Spirit Wrestling Identity Conflict and the Canadian “Doukhobor Problem,” 1899-1999 By Ashleigh Brienne Androsoff A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy, Graduate Department of History, in the University of Toronto © by Ashleigh Brienne Androsoff, 2011 Spirit Wrestling: Identity Conflict and the Canadian “Doukhobor Problem,” 1899-1999 Ashleigh Brienne Androsoff Degree of Doctor of Philosophy, Graduate Department of History, University of Toronto, 2011 ABSTRACT At the end of the nineteenth century, Canada sought “desirable” immigrants to “settle” the Northwest. At the same time, nearly eight thousand members of the Dukhobori (commonly transliterated as “Doukhobors” and translated as “Spirit Wrestlers”) sought refuge from escalating religious persecution perpetrated by Russian church and state authorities. Initially, the Doukhobors’ immigration to Canada in 1899 seemed to satisfy the needs of host and newcomer alike. Both parties soon realized, however, that the Doukhobors’ transition would prove more difficult than anticipated. The Doukhobors’ collective memory of persecution negatively influenced their perception of state interventions in their private affairs. In addition, their expectation that they would be able to preserve their ethno-religious identity on their own terms clashed with Canadian expectations that they would soon integrate into the Canadian mainstream. This study focuses on the historical evolution of the “Doukhobor problem” in Russia and in Canada. It argues that the “problem,” commonly misunderstood by political and legal authorities as a law-and-order issue, was actually an extended identity struggle, both among Doukhobors of opposed factions, and between Doukhobors and state authorities in Russia and in Canada who insisted on conformity to social, economic, legal, and political “norms.” It uses the Doukhobors’ historical experience in Canada to showcase a wide spectrum of possible “newcomer” responses to the Canadian “host” society, drawing attention to ii subtleties which may be missed in the study of less extreme cases. Using orally articulated collective memory narratives and print journalism sources to access Doukhobor and Canadian identity perceptions, this study argues that newcomers’ impact on Canadian identity definitions predated the multicultural shift of the late 1960s and early 1970s. By pointing out the way in which immigrants such as the Doukhobors did, or did not, conform to (Anglo-) Canadian “norms” in public discourse, Canadians articulated their national identity perceptions in the early decades of the twentieth century. This study concludes that the “Doukhobor problem” could only be solved when the contested identity narratives and collective memories which were at the root of the Doukhobors’ discontent were publicly addressed in “truth and reconciliation” style symposia called in the 1970s and 1980s. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I owe a tremendous debt of gratitude to a number of people on both a personal and professional level. I have had the privilege of working with several excellent scholars who have offered keen insight and thoughtful advice as supervisors, mentors, colleagues, and friends. Mark McGowan offered exceptional supervision throughout my graduate program. I am grateful for his steady encouragement and occasional correction, often accompanied by a raised eyebrow and a warm chuckle. He allowed me to find my own path without allowing me to stray too far, run in circles, or journey too long toward dead ends. This manuscript is a fraction of its original size. I am grateful for Mark’s encouragement to “just write it out” and for his patience throughout the editing stage. Both Steve Penfold and Ian Radforth offered thoughtful and thought-provoking suggestions which opened my eyes to the broader significance of the Doukhobor case study and improved the quality of my scholarship overall. I am grateful to Wayne Dowler for offering a Russianist’s perspective on the transnational aspects of this project, and to Marlene Epp, whose encouragement and insights as an external examiner and as a historian pursuing similar research questions have made me think about the work that I am doing now and the work I would like to do next. I also wish to acknowledge Jo Godfrey for her administrative support and words of encouragement. Her assistance surely helped Mark balance the demands of supervision with the demands of principalship. Though not directly involved in this project, a few scholars deserve special mention here. Ursula Franklin’s pearls of wisdom partially demystified the complexities of academia and helped me plan my approach. Michael Bliss has contributed significantly to the political and medical history holdings in my personal library, and provided a metaphorical key to the front gates of Massey College. Michael made it his business to facilitate formal introductions at any event we both attended, and I always felt like a rising star and a favoured iv friend in his eyes. His consistent and heartfelt support of me as a female scholar working on a social history project suggests the degree to which he has been misunderstood by a few of his more critical colleagues. Don Grayston has contributed significantly to my intellectual and personal development alike. His belief in my potential as a scholar, his support for this project, and his avuncular concern for my personal growth have held me in good stead throughout the years of my university education. A few librarians went out of their way to help me achieve my research goals. I am especially grateful to Eric Swanick at SFU, who led me to some especially exciting finds. University of Toronto librarian Patricia Bellamy helped me plan my media studies approach. Larry Ewashen of the Doukhobor Village Museum graciously provided site access and loaned material. Patricia Pratt, a research librarian at New Westminster Public Library, helped hone my research skills from a very young age, and taught me the value of asking for help. Friends and family from within the Doukhobor community offered generous assistance as I conducted field research. John and Laurie Androsoff, Irene and George Semenoff, Phyllis and George Gritchen, Mabel Androsoff, and Ryan M. Androsoff offered me shelter, food, and fellowship during several research trips, often facilitating introductions and providing transportation. Bill Chebeldaeve generously granted me access to privately- held archival material at his home in Grand Forks. Eli Popoff shared his expertise at several key points in my research, offering an insider-expert analysis to help bridge a few gaps in the historical record and to identify potential interviewees. I am indebted to the many Doukhobors who shared their time, stories, and insights with me – both on and off the record – as I conducted formal interviews in British Columbia and Saskatchewan in 2005. My interviewees’ contributions are evident throughout this piece, as they helped shape, correct, and confirm my understanding of the Doukhobors’ v experiences in Russia and in Canada. I am aware of the trust implied in sharing this material with me, and I hope I have honoured that with integrity. Their generosity of spirit ignited the iskra in me. I also owe a personal debt of gratitude to the many friends who helped make the journey easier. Sude Beltan, Maggie MacDonnell, Nevena Francetic, and Anna Shamaeva shared many ups and downs at Massey College and in Suite 934. The Sommers family shared their home and their holidays with me, providing welcome respite from the concrete corridors of downtown Toronto. I am especially grateful to Andrew Sloboda, who offered love and enthusiastic encouragement as I entered the writing phase of this project. Stefanie and John Lok, Corinne and Gerry Vanden Hoven, Camy Ng, and Jeff Sawers, have always welcomed me home to Vancouver and made me feel like a member of their families. Stefanie’s sunny disposition and perpetual optimism helped me overcome many obstacles, and encouraged me to keep moving forward. In reading early drafts of my academic work, Joel Aird played a critical role in my development as a writer. For this, and his unconditional friendship, I am very grateful. My family has offered extensive support and patience throughout the duration of this project and words alone cannot convey my appreciation. My brother and sister have provided encouragement and professional insight; my mother and father have commented on a number of drafts, and provided cultural interpretation, as well as a warm welcome home whenever I could make the journey. The Postnikoffs and the Lews, immediate family as well as friends and neighbours, have always made their support for me and for my work clear. The late Norma Lines reminded me of her high estimation of my academic (and political) potential, as well as of her love for me. Through their grandparenting and their story-telling, Agnes Gauthier and Michael and Polly Androsoff inspired a love of history from a young age, and sparked my interest in this particular line of inquiry. vi I am especially grateful for Billie Allan, who has shared this journey with me in so many meaningful ways, joining me in friendship and sisterhood at a critical juncture and walking with me (and even literally carrying me) to the finish line. Her generosity of spirit and resources fed my body and soul alike. This epic journey ends, as many do, with the discovery of true love and the promise of new beginnings. I left Justin Roberts on one coast and found him on the other. Who knew over a decade ago that this confident football player who challenged me in class and on the racquetball court alike at SFU would one day choose me as a teammate? His questions and suggestions continue to challenge me to improve the quality of my scholarship. I am grateful for this, and for so much more. I reach higher because of him – partially because he is strong enough to lift me above his head, and partially because he encourages me to jump.