more luminous land- 22:225-260. Lloyd, J.E. 1979. Sexual selection in luminescent mark to visit the Phrixothrix species. Latin America’s wonderful beetles. in: M.S. Blum and N.A. Blum (eds.) Sexual Selection and “railroad worms” have two colors of light, some of which are set in Mate Competition in Insects. Academic Press, NY. Pages 293-342. unusual locations. Lights on the heads of beetle larvae are rare, Sivinski, J. 1981. The nature and possible functions of lumines- occurring only in a handful of phengodid genera. Red-colored lights cence in Coleoptera larvae. Coleopterists Bull. 35:167-179. Teimann, are very rare. Only Phrixothrix, the mysterious “Astraptor,” found D.L. 1967. Observations on the natural history of the western banded once on a Guatemalan streambank, and a few as yet undescribed glowworm Zarhipis integripennis (LeCont) (Coleoptera: Brazilian species have red glows. However, in all the cases where Phengodidae). Proceedings Calif. Acad. Science. 35:235-264. there are both headlights and red lights, the headlights are red! When Teimann, D. L. 1970. Nature’s toy train, the railroad worm. Na- two peculiar things occur together it is tempting to suspect that they tional Geographic 138:56-57. Wittmer, W. 1975. The genus are related. In the world revealed by the invertebrate eye the color Phengodes in the United States. (Coleoptera:Phengodidae). red has one unusual feature; it isn’t there. Most arthropods cannot Coleopterist’s Bull. 29:232-250. see red light. But what if a predatory species could both emit and see by a light that its prey could not sense? Then it would stalk victims illuminated by invisible beams and ignorant of their dan- ger. Astraptor’s light shines in a direction consistent with this view. Its collector noted that its ruby light was not easily seen from above and was best observed reflecting from objects in front of it. If red lights are killing lights in the Phengodidae, then they might have a parallel in the red photophores carried by the deep-sea fish Pachystomias behind its eyes. Since nothing is simple, least of all bioluminescent animals, it should be noted that Dr. Chabora of the University of Sao Paulo has recently discovered a new glowworm in the and savannas of Brazil. Unlike Phrixothrix, which has a red light in the head and yellowish-green lights along its body, this new species has red lights all over! It does not seem likely that abdomi- nal lights are used for self-illumination, but then the Phengodidae are an unlikely bunch. Light and love entwine in some luminous organisms. Fireflies are very well known examples of this; however, the role of lumi- nescence in phengodid mating is not always clear. Some males, like those of Diptoma adamsi with their scattering of 26 emerald green lights, become brilliantly lit when sexually excited. Both male and female Phrixothrix tiemanni luminance while coupling in burrows. A luminous organ on the abdomen of the Stenophengus male is backed by a white reflector like that found in some fireflies. Such a specialization would seem to be an adaptation to increase the effi- ciency (range/cost) of a broadcast signal. As discussed earlier, our North American males are less photo-endowed. They usually glow

Vol. 1, Number 2 Spring 1996 Fireflyer Companion 19 ￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿￿

“Where can I find information on raising fireflies” “Our fireflies are back! I wrote to you last year about their disap- Karen pearance - I missed them. They returned about two weeks ago (i.e. 15 Endorphan Park FL June). There are hundreds of them - as many as ever. I can’t put a reason to Dear Karen, their return any more than I could to their absence. Nothing is different I have been asked this question many times and I can only answer - no building or lack of it, no spraying or lack. All that was different that there is little information available and there have been no real was that we had a very severe winter (in Mayville where the fireflies successes reported for North American fireflies. In the few cases known are). The snow didn’t melt from Dec. to April - my blueberry bushes to me where fireflies were reared from egg to adult, the successful gradu- were badly damaged. It’s the first winter in 30 years that we couldn’t ate students tended their charges almost daily and had a very low suc- drive in. cess rate. Larvae die sooner or later though their cages are kept clean, This was followed by a wet May, a very hot dry (95') early June and unused food (snails and cut-up earthworms) and dead individuals re- now a very rainy spell ...... moved. The causes of death seem to be many, including infections, Lucille starvation in the presence of apparently suitable food, and even stran- Tonawanda NY gulation - when bitten and numbed snails “wake up” and flex, greatly extending the necks of feeding fireflies. In Japan a highly successful rearing program was developed and apparently brought their two major “Some time ago a friend and I were commenting on the fact that species back from near extinction. Their fireflies are aquatic, and ap- there are fewer lightningbugs now than when we were children. Being parently in a “hydroponic” system it is easier to provide the essential originally from Jamaica, he told me their word for lightningbug is requirements. This is not a project that any wise graduate student would peeney-walley. Since then I have written a children’s story and a poem take on for a degree. Whatever financial motivation there once might using that term.... I though perhaps you would like to read it.” have been is now gone, with the development of gene transfer technol- ogy and alternative production methods for the light-emission chemi- GOODBYE, MR. PEENEY-WALLEY cals (see Oleksa essay).￿￿￿￿￿ Goodbye, Mr. Peeney-Walley. Where did you go with your incandescence “There is a population of fireflies at a nearby hot spring, at an elevation and luminous glow? of 8000'. Could you send any ID info to me...” Did we capture too many Caren and put them in jars? Villa Grove, CO Or did you find it too hard to compete with the stars? Dear Caren, You bring back the memories There are not many flashing species to be found as far west as Villa of sweet childhood days; Grove, but there are some daytime (use pheromones) and glowworm of swinging and tea parties (females burrow, males unlit) species. As a guess I would suggest Pyrac- and playing croquet. tomena dispersa Green. This is a marsh and wet pasture species, whose Of chasing the chickens larvae specialize on snails. Adults are generally dark brown to black and riding bareback, except the pronoturn, which has a black midline (with keel) and a rosy of milking the cows color on each side. Males flash 5-6 rapid pulses (rate about 3-5 per and sliding down haystacks. second in each flash pattern, with 2-4 sec between patterns, tempera- But childhood is gone, alas and alack. ture dependent. See if you can get a specimen. Put it in 70 percent So please, Mr. Peeney-Walley, won’t you come back? isopropyl alcohol (rubbing alcohol) and send it to me. W. J. W. ... Austin TX Dear Caren, Dear W.J.W., Thanks for sending the specimen. The genus is Photuris, and it be- Thanks for your note and the poem. I heard th term peeney-walley longs to the pennsylvanica complex, but whether it is the same as the used for luminescent clicl beetles (Elateridae, Pyrophorus) when I was ones I have seen in Nebraska or the Dakotas I can’t say until I have seen in Ja maica in 1967, and fireflies (Lampyridae) were called blinkies. it flashing in the field. It certainly must represent one of the most west- As I recall this was in the vicinity of Wor. thy Park, not far from Spanishtown, I believe. Per. haps there are regional differences(?). ern populations reported.￿￿￿￿￿ ￿￿￿￿￿

20 Fireflyer Companion Vol. 1, Number 2 Spring 1996 The habitus illustration (a carbon dust drawing by Laura Line) Firefly Profiles #2 shows the diagnostic angled form, wide pale margins on the elytra. (wing covers), lateral dark vittae (stripes) on the prono- the Angled Candle Firefly tum, and a median triangular vitta on the pronotum. Note the The only North American firefly whose geographic distribu- costae (slight ridges) on the tion can rival that of the Big Dipper Firefly, Photinus pyralis (L.) elytra and the median (see Companion #1:9), is the Angled Candle Firefly, Pyractom- carinula (little keel) on the ena angulata (Say). Its known range extends from the eastern pronotum. This is a beauti- edges of the high plains, except for a couple of questionable out- ful firefly, perhaps our most liers and a western extension along the Missouri River and its beautiful, with black, yellow, tributaries in South Dakota, south to the Gulf, east to the Atlantic and red coloration. After all Ocean, and north into Canada some undetermined distance (see of this, its luminescence is map below). equally remarkable. Thomas Say, the father of American zoology, — we will pro- I call Py. angulata a file him in a future number — probably chose the epithet angu- “candle” firefly because its lata because of the angular outline of the pronotum (see habitus flash pattern is of an amber color, and composed of 8-12 rapid and connected pulses (see p. 7), thus appearing like a flickering candle. In an- other descriptive phrase, I could say that its signal is a ragged, yellow-orange flicker. This pattern is repeated each 2 to 4 seconds depending upon the temperature. The Angled Candle Firefly appears early in the spring over low wet ground, up into shrubs, and even around boughs at the tops of trees. Though you may sometimes see dozens at once over grassland by a marsh, usu- ally you will see only one or two males at a time, and even into mid-summer, as A working distribution of the Angled Candle Firefly, Pyracto- they meander silently mena angulata (Say). around high foliage but they Lanterns (LO) of male (left) and never set it afire. female Pyractomena fireflies. drawing). Although Say’s specimen was lost, eaten by dennestid If you answer males with beetles along with most of his collection 150 years ago, a con- a half-second flash from below, they will often disappear for a temporary, F.E. or J.F. Melsheimer had probably compared it with few minutes and then flicker from foliage below where you saw a specimen in the Melsheimer collection which is still in exist- them flying. They sometimes fall (land) in your hair or on your ence. Thus, we can have some degree of confidence, though not shoulder if you are standing under them when you answer. Ap- complete certainty, what the firefly was that Say actually named. parently they drop and remain dark to avoid attack by Photuris Note that Say’s name is placed in parentheses in the formal name; fireflies following a responding flash. The lanterns of female this is because Say classified this species in the genus Lampyris Pyractomena fireflies are distinctive, being divided into four and it was subsequently placed in a different genus (now Pyrac- parts, and positioned at the corners of two plates (“sternites”) tomena). under the abdomen. ￿￿￿￿￿

The Caribbean (W.I.). A colleague recently passed a printout Gainesville FL. On the 25th of April ’96 the third “annual” fire- along to me from the (ugh) Internet, which noted the story (legend?) fly lecture and field expedition was held as one of the Outdoor of luminescent click beetles in Cuba being mistaken for Spaniards Adventures sponsored in the Community Education Program. Par- with torches, that sent the British under Cavendish packing to Ja- ticipants first heard a slide lecture on firefly natural history and maica, where they worked their colonial wonders instead. The mes- identification, then set off in a caravan to choice sites near the air- sage asked whether the account, which he saw in H. Evan’s Life On port for field observation and experimentation. This year the flash A Little Known Planet was “more than just a tale.” Seems to me that patterns of 7 firefly species were seen, a count that was down from this is a good literature project for a future issue of the Fireflyer last year’s total of 9 species, according to those with working memo- Companion. Have we a volunteer to look into the matter? ries. The class, entitled A Historical Ecology of Fireflies, was orga- nized by Dr. Bruce Fergusen, the veterinarian of Micanopy, Florida, and conducted by fd. Vol. 1, Number 2 Spring 1996 Fireflyer Companion 21 sadly, was probably a major fraction of the population and would Occurrence of Aggressive Mimicry In A never be able to reproduce.) The next day their father/uncle, Doug Russell, wanted to find out more about these creatures and he called Brazilian Bicellonycha Firefly the University of Florida, where he was eventually connected with (Lampyridae; Photurinae) the editor of the Companion. Lloyd listened to the story and, lack- by Vadim Viviani, Sao Paulo, Brazil ing the time to give to the project, called me. I telephoned Doug and arranged to go out to see the creatures that evening. The occurrence of aggressive minticry in North American Photuris Jason, Brian, and Wesley, the boy whose house/yard the field fireflies is well documented (Lloyd 1984). With the exception of its borders, took my wife Susan and me through Wesley’s yard to the probable occurrence in a Colombian photurine of an undescribed field. At 8:48, about 20 minutes after sunset, the first glowing in- genus (Lloyd unpublished obs.), it has not been observed elsewhere sect appeared. We walked around the field and found them in sev- in the family. I pbserved it in Bicellonycha ornaticollis (Blanchard), eral locations. The boys seemed to think they were particularly at- a common firefly of marshy areas in the vicinity of Campinas, in tracted to a small herbaceous plant with round leaves, so I collected southeastern Brazil (Viviani 1988). This is the first record of occur- some specimens. I also took two of the insects the boys had col- rence of aggressive mimicry in the genus Bicellonycha, and it may lected and collected one more myself. It was evident that these were be expected to occur in other South American Photurinae. phengodid larvae or females. Fireflies of B. ornaticollis commonly occur in open marshy areas Phengodids in such numbers had been reported only once previ- with Bicellonycha lividipennis (Motschulski), which typically out- ously. I had found 90 of them in one hour at a site that I visited numbers the former. Occasionally individuals can be found in adja- nightly near the regional airport near Gainesville. In my years of cent forests. Adults are active from October to February. Males emit visits to the sight, I previously had found only one. But on this single yellowgreen flashes. Females are found on vegetation and occasion of note, the field was flooded after heavy rains, and I specu- occasionally are seen flying and flickering. Females were observed lated that the flooding had forced the phengodids above ground to flash-respond to the flash patterns of flying lividipennis males (Wing 1984a). After the field dried out, once again there were no (n=2). The males flew toward and landed near the females. The phengodids to be seen. But there was no flooding in Wesley’s field, females remained on their leaves with anterior legs raised. Subse- and no other reason was evident that might have driven the insects quently one of these females ate the attracted male. I do not know from the soil. The field was not used for agriculture, was not sprayed, how similar the response flashes used by these females were to the and had no livestock. mating signal of lividipermis females, since the latter response is I began visiting the field nightly at first, and then weekly. I marked unknown. the locations of the insects as they emerged from the soil glowing, I made other observations relative to the occurrence of this preda- which occurred around 9:00 pm each evening. They would remain tory tactic in ornaticollis (see Lloyd 1984 for a hierarchy of evi- out and glowing for hours, perhaps all night, though I didn’t remain dence levels): females ate adults of lividipennis, Pyrogaster sp., that long. Closer observation showed that they were not feeding. Photinus sp., Aspisoma sp., when confined in a cage with them; By marking locations, it became clear that the insects emerged at and females were found eating males of lividipennis in the field the same locations nightly, evening after evening, but eventually (n=2). failed to return. References: Lloyd, J. E. 1984. Occurrence of aggressive mimicry These observations are consistent with the behavior of flightless in fireflies. Florida Entomol. 67(3):368-376. Viviani, V.R. 1988. female fireflies (e.g., Wing 1984b). However, it was not clear Levantamento e Ecologisa das Especies de Larnpirideos do whether these were females or larvae. A dissection was inconclu- Municipio de Campinas. Bioikos. 2(2):40-42. sive, as was examination of the specimens with a microscope. I observed individuals carefully, expecting that if they were females males would eventually arrive. In addition, John Sivinski lent me A Field of Phengodids some traps, which basically were screen domes over the insects so by Steve Wing, Gainesville, Florida that the glow remained visible, but they had a ring of sticky gel to capture any male that might land. The traps caught crickets and You don’t have to be a professional entomologist to make impor- other insects, but no male phengodids. I followed the appearances tant discoveries, and this is especially true in the study of biolumi- for over a month, tracking a total of 35 or so insects. The numbers nescent insects. Take, for example, a recent “find” for the family of new insects appearing tapered off to zero as winter approached. Phengodidae. Larvae and the larviform females of this family are This year, I will be visiting the field again to see if the phengodids spectacularly bioluminescent (e.g., see Tiemann 1970). Males with reappear and continue observations, and perhaps I can determine their elaborate antennae fly at night in search of females (Tiemarm whether they are adult females. 1967, Lloyd 1979), and males occasionally turn up in light traps. REFERENCES: Atkinson, G.E. 1887. Observations on the fe- Females and larvae apparently spend most of their lives underground male form of Phengodes laticollis Hom. Am. Nat. 21:853-856. (Atkinson 1887), and are only rarely encountered by nocturnal en- Harvey, E.X. 1952. Bioluminescence. Academic, New York. 649 tomologists (Smith 1900). Members of the genus Phengodes are so pp. Lloyd, J.E. 1979. Sexual selection in luminescent beetles. Pages rare that E.N. Harvey (1952) saw “only four living luminous speci- 293-342. in: M. Blum and A. Blum, eds. Sexual selection and re- mens in 25 years.” Even though these insects are easy to spot in the productive competition in insects, Academic, New York. Smith, J.B. dark and generations of naturalists have sought them, new discov- 1900. The insects of New Jersey. MacCrellish and Quigley, Tren- eries may wait to be found literally in your own back yard. ton. NJ. Tiemann, D.L. 1967. Observations on the natural history On the night of 16 August 1995, Brian and Jason Russell were of the western banded glowworm Zarhipis integripennis (Lee). Proc. scouting potential deer hunting sites near the southern outskirts of Cal. Acad. Sci. 35(12):235-264. Tiemann, D.L. 1970. R.F. Sisson, Waldo, Florida. Walking through a grassy field about 11:00 PM photographer, Nature’s toy train, the railroad worm. Nat. Geog. Mag. they were amazed to see numerous glowing worm-like creatures, 138:56-67. Wing, S.R. 1984. Female monogamy and male compe- perhaps two centimeters long, maybe a little shorter, on the grass. tition in Photinus collustrans (Coleoptera : Lampyridae). Psyche They collected about thirty five and kept them in a mason jar. (This, 91:153-160.

22 Fireflyer Companion Vol. 1, Number 2 Spring 1996 Essays by Little-Known American Authors and tissues (Ugarova). The technology of firefly bioluminescence is also being applied in Fireflies: Beauty and Beyond the field of ecology. Tests for the bacterial contamination of drinking by James Oleksa water are currently being put to use (Ugarova). Also, bioluminescent Nearly everyone has seen, at one time or another in their lifetime, the marine organisms are currently being studied as indicators of water brilliant flashing of fireflies dancing through the night air. This capti- pollution levels in the oceans. Quite simply, a decline in light output by vating phenomenon can be very beautiful. At the same time, it can also such organisms in samples of marine water may be a simple screen for be quite intriguing. After taking in the magnificent light display put on the presence of toxic substances in the water (Weiss). by fireflies, one often wonders, “how do these insects generate light?” Bioluminescent technology is not just limited to the detection of bac- This question has also been pondered by scientists for many years. teria and pollution, but is quite prominent in the field of molecular Through years of study and experimentation, the process of biolumi- biology as well. Bioluminescence first entered the realm of molecular nescence, by which fireflies and other organisms produce chemical light, biology when the gene for firefly luciferase was inserted into a bacterial has been uncovered. Along with gaining an understanding of biolu- plasmid which then infected tobacco leaf cell cultures, thus transmit- minescence, scientists are also learning how to harness its power for a ting the gene to the plant cells. From this cell culture, a tobacco plant vast number of practical uses. which glowed when exposed to luciferin was grown (Bames 353). A The process of bioluminescence is not as complex as one would think. variety of researchers now use the firefly luciferase gene by linking it to It only involves three substances, which react in the presence of oxygen various genes of interest in other organisms. They are then able to fol- to produce chemical light. These three substances are: a molecule called low gene expression by detecting bioluminescence in different cells luciferin, an enzyme called luciferase, and the energy molecule com- and tissues at different stages of development in these organisms (Lewis mon to all living organisms known as adenosine triphosphate (ATP). 1 8). Biologists are using this technology to study biological rhythms in Fireflies glow when the enzyme luciferase reacts with the molecule plants, for instance. The gene for luciferase is inserted into plant DNA luciferin to create a very short-lived high energy compound. This reac- to track plant genes as they get turned on and off during the day. Water tion takes place only in the presence of oxygen and ATP. The high- containing luciferin is fed to the plants, then they are monitored closely energy compound created immediately returns to its lower energy state, in a dark room. When the leaves begin to glow, the luciferase gene is causing the emission of a photon of light. This whole process takes known to be turned on and, thus, the plant is undergoing a certain phase place in the specialized light organ of the firefly, all within a fraction of in its biological rhythm. This research could be used to study the spe- a second (Weiss). In other bioluminescent organisms, such as plankton cific genes that alter a plant’s biological clock to possibly speed up and certain bacteria, the process is very similar except for the lumines- growth and increase crop yields (Weiss). cent substances involved. While the molecules are still called luciferases Although it seems like a perfect process for many applications, the and luciferins, they have slight differences depending on the organism use of bioluminescence is not without its problems. The most commer- involved, and are not interchangeable between bioluminescent species. cially viable source for the luciferase and luciferin used in For example, luciferase from Photobacterium fischeri reacts only in biolurninescent technology are field-collected fireflies themselves. Many the presence of the molecules FMNH2 and NADH, rather than ATP as labs obtain their luciferin and luciferase from thousands of freeze-dried in fireflies (Lewis 17). firefly abdomens shipped in from a company on the east coast of the The fact that firefly luciferin reacts only in the presence of ATP is the United States (Lewis 18). With the interest in bioluminescent research primary reason that so much research is being conducted on it. All liv- continually increasing, it is putting a major strain on diminishing fire- ing cells require ATP to survive, and, consequently, where life is present fly populations. This pressure, in combination with the already shrink- ATP must be present. Therefore, bioluminescence can and does serve ing population of fireflies due to the loss of natural areas, including as an accurate test for the presence of living organisms (Lewis 17). suburban woods, and the increased used of insecticides, is concerning There are many practical uses for such testing. For instance, NASA is ecologists (Weiss). Fortunately, scientists are beginning to find alter- considering using it to detect life on other planets. Soil on Mars, for nate sources and ways of obtaining the chemicals they need. Using much example, could be mixed with luciferin and luciferase and scanned for of the same technology applied in the molecular applications of biolu- the presence of bioluminescence with sensitive light detection instru- minescence, luciferase and luciferin are obtained from DNA cloned ments, which would indicate the presence of life (Weiss). Coca Cola® and reproduced in E. coli bacteria. This is known as recombinant DNA presently uses bioluminescent technology to test beverages for bacte- technology (Lewis 18). Additionally, scientists are finding ways to rial contamination before they are bottled (Lewis 18). Similar tech- chemically synthesize their own luminescent molecules using the in- niques are being put in place to detect contamination in milk, meat, formation obtained from research with the real things (Weiss). juices, etc. (Internet 1). Using bioluminescence is far more efficient Fireflies provide much more than just a pretty display of nature’s than the traditional tests for food safety. Instead of waiting days for the wonders. By studying how fireflies are able to generate their chemical growth of bacteria in culture dishes, bioluminescence gives results within light, scientists have unearthed a whole new area of technology and minutes. Furthermore, the number of bacteria present in any one food practical applications revolving around bioluminescence. By harness- sample can easily be determined because the amount of light emitted in ing the power of bioluminescence, a wide variety of new techniques in testing is equal to the number of bacteria present (Weiss). the fields of medicine, molecular biology, ecology, and food safety have Biolurninescence also has many practical uses in the medical field. been developed. The list of new discoveries will continue to grow as Firefly luciferase is used to assess whether tumor cells respond to spe- research continues in this fresh and vast field of bioluminescence. cific drugs before testing the drugs on cancer patients. Tumor cells are REFERENCES: Barnes, S., and Curtis, H. 1989. Biology, 5th ed. Worth cultured, exposed to different combinations of drugs, and then the num- Publishers Inc., New York. Lewis, Rick. March 7, 1994. Refinements ber of cells present is estimated through the use of bioluminescence. in Bioluminescence Assays. The Scientist. pp. 17-18. Ugarova, Natalya. Declining luminescence in the culture indicates that the cells are being 1996. Bioluminescence: Principles and Applications. Moscow State killed. This relatively fast procedure enables doctors to quickly evalu- University. (World Wide Web). Weiss, Rick. August 29, 1994. Research- ate appropriate chemotherapies for rare and/or drug resistant cancers ers Gaze into the Insect Light and Gain Answers. The Washington Post. (Lewis 18). Along those same lines, bioluminescence is being used in fighting drug-resistant strains of bacteria, such as tuberculosis. Because These essays were originally written as term papers toward fulfill- TB; bacteria grow extremely slowly, it can often take weeks to deter- ment of the “Gordon Rule” requirement for students in the Honors I mine whether a drug being administered to a patient is working to kill program — 6000 words of essays for certain courses, including AGG- the bacteria. Using bioluminescence, researchers can determine within 2931, Biology and Natural History with Fireflies. a couple of days whether the bacteria are surviving by looking for faint Oleksa is a sophmore in the University Honors program, will glows of light in the culture (Weiss). Additionally, bioluminescent tests probably major in a biological science, and took BNHFF in the are being developed to quickly test for bacterial infections in wounds spring of 1996.

Vol. 1, Number 2 Spring 1996 Fireflyer Companion 23 of Ronald Reagan, “Reagan is for Adam and Eve and against the theory Creationism and Evolution of evolution. He’s for the family and against sex education. He’s against by Michelle Thresher homosexuality and abortion and feminism and all that welfare. Above all, he’s for America being No. 1 again, having the strongest military The debate between evolutionists and creationists has frequently been since creation” (Czarnecki 58). characterized as a “war.” The image of a war between religion and sci- Creationism is especially prevalent in the South. Marsden traces the ence developed in the late 19th century, but has flourished recently in roots of this to the Civil War, when the South justified their separation the current debate (Moore 12). “Through constant repetition in histori- from the Northern churches by claiming the Northern churches were cal and philosophical exposition of every kind, from pulpit, platform, “infected by a liberal spirit” (Marsden 143). The Northern churches, and printed page, the idea of science and religion at ‘war’ has become rather than interpreting the Bible literally, said the liberating message an integral part of Western intellectual culture” (Moore 20). of the New Testament disallows slavery. The Southern churches inter- It is somewhat odd that things have gotten to this point. This state of preted the Bible literally and said that slavery was allowed. “The Bible “war” this debate sparks between religion and science is fairly strange, condemned slavery only if one forsook the letter of the text for the because religion and science generally do not attempt to answer the alleged spirit” (Marsden 143). Thus, many Southerners come from a same questions. Science can explain, describe, discuss “how” things tradition that took the Bible literally. happen. Religion attempts to find meaning in life — to try to answer While I have shown how religion contributes to the polarization on the big “why” questions: “Why is there something rather than noth- the issue of creation vs. evolution, the scientific community’s attitude ing?” “Why do I exist?” Leo Tolstoy once said, “Science is meaning- toward the controversy also leads to greater division. Evolution is talked less because it gives no answer to the question, the only question im- about in the same terms as religion — as something one “believes in.” portant for us: “What shall we do and how shall we live?” (Taylor 288). As in many other churches, when one from the scientific community Tolstoy’s statement shows that science and religion are not by nature at dissents from these views, it is sometimes called “heresy,” and the com- war with one another because they attempt to answer different ques- munity pushes for excommunication of the unbeliever (Eastland 34). tions. For instance, free-lance writer Forrest Mims claims that in 1991 he Regardless of this, religion and science are often seen as “opposites,” was refused a job writing an “Amateur Scientist” column for Scientific and this is especially true in the creation vs. evolution debate in the American because of his religious views (Eastland 32). During the in- United States. George M. Marsden, in his essay A Case of the Excluded terview process for the job, Mims mentioned that as well as writing Middle: Creation Versus Evolution in America, writes, “In a widely articles for Modern Photography, Physics Today, Popular Mechanics, held view that seems to be gaining in popularity, biological evolution is and Popular Electronics, he had also written articles for Christian pub- regarded as an opposite of divine creation and hence incompatible with lications on bicycling and photography. This prompted the editor to ask traditional Christian belief.” Marsden points out that the creation-sci- Mims’ views on the theory of evolution, and he said that he did not ence movement only accepts one view of creation based on a literal accept it. He was not offered the job, though Mims maintains that the reading of the creation accounts in Genesis. According to this view, editors had told him he would get the job before they knew of his views “the six days of creation are literal twenty-four-hour days so that the on the theory of evolution (Eastland 32). It’s war, then, from both sides Earth cannot be more than some thousands of years old. Evolution of of the debate. This is damaging to both, and serves to further divide the any species, accordingly, is absolutely precluded” (Marsden 132). two camps. The inability to see the middle ground further polarizes the Many insist on this dichotomy between creation and evolution, and two groups, which leads to a lack of dialogue and a lack of understand- neglect what Marsden calls the “excluded middle” — those who do not ing. deny the theory of evolution, but who don’t think that it necessarily REFERENCES: Moore, James. 1079. Post Dominion Connoversies. rules out the existence of a divine creator. The “excluded middle” sees Cambridge University Press. Taylor, Charles Alan. 1992. Of Audience, God as behind the process of creation, and sees evolution as the pro- Expertise, and Authority: The Evolving Creationism Debate. Quarterly cess by which God carries out the divine plan. An example of this argu- Journal of Speech. 277-295. Marsden, George. A Case of the Excluded ment follows: Middle. in: Bellah, ed. Uncivil Religion. Czarnecki, Mark. January 19, ”God controls all natural processes through his providential care. The 1981. The Revival of the creationist crusade. Maclean’s. Eastland, Terry. questions raised by biological evolution are therefore not in principle February, 1991. Scientific American on Trial. The American Spectator. different from those suggested by other natural phenomena, such as Thresher is a graduating senior in the Honors Program, with a photosynthesis. A fully naturalistic account of the process does not pre- major in Religion, and took BNHFF in the spring of 1996. clude belief that God planned or controlled it.” (Marsden 133). Though evolution and religion are not by nature opposites, opposi- What is it? tion to evolution has become for many a test of faith (Marsden 134). This stems from the fundamentalist view of the inerrancy of the Bible, It Went Somewhere Else and of the need to interpret it literally. They believe that “because the On silver feet, Bible is God’s Word, it must be accurate in matters of science and his- I bear it coming. tory as well as in doctrine” (Marsden 136). From this view, taking Gen- Miles away it pounds closer. esis as true and reading it literally and not symbolically, standing with A whisper of wind, the biblical account of creation means standing against the theory of evolution. promises of things to come. The anti-evolutionists were most successful at times when they could Far away flashing footsteps illuminate argue convincingly that believing in the biblical view of creation, rather faint still lifes than evolution, was “crucial to the future of civilization” (Marsdan 141). fainter still, An example is just after World War I when anti-evolutionists claimed as it walks away that Darwinism had caused the war “by substituting the law of the jungle without seeing me. for the teachings of Christ” (Numbers). Because of this, the evolution vs. creation has a strange marriage with moral issues. Jerry Falwell said (Chris Tipping)

24 Fireflyer Companion Vol. 1, Number 2 Spring 1996 W.S. Blatchley: Tramp Naturalist by Michelle Derrow 1. “We salute thee, 0 America, new-born! Henceforth, within thy sity. He then worked his way through four years of college by “janitoring, bounds, let there be no east, no west no north, no south, but collecting delinquent taxes, gathering all the plants used by the botany only one grand country under one glorious flag. — A Citizen’s classes,” etc. (Blatchleyana), while continuing to sell book and maps in Creed, 1918 the summer. He majored in science and took only one term of entomol- 2. “ …and a new and more loyal love for the old Hoosier State will ogy. He graduated in 1887 with the degree of “A.B.” and a graduating be engendered in your souls. — A Recall, 1916 thesis on The Flora of Monroe County, Indiana (Blatchleyana). 3. “To her to whom I owe my three most priceless possessions: life, From 1887 to 1894 Blatchley served as head of the department of hope, ambition: these three, which have made me what I am, I science in the Terre Haute Wiley School, teaching chemistry, botany, owe to her — my mother.” — Boulder Reveries, 1906 zoology, and physiology, as well as physical geography and physics. In the summer of 1891, he became one of five members of the J.T. Scovell Willis Stanley Blatchley was an American first, a Hoosier second, a Expedition to determine the height (18,314 feet) and natural history mama’s boy third, and a naturalist from conception. He was author, features of Volcano Orizaba, Old Mexico. teacher, historian, taxonomist, father, and, throughout nearly all of his In 1891, Blatchley returned to Indiana University, this time to earn life, awestruck Indiana schoolboy. Variety was the prize in the Cracker his A.M. degree on a thesis titled The Butterflies of Indiana. Then, in Jack box for Blatchley. Nature was a sweet confection on its own, but November 1894, Blatchley was elected to the post of state geologist, a variety in nature — that was where the euphoria of discovery was to be position he would hold for the next 16 years. It was during these years found. that Blatchley published his most well-known work, The Coleoptera of Indeed, Blatchley knew that euphoria well. By the time he died, he Indiana, as well as two other widely read writings, A Nature Wooing had described more than 370 new species and varieties of Coleoptera, (1899) and Boulder Reveries (1906). approximately 66 new species of Heteroptera, and 29 new species of The Coleoptera ofIndiana is just what its title indicates: a thorough, Orthoptera. complete (at the time) guide to the identification and classification of Summertime romping was as much a part of Blatchley’s study of the Indiana beetles. What’s surprising, perhaps, is the care Blatchley took natural world as detailed taxonomy or published writings. A man who to ensure the accessibility of the book to the general public. In the in- was equally comfortable catching catfish at his beloved Raccoon Creek troduction to The Coleoptera of Indiana, Blatchley addresses an audi- (Woodland Idyls, 1912) as he was writing essays titled What is Great- ence ranging from the mischievous young country boy to the aggra- ness? (1922), W.S. Blatchley was “Happiest those days in which I have vated Midwestern farmer, speaking to all with the encouraging voice of wandered far and wide through field and woodland, adding here and a patient teacher. Blatchley himself emphasizes this idea when he states, there some specimen before unseen, noting now and again some life “I have prepared the present paper, not for specialists in Coleoptera, habits, some food-plant, or place of retreat, before unobserved” (The but for beginners, a few of whom, I trust may in time become enough Coleoptera of Indiana). interested to devote their lives to the everpleasing, health-giving and Willis Stanley Blatchley was born Oct. 6,1859, in North Madison, inspiring study of Nature” (The Coleoptera of Indiana). Conn., the son of Hiram and Sarah Blatchley. It was a time when ento- In 1899, on a doctor’s recommendation, Blatchley made his first so- mology was something young children studied without being asked to journ to Florida, where he headquartered in Ormond and compiled his — and probably without realizing it. The great tragedies and comedies Gleanings from Nature from previous writings. He also took a new set of the natural world were played out by actors as tiny as rolledup pill of notes in Florida, which would later become A Nature Wooing. bugs under a log or a colony of ants disrupted by a probing stick. Chil- Blatchley’s infatuation with the state is evident; A Nature Wooing in- dren such as Willis Stanley were both entertained and educated by the cludes such declarations as “I still delight to chase the winged butterfly natural world around them, and for Blatchley, that world was the great o’er field and pasture; draw the seine through ripple and shallow for Hoosier state, Indiana. The Blatchley family arrived in Indiana one year silvery minnow and rainbow darter — climb hill and wade pond for after Willis was born, settling first in the farmland of Hendricks County, partridge berry or water lily…” The language of A Nature Wooing is and moving one year later to the town of Groveland in Putnam County. infectious. Blatchley’s enthusiasm seeps through his words and trans- There, Willis Stanley attended a local country school, where his father ports the reader to a marshy play land of dragonflies and cattails, de- was a teacher, for three years. signed to evoke the naturalist in everyone. In 1869, the Blatchley family moved again, this time to a small farm Blatchley returned to Florida for the second time in 1911, spending 1 1/4 miles east of Bainbridge, Putnam County. 10-year-old Willis at- most of the winter collecting insects in Ormond, Sanford, St. Peters- tended school in Bainbridge until the age of 17, assisting with his father’s burg, Sarasota, Ft. Myers, Key West and Little River. He also made his market gardening business during the summers of those years. first trip to Lake Okeechobee, which “at that time [had] but three houses Blatchley himself noted that at the time of his last year in “high on the shores of the lake” (Blatchleyana). It was also during this time school,” there were “no grades and no graduating exercises,” an essen- that Blatchley began work on Woodland Idylls, which would again re- tially informal method of schooling. flect his puckish joy and constant reverie of the natural world around In 1879, the 20-year-old Blatchley received his first teaching job as a him. country school teacher in Cloverdale, Ind., at a salary of $1.50 per day. In 1913, Blatchley took a trip to Dunedin, Fla., and became so en- In the summer of 1880, young Blatchley traveled the country on foot, raptured with the area that he proceeded to purchase “300 feet of un- selling maps and taking orders for enlarging pictures. In 1882, he mar- cleared bay front” (Blatchliana) upon which he built a two-story winter ried Clara Fordice, and soon after acquired the position of principal of house. Four years later, Blatchley paid his first visit to Gainesville, where the Putnamville town school. on Feb. 5, 1917, he gave an address before the Florida Entomological In September 1883, Blatchley moved his wife and newborn son, Society on Bug Hunting as a Pastime. In fact, Blatchley’s contribu- Raymond, to Bloomington, Ind., to begin studying at Indiana Univer- tions to the study and knowledge of Floridian entomology range from Vol. 1, Number 2 Spring 1996 Fireflyer Companion 25 essays on Water Beetles of Florida (1919) to Some Apparently New space and ponders o’er the porch lights of other sun-ruled systems — Heteroptera firom Florida (1924) to The Scarabaeidae of Florida (1927), treads the earth and thinks of her as a moving sphere” (Woodland Idylls, as well as various other topics. 1912). In his essay titled What is Greatness? (1922), Blatchley ,quotes the REFERENCES: Blatchley, W.S., ed. 1930. Blatchliana: A Chronology Bible’s Golden Rule: “Do unto others as you would that they should do of his Life: The Fixation of Types of New Genera and Species Described unto you.” In fact, what W.S. Blatchley did for others was exactly what by him, etc., etc. Indianapolis: The Nature Publishing Company. he sought for himself: the discovery of something new and different, Blatchley, W.S. 1910. Coleoptera of Indiana. Indianapolis: Indiana De- but nonetheless as much a part of the universe as the sky under which it partment of Geology and Natural Resources. Block, Maxine. 1940. is viewed; the careful uncovering of the various interrelationships be- Current Biography 1940. New York: The H.W. Wilson Company. tween all the elements of the universe in this “grand and perfect whole” (A Nature Wooing, 1899), and above all else, a savory delight in the Derrow is beginning her senior year in the Honors Program, chirping of a cricket on an early Sunday morning. with a major in Journalism. She took BNHFF in the spring of Willis Stanley Blatchley died on May 28, 1940 (Current Biography, 1994, and in the summer of 1996 had an apprenticeship with a 1940), at the age of 80, one man out of “ten thousand men [who] ... major national news magazine. looks up into the sky and wonders why it is there — looks out into

On Luminosity in Fungi suspected that the ants found the trap recently, during the day, since by Joshua Even there were very few individuals stuck to the outside of the condom while many still ventured up the trap from the ground. Reading in Is there an evolutionary benefit of luminescence in fungi? Some an entomology text, however, I found a bit of information that sug- argue there is none. But there must be some reason why, after mil- gests the ants were not just exploring for the sake of exploration; lions of years of evolutionary change, nature selected some fungi to they might have been searching for something. The diet of the ants use their precious energy reserves for light emission. Does the pro- (family Formicidae) is varied, including animal matter (both dead duction of light attract animals (insects) that would be beneficial to and alive), plants, sap, nectar, other animals’ excretions, and (ding, the survival and subsequent thriving of the fungus in question? Light ding, ding!) fungi. Why would a fungus, the apparent object of a in otherwise dark surrounding must be noticed by the inhabitants of colony of ants’ desire for nourishment, advertise itself as free for the fungi’s surroundings, and therefore must be instrumental in the the taking? Bah! Another question. But at least we found the first attraction or repulsion of those inhabitants. One cannot write the piece of evidence (not very convincing, I agree) that leads to an phenomena of bioluminescence off as some haphazard mutation answer. without any evolutionary benefit. What exactly is that evolutionary The evidence of over-night insect visitation in the “marsh veg- purpose? etation” area was slightly better than the “open field” trap, but still What about the animals that, when attracted to the light, would not on par with the grand collection of insects I was imagining. do harm to the fungi? In an attempt to find reasonably sound an- Upon first inspection, we saw one largish lepidopteran and several swers to these puzzling questions, a colleague (esteemed entomolo- minute insect specks drowned in the clear, thick goo. Back at the gist-to-be Joshua Trotter) and I carried out a series of experimental lab, when trying to gently pry the insects from the condom, I real- scenarios. Using luminescent fungus models, we set out to find ex- ized we spread the Tangle-trap a little too thick. Each specimen actly which insects would be attracted to the light. (with the exception of the moth, which was too big) was positively To simulate a luminescent fungus, we used a “glow-stick” (for covered with the sticky Tangle-trap, and worse, the goo apparently lack of a better word) housed in an inverted test tube. A rubber had a softening effect on the exoskeletons of the insects. With each stopper pierced by a dissecting needle plugged the end of the test pull and pry, the frail bodies disintegrated to the point where posi- tube to secure the “glow-stick” and form a support with which we tive identification under the microscope became almost impossible. could secure the “fungus” into the earth. To catch the insect visitors The wings of the moth (by far the easiest way to identify a family) during the night, the test tubes were sheathed with a condom (for were obliterated, and the remaining insects were unrecognizable protection!) and slathered with a very, very sticky substance called save for a few features, including the heads and modified rear wings “Tangle-trap.” Obviously, this last step was saved for the field. (order Diptera, for sure). So what can be gleaned from this small The first location we visited was the Med Garden at the Univer- insight? Moths, like all Lepidoptera, have very specialized mouth sity of Florida. We arrived at approximately 7:30 pm and set out parts that are good for sucking and little else, so allraction to fungus three traps. We hoped to sample the different ecozones represented for dietary purposes does not make sense. Could the moth be at- at the Med Garden (namely the “open field,” “marsh vegetation,” tracted to a potential place for her larvae to thrive? Again, the facts and “damp woods”) in order to catch the representative species at do not hold up; Lepidoptera. larvae usually feed on the leaves of each site. Given the nature of the fungus we were interested in (grow- plants or grasses. What’s left? All I can think of is the fact that ing in damp, wooded areas with a great deal of dead and decaying moth’s are (inherently?) attracted to light. The fungus thus attracts vegetation) we naturally expected that the traps set out at some lo- the moth with the “hopes of inadvertently” picking up some of the cations were going to be more productive than traps set out at oth- fungus’ spores for later dispersal. This situation would be the most ers. We had little hope for the “open field” trap, but expected great advantageous adaptation of the fungus. It spends its energy glow- discoveries from the “damp woods” pseudo-fungus. ing so as to attract those insects that would spread its spores and The following afternoon the only insects on the “open field” trap therefore facilitate the continuation of “the species.” were several ants (evidently from a colony nearby, if not directly Is it the same deal with the small Diptera as well? Possibly, but a underneath, the trap). Many of them were still alive and crawling more probable situation concerns the larvae. Diptera larvae spend up and down the dissecting needle and under the condom. I initially their time feeding in decayed animal and plant matter, where, con- sequently, fungi also grow. Is the glowing fungus a sign to female

26 Fireflyer Companion Vol. 1, Number 2 Spring 1996 flies that there is a nice rotten spot for their young to grow up? If so, YMCA woods at night (we were the only ones in that particular it benefits the fungus, which absorb nourishment from the drop- area), so the traps were not so inconspicuous. After a grand night of pings of larvae. Additionally, when the female flies land on the s’mores and Mad Libs, my partner and I proceeded to recover our fungus to lay eggs, they take fungal spores with them to their next traps. stop. If this is a viable situation, leading to the propagation of its At the next lab session, we again tackled the Tangle-trap (this genes, the fungus has spent its ATP well. time it wasn’t as bad; our wise professor gave us a can of easy-to- The last trap was retrieved from the “damp woods” area of the apply-but-still-as-uncooperative aerosol goo) and struggled to iden- Med Garden. Again, we were initially unimpressed. Back at the tify the insects we had attracted. Again, the dissolving action of the lab, after carefully attempting to remove the insects and cursing the Tangle-trap left many of our specimens liquefied, but the YMCA oozing goop that got attached to our skin, hair, clothes, and twee- harvest had been quite bountiful. We had lured in two bright green zers, we evaluated our findings. The largest insect was recogniz- long-horned grasshoppers (family Tettigoniidae) on two separate ably a cockroach, and keyed out to be of family Blaberidae. The test tubes. These long-horns, like all grasshoppers, usually feed on presence of a cockroach confused me; thinking back to all my prior leaves and blades, but a few species may feed on other insects. Why observations of them scuttling out of the way at the slightest illumi- would he be attracted to the glowing fungus? The answer is clear if nation I could not imagine why these creatures would be attracted this particular species did indeed feed on other, smaller insects (per- to a glowing fungus. The only thing I could think of that explained haps like the minute Diptera we had observed from the Med Gar- their presence is their omnivorous feeding habits and their affinity den), that were, in turn, attracted to the glowing fungus (for reasons for dark, damp places. Along with the roach, a tiny, yet strikingly of nourishment or egg-laying). On the same test tubes, in fact, were beautiful leafliopper (family Cicadellidae) was present, as well as a many very small insects that, had our trap been a legitimate fungus, small Diptera, family Cecidomyiidae. The presence of the leafhop- might have ended up as the long-horn’s dinner. per befuddled me as well; they are characteristically leaf eaters in A male black fly (or buffalo gnat), family Simuliidae, was recov- both adult and larval form, so the only remaining option is that the ered. These small pests are quite ferocious; there is an instance cited glowing of the fungus attracts them so they can pick up a legfull of in the entomology text concerning a horde of black flies attacking spores for rapid transportation. As opposed to the roach and leaf- and killing livestock! These devilish creatures suck blood, carry hopper, who seemed somewhat out of place attached to a glowing diseases (in Africa and Central America), and can cause blindness condom out in the middle of the woods, the remaining Diptera, a by flying into one’s eye! So what was a male doing attached to my gall gnat, seemed to have a good reason for being there. Gall gnats, fungus-trap? An anomaly, for sure. He was not searching for food, also called gall midges, are mostly plant feeding, but a few species nor could he have been scoping out for a place to lay eggs. My only live in decaying organic matter or fungi and feed on aphids and explanation is that, like the moth, this black fly was attracted to the other small insects. The glowing fungus, then, must have a good light, and the fungi took advantage of that instinct. Hopefully for relationship with the gall gnat, and vice versa. Here is a possible the fungus it means that the black fly (or the moth, or the leafhop- situation: The glowing of a particular fungus attracts (for whatever per) will stop by, possibly excrete some nourishment, and then fly reason) small insects and larvae. The nearby gall gnat is therefore away with a few spores attached. attracted to the glow because “it suspects” a potential meal, as well Along with the black fly, a yellow-and-black leafhopper was a place to live, is available. The gall gnat moves in and preys upon found. Also, another small Homoptera, this time of family Derbidae the small insects, returning to the fungus its excrement. When the was picked from the gooey trap. This individual, a part of the su- gall gnat decides to move on to bigger and better things, it takes perfamily of planthoppers, the Fulgoroidea, is tropical, and almost with it a small sample of fungal spores to deposit elsewhere and exclusively feeds on woody fungi. Therefore it would be advanta- start the cycle over. Everyone is happy (well, at least the fungus and geous for these Derbidae to have developed an attraction to a faint gall gnat are). Again, the fungus is sustained and its lineage glow in the woods that could signal a patch of fungi. The fungi, progresses, presumably because of its adaptive evolution of a night- although sacrificing a bit of itself to the planthopper, benefits from time glow. the fact that the insect will lead to the dispersal of spores, and will So, as it stood, we had one half of our project completed, and leave a bit of feces to feed the fungus (this relationship carries over already we had some (not rock-solid) evidence supporting our ini- to the ants from the Med Garden, as well). tial notion as to why these certain fungi glow. On to part two. The last insect of note was recognizably a click beetle, rust col- We decided early on that we needed to split our traps between at ored and elongated, with two small spines extending off the back of least two locations so as to get a wide variety of insect habitats. The the pronotum. The adults of this famlily (Elateridae) are strictly Med Garden was an easy choice. It was close, it had diversified plant-eating [sic], so the little beetle was probably not looking for eco-niches, and at least one of those mini-ecosystems was of the food. However, it may have been looking for a place to lay eggs. “damp woods” type. In the interest of time and convenience, we Larvae of the click beetles are omnivorous and many of them live decided that our other site would be the YMCA campgrounds where within rotting logs. Perhaps the fungal glow has become a signal to our class would be camping out over one weekend. As it turned click beetle mothers-to-be that there is a place to lay her eggs. While out, the location was indeed convenient. Since we were going to thumbing through the entomology text I came across a very inter- stay overnight, we could put out the traps just as the sunset and esting bit of information: some click beetles glow. These species retrieve them early the next morning. The land at the campground (natives of the southern states) have two posterior light organs on was not as diversified as the Med Garden, it being solely a dry the prothorax and one under the abdomen. If the click beetle we wooded area with a few more leafy meadows near the horse’s fenced- trapped is one of these, then it explains another possible use for the in field. I set out the traps (six of them) along the path that led into fungi’s glow. Perhaps the airborne glowing click beetles mistake the woods and toward the lake. Admittedly, I was not as careful in the glowing fungus for a member of its own species. Does it ap- laying these traps as I was at the Med Garden. At the Med Garden, proach it? I don’t know much at all about the behavior of these where students typically stroll along the boardwalk, we had to make beetles, but I can assume (through knowledge of fireflies) that the sure the traps were out of sight. This time, though, I was certain night time glow might have something to do with mating. If that is there wasn’t going to be any unnecessary foot traffic through the the case, the glowing male would be attracted to the fungus, and

Vol. 1, Number 2 Spring 1996 Fireflyer Companion 27 through subsequent contact (the beetle landing on or brushing against hazardly flew into the Tangle-trap. But all in all, it demonstrated the fungus), the ftingus would have some of its spores dispersed. that there could be several evolutionary “purposes” for this strange Through all these complex (and hypothetical) relationships be- fungal trait. No matter what the exact relationship, the ends to the tween insects and glowing fungi (which actually are scarcely repre- fungi’s means are the same: continued survival of the genes for sented in Florida), I think there is enough circumstantial evidence glowing. to say that there is definitely a reason for the presence of biolumi- REFERENCES: Field & Lab Handout 40, J.E. Lloyd, and refs. nescence in some fungi, in some places in the world. Granted, the Evan is a National Merit Scholar. a sophomore, has a double experiment was not flawless: a control group of non-glowing sticky major in the honors Program, including Entomology, and took traps in the same area as the glowing traps could have been used to BNHFF in the spring of 1995. see which insects were actually attracted to the light and which hap-

Existentialism… and Fireflies? by Andrew Aronsohn

he term existentialism was coined by Gabriel Marcel to purpose for which something is made, in the paper knife’s case describe the philosophical ideas of Jean-Paul Sartre and essence precedes its existence. TSimone de Beauvoir, and the ideas came about as a conse- When someone looks at a paper knife, he can tell exactly what quence of the social, political, and cultural changes that were oc- the useful purpose of the object is. The paper knife is only a repre- curring in France in the 1940’s. Jean-Paul Sartre classified himself sentative of the entire set of manufactured things, and thus, by the as an existentialist and was one of it’s most famous exponents, but same line of logic used with the paper knife, essence precedes ex- this form of philosophy went far beyond the ideas of just one man. istence with all manufactured things. The argument thickens a bit Authors such as Camus, Dostoevsky, and Kafka did not write as when man is brought into the question. When considering the na- existentialists, but are now thought to have taken an existential point ture of man, many would say that man is a product of a creator of view in their literature. Existential expression is not limited to named God. With the concept of God comes the idea that when books, for some of the most popular means by which existential God creates man, He knows exactly what He is creating. As unflat- thought are conveyed are movies, plays, paintings, and music. In tering to mankind as it sounds, these statements about God throw addition to art, existentialism has permeated the realm of religion humankind into the same category as the paper knife and other with philosophers such as Soren Kierkegaard, who demonstrated manufactured goods. the Christian perspective to existentialism in contrast to Sartre’s In this view, each individual, just as the paper knife, is a realiza- atheistic perspective. Existentialism, like almost all other forms of tion of the conception that God had before he created the individual. philosophy, includes divergent interpretations according to differ- Non-existential theist philosophers prior to Sartre supported this ing opinions of philosophers. This essay will begin with a focus on idea by saying that mankind possesses the same essence conceived the existential ideas of Jean-Paul Sartre because his ideas represent by God, and it is this essence common to all men that precedes some of the most widely held views concerning existentialism, and concrete or historic existence. Sartre shook the philosophical world then will discuss some of the unifying themes and purposes of exis- up a bit when said that there is no God. This poses a problem be- tentialism. Finally I will attempt to take existentialism out of the cause now mankind has no “creator” — and, of course, (happily?), minds of philosophers and place it where it can be viewed (and we are separated from the paper knives. The absence of a creator criticized, and tuned?) a bit more easily — in the summer night sky. means that it is impossible for mankind to be created by something The life of Sartre in a nutshell... Jean-Paul Sartre was born in with a preconceived notion of how we were to be made and any 1905 and was educated at the Ecole Normale Superiecture in Paris. purpose that we were supposed to fulfill. Human nature cannot be From 1934-1935, he spent a year teaching at the Institut Francais in defined in the same manner that a paper knife can be defined be- Berlin. After this, he resigned to devote himself to writing exclu- cause, unlike a knife, the purpose of a human being was not com- sively. He was a member of the French army during World War II pletely thought out in advance. Man, unlike everything else, exists and was a German prisoner of war. Sartre took complex philosophi- first, then defines himself and his purpose. That is, his “existence cal ideas and made them more understandable in the forms of short precedes his essence.” Sartre’s major point here is that a paper knife stories and novels. His most famous works concerning existential- exists for the purpose of cutting things; that is the reason knives are ism include Being and Nothingness (1943) and Existentialism Is a made. Human beings exist first, and our purpose is determined by Humanism (1946). what we make out of ourselves. Existence precedes essence . . .. Although Sartre did not actu- Comparing a man and a stone... In the previous argument, Sartre ally invent existentialism, he was responsible for one of the most proved a major theme of existentialism — that man has the unique fundamental themes of existentialism “existence precedes essence.” ability to be able to make anything he wishes out of himself. Sartre To understand this enigmatic phrase, one must first understand the takes this argument further by stating that man also has a greater essence of a manufactured object such as a paper knife. A paper dignity than an object such as a stone. At first glance this does not knife is made by someone who has a conception of it in his mind. In seem like such a bold statement because stones are not often thought order to produce a paper knife, the producer must know that he of as very dignified characters, but, to understand this statement must use a certain type of material in order to form an object with a one must be aware of Sartre’s definition of dignity. Dignity, as Sartre sharp edge that will be suitable for cutting, prior to his actually puts it, is something that consciously moves itself towards a future. doing anything. It is impossible to make something if you do not Man is conscious of moving towards the future whereas a stone know how to make it or what the object is to be used for. If the term does not really know much of anything. Stemming from the idea of essence means the procedure by which something is made and the dignity is the concept of the two different modes of being: “being-

28 Fireflyer Companion Vol. 1, Number 2 Spring 1996 in-itself” and “being-for-itself.” “Being-in-itself” means simply to point on which determinism is often attacked. exist and “being-for-itself” means being conscious of existing. Prisoners of freedom... In Sartre’s Nausea, we finally see the Human beings possess both of these modes in that mankind is and relevance of the word “exist” in existentialism. The present is the he is conscious of it. A stone is only “being-in-itself’. What sets only thing that actually exists and what is not in the present does mankind apart and makes us possess both modes of being is that we not exist. The here and now is the only thing to be sure of and, are consciously interactive with the future, unlike the stone. Since therefore, this is what really exists. Our world consists of things man makes himself what he is and is consciously interacting with that are as they appear to be, and if it were not for these things there the future, man is fully responsible for himself. This leads us to the would be absolutely nothing. These few statements prove to be ex- next major point of existentialism: for each and every action of a tremely powerful ones when supporting the doctrines of existen- particular man, it is that man and that man only who is responsible tialism. If one is to take these statements as the truth then one would for committing it. be forced to deny the existence of many abstract entities such as Man is not only responsible for who’s in the mirror... Existen- God, a moral standard, and determinism. The “causes” that the logic tialism, according to Sartre, goes beyond the idea that man is re- of determinism rely so heavily upon are not something that we can sponsible for himself, for it also holds that man is responsible for always see or even be sure that they exist, so by the existential logic all men. When man chooses to make himself a certain way, he is they do not exist and neither does determinism. If there is no deter- not only making himself, but he is also setting an example for oth- minism then man is free. This seems like a relief from the helpless ers to follow in making themselves. The idea of a value is a subjec- situation we find ourselves in when in the determinists’ world, but, tive one, meaning that there is no absolute standard guide that tells unfortunately, the existential picture may put us in an even worse us correct decisions and correct values, so each individual is forced predicament. to make value judgments of his own. If a value is truly good for an According to Sartre, man not only is free but he is condemned to individual, than it is by definition a good value for all. By adhering be free. We are thrown into this world by no choice of our own, to certain values, one is saying that it is good for himself and that is then once we are conscious of ourselves we are forced to take full also good for all. Every value chosen is to be seen as an example for responsibility for all of our actions. Free will may seem like a luxury all others to see and consider. According to existentialism, in mak- when compared to the helplessness of determinism, but when we ing a decision one must realize the consequences of other people recognize the enormous burden of responsibility that lies within acting in accordance to the same values that one picks for himself. every free-willed decision, free will no longer seems like such an Sartre says that simply saying “others won’t act the way I do” is a attractive idea. Kierkegaard spoke of a dizziness of freedom, and form of self deception, and people that utilize this form of other existentialists have labeled freedom as “appalling.” It is truly self-deception will never be fully at ease with their conscience. Men a scary thought when we think of ourselves as abandoned in this must make all decisions with a great deal of anguish, because with complex world, so free that there is nothing pushing us from be- each decision men are not only responsible for themselves but for hind, nothing leading our way, and no way to escape this situation. all of mankind. Prisoner of freedom, after existentialism explains it, no longer seems The abandoned condition of humankind... Sartre along with like an oxymoron. many other existentialists, were strict atheists. He was a believer in Unifying themes of existentialism... Most of the ideas that have Nietzsche’s idea that “God is dead” and supported Heidegger’s been presented thus far have been heavily influenced by Jean-Paul theory that man’s condition is one of abandonment. Sartre did not Sartre. His ideas do an excellent job in explaining the foundation of mean abandonment in the physical sense of the word, but rather in ideas concerning existentialism, but what has yet to be discussed a psychological sense. Since we, according to Sartre, live in a God- are some unifying themes of existentialism and the purpose of exis- less world, there is absolutely no chance of humankind ever getting tentialism itself. The following are three ideas upon which almost any moral or ethical help from “upstairs.” Existentialism brings forth all existentialists agree. the idea that each individual is put on this earth with a lifetime of 1. Acceptance of anguish and suffering as a condition of ex- decisions to make which he is completely responsible for, yet there perience. This seems a little harsh, but according to the existential- is no real authority to turn to when left to grapple with an especially ists this is a so-called “fact of life.” It was previously mentioned challenging decision. that one must assume complete responsibility for himself and ev- A few words on determinism... In order to continue this discus- eryone else with every decision made. This burden of responsibility sion of existentialism, another philosophical concept is needed — is not possible without anguish, so every decision means anguish. namely the idea of determinism. Determinism equates man’s life to What about the experience of love? What could possibly be said being on a track where it is impossible to swerve off, speed up, or about anguish concerning love? Existentialism defines love not as slow down. According to determinism, there is no such thing as a state of happiness, but rather a concern for someone whose death free will. Free will would mean one could get on and off the track, would result in an irreparable personal loss. There is nothing that or just stop, if one so desired. Determinism means every action that can exist without anguish and suffering. an individual commits is caused by one thing or another, and noth- 2. Anguish is seen in different forms. When questioned about ing happens for absolutely no reason. The only reason that some- anguish, most would say that they in fact do not experience anguish one picks one choice over another is because that choice has a more and suffering with every decision. How do existentialists explain compelling cause. A free action is only an illusion because even if the fact that I just decided to get a drink of water, yet I do not recall someone thinks that his or her action was completely free of cause, any feelings of intense anguish or suffering while doing so? Their there is in reality an underlying cause that provoked the action. But answer to this is that anguish takes the form of many other com- if all of our actions are caused, as determinism states, then how can monplace negative feelings such as tedium, anxiety, apathy, and we be responsible for any wrongdoing? All of our decisions are fear. The source of these many times unexplained feelings, accord- “beyond our control,” so in determinism we are not to be held re- ing to existentialism, is a misunderstanding of anguish which is sponsible for anything. Who should accept responsibility is a major necessary in life. One of the purposes of existentialism is to liberate

Vol. 1, Number 2 Spring 1996 Fireflyer Companion 29 mankind from these “unwholesome” manifestations of anguish and accept this sentence of freedom with much more dignity, however, realize these feelings for what they really are. because while the human existentialist complains about intense 3. Existential values serve a purpose of intensifying conscious- anguish, the firefly just lights up the sky. ness and give reason to engage total energy in life. Intensity is a Some flashes of disapproval concerning existentialism. (end- key word for existentialists. We are not on a path which we are ing #2)... Our luciferase-bearing friend, the firefly, can be used to determined to stay on but one on which we are forced to make accentuate some holes in the logic of existentialism. Fireflies are choices that we must take responsibility for. Intensity of conscience living creatures just like human beings, yet when one analyses their and energy is a requirement in order to deal with the anguish that lives it does not seem as though they have the luxury (or curse, as accompanies this. the case may be) of free will. Fireflies, along with most other mem- Existentialism is by no means a positive philosophy but it does bers of the animal kingdom serve as pillars that support the idea of have its points of attraction. This philosophy received such wide- determinism. The causes of actions that existentialists say do not spread popularity because of its almost shocking refusal of faith in always exist can be easily seen in the firefly. The male firefly flashes the unknown and its glaring acceptance of concrete reality and free as a result of a specific cause — to find females. It is hard to imag- will. Many are troubled by existentialism’s constant references to ine that a firefly equipped with such a paltry nervous system is fly- anguish and suffering, yet there are many who accept existentialism’s ing around pondering the notion of whether to light up or not to harsh responsibility with open arms. Whether or not one agrees with light up. It is an even more difficult task to find anything that the the ideas of existentialism, it should be praised for its innovative firefly does that is not directly caused by its program to survive and ideas and historical importance. As a neophyte philosophy student, reproduce. Fireflies do not make choices but rather act out what I find it refreshing to break out of the ancient thoughts of Greece needs to be done — what they are programmed phylogentically to and Rome, if only for a little while, to study an idea that was com- do. If fireflies still seem too “free,” then what about a sponge? The pletely conceived in this century. sponge is a living creature, yet it does not seem to be making choices The firefly — the unsung existentialist? (ending #1)… It is concerning reproduction and feeding. At what point along the hier- only appropriate to include our friend, the firefly, in our discussion archy of complexity exhibited in the animal kingdom can one say of existentialism. What better example of something taking full re- that these animals lead determined lives and these animals live lives sponsibility for their actions than the firefly? This may seem like an of free will? Once determinism is proved, the idea of free will and odd statement at first, but at closer inspection it becomes obvious existentialism seem to fall apart. Sometimes, in order to find the that for the firefly, existence truly precedes essence. The firefly is answers to some of the “big” questions, one need not look through not by any means like the paper knife. Our bioluminescent friends piles of old dusty books, but rather look out into the summer night are not here to perform some mundane task like the knife, but rather sky. to lead a life filled with freedom and choice. A firefly, just like a REFERENCES: Feinberg, Joel. 1993. Reason and Responsibil- human being, exists first as a mere arthropod but he must make ity: Readings in Some Basic Problems of Philosophy. Belmont, Cali- himself into the firefly that he is. Our physical actions and speech fornia: Wadsworth Publishing. Greene, Marjorie. 1959. Introduc- that reflect our choices can be equated with flight patterns, flash tion to Existentialism. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. colors, and flash patterns. The male firefly will notjust reproduce Harper, Ralph. 1948. Existentialism: A Theory of Man. Cambridge: just as the knife will cut, but rather he must take on the responsibil- Harvard University Press. Olson, Robert G. 1962. An Introduction ity himself. On any given summer night ‘ one can see existentialism to Existentialism. New York: Dover Publications, Inc. Sarte, Jean- illuminate the night sky because the male firefly knows that he must Paul. 1947. Existentialism. New York: Philosophical Library, take on the responsibility, wholeheartedly, to signal the female him- Stumpf, Samuel E. 1979. Elements of Philosophy: An Introduction. self. The male realizes his burden of responsibility and accepts it New York: McGraw-Hill. with an intensity that would please any true existentialist. In addi- Aronshohn was a freshman in the Honors Program major- tion, the male firefly exercises his free will every night when he ing in Philosophy when he wrote this essay, and now is a sopho- decides to signal the females to find a mate. Finally, the firefly is a more majoring in organic chemistry. He took NHFF in the fall prisoner of freedom, just like us. They, like humans, are thrown of 1995. into the world and are forced to lead a life of freedom. Fireflies Women’s Role in the Study of Nature by Stacey Hannah Dear Firefly Doc, I would like to begin by explaining to you why tive, strictly fact-filled paper. I am almost entirely confident that I am writing this letter. When you first told me I could write my you will appreciate this. Your willingness to let your students think paper about women’s work in nature, I admittedly was quite re- for themselves and your interest in what we discover thereafter is lieved. Having already found a few books specifically on this topic, evident to me in your unique way of teaching. I also figured, since I figured it would be easy enough to choose a few individuals, maybe you write us, your students, so many letters, I could write one back find a couple more sources, and compile information. However, as to you. Because so many times in our studies we are forced to “color I began to get further into my research and to think about what inside the lines,” I’ve taken this opportunity to go a little on the exactly I would write, my own feelings about what I was learning outside. My hope is that, through this, we both receive more enjoy- dominated my thoughts. Being, of course, a woman, or girl (a title I ment out of the task. am sometimes more secure with), who is interested in science and Never fear; it is my first intention to state a few facts on the sub- has very general aspirations of making some sort of a career out of ject of women’s role in the study of nature. As you can imagine, it it, what I read about these women naturally conjured up emotion. It has always been greatly down-played, especially before the twenti- would have been a terribly difficult task for me to write an objec- eth century. As I read through source after source about woman

30 Fireflyer Companion Vol. 1, Number 2 Spring 1996 after woman, the seemingly off-handed remarks blatantly denying for example, retired a full five years after her husband did, even any feminine involvement in the study of nature jumped out at me though the two worked together for their entire married life from the pages. I thought I would share several of these statements (Comstock 252). It so happened, also, that Anna was still teaching with you. First, Paul Quinnett, in his spoof called “Of Bugs and until just two weeks before her death (Bonta 166). The dedication Women,” reflected on the fact that he had never met a female ento- to and excellence of these women’s work in nature I found to be mologist and concluded that “all women have an inbred dislike of awesome. insects” (Bonta 145). Obviously he never attended Honors Biology So far, I have presented what I learned about the traditionally of Fireflies class. A second quote came from a leading Bureau of viewed role of women in nature as compared with that of men, and Entomology man upon his learning of the appointment of Edith the seemingly contrasting significant accomplishments of women Patch as teacher of entomology and agricultural English at the Uni- in nature. As I read more and more about the work of these women versity of Maine. “A woman can’t catch grasshoppers,” he said naturalists, despite the fact that they were so doubted by men who (Bonta 175). In his article “The Invisible Woman,” Stephen Gould worked in the same field, it seemed significant to me to focus on spoke about women’s involvement in botany. He stated that this their relationships with these men. Each woman was greatly influ- was acceptable because it followed the conception of the “perfect enced by the men in her life, and I began to notice a sort of pattern lady,” whereas other forms of natural study did not (Gould 14). His in these relationships. These relationships were consistent among rationale was that botany coincided with gardening, which was an most of these women, not because they each had identical relation- acceptable interest for women to have. A ruling of the Wisconsin ships with the prominent men in their lives, but because these rela- Supreme Court in 1875 actually placed a definition on the role of tionships all reflected the way in which they viewed and went about women, stating that “the Law of Nature ... qualifies the female sex their work. Mostly, women who worked with men took on a sup- for the bearing and nurturing of the children ... and for the custody porting role. However, this does not negate the fact that the women of the homes of the world...” (LaBastille 69). I guess this left no viewed the natural world in a whole different manner than men, room for women to study the nature that provided that law. and, in fact, these relationships supported that fact (Norwood xv). In a different context, a famous painting entitled Celia Thaxter in This all resulted from the simple, yet often-denied fact that men Her Garden by Childe Hassam, through its portrayal of the typical and women inherently view this world in much different lights. view of a woman in a garden, further supported the (mis)conception The major example I found of this behavioral/psychological dif- of women in nature. While the painting did depict a woman in na- ference was exemplified by the life of Anna Botsford Comstock. ture, the garden that Thaxter stood in was not the hard-core wilder- Four specific examples clearly displayed her acquisition of a sup- ness that so many women were involved in, but rather one more porting role to her husband, John “Harry” Comstock. The first two part of her domesticated life (Norwood 104). Therefore, by stand- examples related expressly to the couple’s research and experimen- ing in her garden, Thaxter was not progressing as some radical fe- tation. Even before their marriage, Harry gave Anna her first set of male, but, rather contradictorily, she was following in her typical drawing tools, with which she began drawing insects for him (Bonta role as a housewife. In stating these facts, I am not trying to expose 157). During their life together, Anna continued to draw the insects some great historical injustice done to women. I realize and respect Harry found, eventually enabling him to classify much of the the beauty of how history has shaped and changed women’s roles Coccidae of America (Comstock 130). Though he greatly praised in every aspect of society. And even in today’s world I would hesi- Anna’s work, the bottom line was that Harry ended up with much tate to call myself an active feminist. I merely find this information of her credit. Secondly, upon the initial publication of her own book, incredibly striking. To think that women were considered so insig- The Handbook of Nature Study, Harry thought it would lose five nificant in a field where they offered so much fascinates me. It fur- thousand dollars (Bonta 154). Despite this obviously mistaken think- thers my appreciation for the beauty of how time so dramatically ing, however, Anna viewed her husband as being supportive. Did changes the fundamental ways in which we think. she just overlook his obvious doubt of her work? The answer must As is the case with most generalizations, the ones that no female be “yes,” because this type of what seems nowadays as almost con- is comfortable in the wilderness, that girls don’t know how to camp, descending approval, is said to have typified their marriage (Bonta that women hate bugs, etc. are simply not true. Much factual evi- 154). dence exists to support this. Countless women have made countless Examples were also evident in the couple’s life together outside achievements ever since the pioneer days. Rachel Carson, with her of their profession. A story I found somewhat amusing, in some- unprecedentedly influential work on the effects of pesticides in na- what of a sick way, told of a time when Anna made too much pie ture, is immediately brought to mind upon the topic of women’s crust and the couple ended up with enough cranberry pie to feed an accomplishments. She is still considered to be America’s most fa- army. When Harry tired of this treat, he simply threw the pies away, mous female naturalist (Norwood 147). (I thought it important to despite “shocking and scandalizing (Anna’s) frugal self” (Comstock mention Carson, even though her work was all done in the twenti- 102). Although this may seem to some as an insignificant occur- eth century.) To list a couple of other accomplishments, Kate rence, it seems to accurately reflect the couple’s relationship, even Brandagee was offered the position of curator of botany at the Cali- professionally. A final example was, simply enough, that Anna fornia Academy of Science (Bonta 86), and Elizabeth G.K. Britton stated, upon Harry’s stroke and acquiring of terminal illness, that was considered one the three most prominent worldwide bryologists “this calamity, for us, ended life. All that came after was merely (Bonta 129). Anna Botsford Comstock, a famous entomologist, existence” (Bonta 166). A final seemingly minor detail, yet one that published the Handbook of Nature Study which soon became known struck me as significant, was simply that on the first page of her as the “Nature Bible” (Bonta 154). Annie Trumbull Slosson, an- own autobiography (from which I have taken much of this informa- other entomologist, had a species of insect named after her. The tion), is a large picture of her husband. species with the epithet slossonae could not represent all that she Admittedly, Anna and Harry’s dedication to one another displayed discovered (Bonta 169). an ideal marital relationship. However, it was glaringly clear to me, On top of these accomplishments, which I could go on listing for in reading Anna’s own words, some as previously quoted, that her pages, these women not only defied the misconceptions mentioned life revolved around him. And while she engaged in so much im- by their involvement in nature, they consistently proved it wrong portant entomological study and research, it was usually dictated by throwing themselves into their work. Every woman of whom I by his work. I am not discounting this, or saying that it is wrong; I read was characterized by hard work and long hours, sometimes am merely reflecting that, because of the time in which they lived, despite failing health. Another commonplace was that these women Anna’s way of thinking seemed to be so much resolved to the fact worked till very old ages, most till their eighties. Anna Comstock, that her work revolved around her husband’s that she did not even Vol. 1, Number 2 Spring 1996 Fireflyer Companion 31 question it. She looked upon his dominance of their personal rela- made me more aware of the intensity with which these women stud- tionship with unquestioning laughter, as is evident in the humorous ied nature. You see, I thought and thought about why women would tone she used to tell the cranberry pie story. She viewed her work, so passively accept almost condescending support from fathers, and even her life, as her own for the simple fact that she lived in a brothers, husbands, and mentors. I realized, after speculation, that world where something that was a woman’s own work or posses- it all boils down to the unconditional commitment these women sion was usually something given to her by a man. And I, as a woman had to their work. They were so intensely dedicated that they were approaching the twenty-first century, am forced to question any concerned with their work and nothing else. They thought little about thinking of the sort. why or how they received the opportunity to work in nature; they Just about every other woman naturalist before the twentieth cen- cared so little about recognition that they did not even think twice tury worked with the mindset of Anna Comstock. Countless women when a husband or a mentor received their deserved credit; and drew for men, as Anna did for Harry. Jane Colden’s early floral they obviously did not think twice about the perceived role of women drawings specifically displayed the fact that illustration had become in the study of nature. These women’s sole thought was that they a female occupation in which women could adhere to their natural were learning about and helping to provide others with knowledge inclination to decorate (Norwood 60). It is interesting, and perti- of the natural world. One female entomologist summed it all up nent, I believe, to point out that most women naturalists had posi- when she said, “My work means more to me than living...” (Bonta tive relationships with the men in their lives. Alice Eastwood, a 153). botanist, spoke confidently of her positive male friendships (Bonta Intrigued and questioning trails, Stacy Hannah 96). Anna Comstock also had this to say on the subject: “Blessed is the girl who learns early in life that men are good” (Bonta 155). REFERENCES: Berta, Marcia Myers. 1991. Women in the Field: Most women worked under male mentors and felt positive support Americas Pioneering Women Naturalists. Texas A&M University from these men, as well as the men in their families. These good Press: College Station, Texas. Comstock, Anna Botsford. 1953. The relationships contributed to the inclination for these women to un- Comstocks of Cornell. Cornell University Press: Ithaca, New York. questioningly accept the inferior role they took to these men. They Gould, Stephen Jay. June 1993. “The Invisible Woman.” Natural were grateful for the support they received from these men, which History, 102:6. American Museum of Natural History: New York, to women today would undoubtedly be seen as condescending. They New York. LaBastille, Anne. 1980. Women and Wilderness. Sierra viewed these relationships as positive, when today they would surely Club Books: San Francisco, California. Norwood, Vera. 1993. Made be seen as negative. From this Earth. The University of North Carolina Press: Chapel Ever since the pioneer days up until the twentieth century, and Hill, North Carolina. even beyond that, women’s role in the study of nature has been downplayed. While this is a fairly logical fact, I became over- Hannah is a sophomore in the Honors Program majoring In whelmed with its irony as I did my research. As I have said before, Animal Science and took BNHFF in the spring of 1996. it did not necessarily infuriate me, but rather interested me, and

“After reading about you and your extreme interest in fireflies in the St. Petersburg Times, I thought you would appreciate the Oh, those many years ago. following poem written by my mother to my daughter.” Was I really only three? But, yes, I heard the firefly. Rebecca Heard a Firefly He really talked to me.

“Did you hear the firefly?” Rebecca and I sat and listened. Asked Rebecca who’s only three. We saw the little glow. “Did you hear the firefly? And we each received a message I heard it calling me.” as the light would come and go.

And so I listened carefully, I love you, my Rebecca. I know its quite absurd. I love your sweet, sweet ways. But I listened and I listened, And Rebecca said she loves me and never heard a word. and will for all our days.

“Don’t you hear it? Listen! Come on little firefly, And when its light is lit keep talking to we two. he tells me all about himself. And we’ll always remember I mean every little bit.” the night we talked to you. Edna T. Thomas “He tells me that’s his job, to light up in the dark. I thought I should pass this along to you. I hope you enjoyed And that’s why you can find him it. in almost every park.” Sincerely, Lynn. St. Petersburg, FL So, once again I listened and listened with all my might. Thanks Lynn, and Grandma Thomas. I think this poem will From the deepest of my memories, become part of the American lightningbug tradition. ￿￿ I, too, had heard one night. 32 Fireflyer Companion Vol. 1, Number 2 Spring 1996