PEACE AUDIT 2006 Supporting an Enabling Environment for Peace in

Consortium of

Humanitarian Agencies Part 1

Published by: Consortium of Humanitarian Agencies 86, Rosmead Place, 07, Sri Lanka. Tel/fax: (94-11) 4610943/4; web: www.humanitarian-srilanka.org

The Consortium of Humanitarian Agencies is an association of agencies functioning as a network of humanitarian agencies in Sri Lanka. CHA, over the past eight years has developed into a full-fledged secretariat with its own specific capabilities. Its comparative advantages are: being a network having an excellent tool to disseminate information; and weight in discussions and in lobbying due to its large membership and linkages both local and overseas.

© Consortium of Humanitarian Agencies

First published: September 2006

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical or photo-copying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the Consortium of Humanitarian Agencies. It is distributed on the understanding that it shall not, by way of trade or otherwise be sold, lent, hired or otherwise circulated without the prior consent of the CHA.

Cover designed by: “Ozhone”

Printed by: Design Systems, Colombo 10. Tel: 011 4936823

ISBN 955-1041-24-0

ii Foreword Part 1

his report, titled ‘Peace Audit 2006 - Supporting an Enabling Environment for Peace in Sri Lanka’, is a study aimed at contributing to the creation of conflict sensitive capacity of humanitarian and de T velopment actors in Sri Lanka and is presented as a sequel to the Peace Audit CHA conducted in 2004. Humanitarian and development agencies in Sri Lanka have a major role to play in the road to peace and development of the country. This report will no doubt assist and prove to be a valuable tool in understand- ing the dynamics of the prevailing situation in .

The Consortium of Humanitarian Agencies believes in total commitment and support for the facilitation of such humanitarian and development work and supports best practices and standards at all times. As an organization, we and our members and partners have a responsibility to reach the deprived and disadvan- taged of this country, along with the need to work consciously ‘in’ and actively ‘on’ conflict, rather than ‘around’ conflict (which means avoiding conflict and dealing as if there were no conflict). This in turn leads to a requirement of shared understanding of the context in the districts, in order to respond effectively, coordinated, and to ‘do no harm’.

It is also important to build on the previous experience of CHA, such as the PCIA, Resource Pack and Trainer Manual Conflict Sensitivity and the Peace Audit 2003.

This report has been put together, complementing strategic conflict assessments in adding a more detailed district view on issues of peace and conflict. It is relevant to humanitarian and development agencies in the mentioned areas and has three main parts:

oDistrict based Peace and Conflict Assessments providing information on the situation of peace and conflict, its dynamics and scenarios. oAn analysis of agencies’ experiences and challenges of conflict sensitive programming. oA survey on local methods of conflict mitigation.

We hope that this Peace Audit report will be useful for agencies to make informed decisions on humanitar- ian and development assistance, and gear our efforts further towards mitigating conflict and promoting peace through our interventions.

Jeevan Thiagarajah Executive Director

iii Peace Audit 2006

Part 1

We acknowledge the support of the World Bank’s Post Conflict Fund (PCF) for this initiative.

iv Executive Summary

Acknowledgements Part 1

he Peace Audit 2006, published by the Consortium of Humanitarian Agencies (CHA) is the second issue in the series of peace audits conducted by CHA. The publication is primarily an Audit T of the current peace and conflict situation in the country, which helps the various interested stake- holders to view and understand the policy and practical dynamics with a district focus. CHA as a national service provider leads in publishing and disseminating information widely as part of the services of the Consortium.

We appreciate and acknowledge a host of individuals and institutes who made this audit possible. Our gratitude goes to all those who spared their precious time for us on our interviews and who contributed information to our questionnaires. We also thank our District Officers from the relevant districts and other Peacebuilding Partner-organisations who coordinated the audit work in three districts where CHA officers are not present. We also appreciate the support extended by the Research Assistants in all 12 districts.

We also acknowledge and thank the Advisory Committee comprising Nina Kataja, Markus Meyer, Jehan Perera and Joe Williams for their support.

Much appreciation and thanks are extended to Suren Raghavan (for editing the English report) S.I. Keethaponcalan and Maneesha Pasquel (for editing the Tamil and Sinhala reports). Thanks go to Menika Van der Poorten, our translator and all CHA Staff members who helped us in numerous ways in the publi- cation process.

We also thank Design Systems for overall support in the printing and designing the publication.

Special thanks go to the World Bank’s, Post Conflict Fund for their support for this initiative.

Peace Audit Team

Nilanga Abeysinghe Denis Dressel Fareeha Jaleel Shantha Kulatunga Kandiah Sarveswaran and Minna Thaheer.

v Peace Audit 2006

Part 1

vi Executive Summary

Part 1

Page No Part 1

• Executive Summary 3 • Introduction 7 • Conflict Sensitivity in Post-Tsunami Rehabilitation and Reconstruction Work 10

• Critical Issues, Implications and Recommendations 18 • Local Methods of Conflict Mitigation / Resolution 23

Part 2

• Peace Audit Districts 33 35 Anuradhrapura District 41 Badulla District District 48 District 52 Galle District 58 Jaffna District 64 Mannar District 70 Matara District 77 Nuwara Eliya District 83 Puttalam District 88 Trincomalee District 95 Vavuniya District 102

Annexures

• Timeline of Events October 2005 – June 2006 111 • Research Methodology 115 • Examples of Local Methods of Conflict Resolution / Mitigation 121 • Bibiliography 122

vii Peace Audit 2006

Part 1

viii Executive Summary

Acronyms Part 1

AGA Assistant Government Agent

CA Conflict Analysis CBO Community Based Organization CCR Center for Conflict Resolution CFA Cease Fire Agreement CHA Consortium of Humanitarian Agencies CS Conflict Sensitivity

DFID Department For International Development DNH Do No Harm DS Divisional Secretariat

EPDP Eelam People’s Democratic Party EPRLF Eelam People’s Revolutionary Liberation Front EU European Union

FEWER Forum on Early Warning and Early Response

GA Government Agent GoSL Government of Sri Lanka GN Grama Niladhari

HSZ High Security Zone

ICRC International Committee of the Red Cross IDP Internally Displaced Person IDRC International Development Research Center IGOs Inter-Governmental Organizations IGP Inspector General of Police INGOs International Non-Governmental Organizations

JHU Jathika Hela Urumaya (National Sinhala Heritage) JM Joint Mechanism JVP Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna

KKS Kankesanthurai

LTTE Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam

MC Municipal Council MoU Memorandum of Understating MP Member of Parliament

PCA Peace and Conflict Assessment PCIA Peace and Conflict Impact Assessment P-TOMS Post-Tsunami Operational Management Structure

ix Part 1

RAs Research Assistants

SCOPP Secretariat for Coordinating the Peace Process SLA Sri Lanka Army SLFP SLMC Sri Lanka Muslim Congress SLMM Sri Lanka Monitoring Mission SLN Sri Lanka Navy STF Special Task Force

TEC Tsunami Evaluation Coalition TELO Tamil Eelam Liberation Organization TMVP Tamil Makkal Viduthalai Pulikal TNA Tamil National Alliance TRO Tamil Rehabilitation Organization

UK United Kingdom UNF United National Front UNHCR United Nations High Commission for Refugees

WB World Bank

x Part 1

Part 1 Peace Audit 2006

Part 1

2 Executive Summary

Executive Summary Part 1

he 12 Districts’ Peace Audit report pre protracted conflict and its dynamics at work. The sented here gives an insight into and re underlying economic conditions and the all perva- T flects the inner dynamics of the prevailing sive scarcity of resources and the perennial attempts conditions for peace in the districts, especially amidst at sharing them in an ‘equitable’ manner remain the the grassroots and local actors that have an impact overarching issues in the path to peace. This is a fea- at a national level. ture common to all districts, not only to the North- east but also to the South and the midlands as well. The Peace Audit Report overall, attempts to make The prevailing conditions for peace in the 12 dis- general observations of events in 12 distinct district trict audits that we observe here have all the neces- specific situations and tries to highlight features of sary ingredients for an opportunity for constructive intractability in these cases that impact on the na- engagement for peace. tional level conflict. This audit also brings to light ‘trigger’ factors that need to be addressed through Examining the turn of events in the districts and as- careful preventive measures. The study also ob- sessing the environment for peace, there are many serves features that help create ‘windows of oppor- opportunities for preventive diplomacy measures tunities’1 for conflict resolution in the face of these and mediation efforts that will benefit the districts, seemingly ‘protracted conflicts’ in the selected dis- thus sparing them from violence. The analysis pro- tricts of Sri Lanka. vides reason to address the issue of timing and long term involvement that are both necessary and suffi- In a generic sense a comprehensive Peace and Con- cient conditions for seizing opportunities that will flict Impact Assessment [PCIA] attempts to cover help bring about transformation. “Windows can be vital aspects of a conflict including Military and Hu- opened and closed and consequently reflect the re- man Security, Political Culture and Processes, Eco- ality that the chances for intervention come and go nomic Conditions, Social Structures and Institutional and must be continually monitored and analyzed.”3 , Formal and Informal Capacities for peace and rec- These opportunities could create common grounds onciliation. However, this audit was focused on few amongst the main adversary and keep other oppos- selected topics such as the Social Condition for Peace ing parties at bay. at the grassroots level and Conflict Sensitivity amongst active agencies. The notion that religions were territorially specific and unsuited to the spirit of nations is what made Protracted conflicts refer particularly to deep-rooted, ‘nationalism’ supersede religions in identity-based conflicts. As Edward E Azar defines compartmentalising people into different nations. them, they are “the prolonged and often violent This has been a major source of modern conflicts. struggle by communal groups, (religious, ethnic, ra- There is also a formation of a kind of regionalism cial or cultural) for such basic needs as security, rec- of ‘nationalistic’ flavors almost akin to ‘national- ognition and acceptance, fair access to political in- ism’ that is very unique in the districts. This is at stitutions, and economic participation”2. Our district work where the larger national question of the reports provide ample evidence for the features of Tamil homeland is concerned. We see regionalism

3 Peace Audit 2006

Part 1

superseding ethnicity. There is divided opinion es- kinds and degrees of reconciliation, with different pecially when it comes to the need for the creation mixes of elements. “Actions that foster reconcilia- of a Tamil homeland, although there is a commend- tion need not wait for the conflict to end. Even when able aspect of unity that this common identity gives a conflict is being waged and escalated, attention to for those from the same district. The flip side of future co-existence and ultimate reconciliation can this sense of ‘regionalism’ is that it is fanning much affect the way a struggle is conducted.”4 religious intolerance. The entire Northern, Eastern and North Western districts show a complex work- The above conditions offer humanitarian agencies ing of such ‘regional’ thinking that almost threat- ideal opportunities to help transform the conflict by ens the political power of the Tamil homeland con- showing willingness to address structural changes cept. So also is the case with the Muslims of the in poverty, economic development and good gov- east whose grievances are distinctly different from ernance. Conflict transformation is a generic, com- the Muslims in the rest of the island. prehensive term referring to actions seeking to alter the various characteristics and manifestations of con- The attempt of the Muslim community to maintain flict by addressing the root causes of particular con- their religio-cultural identity has resulted in them flicts over the long-term with the aim of transform- being perceived as ‘betrayers’ of the Tamil people. ing negative conflict into positive constructive con- This situation has the potential for a prolonged fu- flict.5 ture Tamil-Muslim intercommunity conflict. Issues related to resource sharing and people’s ac- According to Louis Kriesberg, to achieve a compre- cess to them emerge as the major underlying cause hensive mutually accommodating relationship that for conflict in every district. This has been observed will help transform a conflict requires that signifi- as being an overarching source of conflict at local cant members of the antagonistic parties adopt four level. While economic problems antagonize all com- kinds of views. A cursory presentation of the views munities commonly, the HSZ related economic is- are that, first they acknowledge the reality of the ter- sues dominate as a source of simmering tension af- rible acts that were perpetrated, secondly they ac- fecting the livelihoods of the common people espe- cept with compassion those who committed crimes cially in the east. and also that they acknowledge each other’s suffer- ing. Thirdly, they believe that their injustices are be- Up country, the Tamil people’s deprivation and long ing redressed. Fourth, they anticipate mutual secu- standing grievances, coupled with the incentive rity and well being. The coming together of these drawn from the current national ethnic tension await elements and “the resolution of paradoxes arising to explode at any moment. from that encounter are crucial in the process of rec- onciliation.” Reconciliation however is never com- Language issues in the districts remain a cause of plete in all these respects. It also has different impli- concern - a root cause, hitherto unattended, that has cations for the separate members of the rival par- added to the protracted nature of the conflict at a ties. It must also be appreciated that there are many national level.

4 Executive Summary

Part 1

Drug and alcohol abuse among youth and related positive impacts that can be assessed, then the le- domestic violence is a related, noticeable social is- gitimacy of the entire enterprise of peace-building sue in the districts. and development work is open to question. With- out the analytic tools to determine the impact of a The notion of peace is perceived differently in the south project on the structures and processes that in general and in particular in the area under this au- strengthen prospects for peaceful coexistence,’“we dit. For the grassroots community as well as key com- can only hope to list, assert, or guess at the positive munity leadership in the south, peace reflects more di- or negative impacts of our actions”6 rect and indirect tangible benefits. The social interpre- tation of peace in these areas amounts to, immediate The report helps appreciate the emerging consen- improvement in quality of life, bring down cost of liv- sus of institutions on the need for introducing and ing, improved infrastructure, employment, better practising conflict sensitivity measures in the devel- schooling and hope for a better future. While these opment sector and reveals the lack of awareness that were general, across the spectrum expectation, those at large prevails. The more ‘conflict sensitive’ de- families that had suffered directly from the war ex- velopment and rehabilitation projects get the more pected more compensational remedies. For those fami- sustainable and effective their impact will be. It lies where members are serving in the armed forces, should also help decrease direct and structural so- especially in the north and east, peace meant more per- cial tension. sonal benefits ranging from return of their family mem- bers and better acknowledgement by the state and so- In our efforts to map local methods we have pre- ciety. sented methods of conflict resolution practised lo- cally in the districts that are few and far between. Peace and Conflict Impact Assessments faced new Traditional conflict resolution methods as an alter- challenges in the selected districts of the south due native system of redress seem to be diminishing as to the prevailing ‘Conflict Sensitivity’ aspect. Our a result of the continuous militarization in many report attempts to assess if development work and parts of Sri Lanka. peace-building projects are, in reality helping peace promotion or unwittingly causing more con- It is imperative that Track One level actors recog- flict. Our survey tried to assess the level of aware- nize that at district level all parties and humani- ness institutions have towards’“Do No Harm” ap- tarian agencies are equally committed to seizing proaches and identify indicators that are most ap- opportunities at every possible occasion to nego- propriate for their projects. tiate. Such occasions must be availed and explored in succession, failures notwithstanding. The dis- Introduction and practice of ‘Conflict Sensitivity’ is trict communities must also be part of the process. vital for local communities, peace-building NGOs, Peace initiatives at the grass roots level are not aid agencies implementing such projects, and to do- permanent achievements. They can be as ephem- nor agencies seeking to assess the effectiveness of eral as the varying local hostilities. Engaging the funding devoted to development. If there are no need and the resistance to violence needs to in-

5 Peace Audit 2006

Part 1

spire the work of humanitarian and development ties. The report also shows the conflicts in the dis- agencies that will help deepen the sense of com- tricts deepen and spread creating secondary con- munity. Peace initiatives may not last but it is im- flicts, drawing in new parties or issues impacting perative that they be supported when the need on the protracted nature of the national conflict. The arises. more political and economic challenges a commu- nity faces at a local level the more threatening it is Hence, a steadfast commitment to a durable peace for sustainable social ‘transformations’ to take place should be conceived from within the warring par- at a national level. ties that will help generate/divert their resources, knowledge, time and energies towards creating new This audit in order to bring comprehensiveness and strategies to negotiate rather than allowing conflict a balanced approach to the analysis endeavored to to develop through the violence of a hurting stale- carry out the audit in the selected district in areas mate condition. that come under LTTE administration. LTTE officials were briefed and met to seek their view point on In transforming conflicts that lead to reconciliatory some of the social interaction and the peace process efforts, as seen in most post-Cold War conflicts of in general and post-tsunami activities in particular. the Claustwitzian types and the wars of a third kind, especially the nation-building types, histori- End notes cally, parties to conflicts undergo a change of mind 1 Thania Paffenholz, “Designing Transformation and Interven- of their own will due to change of interest , con- tion Process,” in Alex Austin, Martina Fischer and Norbert text, key actors or because of new internal and ex- Ropers eds., Transforming Ethnopolitical Conflict, the ternal conditions. However, for sustainable and sat- Berghof Handbook, Germany, 2004, pp 158-159. 2 Edward E Azar, “The Analysis and Management of Protracted isfying change, that needs to be brought in from Conflicts,” in Vamik D Volkan, Joseph V Montville, and within, to end the conflict. Similarly the social Demetrios A Julius, Lexington eds., The Psychodynamics of change has to come indigenously, beginning at a International Relationships, Vol 2, SA 1991, p 93. grass roots level. Outside influence could at best 4 Louis Kriesberg, “Escalating Conflicts,” “Constructive Conflicts from Escalation to Resolution,” Rowman & Littlefield Pub- work as advocates of these changes. Only when the lishers Ltd., USA, 1998, pp 340-355. need to change is anchored to the grassroots in a 5 Berghof Handbook for Conflict Transformation, Vol 1, April total volunteer atmosphere, peace efforts could take 2001, 3, 30, Berghof Research Centre for Constructive Con- root within the society as a natural growth. flict Management, Germany. 6 Kenneth Bush (1998), “A Measure of Peace: Peace and Conflict Impact Assessment (PCIA) of Development Projects in Con- The audit on the whole, reveals how conflicts at a flict Zones.” Working Paper #1, IDRC, The Peacebuilding and district level influence and impact the core dynam- Reconstruction Program Initiative, Ottawa. ics of the national conflict and cause more complexi-

6 Introduction

Introduction Part 1

Peace Audits: Present, Past and Future provides an understanding of the environment of peace and conflict, focusing on (12) selected districts HA conducted a Peace Audit in 2003, also of Sri Lanka, promoting conflict-sensitivity among another Peace Audit in 2006. The findings humanitarian and development agencies, while en- C of the main activities under Peace Audit hancing knowledge and functionality of local meth- 2006 are reflected in the publication of a Peace Au- ods of conflict mitigation/resolution to promote dit report examining 12 districts; research on con- more positive results. flict sensitivity of post-tsunami rehabilitation and re- construction projects, conflict sensitivity training, With a focus on the districts, unlike the national-level and mapping of local/traditional methods of con- focus of the previous audit, this project with a com- flict mitigation. bined research-training composition looks at 3 main areas: Peace Audit 2003 a) Analysis of the environment of conflict The main objective of Peace Audit 2003 was to im- and peace in the 12 districts. prove the quality and impact of conflict transforma- b) Assessment of conflict sensitivity of ma- tion/ peace building and peace sustaining strategies jor development projects (research and and initiatives conducted by the Sri Lankan govern- training). ment, civil administration, international donors, c) Mapping of local methods, tools and ex- NGOs and other civil society stakeholders. perience on conflict mitigation/resolution.

The purpose of the District Report was to provide Qualitative methods and action-research methods a concise and analytical profile of the peace and were used to conduct the research. 21 training ses- conflict related issues / tensions / dynamics of sions on conflict-sensitive approaches in develop- each district, together with a commentary on the ment assistance were conducted. district level responses to these issues. It also helped provide the Sri Lankan government, civil 1. Analysis of the Environment of Conflict administration, international donors, NGOs and and Peace in 12 Districts other civil society stakeholders the relevant, timely, accessible, credible and comprehensive in- This Peace Audit was conducted in 12 districts and formation and analysis on peace related policies has covered the geographic districts of Jaffna, and practices in Sri Lanka. Mannar, Ampara, Batticaloa, Trincomalee, Puttalam, Anuradhrapura, Vavuniya, Galle, Matara, Badulla, Peace Audit 2006 and Nuwara Eliya.

The 2006 Peace Audit Project titled “Supporting an In conducting the “Peace and Conflict Assessment”, Enabling Environment for Peace in Sri Lanka: Cre- situation analysis was carried out in the target areas ating Conflict-Sensitive Development Capacity,” at three levels:

7 Peace Audit 2006

Part 1

Stage one Conflict Analysis. planning and implementation and will also provide i) Structures, data for the research. ii) Actors iii) Dynamics. 2.2 Training:

Stage Two Analyses of Responses. Staff of selected agencies and staff of previous Mapping of internal and external partners participate in training on conflict-sensi- responses. Policy analysis of hu- tive development approaches and are supported manitarian and development in their mainstreaming activities. 21 training ses- programmes. Impact analysis of sions are being conducted in 12 districts in the conflict and the peace initiative. country.

Stage Three Strategies/Options. Methodology: Training, questionnaires, semi-struc- Influencing other responses to con- tured/fully structured interviews with management flict, suggesting policy and staff of selected humanitarian/development agen- programme approaches. cies.

As for methodology, qualitative analysis of in-depth 3. Mapping of Local Methods, Tools and interviews with key persons from the political, mili- Experience on Conflict Resolution tary, cultural, religious and social life in the districts and semi-structured questionnaires with randomly The focus is to map methods/traditions of conflict selected people in the districts, representing a cross- resolution/mitigation and sustain peace at a com- section of the population (Ethnic group, sex, city/ munity level. Such methods have been found to be village, age, etc...) were included. informal or formal, structured or unstructured as well as traditional or modern. An explorative ap- 2. Assessment of Conflict Sensitivity in Major proach is chosen to map out various methods with Development Projects (Research and a history in specific communities, but may partly Training) not be in use anymore due to changes in social struc- tures. Selected local methods would then, if feasible, 2.1 Research: receive targeted support to get revitalized and put back into action. Selection of partner agencies (mainly CHA member agencies) involved in post-tsunami rehabilitation/ Methodology: Action-Research using semi-struc- reconstruction projects to cooperate in tured interviews with key informants in the dis- mainstreaming conflict-sensitivity within their or- tricts, and supporting selected activities to revital- ganizations and projects. Nominated management ize feasible methods or traditions fostering inter- staff will be involved in assessing success and chal- communal dialogue, confidence and peace build- lenges with regard to conflict-sensitivity in project ing.

8 Introduction

Part 1

4. Overview of Key Events Since October 2005 Providing a brief backdrop to the proposal, the all- devastating Tsunami hit Sri Lankan lives and liveli- The Peace Audit was conducted against the back- hood on Dec 26, 2004, that dealt a further blow to drop of political events in the most intriguing no- the peace process. Then came the Post Tsunami war, no-peace times in Sri Lanka. What prevails now Operational Management Structure (PTOMS) or is uncertainty due to disillusionments and then a Joint Mechanism (JM)– negotiated between the GoSL rise in hope and confidence and back again to un- and the LTTE, with Norwegian facilitation for equi- certainty and gloom. The Government of Sri Lanka table distribution of relief and reconstruction work (GOSL) and the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam in tsunami-affected areas in both the LTTE-con- (LTTE) after many alleged violations of the Cease trolled areas and other parts of the North and East Fire Agreement (CFA), that heightened soon after provinces. In this milieu, the Muslims of the East the new President taking office in November 2005, too had a serious stake in fearing they may be left at showed signs of commitment to the CFA once again the LTTE’s mercy if the JM got ultimately signed in the aftermath of the escalation of violence in the between the GoSL and the LTTE only and are hence north-east. This proposal is made at a crucial point agitating to make it a tripartite deal, given that the as Sri Lanka prepares for another round of possible Muslim community was the most affected by the peace talks in Geneva, with signs of a resumption of tsunami. The Muslim factor in the milieu is getting hostilities also looming equally large, not showing further resonated with rumours of armed groups in prospects that lie ahead for peace. operation in the Northeast of the island.

9 Peace Audit 2006

Part 1 Conflict Sensitivity in Post-Tsunami Rehabilitation and Reconstruction Work

Background to Conflict Sensitivity in Humani- other to secure the best local partners. Also compet- tarian and Development work ing for’‘turf, undervaluing and eroding local capaci- ties, overvaluing international capacities and dupli- he civil war and the humanitarian conse- cating. In the scramble to justify their presence and quences resulted in a surge of aid not risk their credibility with the media many-aban- T agencies in Sri Lanka over the last two de- doned best practice guidelines (for delivery of hu- cades. Many of the aid agencies now have a well- manitarian and development relief) of accountabil- established history in Sri Lanka. ity, transparency, participation and normal modes of inter agency co-operation.) The Tsunami of 2004 saw a further increase of INGOs and NGOs, 300 new NGOs and INGOs represent- Concerns have been that rather than working with ing a fourfold increase. The tsunami which saw and through local NGO’s and building their capaci- 35,000 dead (or missing) and 520,000 displaced in ties, INGOs compete with local NGO’s for projects, Sri Lanka, generated an unprecedented mobiliza- enticing their staff with more attractive salaries, tion of resources across the globe, more than for any thereby escalating labour costs (by paying higher other single disaster. rates), and eroding their capacities.

Although many established Funding, Research and Inflation in property rents and land prices due to Implementing Agencies had been developing con- the influx of INGO’s and foreign volunteers has also flict sensitivity practice in Sri Lanka over a number contributed to some of the negative impacts of in- of years, it was with the tsunami as a backdrop that tervention. In the shift from relief to reconstruction an increasing number of agencies began to reflect and development, the lack of development exper- on their policy and approaches to the delivery of tise and country knowledge has impacted negatively humanitarian aid, development, and peace build- where interventions have not promoted equity and ing in complex conflict situations. the marginalised have lost out on assistance programmes leading to further friction. Whilst it is agreed that the national and international response provided for immediate relief contributed The often-quoted cases of tsunami affected IDP’s significantly to the emergency relief phase, some of receiving aid and assistance, and more of it, than these gains may have been offset in the recovery and the war displaced in the same vicinity is a prime ex- reconstruction phase by the negative impacts of ample. some of the interventions by INGOs and NGO’s, in- experienced and ignorant of local conditions and For instance, in areas where the tsunami affected and their dynamics. It is well documented that many the war affected are living side by side, the aid and INGOs, driven by domestic political pressure in the financial support received by those affected by the donor countries to account for the funding and to tsunami be it in terms of better quality housing, sani- speedily and visibly demonstrate the results of their tation facilities, or provision of pre schools has been interventions, entered into bidding wars with each far more than what the war affected IDPs have re-

10 Conflict Sensitivity in Post-Tsunami Rehabilitation and Reconstruction Work

Part 1

ceived in 20 years of living in temporary accommo- flict’ is a ‘multi dimensional social phenomena’ nec- dation with little prospect of improvement in their essary for bringing about change in society but it living standards. carries within it the seeds of violent conflict; polarisation of society, alienation and division along The lack of control exercised in the regulation of caste, class, ethnic and religious fault lines. NGO’s in’‘post tsunami’ period allowed for prolif- eration of Aid agencies (INGO’s, NGO’s, Religious Conflicts per se are not the problem. It is their po- Institutions and private donors) with no knowledge tential or capacity to escalate into violent conflicts or experience of either the ground situation in Sri that is problematic to society and of relevance to Lanka or the dynamics of the Sri Lankan conflict. practitioners (in humanitarian and development Aid) concerned with applying ‘Conflict Sensitivity’ Many NGOs and INGOs that were operating in the in the field. areas affected by both the tsunami and the conflict also seem to have been’‘conflict blind’ in delivery of What then is Conflict Sensitivity? As the Resource their relief programmes. Badly planned or inappro- pack used by CHA states, applying CS enables or- priate efforts at relief and reconstruction created fur- ganizations to ther ruptures in already tense conflict affected envi- ronments. Phillipson and Thangarajah state that new •understand the (conflict) context in which contours of conflict were created by the tsunami they operate , by’‘the disproportionate amount of relief given to • understand the interaction between the the tsunami affected over the war affected.” ‘intervention‘’ and the (conflict)context •act upon the understanding of this inter- The TEC Report states, “International Tsunami re- action, in order to avoid negative impacts sponse missed the opportunity to address issues of and maximise positive impacts. equity, conflict, gender and governance in a holistic way” but cautions that an emergency disaster response The lack of understanding of the dynamics of con- cannot hope to transform pre existing in equalities. flict and how provision of aid impacts on a conflict situation can exacerbate an already conflict affected Conflict is a complex term with no one single mean- situation. Aid represents distribution of resources ing. In Sinhala for instance, the definitions vary with in areas where resources are scarce and access to as many words for ‘conflict’ -from disagreement to power over its distribution has the potential to disturbance to criminal acts to war! Kalabala, deepen animosities/hostilities. kolahala, valiya, randuwa, kachal, yuddhaya (Mayer, Thangaraja, Emmanuel et al.) In Tamil ‘Conflict Sensitive Practice ’ has evolved out of the ‘Moadhal’, Muranpadu, Pinakku, Por etc. work of many pioneers in the field of Conflict Sen- sitivity best known of which are the ‘Do No Harm’ Conflict is often interchanged with the notion of vio- (DNH) approach developed by Mary Anderson and lent conflict. ‘Conflict’ is not always violent. ’Con- Ken Bush’s Peace and Conflict Assessment1. Both

11 Peace Audit 2006

Part 1

approaches have since been incorporated into many to provide assistance in better ways. It is a tool for Conflict Sensitive practices. conflict sensitivity , a framework for organisations to identifying when things are going wrong,’‘To get Most recently a collaborative ‘North South’ initia- a handle on the complexity of the conflict environ- tive involving International Alert, Saferworld, CHA ment’ in which they work; to recognise how their (in Sri Lanka),FEWER, Africa Peace Forum, CCR, interventions and decisions affect relations in the incorporated elements of the various approaches conflict environment, to think differently and to have and produced the Resource pack Handbook (an more clarity and better outcomes. The objective was ongoing initiative ) to provide a hands on manual to essentially avoid the possibly unintended nega- that can be adapted to local environments. tive effects; to ‘do no harm’ by continuously moni- toring the impacts of their intervention and also ‘Do The DNH initiative highlights the ambivalence of Some Good’ where possible Humanitarian Aid in conflict situations, its premise being that assistance in the form of aid has an im- To this end, DNH developed an analytical frame- pact on the dynamics of a violent conflict situation. work identifying key areas for agencies to focus on By the very fact of assistance, the agency becomes a when planning, implementing, monitoring and part of the conflict. In situations of scarcity, instabil- evaluating humanitarian and development assis- ity and conflict, aid represents transfer of wealth and tance. Some of the key categories were power. The agencies involved in providing aid can inadvertently become part of the problem. where: •To understand the context of the conflict, aid is misused (where aid is stolen or used by war- ring parties, and gets integrated into a war economy) •To identify and analyse dividers and distribution is not impartial, influx of aid can dis- sources of tension and to analyse and iden- tort market by increasing wages, prices, land prices tify connectors . ‘ Some dividers or sources and profits (as in the case of the tsunami), aid can of tension between groups maybe rooted either legitimize or de legitimize stake holders. For in deep seated historical injustice (root instance, the LTTE imposed tax on aid coming into causes ) while others may be recent short the Vanni. lived or manipulated by sub group leaders…………….Understanding what However giving no assistance is also not an option divides people is critical to understanding as that too has a negative impact in contributing to subsequently, how our assistance a deteriorating scenario of scarcity, instability and programmes feed into, or lessen these, insecurity. forces any conflict just as there are things that divide there are also areas that con- On the basis of lessons learnt from positive as well nect people and provide continuity, such as negative experiences during the course of their as common experience, informal and for- extensive research ‘The Do No Harm’ approach was mal associations, religion, historical events developed as a practical tool to enable aid agencies and local capacities for peace as “all of

12 Conflict Sensitivity in Post-Tsunami Rehabilitation and Reconstruction Work

Part 1

these continue to provide continuity with It is the details that matter. For eg, why this village non-war life” and offer avenues for build- and not another, is there a caste/religious/ethnic is- ing relationships in a post conflict situa- sue there, who is on visiting terms, who are the ac- tion. tors, are there ‘connectors’ in the community , who did we leave out, how did we recruit local staff, what •To analyse the impact of the Assistance were the criteria for hiring people? Who benefits programme is also key to the process of from our presence? Have we got an exit strategy? applying CS. Essentially this means to un- These are a sample of the sort of pertinent questions pack the details of the programme, Where that organizations should engage in. and why is assistance offered, (small build- ing of toilets, housing, or large-projects PCIA should not be an ‘add on’ or seen as an ‘add with the Government to develop a on’- where it adds to the workload of an already harbour) working on who your staff are, overburdened organisation. Instead, it should be- are they local, what are their relationships come part of its ‘modus operandi’. CS helps the or- with the ‘actors’, how were they hired – ganization effectively deliver their programme of the process of recruitment, who are your aid. It is a continuous process not an end in itself. beneficiaries, what is the criteria of assis- tance to tsunami affected, who decides etc) Initial investment in terms of manpower and re- sources is significant but off set by the long term Conflict Sensitivity needs to be incorporated into gains in terms of minimising negative impacts and every stage of planning, implementation, Monitor- predicting where the flash points may be, thus ing and Evaluation of an organization, be it a Do- contributing to prevention of escalation of con- nor, INGO, or NGO. In order to embed CS practice flict. Many of the more established INGO’s are in into an organisation it is vital that a process of con- a continuous process of integrating CS into their tinuous analysis of the programme is integrated into organizational structure and many of them are en- an organisational structure. This maybe in the form gaged in conducting training programmes in Con- of PCIA or DNH approach. The analysis is to find flict Sensitivity for organisations in the NGO sec- out “How will this programme contribute to pre- tor. venting conflict, what the negative impacts might be and why and how could it contribute to sustain- The example of different approaches of CS is var- ing peace? ied. There is no ‘one model fits all’ Conflict Analy- sis .But essentially they all work on the basis that The analysis is vital to understanding the politics understanding of the impact of the programme of and dynamics of the operating environment. The assistance is updated on a regular basis. A peace and who, what, why and where is what informs CS pro- conflict impact assessment is built into the gramming and practice, be it at a Micro (commu- programme so that its not an add on (perceived to nity based, NGO), or macro (World Bank, INGO, be creating more work). The Conflict assessment can ICRC) level. be incorporated into needs assessment, (Pre inter-

13 Peace Audit 2006

Part 1

vention needs assessments) and thus be carried out CHA to “assess the praxis of Conflict Sensitivity” as a matter of routine. in the Post Tsunami Rehabilitation and Reconstruc- tion work of organizations. The survey was sent to Although the funding environment does not encour- senior management staffs who are involved in plan- age self reflection and organisational development, ning and implementation. The purpose of the sur- Donor Organizations need to recognise, (or be made vey was to “provide an insight into the practical to recognise) the importance for recipient work and experience of agencies, create awareness, organisations to invest in organizational self -reflec- provide an insight into the practical work and ex- tion, learning and development periences of agencies, provide further knowledge and encourage agencies to be fully conflict sensi- Whilst Conflict Sensitive programming can mitigate tive in their project implementation.” As CHA is negative impacts and contribute towards prevention involved in Conflict Sensitivity training and capac- of conflict at a micro level, it in no way replaces or ity building across the country, the survey was also can be a substitute for structural interventions at the designed as a vehicle for organizations to nomi- meso or macro level of State and warring parties. nate staff to participate in training on ‘Conflict Sen- sitivity development approaches’ and to be sup- Nothing stays constant. The conflict situation in Sri ported in the mainstreaming of Conflict Lanka is complex and constantly in flux and people’s Sensitivity(CS). relationships are always changing. Therefore, con- stantly updating the understanding of the conflict Unfortunately out of the 54 questionnaires sent only context is important. To understand the interaction 22 were returned, i.e. less than half. This was de- between conflict context and intervention and to act spite four rounds of follow up by CHA with offers upon this understanding in a way that does no harm to send CHA staff to help fill out the questionnaires. and does some good necessitates increase in the insti- tutional capacity of organizations. Organizations The weakness of the data does not therefore allow need to be supported in adopting CS in their work. for a proper identification or analysis of practices, experiences and need. It does however tell us some- Experiences and Recommendations thing about the level of awareness of CS and about the respondents. The survey is based on self-conducted question- naires carried out during a period of deterioration Although CS is a familiar concept in Sri Lanka and of the fragile ‘No war, No peace situation’ in Sri there has been a lot of activity in terms of develop- Lanka. A total number of 54 questionnaires were sent ing CS practice here, clearly there is a gap between out to CHA members engaged in Post Tsunami re- rhetoric and practice. Given that CHA provides ca- construction. The questionnaire was designed to be pacity building and training in this sphere even completed in approximately 40 minutes. the CHA member organizations were not motivated to participate in the survey despite follow up on The rationale for this preliminary survey was for many occasions.

14 Conflict Sensitivity in Post-Tsunami Rehabilitation and Reconstruction Work

Part 1

What was this ambivalence about? Their lack of re- sizeable population of long term war af- sponse maybe indicative of the fact that the major- fected who are non beneficiaries; ity obviously DO NOT practice Conflict Sensitivity •When housing is provided in a manner in- but were not prepared to put their necks on the line sensitive to prevailing conditions in the lo- and admit to failure. So despite the prominence cality; given to Conflict Sensitivity in the discourse of ‘Peace •When building contracts are inadvertently and Conflict’ and increasingly in’‘Development As- awarded to one particular group of people sistance’ very few seem to be committed to it as a and not another (i.e. one ethnic group and practice confirming ‘received wisdom’ and anec- not others); dotal evidence of ‘conflict insensitivity’ by organisations involved in post tsunami reconstruc- All these scenarios create situations of potential con- tion. For example, an NGO had relocated and built flict thereby adding to the negative impacts inter- houses in a different locality for a tsunami affected vention. community in the Galle district. The local (estab- lished) population hostile to this on caste basis set There may, it seems, be a deficiency that needs to be fire to the newly constructed houses in an effort to addressed in terms of ‘educating’ organizations into drive away their ’unwanted’ neighbours. accepting the relevance and need for CS in their op- erational framework. It would be reasonable to suppose that most orga- nizations especially NGO’s and INGOs, new on the Of the 22 that returned the questionnaire, it was scene do not see’‘conflict sensitivity’ as part of their heartening to see that they were not only CS sensi- remit when they are doing reconstruction and de- tive but also the majority stated that they were rea- velopment work in the tsunami ‘arena’. This is be- sonably successful in their programme of reconstruc- cause of their unfamiliarity with the political and tion and rehabilitation. Almost half the sample also social terrain. The importance of incorporating CS claimed that CS was’‘fully integrated’ into their or- into their needs assessment for instance, may ganizations. Almost all seemed to have integrated seem’’irrelevant’. In the popular imagination the CS either fully or partially into their organizations. term ‘conflict’ conjures up the spectre of the ‘con- There was of course a wide variation in understand- flict situation’ in the North and East. Even those ing of what ‘fully integrated’ meant, with various engaged in humanitarian or development assis- levels of sophistication in terms of the conceptual tance are not necessarily immune from this ‘com- understanding of CS. Some organizations followed mon sense’ view that CS is only relevant in ‘war “objective oriented project cycle management torn’ situations. What has Conflict Sensitivity to do model” and CS integrated onto all levels and tools with building houses, pre- schools, giving tsunami- that are used in the cycle. Whilst others claimed Aid?’ that”“Our beneficiaries are provided with assistance irrespective of ethnicity, caste or creed” and another •When houses are built for those affected agency elaborating on what full integration meant by the tsunami in areas where there is a to their organization stated, that they did so

15 Peace Audit 2006

Part 1

by”“sharing information, materials, training, and half the organizations were in a position to adjust their discussions.” This indicates that there is a fairly wide administrative and financial systems to demand spectrum of understanding in terms of what it is to change in strategies. Some of the respondents indi- incorporate CS into your organization. So even some cated that this was due to stringent financial plan- of those who are”‘doing’ it seem not to be that con- ning required by donors. It seems then that whilst ceptually conversant with the’‘nitty gritty’ of what they have plans in place to shift focus in the event of it is. In most of the agencies only a small number of a crisis, their ability to actually realise their plans is staff had received training in CS. hampered by financial constraints imposed by do- nor inflexibility. There was a suggestion from one Having said that, most of the respondents did carry agency that CHA should adopt a more pro- active out needs assessments on their post tsunami projects role in advocacy of CS to Donors and Funding Bod- and were also mindful of notions such as the ‘Im- ies. pact Of’ and’‘Impact On’ their intervention. These organizations also had a monitoring system in place A large proportion of the sample seemed to engage to monitor progression of the conflict situation and in evaluation of peace and conflict impacts and on the interaction between project implementation and experience based learning/self reflective activities operational context. Only a few (less than half) had of some sort even if not on a regular basis. These indicators in place to actually monitor progression mainly involved staff but a significant number ap- of conflict factors. Whilst committed to the devel- parently involved partner organizations and benefi- opment of CS in their own organizations and ciaries in the learning sessions. amongst partners and stakeholders there seems to be an overall weakness in terms of organizations Although the respondents to this questionnaire were having in place indicators to monitor progression experienced and established INGOs even they, of conflict factors, with less than half having any kind clearly, felt the need for more training and support. of indicators in place. CS Training, tools for easy implementation of CS and advisory services in project management cycles were The majority of the agencies who were engaged in some of the areas highlighted. The CHA resource rehabilitation and re-construction had plans in place pack was received with ambivalence, less than half to shift their focus to humanitarian assistance in the the sample used it and those that did questioned its event of a humanitarian crisis and they stated that user friendliness. There was a plea from respondents they had crisis plans in place for protection of staff for the Sinhala and Tamil versions to be in simpler and also of their partners and beneficiaries. Given language, for more context relevant tools and more the history of the Sri Lankan conflict environment, case studies from Sri Lanka. this is probably a well-worn scenario for these more established agencies. Support for staff training, CHA involvement in evaluation of CS in projects, updates of which agen- Although the organizations claimed that adjustments cies were where (and their sectors of work), more in implementation strategies were possible, less than focused PCIA’s (i.e. in education),and impact ori-

16 Conflict Sensitivity in Post-Tsunami Rehabilitation and Reconstruction Work

Part 1

ented tools to suit contexts, were some of the areas End notes where agencies felt the need for practical support 1. Harris, Simon.,” Disaster Response, Peace and Conflict in Post- from CHA in order to mainstream CS. There was Tsunami Sri LankaPart1: The Congestion of Humanitarian also the view that in order to get genuine consensus Space”.Working Paper University of Bradford (2006) beneficiaries should be partners (rather than ben- 2. Philipson, L & Thangarajah., “The Politics of the North East, eficiaries). It was evident from the overall responses Part of the Sri Lanka Strategic Conflict Assessment2005” Asia Foundation (2005) that increased stakeholder participation with more 3. Anderson, M,. “The Do No Harm Framework for Analyzing the consultative and inclusive planning and implemen- Impact of Assistance on Conflict” Local Capacities for Peace tation should be the way forward for CS to be effec- Project.Lynne Rienner Publishers 1999. tive and sustainable.’

17 Peace Audit 2006

Part 1 Critical Issues, Implications and Recommendations

his chapter aims at highlighting the emerg “The aim of peacebuilding, in the words of UN Sec- ing critical issues from the districts and rec retary-General Kofi Annan, was ‘to create the con- T ommends preventive and problem solving ditions necessary for the sustainable peace in war- mechanisms to address them. A two pronged ap- torn societies’’– that is, a peace that would endure proach as described below helps broadly categorise long after the departure of the peace builders them- the areas that require humanitarian and develop- selves. Annan’s predecessor, Boutros Boutros Ghali, ment assistance. similarly defined the purpose of peacebuilding as the attempt “to identify and support structures 2.1 Confidence Building Measures which will tend to strengthen and solidify peace in order to avoid a relapse in to conflict.” The ratio- Ethnicity and religion are increasingly seen as fac- nale for this kind of mission was straightforward tors that polarise societies in many districts. Power and compelling: creating the condition for a stable sharing and asset distribution that take ethnic hues and lasting peace in the immediate aftermath of a have underscored the polarisation among commu- civil war would not be an easy task, because it en- nities and heightens the feelings of discrimination tails much more than just monitoring a ceasefire. As of one community over the other. pointed out peacebuilding involves identifying and alleviating the underlying sources of conflict within Tension on religious issues has grown to where a war shattered state, which required a through un- the groups are violating each other’s right to prac- derstanding of local conditions.”1 tise. As a defensive mechanism some religious leaders have started competing with each other The very volatile condition that prevails in Sri Lanka in preaching the religion to the public by using too is precisely what made peacebuilding so indis- loud speakers almost outdoing one another. In pensable. certain districts the efforts to bring about harmony have ironically failed owing to such actions of Activities that promote inter-dependency among these particular religious leaders. There is also the communities can be recommended for prevention/ possibility of conflict situations arising on reli- de-escalation of violence and inter group conflicts. gious based issues as many respondents view the Programmes to enhance trust between the Sinhala, conversions of especially economically deprived Tamil and Muslim communities are imperative. It Hindus in the plantation sector and Sinhala Bud- is recommended specially for humanitarian agen- dhist peasants as ‘unethical.’ Fear and mistrust of cies whose work is generally perceived as support- other communities are significantly prevalent in ing one community in the northeast, to look at dif- multi ethnic districts. ferent options and revise their strategies enabling all communities to participate. There is a need to In addressing the above, peace building measures introduce new programmes and strengthen the old and opportunities for interactions between ethnic ones that can further the inter-dependence of the groups through short and long term projects need Tamil and Muslim communities, and also aim at to be vigorously promoted. incorporating the Sinhalese population into devel-

18 Critical Issues, Implications and Recommendations

Part 1

opment projects. This will provide opportunities for work. What is needed to enable sustainability is ‘a peaceful interactions. long-term commitment’ of NGOs in the districts, es- pecially in war zones, where state mechanisms are ‘Peace committees’ to ensure human security are the non-existent. need of the hour in many districts and have been established with the support and training from the Additionally, some groups of religious leaders have humanitarian/development agencies and are com- formed organizations for peace building and con- mendable for their efforts in certain districts. How- flict mitigation. These teams comprise representa- ever, due to the short term nature of the projects, tives from all the four main religions i.e. Buddhism, they lack sustainability. There is also a similar Hindu, Christianity and Islam. As the committee People’s Forum known as’‘purawasi kamitu’, mainly comprises religious leaders they are able to ‘samatha mandalaya’ etc., that are active in certain maintain a certain level of control over the people. villages aiming at bringing politicians, religious lead- Especially where the Sinhala Buddhists are con- ers and community leaders together. The challenge cerned the monks in the village temples wield much is institutionalising these efforts. respect and authority and have a binding effect over the villagers. To enhance human security, there is need for estab- lishing functional, permanent people’s forums at the However, there are challenges in conducting these local level. One common form of such institution is activities. According to many respondents’ opinions, the ‘peace committees’. Generally they comprise those who support hard line political parties con- eminent local community representatives from all tinue to work against peace work for personal po- ethnic and religious groups. Their main activity fo- litical gain. cuses on ‘peace’-related programmes and confidence building efforts. In some cases they are provided In some of the southern and mid country districts with special identity cards for mobilising support where ethnic conflicts are latent and not open, in crisis situations. To be more effective it is recom- peace building activities must be strengthened if mended, that these committees are formed in each not introduced to prevent future disputes. This Grama Sevaka (GS) division, they are also advised could be done by providing the necessary support to meet at the GS office regularly for coordination to the existing humanitarian and development and to publicize their work. agencies and integrating conflict sensitivity and trust building mechanisms into the work of these Small local organizations and committees are in- agencies. volved in training and awareness programmes in peacebuilding. Some NGOs are conducting ex- Supporting Community based Organisations change programmes for the Sinhala and Tamil com- (CBOs) engaged in peacebuilding work and pro- munities, aiming at developing better understand- viding conflict sensitivity training for government ing between the two communities. These activities and decision makers in NGOs will be a peace pro- need to continue to fulfil the Track 3 level peace moting measure.

19 Peace Audit 2006

Part 1

Addressing economic concerns will help reduce ten- employment and income are additionally curtailed sion. Integrating conflict sensitivity/peace building due to military movement and HSZs which affect into the work of the humanitarian agencies is a rec- the people significantly and is the cause of endless ommendation to take note of. displacement. The people in the conflict area uniquely suffer from the burden of tax payments, Education should be used as a platform for children for they are taxed by three different sources - the of all communities as an opportunity to interact and government, LTTE and in the east by the Karuna build connections. This is believed to be an impor- group. tant step in uniting the communities at school level as well as in vocational training and needs to be car- Youth unemployment in all districts continues to ried out effectively. prevail. One of the main barriers for industries and foreign investments outside the capital city is also Strengthening school education by providing chil- due to the lack of infrastructure in the districts. It dren with satisfactory learning environments is im- was emphasized that the State should maintain an portant. In addition, to overcome the language bar- equal or fair distribution of assets to the districts, rier, both national languages and English should be mainly to the plantation sectors. Their common pe- made compulsory in the curricula for all children. rennial grievances are that their contribution to the national economy is significant but their communi- 2.2 Humanitarian and Development Assistance ties are worse hit by economic hardships and that no development targets them. Scarcity of resources and slow development in the districts are the main causes of frustration among Livelihood support programmes focussing on ca- people in many districts. Many feel that resources pacitating individuals is an important measure in are either misused or diverted towards one particu- attempting to address the above issues. These lar region, regardless of benefiting the region that programmes should also be followed by long-term contributed to the national income. development projects that would provide individu- als with income generating opportunities. The long Economically, all communities are equally affected. term plans should also include vocational training The main issues in the ‘conflict affected’ districts are projects followed by assistance to start self employ- poverty and lack of support from the State. These ment for those who undergo training. In such train- include debt cycle tension, lack of market facilities, ing, an aspect to consider is the inclusion of adults lack of capital for paddy cultivation, absence of irri- and disabled persons. gation systems, lack of exposure to latest technol- ogy, and lack of infrastructure including roads, com- In addition to the training facilities, humanitarian munication, railway, bus services, etc. agencies have provided financial assistance to de- velop traditional industries and to begin self-em- It was noted in the’‘conflict districts’, the economy- ployment opportunities in certain areas. However, related issues are far worse as the opportunities for there should be complementary small industries also

20 Critical Issues, Implications and Recommendations

Part 1

supported for the sustainability and development as they are the ones who are mostly related to the of these economic ventures. For such meaningful en- social issues at homes and face the consequences. terprises, coordination among development agen- cies is essential. Therefore empowering women must take priority in terms of the social concerns. The need to educate There must be consideration to develop and mod- women on important social issues such as financial ernize agriculture to make it more successful in in- management, self employment, education, heath come generation and attracting young labour. Com- practices etc. is necessary and will immensely help munities in many regions need support in their reduce women’s vulnerability. small-scale vegetable cultivation and home garden- ing. This needs to include provision of good fertiliz- Humanitarian Agencies must also focus on women’s ers at affordable prices, and training and empower- education. Most importantly, focus should be on ing with technology to increase efficiency in culti- programmes to reduce alcoholism and violence at vation, maximize harvest, and minimize waste in domestic level. Long-term attention is also needed transportation. This process should also extend to in uplifting living standards of the plantation com- facilitating adequate market opportunities. munities. There is a dire need for poverty eradica- tion measures in the remote villages, which includes Micro-credit schemes in particular had a positive developing the infrastructure, communication ser- impact on the poor communities in certain districts. vices, and agricultural facilities and technologies. In Under these schemes loan facilities have been pro- addition common community facilities i.e. commu- vided for small groups who are unable to approach nity centres, libraries will also help improve the en- government or private banks for their investments. vironment. Pre-school education, improved health The group focus of such small credit schemes have services and empowering women in the economic also enabled cooperation and peace building among sector could be mentioned as some of the important the villagers. Although humanitarian agencies have areas to be addressed. assisted in developing infrastructure facilities in some districts like tank rehabilitation, and recon- The 12 Districts Audit report of the prevailing con- struction of irrigation systems, however the critical dition for peace is a reflection of the inner dynam- issues of small scale farmers i.e. storage, market fa- ics at work in these districts, especially amidst the cilities have not been addressed by them or by the communities and local actors. A fervent need of the State. hour is for common sense and natural justice to prevail. This would mean that the triggering points It must be highlighted here that the predominant of this seemingly unending intractable conflict issue in many districts is not the ethnic conflict, but could be managed. The overarching objective of the caste based social issues including, drug abuse, high study attempted to show that answers to most in- consumption of alcohol by men and women, poor tractable conflicts lie in the belligerents themselves heath conditions, lack of education, and abuse of who have to eventually foster a will to end the con- women. In all the above women take a stronger part flict.

21 Peace Audit 2006

Part 1

2.3 Continuous Peace Education [at multi suit of justice, reconciliation and co-existence. These track level] specific areas need long term programmes to bear fruit. Peace Education on its own will only bring lim- The ultimate aim of this audit is to recognise the dy- ited results if they are not complemented by other namics that are promoting peace and to cultivate knowledge transfer activities in areas such as hu- them in their natural setting because when design- man rights, democratization, minority rights and ing peace processes they ought to reflect the special more normative issues like multinational democratic context, the nature of the conflict and all the con- social redesigning. For all these areas to accumulate tours it contains. and bring composite results, undoubtedly a well synchronized continuous peace education needs to It is in this area the role of a continuous peace edu- take the lead role. For this, individual, institutional cation, at every level becomes very important. We and multi agency efforts need to be designed. believe peace building among other activities in- volves: facilitation for personal development and End notes interpersonal transformation, team and organiza- 1 Paris Roland, At War’s End Building Peace After Civil Conflict, tional development, transformation of values and Cambridge University Press, 2004 perceptions, state reform dialogues, renewed pur-

22 Local Methods of Conflict Mitigation/Resolution

Local Methods of Conflict Mitigation/Resolution Part 1

Background In contemporary Sri Lankan society, where police intervention and litigation is vastly used as the Peace is meaningless if not evident in every- mechanism in solving disputes/conflicts among day life. Conflict resolution means nothing if groups and individual parties, other (local) mecha- it is not undertaken by communities them- nisms or methods aimed at this purpose are identi- selves, and reflected in positive changes in the fied as ‘alternative’ methods of conflict resolution. day-to-day experience of those living in, or Compared to the court system, the local methods returning to, violence-prone regions.1 are advantageous in many ways, although they have clear limitations in certain areas of criminal offences “Discourage litigation. Persuade your and some civil issues. neighbours to compromise whenever you can. Point out to them a nominal winner is often a Advantages of these methods are believed to be com- real loser in fees, expenses, and waste of time.” paratively time and money saving, flexible, and less Abraham Lincoln (1808 – 1805) traumatic than more formal court procedures. The process would also be more satisfactory to parties Local methods of conflict resolution in this report, compared to litigation. In alternative methods of is understood as ‘mechanisms outside state and conflict resolution, the conflicting parties have the quasi-state structures of litigation and law enforce- choice in selecting arbitrators or mediators, and with ment including judiciary and mediation boards. few exceptions, parties determine their own destiny through dialogue, rather than having decision im- One of the earliest instances of impartial third party posed upon them. assistance in mediation in Sri Lanka dates back to the records of Lord Buddha’s visit to Sri Lanka around At present, some of these methods still prevail in their 576 BC to mediate in a conflict between two tribal kings evolved forms among some communities. Some may named Chulodara and Mahodara, over a gem studded have taken very different forms. Some new methods throne.2 Local sources, though mostly not in script, may have emerged because of societal need. The aim inform about many mechanisms that were typically of this exploratory study is to identify such methods, in connection with the temple (religion), caste, and clan study their effectiveness in contemporary society, and that helped mitigate disputes/conflicts at village level. suggest how they can be supported in contemporary The remaining fractions of evidence (Wariga Sabba) times to help local communities. and attempts of certain Buddhist priests make this apparent. However, during the colonial era, and after Among the various local methods used for resolv- independence, the changes that took place in society ing or mitigating conflicts, the specific method or and the legislature affected the former traditional struc- mechanism utilized for a given case depends on the tures and mechanisms of conflict resolution at village type of conflict, nature of the parties involved, and level. They were apparently replaced over time by a the structures and the values of the society in ques- new court system and formed litigation mechanisms tion. For example, in an instance where the parties for solving disputes/conflicts. in conflict are Buddhists, there is a bigger tendency

23 Peace Audit 2006

Part 1

to seek assistance of the Buddhist monk in the area, as the ‘Tribal Tribunal’. The Wariga Sabhawa was a while in a situation where the parties in conflict are key mechanism used in Sri Lanka before the colo- Muslims or Catholics, they are more likely to turn nial era, and however, functioned in some parts of towards their religious leaders or committees to get Sri Lanka such as ‘Nuwara Kalaviya’ in the the conflict resolved. In a mixed society with sev- Anuradhapura district till about the early1950s. eral ethnic or religious groups, it is possible that Thus, this study was done in relation to parties agree in seeking assistance from a mediator ‘Mahapathaana Kokpitiya’ village Tribal Tribunal, and accepted and respected by both parties. In addition, Thabuththegama – Kudagama village community, who the mediator one seeks differs according to the type claim to have their roots in Andhra Pradesh, India. of conflict. For instance, in a conflict situation over a land issue over a fence, the chances are higher of One key characteristic of the Wariga Sabhawa was one turning towards the Grama Niladari (GN). ‘right based participation’. That is, every person who participates has a right to be there. This right is tra- Another feature of local methods of conflict resolu- ditionally passed on from one generation to another. tion is that there is no standard method that could be Along with this right, every person has a duty to adopted, emulated, or repeated for conflict resolution care for others with a responsibility towards the well- in every part of the country in general. A successful being of the community. local conflict resolution method does not necessarily qualify or guarantee the same success in conflict reso- People usually gather at a place known as the ‘Magul lution in another context where social structures and Maduwa’ (banquet hall) when a gathering is bound conditions may differ. In addition, the key actors too (Sabhawak Bandinawa) in a ceremonial way or in a play a role in the success of a method as some meth- home or boutique where people can flock, and the ods that succeed in one-place fails in another depend- leaders of the village/community preside. There are ing on the individuals handling them. A personality, two views as to for who this method was. Accord- charisma, respect and influence that certain individu- ing to one view, each caste/clan had their own als wield, speak much for the success of certain meth- Wariga Sabhawa according to their own traditions ods as this depends on the conflicting parties’ will- and customs. Then, there is another view that people ingness in accepting such mediators. from all castes/clans had one Wariga Sabhawa where issues concerning the area or inter group is- To discuss on the usage, and success of local meth- sues were taken up. Our understanding is, as there ods of conflict resolution in some districts of Sri was one common Wariga Sabhawa, some groups Lanka the following methods are considered. (caste/clan) too must have had Wariga Sabhawa to resolve matters that were specific to a given group. Experiences, traditions, structures and methods Conflicts within the group, mainly inter-family dis- Wariga Sabhawa putes that could possibly have a negative impact on the community were mainly settled here. The The term ‘Wariga Sabhawa’ translates into English significant aspect of this method is that all deci-

24 Local Methods of Conflict Mitigation/Resolution

Part 1

sions are based on ‘consensuses of the parties and ing by popular consensus is an admirable practice. not by majority vote. An individual has the right Wariga Sabhawa is currently not practised in any to make complaints (bring up issues) against any- part of the country according the findings of this one including the leader of the clan or the temple survey. In trying to arrive at a better understand- priest, irrespective of his/her social standing. So- ing in elucidating this system, one is stifled owing cietal and peer pressure were deterrents to offend- to lack of documented and public information on ers who would indulge in such recurrences and its procedures. Only a very few have witnessed repetitive actions. Penalizing of the offender to help Wariga Sabhawa in progress and have subjective rehabilitate him/her comes as warning to others. views in analyzing them. Hence, there are limita- A range of verdicts for offences pronounced in- tions in assessing the success of the method from clude; ostracizing of the offender (in some cases contemporary standards, as to whether a problem even expelling from the caste or clan he/she be- was resolved, solved, or temporarily suppressed. longs to in case of a serious offence against the pre- Even regarding consensus, one must keep in mind vailing customs and laws); fines; public denounce- the possible practical limitations, a person with low ments that brings disgrace to the offender. Such social power was subject to in raising his/her voice verdicts can reflect on not only the person involved against a matter the leaders in the community had but also on the descendants. Thus, apart from re- already agreed upon. solving/mitigating problems, the method main- tains itself as a social control mechanism that mini- The method described above in contemporary times mizes causes of conflict. look outdated and impracticable where caste based rulings were meted out. However, aspects to be emu- One other feature of Wariga Sabhawa is, its acts of lated in this system in local attempts of conflict reso- transparency. All procedures are discussed in pub- lution are its features such as transparency, popular lic, decisions are made, and penalties imposed in the consensus (although could be problematic in achiev- open arena. This helped to increase acceptance and ing), efficiency etc... faith in the capacity of the Wariga Sabhawa. Mechanisms Promoted by NGOs ‘Honesty’ and’‘openness’ are said to be key factors of this mechanism. One needs to prove honesty In many areas of the country, NGOs engaged in when necessary by swearing or oath taking. This in- peace building and development projects have es- dicates the role’‘belief’ played towards the success tablished peace committees and people’s forums of the system. The local belief systems in relation to (Janatha Mandapa), citizens’ committees (Purawassi lying in the presence of God/god and the effects of Kamitu) to mitigate conflicts at the local level. Apart divine curse significantly help the efficient function- from focusing on conflict mitigation at local level, ing of the system. some of these focus on raising awareness for build- ing intergroup unity and peace, education Considering the relevance of’Wariga Sabhawa to programmes, and several other committees focus on contemporary society, the aspect of decision mak- local level development projects too.

25 Peace Audit 2006

Part 1

Usually these committees function under the ae- not settled by the police (due to various limitations gis of respective NGOs and consist of a board of in official procedures) end up here. elected officers to executive committees. Along with the input of the NGO representative, the ex- To make this method more useful and efficient, the ecutive committee organizes various activities for committee believes that it is important to make it is membership and acts as a body assisting con- people understand their responsibility towards the flict mitigation. Following are a few such mecha- community. More programmes/trainings in conflict nisms: resolution tactics will help increase efficiency of these committees. Apart from this, for their long-term sus- Janatha Mandapaya (People’s Forum) tenance secure funding sources need to be sought until they are fully established in communities for This is a popular method of mitigation and recon- their independent functioning. In order to make this ciliation practised in many areas of the island and is a popular alternative conflict resolution mechanism, supported by several NGOs in areas they operate. to be sought after and successful, locals recommend The Janatha Mandapaya in Dikwella, Matara functions popularizing the centre by introducing training, rec- since early 2005, and roots back to year 2000. Jeewa reation facilities etc... Shakthi Padanama (local NGO) with the support of some local and foreign NGOs. This is a team con- Shramadhaana Samithi sisting of 50 individuals including religious leaders representing major religious groups in the area. Here, we highlight characteristics of committees Members of the police department, Grama Niladari formed at village level specifically by SARVODAYA, (GN), education sector, and other civil groups are with the vision of ‘Grama Swarajya Sankalpaya’, which also part of it. slightly compares to the concept of ‘panchayath’ in India. The focus here is on empowering the village It comprises a membership of Tamils, Muslims and to govern itself and develop resolving conflicts Sinhalese, and is not limited by caste or creed. With within. the focus of establishing peace and good governance, they intervene in inter group conflicts that include The main feature that binds the village in this sys- ethnic, religious, caste-based issues, community dis- tem is’Shramadhaana- donating one’s labour for pub- putes and family conflicts. lic development projects voluntarily. In this study, we focus at two villages Dehipitiya village, and For efficient functioning, the committee usually Liyanwala Pahalagama in Walapane in the Nuwara makes links to groups in conflict, through institu- Eliya district where the system was comparatively tions such as the village temple. Some in the area successful. As the committee structures are similar, find this system to be very efficient and seek its in- the discussion on these will be in general with spe- tervention. Depending on the severity of the prob- cific examples when needed. lem it is sometimes the first place where communi- ties go for help. Prolonged conflicts that are even Their executive committee consists of 25 members.

26 Local Methods of Conflict Mitigation/Resolution

Part 1

The 25 members are chosen to represent five sub Religious Leadership committees, namely, the general members, senior members, mothers, youth, and children. In general, Buddhist, Catholic and Muslim religious leaders play an important role in resolving conflicts The committee intervenes in resolving, mainly is- in villages, mostly when the parties involved in dis- sues among its membership. Inter and intra fam- putes belong to one religious group. However, in ily disputes e.g., land related, public nuisance, instances where all communities accept a charis- bootlegging, and (production of kasippu/moon- matic and eminent religious leader, he mediates and shine). resolves conflicts in multi-ethnic and religious set- tings. As interventions by religious leaders and In addition, these committees conduct social devel- groups are significant in resolving/mitigating con- opment projects such as providing access to water, flicts at local level, we discuss a few such contribu- road development etc. In Agakpola village, the re- tions below in general. search team noticed initial steps being taken to gen- erate electricity for the village, with external finan- Buddhist Priests and Religious Institutions: cial and technological support, and labour of the villagers. In addition, each village maintains a bank From an historical perspective, Buddhist priests have and it seemed to play a considerable role in the func- played a significant role in Sri Lankan society in re- tion of the committee with the loan schemes and lation to resolving conflicts. In the traditional Sri support to livelihood. Lankan village, the temple priest was a key person to whom the villagers went to looking for resolu- The general procedure in conflict mitigation in case tions of whatever conflicts they had. of a dispute is, finding solutions through media- tion. Some members of the executive committee At present, the contributions of Buddhist priests dif- who are respected, eminent individuals engage in fer from district to district. Many priests engage in mediation and in the event of failure; it is taken up conflict mitigation at local level in their own capac- at the GN level. Failure to mitigate at this stage too, ity. In addition, they also play a role in settling con- will eventually lead to seeking assistance from the flict situations among Buddhist and non-Buddhist police. groups in certain districts. In addition to the village priest, the temple trustee board too contributes to Apart from that, these committees also organize so- this process as it mostly consists of elders and re- cial awareness, education programmes and other spected individuals in the community. events that enhance the unity and binding in the community. They may include religious ceremonies, Catholic Church sports events, and other gatherings. The success of the method is largely connected with the The parish priest of the Catholic Church play a programmes aimed at enhancing living standards major role in society as a leader in relation to spiri- and development projects. tual and social affairs. His role as an opinion

27 Peace Audit 2006

Part 1

maker too is significant to the catholic commu- In Kinniya, the Jammiyathal Ulema body who con- nity. Under these circumstances, in events of con- stantly ‘talks’ to the LTTE over their alleged killings flict where the Catholics are involved, the priest of Muslim villagers are also exposed to criticism and acts as an agent representing the Catholics. If the attacks by their own youth at times when urging two parties in conflict are Catholics, he plays the them to resort to peaceful ways of handling conflicts. role of the mediator to settle the dispute. These In communities such as these, nevertheless, the reli- situations are very much prevalent in rural areas gious/theological leaders are held in high esteem. where small catholic communities exist (e.g., par- ishes in Badulla, Anuradhapura dioceses), and in Concerning family matters, the mosque committee will areas with a catholic majority such as Mannar, attempt at resolving the conflict and in case of failure, Negombo, Chilaw. In Trincomalee, the catholic the case will be referred to Qazi courts. In addition, parish priest in the town is a prominent member reference can be made to a federation of mosques that of the citizens’ committee and the peace commit- brings together a number of mosque committees in tee that helps calm down situations after much the area to which disputes unresolved by a mosque violence. committee can be brought to. In case of failure to re- solve at this stage will take the conflict to the district Mosque Committees federation and the inability to settle the dispute at this stage will eventually end up by being referred to the Concerning Muslims, the mosque committee is the police. main body solving conflicts that can be dealt by Is- lamic law. The community selects the members for Mosque committees attempt resolving family mat- the committee, who are men, and they act indepen- ters, financial and land based conflicts of the Mus- dently. Usually complaints are made to the commit- lim communities. In several areas, the mosque com- tee in writing or orally after the prayer services. Al- mittees also play a role to avoid intergroup violence though women are not elected to the committee, they where Muslims are a part. have the right to make complaints regarding mat- ters of their concern. Hindu Temple and the Priest

In Kinniya and Kaathankudi (in the east), mosque Hindu priest or the committee of trustees do not play committees have been the main link between Mus- a prominent role in resolving conflicts on many oc- lim villagers and the LTTE, even at times lobbying casions. This is mainly because the priest (Pusaari), with government troops. Commendable lobbying does not play a dominant role as a social leader. He with the LTTE over affected villages and dealing is respected for the service in the spiritual domain. with complaints of LTTE offences against villagers, However, seldom are recorded incidents where in- (i.e., land issues and taxation for cutting wood) in dividually a Pusaari plays a role to mitigate conflicts an organized and peaceful way have been their forte. at the local level. Yet, this function is minimal in com- They have mitigated much youth unrest and villag- parison to the religious leaders of other communi- ers’ disputes and tit-for-tat killings. ties who wield authority over their religious groups.

28 Local Methods of Conflict Mitigation/Resolution

Part 1

1.1. Concluding Observations fore, due to lack of in-depth studies and informa- tion, the long-term effects of these settlements can- This study was conducted with the aim of mapping not be projected. local methods/traditions of conflict resolution/miti- gation, to evaluate the effectiveness of such meth- In addition, the researches observed that ‘most’ of ods in contemporary society, and the possibility and the externally created methods/organizations for the need to revitalize them. mitigating conflicts at local level and peace build- ing have failed to succeed in their expectations. This, Our experience was that as the social structures have as we understand is mainly due to unrealistic ex- drastically changed over the last five - six decades, pectations of projects and failure in making needs most of the former structures for conflict resolution, evaluation before launching projects for peace build- such as Wariga Sabhawa cannot be resuscitated (note ing and conflict mitigating at local level. that there were more than one structure) to serve as mechanisms of conflict resolution and peace build- With respect to the findings of this attempt to map lo- ing in contemporary societies. One needs to realize cal methods of conflict resolution, we wish to make that these methods could best function only in the the following recommendations to support existing social conditions where they evolved, which are dif- structures/mechanisms, and introduce/form struc- ferent from today. What is useful is that as we dis- tures/mechanisms for conflict mitigation at local level, cussed earlier, there are lessons that can be taken promote inter-communal dialogue, and peace build- from these methods in any attempt to forms mecha- ing. nism to match the needs of contemporary social set- tings. • Assessments:

Another fact about these methods is that they help Assessing the needs and the existing social patterns best in resolving/mitigating minor conflicts at fam- in a given community is vital before starting any ily level and within the group (village), such as dis- method (committee) for conflict mitigation and putes over fences, water resources, or fishing related peace building. This evaluation should be used to issues etc... In preventing conflicts at intergroup assess the main needs of the locality. Our evalua- level, the ability of these methods to address deep- tion is, in most local communities, development and roots of conflicts are not yet proven, as longitudinal relief needs are far more important than conflict reso- case studies on these various methods are yet to be lution and peace building projects. Addressing these done. Our evaluation is that these methods/mecha- primary needs would be a strong platform to ini- nisms best serve in treating the symptoms and tiate methods for conflict resolution and peace build- preventing escalation of violence rather than treat- ing. ing the causes or the roots of conflicts. However, one must not undermine the role it plays in providing a In addition to local needs assessment, it is also im- platform for negotiation and reconciliation between portant to assess local social structures and power disputant parties or groups. Yet, as mentioned be- relations. For example, in a locality with multi ethno-

29 Peace Audit 2006

Part 2

religious communities, an attempt to empower a mi- because people not perceiving these structures as ef- nority might be perceived by a majority as a threat. fective and useful in conflict mitigation, compared If this is not dealt conflict sensitively, the entire to police and judicial system that is widely in use, project for conflict resolution and peace building will despite their limitations. The reasons behind this lack turn into a failure, sometimes, even adding reasons of confidence needs to be further studied as the for conflicts between communities. causes of it can be numerous. Thus, to strengthen the existing structures, examining the specific fac- • Expectations: tors behind their failures would be very much im- portant. As discussed earlier, local mechanisms have their own limitations regarding the scope of issues they can suc- Finally, we wish to emphasize that Local Methods cessfully deal. Thus, any agency attempting to form of Conflict Resolution or Alternative Dispute Reso- bodies for conflict resolution and inter communal dia- lution mechanisms have many benefits to people in logue should not be over enthusiastic about outcomes. resolving minor conflicts, compared to the disadvan- In addition, it must also be taken into consideration tages of the judicial system largely practised as it that peace and confidence building, and conflict reso- can be more time and money consuming, and stress lution are long-term procedures, which needs to be provoking procedures. Yet, the introduction of such combined with development projects where it is mechanisms needs to be done in a way that they are needed. Thus, assessing what can be actually (realis- accepted by the communities at local level. As long tically) achieved in a given time frame by an alter- as people do not accept and embrace them as useful nate method introduced to a local community for methods/tools, irrespective of what benefits they conflict resolution is very important in the journey may theoretically have on a society, they would be towards maximizing its benefits to the community. practically of very little use. Hence, any organiza- tion attempting to promote conflict resolution at lo- • Strengthening existing structures: cal level through alternate mechanisms, should con- sider the needs of the particular community and We discussed that due to many reasons with change have long term goals to achieve them realistically. of time, pre-colonial structures for conflict mitiga- tion no more function. Besides that, most existing End notes

NGO created structures too are not functioning at 1 Murray Thomson, and Kenneth Bush, Canadian Peace building their expected capacity in resolving conflicts and Coordinating Committee report, 27 January 1998. building intergroup unity/harmony. This is mainly 2 http://lmadurasinghe.googlepages.com/mahawamsa

30 District Reports

Part 2

Part 2 Peace and Conflict Assessment District Reports

43 Peace Audit 2006

Part 2

32 District Reports

District Reports1 Part 2

Peace Audit Districts

Jaffna District

Mannar District Vavuniya District

Anuradhapura Trincomalee District District

Puttalam District

Batticaloa District

Ampara District

Nuwara Eliya Badulla District District

Galle District Matara District

All statistics are based on the report of the Department of Census and Statistics available at www.statistics.gov.lk

33 Peace Audit 2006

Part 2

34 District Reports

Part 2

1. Ampara District

District Background

• 12 Divisional Secretariat (DS) Divisions •Land Area 4318.2 sqkm •Economic Activities i. Paddy Cultivation ii. Fisheries iii. Cash Crops iv. New jobs from INGO/NGO • Population 593,000 i. Muslims 41.3% ii. Sinhalese 39.9% iii. Tamils 18.5%

35 Peace Audit 2006

Part 2

s at 2006 July, the GoSL controls most vember 18, 2005, a mosque in was parts of the district administration while bombed, allegedly by the LTTE, owing to alleged A the rest of the areas are under the control torture of LTTE cadres by the Muslims, which the of the LTTE. In addition, the Karuna fraction, other Muslims deny. Revenge killing between rivals is Tamil militant groups and the supposedly existing common. Muslims of the area are more politically Muslim militant groups too have a significant influ- powerful and have an edge over the other com- ence in the functioning of the district administra- munities when it comes to political influence, tion. mainly due to the fact they have 12 MPs repre- senting the Muslims in the parliament at present. After the tsunami disaster in December 2004, the However, one common accusation against these district saw a large number of NGOs / INGOs. politicians is, since many of them live in Colombo, Thus, the activities of these organizations too have they have very little knowledge of the ground situ- a great impact on the district as they are directly ation in the district, except for the little informa- involved in development and rehabilitation tion they gain over the phone. Representation in projects, opinion building and monitoring the situ- parliament for Tamils and the Sinhalese is poor; ation in the district. there is only one Tamil MP, and two Sinhalese MPs for the entire district. Due to the on going conflict and the volatile condi- tion the district is demarked on the ethnic identi- There are strong rumours of a Muslim armed group ties. Inter community mobility between areas is re- called ‘Jihad’ in operation in Akkaraipattu and stricted. Although this situation dramatically Addalaichenai. Many Tamils accuse that there is a changed immediately after the tsunami disaster, it political backing to the Jihad group and that they was only short lived. At present, the mistrust and receive military training from the Karuna fraction. lack of unity between communities at the grassroots However, the Muslims categorically deny the exist- level is empirical and translate in to daily socio-po- ence of a Jihad group, and allegedly see this as a litical activities. plot to discredit the community, specially the youth. According to the Muslims in the district, the very 2.1 Structures and Actors fact that there is much division among so many po- litical parties is proof that there is no armed group a. Political and Security Conditions. among them.

Ampara is a district where there is a growing frus- Where the activities of the LTTE are concerned i.e. tration among the people of all communities re- the alleged forcible combat training it provides to garding the failed political leadership of the dis- school children by demanding that they take part trict. At community level there remains a common on a weekend etc. are accepted by many respon- unity between the Tamils and the Muslims. How- dents as hazards of living in the ‘conflict districts’ ever, at political level there is a significant divi- as there is no strong Tamil leadership to counter sion partly due to partisan political rivalry. On No- them.

36 District Reports

Part 2

The presence of Army and many para-military There is economic inter-dependency between the groups in the district and the militarizing tenden- Tamil and Muslim communities. The mercantile cies shown by the civilians have taken away the sem- sector, agriculture, labourers, masons and similar blance of normality from the districts. Due to fear areas are interrelated and connected. In the dis- and threats, freedom of movement and free of ex- trict, greater paddy lands are located in the Tamil pression is limited. Very especially in the Tamil ar- area but the owners of these lands are mostly eas, it would be a fatal act to state anything against Muslim. the LTTE. In Akkaraipattu, more than 1000 Tamils used to d. Socio-Economic travel to Muslim areas to work in their paddy fields and Muslims go to their fields in Tamil areas on a Concerning resource allocation in the district, Tamils daily basis. Because of recent conflicts between the and Sinhalese largely accuse and denote strong dis- two groups many civilians were killed which led to pleasure against the Muslim MPs for diverting an continuous harthals. These interactions and inter- inappropriate level of state funds for the Muslim ar- dependence has been largely affected and replaced eas, depriving the due rights of the Tamils and the by mistrust and fear. Sinhalese for development. Politicians often use ethnicity and religion to strengthen their votes at The labour force is largely Tamil... Recent incidents elections, this in turn contributes to protract the in- have given rise to a lot of tension. Muslims have sup- ter group disharmony and conflicts in the district. posedly distributed notices calling the Tamils as slaves and labourers working for them. Based on On the other hand, according to Muslims, the present that some Tamil groups have requested Tamils not Muslim-Tamil conflict is the creation of the Tamils to work in Muslim lands. As a result the problem of and not the Muslims. Muslims agitate on the dis- demand and offer for labour has become an issue crimination practised when new villages were es- and is yet to be solved. This was an on going prob- tablished in 1973 and 1977. Muslims further com- lem at the period of data collection. plain that the LTTE too has divided the areas on eth- nic basis and their focus is mainly on the Tamil area. Economy of the district is agriculture-based, yet the Therefore ethno politics play a major role in deeply irrigation systems are unable support the needs. On dividing the societies of Ampara. the other hand, most farmers face serious problems in marketing their produce. These conditions bring There remains a tri-partied competition and agitation, hardship for the people in Sinhala villages that do which are the cause as well as the result of the ongo- get any support either from the government or from ing national conflict. Traditionally held social relation- the many NGOs working in the district. ships have diminished. Conflict and the ethnic rivalry is a tool of analysis for every day events. Tradition- Land is a major socio economic source of tension in ally held common ground as educational facilities the area. Conflict is largely on the question of due have reduced, further distancing the communities. legal ownership of the land. Conflict situations con-

37 Peace Audit 2006

Part 2

tinue in highly sensitive villages such as and youth; Muslims have control over their congre- , and Buddangala Yaya (area 26)] gation in the mosque on Fridays. However, the Hin- there is a prolonged ongoing issue on land as two dus regret that they do not have such religious pro- groups, one Sinhala and the other Muslim claim tection but are controlled by the LTTE ownership. In addition, Muslims have a problem in gaining benefit from their lands (mainly paddy However, with challenging conditions, respondents lands) in LTTE controlled and in Tamil areas under mention a few activities that give hopes. These are small LTTE influence. However, as tension is very high scale, but definitely support the hope for future. One on this issue, many argue that Muslims have in- example is that the Hindus and Buddhists in some ar- vaded these lands. These are issues, which are of eas join in each other’s religious activities. Although great concern, and difficult to solve by the local au- the Muslims are not participating in such inter reli- thorities according to data we gathered from offic- gious functions, in some areas it was reported that as a ers working on it. Some examples presented where mark of respect for Islam, all shops in town are closed both groups that claim land ownership had support- for Friday Jummah prayers including Tamil shops. ing documents. Thus, according to local authorities, These initiatives are definitely of great importance in at present, some of these disputes are currently un- the attempts towards inter –community relationship. der the Colombo decision-making authorities 3. Dynamics and Scenarios Post tsunami permanent housing projects have been hindered as the government has failed to provide Due to the conflicting interest embedded in parti- suitable lands. However, according to many respon- san politics and inter- ethnic rivalry, benefits received dents, there are no suitable lands available. by one community in Ampara is considered losses by another group. This creates the worst-case sce- The dividers and the contributors to tension at nario in the district. The following are some key con- grassroots level in the Muslim – Tamil areas as iden- ditions that impact negatively. tified by the respondents are school dropouts and unemployed youth of both communities. Conflict and violence in the district can break at any moment. It largely depends on the continua- Respondents mentioned that agencies including tion of greater national political conditions. How- Mahashakthi Institute, Peace Committees, police ever, the bitterness between communities play a and the STF, religious and community leaders, the significant role in renewed conflicts in the district. all Mosques Federation, and People’s Forums (Saama There is obvious fear and suspicion among the Kamitu, Aarakshaka Kamitu, Purawassi Kamitu) work Tamils and the Muslims. The tendency to look at as connectors in the district. everyday issues through a communal lens can lead to major conflicts. Concerning the link between connectors and spoil- ers and what factors could reduce their vulnerabil- The power struggle and the possible clash between ity: The Catholic church has control over their people the Wanni faction and the Karuna factions of the LTTE

38 District Reports

Part 2

too can give rise to violence affecting all communi- divide the Tamils and Muslims in the Ampara dis- ties in the district at any unexpected moment. It is trict. However, some Muslims view this as a very not very easy to differentiate and identify as to which good solution compared to deploying home guards member belongs to which. Other armed groups in as a security measure. The outcome will largely de- the district further fuel this situation, as mostly it is pend on the functioning of the unit, or more pre- impossible to identify who is responsible for violence. cisely, in the way the GoSL deploys the unit.

Under these circumstances, irrespective of the cred- The best-case scenarios for the district will largely ibility of the allegations made against the GoSL that depend on the continuation and the success of the they are supporting the Karuna faction, many re- peace process. spondents made cautious statements that if war breaks out, there is a every possibility for the gov- For the Muslims: They could access their lands in ernment to support or use the Karuna faction as a areas where a majority of Tamils live and continue strategic option against the Wanni group. with their business affairs without interruptions. Acceptance from other communities in the area for The proposed Muslim Regiment of the SL Army at Muslims as a peaceful and co-operative community the time of the Audit in March-April was another is also of immense value for them. factor determining the future of the district. This regi- ment was to consist of Muslim youth and was sup- For the Sinhalese: Infrastructure developments in posed to serve in the Ampara district. The dynam- the areas where majority of them live. They also, ics of this development is still arguable although view that assistance in cultivation and irrigation even at the time of the publication no such regiment aspects will make their lives more productive. was formed. Many respondents, especially among the Tamils, foresee that this will eventually bring For the Tamils: Resumption of development ne- very negative results to the relationship between the glected in their area for decades due to the influ- Tamils and the Muslims, the two communities al- ence of the LTTE. They feel that it would be very ready living in troubled conditions. Tamil respon- much of importance if they could put an end to the dents pointed out that usual reference to the state suffering and ‘live’ their lives. One respondent put army is as the Sinhalese Army. Under these tense it into words as follows: “the best case scenario for conditions they prefer not to have a ‘Muslim Army’. me would be to build my house. I have earned some In the mean time, many Muslim groups in Colombo money. But, I cannot start building my house as the show strong displeasure against this measure to cre- war might breakout at any moment and all what I ate a’‘Muslims Only’ Regiment. They conclude that start may be wasted.” this move will further complicate the already com- plex environment, especially to the Muslims of Thus, an overall peaceful environment at the na- Ampara. This could make the Muslims an easy tar- tional level is a key factor determining the best-case get of the LTTE if war breaks out. Some also view scenarios for the Ampara district, as it is the case for this as a very negative strategy used by the GoSL to most other districts.

39 Peace Audit 2006

Part 2

4. Humanitarian and Development Responses only work in the Tamil areas, but the Muslims feel they too should have access to them and obtain their The work of the humanitarian agencies are overall services. unsatisfactory. Lagging post tsunami rehabilitation projects have raised many questions. Displaced At the same time, the Sinhala respondents strongly people still live in temporary shelters. A prevailing point fingers at the insensitivity of the INGOs/ critical view is that there is no substantial work ac- NGOs at their conduct. They accuse that most NGOs complished by the INGOS. All what are apparent are / INGOs select beneficiaries / work only in the Tamil the flashy vehicles and their flags touring the district? and Muslim areas neglecting the fact that there are development needs in the Sinhala areas too. This is One of the reasons for the slow progress is also be- affecting badly the relationship between the com- cause government officers are allegedly not support- munities as one group feels that the other is grab- ive of the NGOs to carry out their activities. There is bing all the opportunities available. also a lack of transparency and coordination among NGOs and their missions are often not widely Recommendations known by all. -Prioritise preventive measures. Build state level Allegations of long-term adverse impact on the lo- relation during the early stages of the projects. cal culture continues with little or no appreciation Do grass roots need assessment and current for the local structures and there are instances where projects evaluation to avoid repetition. collaborating with the wrong people/organizations -Maximize the per rupee value of the projects un- threatening the long-term work carried out by older der taken. Reduce waste. Keep life styles and NGOs. Women working for NGOs have come un- other practices in par with district patterns. Be der severe criticism as there is wide spread belief transparent at all possible levels. that they are being abused by their employing agen- -Livelihood support and self-empowering voca- cies. There were many who would readily condemn tional training are important. Make unemployed the extravagant parties the NGOs throw and the lo- youth as key targets of project beneficiaries. Mid cal women’s participation as ‘deplorable’. Recent to long terms projects brings more benefits. newspaper articles making ‘baseless’ allegations of - Educational and educational facilities develop- abortions taking place in high numbers among ment is a key concern. New focus is need in this women working in NGOs and the degeneration of area. the society that foreigners are influencing et al have -An effective inter religious peace committee is made it extremely challenging for women to work needed to bring human security. NGO/INGO for international NGOs as well. cultivate coordination with the state adminis- tration. Free flow of cash and huge salary scales for inexpe- -Bring new trust building mechanisms between rienced personnel too question the credibility of the communities. Social projects involving all INGO work. There are also allegations that NGOs communities will bring mutual trust.

40 District Reports

Part 2

2. Anuradhapura District

District Background

• 16 Divisional Secretariat (DS) Divisions •Land Area 7034.3 Sqkm •Economic Activities i. Paddy Cultivation ii. Cash Crops iii. New jobs from INGO/NGO • Population 745,700 i. Muslims 8.3% ii. Sinhalese 90.7% iii. Tamils 0.8%

41 Peace Audit 2006

Part 2

ollowing the ethnic riots of 1983, many made of how some government officials who are true Tamils fled the area. Another exodus of to service also find it challenging to carry out their F Tamils occurred after the attack on the Sri duties in the face of political obstacles. Maha Bodhiya by the LTTE on May 14, 1985. At present, a handful of Tamils live in nearby Tamil vil- Law enforcing agencies like the police are limited in lages. They are employed in odd jobs for a liveli- their action due to political interference. hood. Muslims feel they are not represented in the sate During the last two decades, villages in the north- decision-making process. ern and eastern borders of the district have been subject to attacks by the LTTE. Later, one of the AGA Anuradhapura is one of the districts with the least divisions of the Mullaitivu district was annexed to population density (126/km2) in Sri Lanka. The Anuradhapura district for that being the only AGA electoral divisions are demarcated, based on popu- division with a Sinhala population. lation density. As a result, some electorates cover a large area compared to others; Medawachchiya is 2. Structures and Actors the largest electorate in the island. Often state funds are allocated based on the electorates. These allo- Political and Security cations are not sufficient to develop the infrastruc- ture of large electorates, which have lesser popula- In the Anuradhapura district, a single party wields tion densities. much political influence. Such a political imbalance leads to many allegations of corruption and abuse The LTTE partially controls Vavuniya, Mannar and of power. The current political leadership in the dis- Trincomalee bordering Anuradhapura district on the trict is allegedly suppressing other party politics. north. The administrative bodies/officers and important institutes have been allegedly arranged to support Prior to the CFA, people in “vulnerable or border and nurture the current political authority. In this villages” faced immense threats from the LTTE. Now situation, although at a surface level political bick- they live in relative peace. It is noteworthy that not ering was reduced, the underlining tensions remain a single LTTE-linked incident has taken place in the to date. district since the 2002 CFA.

Political authorities accused of using their power for According to the respondents of the vulnerable vil- personal and economic benefits. lages such as, Padaviya and Welioya are solely Sin- halese habitats. Hence there is no ethnic tension in Almost all respondents maintained that politicians Kekirawa but Thalawa Muslims as a minority feel do not listen to their needs. Bribery is a ‘life style’, insecure. There were incidents of threats made by especially when one needs a ‘job done’ through a Sinhala villagers, but they are in most instances government official. However, mention must be owing to personal feuds.

42 District Reports

Part 2

Socio-Economic some water has led to Fluorosis, a condition caused by excessive exposure to fluorine and marked by The recent economy of the Anuradhapura district mottling of the teeth and damage to the bones and thrived from a ‘war economic activities’ prior to the some kidney related health problems. CFA, Anuradhapura district was the operational centre for the security forces. There were several Due to the lack of transport facilities, teachers hesi- transit camps in the district. tate to work in remote areas. This situation creates a negative impact on the higher education of students Under this transition, there was a massive demand in the remote areas of the district. This has also led for ‘recreation’ facilities, for the transiting soldiers. to students moving in from remote areas to the main i.e. massage parlours (often linked to prostitution) city for their educational needs. However, poor and bars. This became a major social issue and civil transport facilities and financial constraints control society organizations protested against this situation. their opportunities. Some NGOs have taken action However, according to the respondents this situa- to address these problems. Extra incentives for teach- tion has improved after the CFA. A number of places ers in remote areas and scholarships to students are functioning as guesthouses are now closed due to some of these activates. lost customers. This also led to reduced alcohol and drug use in the district. There remains a perception that some NGOs pro- mote religious conversion. This is a cause for ten- According to the respondents, there is an early mar- sion in the district, which has led to conflict and vio- riage tendency in the district. Girls often marry in lence. Some Christian groups allegedly carry out their teens. The absence of their mothers due to these conversions. This has a negative impact on the employment in the Middle East is a major reason Catholic Church. Owing to this, at times the tradi- for this change. Most of these teenagers are not ready tional church has found it difficult to function and to face the challenges of marriage. Early motherhood is unable to provide services, such as health educa- is a negative result of this situation. Family care is tion as they too are accused of religious propaga- neglected, due to lack of health and nutrition aware- tion. ness among young people. This leads to a lot of fam- ily and economic problems and often end in broken To mitigate the tension in the area a committee families. has been appointed with the assistance of humani- tarian agencies, to look into this issue. This com- Alcoholism, especially in the village sector has be- mittee comprises representatives from all reli- come a major issue in the district. This condition gions. badly affects the poor families and leads to women and child abuse. The district’s economy is’‘agrarian’ based and own- ership of land is the pride of the people.’Land is- Availability of clean drinking water has become a sues are of concern in the district and in many cases problem in some areas. Consumption of unwhole- give cause for tension and conflict.

43 Peace Audit 2006

Part 2

Most of people who reside in the remote areas of they have to sell their produce to settle the loans. Of- the district are farmers. For them land ownership is ten they have to sell their produce at very low prices a basic need. Most of them are resettlers from the that would not even cover the cost involved. Although other districts brought in under development the government has taken action to purchase the har- projects. They received sufficient land, initially. vest these arrangements are not sufficient. When their families grew, they started to acquire government land. According to the respondents, The major income source of the district is paddy cul- there is sufficient cultivable land. However, they tivation. Harvest increased in the past four years. have a problem with ownership of the land although The reason for this was sufficient rainfall, conces- some of them have been occupying the land for sions on fertilizer and wider accessibility of paddy years. fields (some areas could not be cultivated previously because of LTTE threats on farmers). However, be- To address these problems the government distrib- cause of prevailing problems, the farmers cannot en- uted land under various schemes to those who did joy the fruits of a better harvest. They do not get a not have their own land. The names of these schemes chance to sell their crops at reasonable prices. are “Punyabumi” and”“Jayabumi”. District authori- ties blame local politicians of influencing these Tensions arising from these issues have become a programmes and trying to divert land to people or major concern in the district. There have been pro- groups supporting them. This hampers and delays tests and demonstrations against government poli- the land distribution process. Such delays contrib- cies. Four farmers committed suicide during the last ute to increasing tension among the public. six months.

Debt cycle tension in selling harvest - less demand This situation is not restricted to paddy cultivation. excess supply: The people who benefited through Other farmers are also confronted with the selling schemes mentioned above are facing difficulties to problem, especially for vegetables that cannot be cultivate the land. Lacking capital for paddy culti- kept fresh for a longer period and therefore need to vation, the farmers would need to mortgage their be sold at a very low price. Lack of transport and land to reputed banks. However, this is not possible, storage facilities makes this situation worse. as these lands are not transferable. There is no major development project after the Those people who have been living illegally on gov- Mahaveli development project of the 1980s. Because ernment land for years do not benefit from the land of this youth unemployment has increased. The pri- distribution schemes and also don’t have opportu- vate business sector is underdeveloped and indus- nities for taking loans from reputed banks as they try is rare. Many young people leave the district seek- do not have proper land ownership documents. ing jobs.

In this situation, farmers have to take loans from mon- Lack of opportunities for profit making in the agri- eylenders at a high interest rate. After the harvest, cultural sector encourages women to seek job op-

44 District Reports

Part 2

portunities in the Middle East. This eases economic 3. Dynamics and Scenarios pressures in the families to some extent, however, it has had a bad effect on the education of children Abuse of political power is an irritant for the pub- and family life as a whole. lic. Political interference and delays in the process of addressing the needs of the public is a common To address the above needs a considerable number feature. Lack of adequate attention on ‘land’ issues of INGOs and local NGOs are working in is a main cause for tension in the district. Misuse Anuradhapura District. Most of them are involved and illegal diversions of the tank water and irriga- in community development activities prioritizing tion systems for personal use has a negative impact self-employment, micro-credit schemes, women’s on the environment. issues and infrastructure development. Micro-credit schemes in particular had a positive impact on the The issues regarding agricultural cultivation and poor communities. Under these small groups, who marketing of products is an immediate need. Solv- are unable to approach government or private banks ing these problems of farmers will help to reduce for their investments receive micro credits. The tension in the district. Addressing these economic group focus of such small credit schemes have also challenges will also have a major impact on the over- enabled cooperation and peace building among the all political scenario in the district. villagers. The citizens generally are not satisfied with the ser- Humanitarian agencies have failed to address the vice of the local government authorities as the agen- burning issues of small-scale farmers. Although cies fail to provide solutions. agencies have assisted in developing infrastructure facilities like tank rehabilitation, and reconstruction Muslims feel insecure in areas where they are in a of irrigation systems, this has not reduced the vul- minority. There have been instances of threats and nerability of the farmers. quarrels between them and the Sinhalese. Even though they might in most cases be attributable to Although the ethnic conflict generally adversely af- personal feuds, the tension can easily develop into fects people, this conflict-affected district is seem- more serious ethnic clashes and disturb community ingly benefiting economically in the eyes of many. relations. Long before the conflict, the only means of income, (that too, fluctuating given good harvests) was ag- Tension also prevails in relation to religious issues. riculture based. With the rising conflict, almost ev- This can develop into further serious clashes. Hu- ery family has a member employed as a home manitarian agencies must be aware of this situation guard or married to a soldier from a different part and should act conflict sensitively and in mitigat- of the island. This changing social landscape has ing the tension. Supporting the existing religious assured most families steady incomes, better stan- groups evenly could be one way to ease tension. dards of living, and access to a wider circle of soci- ety. Because of the ethnic conflict, the humanitarian and

45 Peace Audit 2006

Part 2

development agencies started to work on the devel- some cases, these agencies may not feel the neces- opment aspect in remote neglected villages of the sity for such methods. However, involvement of Anuradhapura district. This turned out to be a bless- most of the agencies has had a positive impact on ing that came with all the negative effects of the war. the communities. In normal conditions, the struggle for day-to-day liv- ing of these communities would have not reached Developing the infrastructure (i.e. irrigation systems, the donor community. rehabilitation of tanks, roads) and common commu- nity facilities (i.e. community centres, libraries) As a conflict affected district tension in helped to improve the living standards, which the Anuradhapura depends largely on external factors government authorities neglected for years. Pre- beyond the control of the people living in the dis- school education, improved health services and em- trict. After the implementation of the CFA, tension powering women in the economic sector are oppor- in vulnerable villages reduced. The CFA also had a tunity for NGOs to exploit. positive effect on other social issues like prostitu- tion or drug use. However, if the peace talks fail there Some agencies, however, are under criticism for will be more tension and conflict in the vulnerable providing assistance while promoting unethical villages of the district. conversions of poor Buddhists. Not only the pub- lic but also government officials are suspicious 4. Humanitarian & Development Responses about such activities. Two years ago, one staff mem- ber of an NGO was threatened and the NGO’s Most of the humanitarian and development agen- premise set on fire. cies are implementing projects after the ethnic con- flict broke out in 1983. Because of continuing attacks In addition to that, small credit schemes is criticized on the villages on the northern border of the dis- by some since taking money as loans has made the trict, there were a lot of families in IDP camps. Ac- community dependent on out resources. cording to the need of that time, humanitarian agen- cies worked on immediate relief followed by hous- Due to the target-based approach intra-agency, com- ing and livelihood development. petition among humanitarian agencies is growing.

Since the 1990’s, the focus of these agencies has Agencies are accused for lack of coordination, caus- turned to address poverty, which is a major issue ing waste of resources. Repeat training on the same especially in the remote villages. Agencies provide area or help without the need assessments are com- financial assistance and attempt to develop self-em- mon complains. ployment opportunities by way of revolving loan schemes. A coordinated marketing programme should sup- port the self -employment scheme. Marketing has Most agencies are not using conflict sensitivity ap- not formalized resulting self-employment to be a proaches within their project implementation. In non-starter.

46 District Reports

Part 2

A religious centre aims to promote joint religious cel- - Practise conflict sensitive approaches. Improve ebrations of people from various backgrounds. A communication with public and target group. long-term commitment of working in the district -Projects for sustainable development require enables connections with many CBO and therefore more attentions. Safety net for farmers is an ur- makes an impact on the life of grassroots people. gent need. - Support CBOs involved in women’s empower- Small local organizations and committees are in- ment. This may reduce the middle east migra- volved in training and awareness programmes in tion. peace building. Some NGOs started an exchange -Target unemployment of the youth by voca- programme for the Sinhala and Tamil community, tional training and self -employment. aiming at developing better understanding between -District does not pose an immediate threat of two communities. any ethnic violence. Inter-ethnic relations can improve by coordinated peace initiatives. Recommendations

-Improve inter agency coordination. Get the state agency involved in project planning and imple- mentation.

47 Peace Audit 2006

Part 2

3. Badulla District

District Information

• 12 Divisional Secretariat (DS) Divisions •Land Area 2802.8 Sqkm •Economic Activities i. Paddy Cultivation ii. Cash Crops iv. New jobs from INGO/NGO • Population 780,000 i. Muslims 5.0% ii. Sinhalese 72.4% iii. Tamils 22.2%

48 District Reports

Part 2

adulla is included in the Peace Audit as a addition, has distanced the public from active po- conflict-affected district in the litical life. B that is replete with dynamics contributing to the national level conflict. It has 15 Divisional Unions active in the plantation sector take political Secretary (DS) divisions. The population of the dis- advantage of the ethnic identity. Their action to im- trict is approximately 780,000. Among the total prove living conditions of the workers is inadequate. population, 84% live in the rural areas, while 11% Unionists try to guard their political leadership thus are in the plantations and 5% in the urban areas. Sin- creating divisions. halese, being the largest ethnic group in the district, are 71%, while 25% are Tamils in the estates. Mus- There is no recorded ethnic violence in the recent lims and other ethnic groups make up for 4% of the past. However, fear of the influence of mistrust lin- population. gers. Unemployed youth are a clear target for the LTTE. As a counter measure, the security forces have Badulla is one of the most underdeveloped districts used search operations, which in turn cause tension. in the country. Hardly any industrial development has taken place. The majority of the people are Socio- Economic paddy farmers and labourers in estates whose liv- ing standards perhaps are among the lowest in the Discrimination in the educational area is a widely country. felt grievance. Lack of resources in the Tamil lan- guage has continued. The Muslim community too There had been no inter-ethnic or inter-religious con- shares this burden. flict on a large scale since the 1983 communal riots. However, isolated incidents between members of the Domestic violence, child abuse, broken marriages two ethnic groups (Sinhala-Tamil) had disrupted the are common social challenges. Some of these devel- peaceful environment that affects the dormant mis- opments are a result of popular culture. trust and hostility between communities. Alcoholism has increased so is the supply of alco- 2. Structures and Actors hol.

Political and Security Sanitary facilities in estates need attention. Due to the steep setting of the landscape, an upper ground Political mobilization is on ethnic identity. Use of versus lower ground sanitation and health challenge the and identity is an area of con- is growing. stant tension. Tamils do not get state agency services in their language. While the plantation sector is supposed to provide full medical care to the workers, the professional ser- Proportional Representation and Preferential Vote vice provided is inadequate. Lack of qualified pro- System have reduced the political accountability. In fessionals has led to many medical hazards.

49 Peace Audit 2006

Part 2

The social stigma of ‘estate worker’ identity contin- this does not deny the fact of poverty among other ues. communities and their struggle in maintaining a decent life style within the rural areas. The Muslim community needs much improvement in areas such as education and health. Badulla district displays a huge gap between gen- der equality. Women suffer from many side conse- Over concentration on the Tamil community by quences of this condition. NGOs has caused bitterness amongst the others. 4. Humanitarian and Development Responses Paradoxically, Badulla while contributing to the na- tional economy is one of the poorest districts of the NGO/INGO work is appreciated while many an country. urgent issue needs to addressed.

While there is no clearly identified divider in the Recommendations district, recent identity politics has caused much ten- sion. Inter- religious competition grows, as a direct Develop livelihood support programmes to gener- result of this. Many public activities to sustain the ate self-employment. area leadership by religious bodies have caused harm to the unity. Introduce vocational training for early school leavers

3. Dynamics and Scenarios NGO/INGO development programmes should be designed to integrate the ethnic communities. Ethnic identity divides the district in the social set- ting. Social mobilization to ascertain the ethnic Educational programmes on areas such as alcohol- dominancy has often caused tension. ism prevention, women’s empowerment health and childcare are urgent. Lack of development and limited services provided by the State remains a cause of frustration. A frus- Action to improve the state agency services and state trated and angry Tamil community could become a documentation process is highly welcome. possible support base for the LTTE. Introduce low-tech agriculture for extra income. Perceived threats create more tensed conditions, abetted by actual life struggles with harsh living The activities of NGOs have moved to coastal areas standards irrespective of ethnicity or religion. How- in the post-tsunami condition. This has questioned ever, there are also real problems that are specific to the credibility of NGOs. certain groups that cannot be over sighted. More spe- cifically the line room houses of the estate employ- People’s Forums (Saama Kamitu, Purawasi Kamitu) ees and the hygiene related problems along with it; should help aim at bringing politicians, religious

50 District Reports

Part 2

leaders from all parties / religions together. There Ethnic related conflict is not the predominant chal- must be some pressure exerted on them to work in lenge of the district. The daily struggle for better liv- harmony towards bringing people together and to ing dominates. Ignoring these issues and the frustra- stop activities that would divide the people. This is tions that result from them will manifest in strength- a very important step as the leaders in any society ening mistrust and hostility among groups. This will have a great influence on people; thus, unity among eventually lead to inter group conflicts as certain leaders representing all groups is a significant step events provide ‘triggers’ for conflict and violence, in bringing cohesion in the district. which may become inevitable in the near future.

51 Peace Audit 2006

Part 2

4. Batticaloa District

District Information

•7 Divisional Secretariat (DS) Divisions •Land Area 2686.3 Sqkm •Economic Activities i. Paddy Cultivation ii. Fisheries • Population 486,400 i. Muslims 23.9% ii. Sinhalese 3.4% iii. Tamils 71.0%

52 District Reports

Part 2

1. District Data Tamil polity. Batticaloa challenges the dominancy of the LTTE, more than in any other Tamil speaking he government administration system area. As a result, there is multi layer suffering in- through the local bodies has 14 Divisional flicted by several groups on the public. T Secretariats. It is interesting to note that in Batticaloa the eastern part which is under govern- On the other hand is the politics of the Muslims that ment control is popularly known as ‘Eluwankarai’ has become strained due to a lack of proper leader- and the western part which is under LTTE control is ship. It is now turning into a more powerful milita- called ‘Paduwankarai’ in Tamil. rized politics; the youth who are frustrated with the fallacies throughout history tend to justify the LTTEs Batticaloa in the recent past had many political chal- emergence. Also highlights the possibility of the lenges. Some drew the attention and interest of the emergence of such a group for the Muslim commu- international community. Many have accepted the nity as well. This interest of the Muslims is based on internationalization of the issue, as they have pro- ‘grievance’. duced positive results including the latest Norwe- gian brokered peace negotiations. Therefore, this dis- The Karuna group though has gained support over trict is significant in the analysis to capture the the years using regionalism as a weapon, the LTTE changing nature of the protracted conflict in Sri Wanni wing still holds strong in Batticaloa. There is Lanka. a population being ruled under them which oppose of the Karuna group. At the same time, many people 2. Structures and Actors voiced their opinions opposing some policies of the LTTE. If the LTTE cause is to remain, it will need a Political and security major revision of its policies from where it started and must incorporate the different views and inter- Batticaloa has several dimensions to its political ests of the Tamil people whom they seek to repre- make up. Interestingly, the last decade shows many sent. If the leadership is ignorant of the poverty that changes in the political landscape of the district. On prevails among the people and imposes taxes and the one hand, the Karuna break-away regionalised also be ignorant of a final solution or ‘peace’ as the Tamil cause. This is increasingly winning the sup- people look at it rather than how the leadership looks port of the people of Batticaloa. The Karuna group at it can frustrate the public in changing decisions is becoming popular even though many wish that to welcome pluralism. they join mainstream politics and not involve them- selves in violent acts. In addition, there are other Regionalism has taken a new momentum because Tamil political parties, which vehemently oppose the of the Karuna Group. There is a regional national- LTTE’s claim of being the sole representative of ism backed by intellectual arguments. Tamils. Many actors including the Sri Lanka Army, LTTE, The district is home for the severely fragmented Karuna group, Muslim, and other armed groups

53 Peace Audit 2006

Part 2

have an influence on the security situation. Most of speaking police and army officers in Tamil speaking them, being armed legally or illegally, the question areas is continuing to be a problem. One of the chal- of legality arises due to the involvement of the Sri lenges to the state is also having more Sinhalese in Lankan Army in disarming the armed groups who the state forces and in the police. Language had been are ‘para military groups’. Political groups such as a barrier in the northern and eastern provinces. The the EPDP, EPRLF, and TELO have no military wing. government should encourage Muslims and Tamils With the peace negotiations pre ‘Geneva one’ in Feb- to join the state forces including the police and pro- ruary on the request of the government these groups vide them certain facilities, which they would need have surrendered their weapons and security to in carrying out their duties. Many accuse the govern- them is provided by the SLA. This mounts allega- ment of not providing Tamil-speaking officers. How- tions against the state as supporting the opponents ever, Tamils are reluctant to join the forces, and it is of the LTTE, and is also adding to the LTTE’s mis- not clear how this paradox can be solved. This opin- trust of the government. ion is opposed to forming a separate military arm for each community; that would only result in divisions These allegations have formed the LTTE’s condition and provide possibilities for future violence. for ‘Geneva two’. Even though the LTTE denies their instability in the east, disarming the armed groups Social- Economic in the east being one of the main prerequisites for the peace negotiations, shows the weight these Religions and religious leaders play a key role in the armed groups’ wield. Nevertheless, it is the concern district. A noteworthy feature is the active peace pro- of many that Karuna and his counter parts entering motion done by the key Buddhist monk of the area. mainstream politics would make the situation more stable in the district. The attention of the GoSL is The LTTE has its legal system, which maintains strict needed to formulate a mechanism to accommodate laws and implementation in terms of justice for those who breakaway from the rebel group. This will women. be a trust building measure of the government both with the public at large and with the LTTE leader- Infrastructure of the district is much below satisfac- ship in particular. tory level.

The conflict is so complicated in Batticaloa that one The influx has created hyperactive economy and has does not know who is fighting who. The people be- replaced some of the traditional relationship now come the proxy of LTTE and Karuna. The Karuna operating on monetary terms. group is allegedly travelling in army uniform, so the only way of identification is the language. The ex- The people of Batticaloa are under a number of tax istence of the military also affects the ‘normality’ in systems including the GoSL, LTTE and other groups. the region. Women seeking Middle East employment have cre- The usual allegation about stationing non-Tamil ated adverse social conditions for children.

54 District Reports

Part 2

There is also high domestic violence against women. 3. Dynamics and Scenarios [Out of the 150 court cases filed by the Soorya Women’s Development Center in 2005, 85 were of In the recent past, an important issue discussed was domestic violence2]. the link between the plantation sector youth and the LTTE. This has a background of ‘grievances’ of the Many fleeing from the condition has left farmers and plantation youth, who have for many decades suf- fishermen without much social mobilization. fered a slavery lifestyle and had been deprived of education, employment etc., Therefore the oppor- Recent attempts by the GoSL to create a Muslim tunity for them to join the LTTE had been seen in Regiment has raised concerns. terms of employment. The claim behind this link is being confirmed by many from the plantation sec- Among the Muslims the GoSL is considered tor, discussed in detail in the relevant district reports. favourably. According to the LTTE they do not deny the sup- port of any individual who ratifies the Tamil cause. Tamils consider the Muslim community favours the There had been many people from Kandy and state to undermine their legitimate demands. Badulla who had acted as prominent figures in the LTTE, therefore the link between the youth from the Muslims however, deny the existence of any Jihad upcountry and the LTTE is not viewed as a contro- group. versial issue.

According to the Muslims in Batticaloa, they have What is implied here is the right of the people of had a history of discrimination due to the ethnic Sri Lanka to choose the place where they want to conflict in Sri Lanka. This is not being given promi- live, find their own employment, freedom of move- nence in any forums in the past or had been given ment and expression within the context of the Con- low weightage compared to the Tamil cause. Ex- stitution. These rights make youth to opt for vari- pulsion in the 1990s from the north,, killings in the ous opportunities available within the country. Kattankudy mosque in 1998, loss of properties and Therefore, what is missing is guidance. Against this assets in Batticaloa amounting to 35,000 hectares backdrop, the recommendation to the state, is that of agricultural land, killing of 7000 Muslims, Tamil as a responsible government the leaders should ad- settlement within the high density Muslim locali- dress the ability of these youth and the possibility ties, proposal of PTOMS, ignoring to consult Mus- of providing this segment with their social and eco- lims in providing relief, are all part of the list of nomic rights. This can prevent the emergence of grievances. This strongly supports the request for many armed groups. With the experiences of youth a separate entity for the Muslims in the north and unrests in the past, more focus should be to involve east. the youth in constructive efforts and preventing such sad occurrences.

2 Sooriya Women’s Development Center There is a possibility of an armed uprising accord-

55 Peace Audit 2006

Part 2

ing to the Muslim community in Batticaloa; they Looking at the worst case scenario people also felt have lost faith in the LTTE with the continuous at- that war would never provide a solution to the prob- tacks on them. ’‘Kattankudy’ has the world’s third lem rather would only destroy the remaining struc- largest population density. By planting Tamil fami- tures as well. Also mentioned is that sacrifices for a lies within this small Muslim village, the LTTE has cause will help at least the next generation, there- disturbed the demography. The memories of kill- fore the Tamils and Muslims both expressed that the ings in the mosque in the 1990s had not faded away. ‘freedom fight’ cannot be stalled at the cost it would The victimized parties give an understanding that incur. Even though they welcomed negotiations, it the LTTE has expressed its apologies and call the was emphasized trust building between the conflict- Muslims their brothers, but Muslim feelings are ing parties as a precondition for any negotiation. deeply hurt for the reason that the LTTE’s unfair in- Therefore attending peace talks with ‘clean hands’ tervention in other fields seems to continue. is imperative for all parties in preventing the worse case scenario. When negotiating peace, along with Therefore, the Muslim youth believe in an armed the political leaders, it is recommended to send ex- group thus justifying the emergence of the LTTE as perts on conflict studies. well, though they strongly deny the existence of any ‘Jihad’ group at present. They reiterate that when 4. Humanitarian and Development Responses mainstream politics fail only a rebellion could help in obtaining the rights of their people. Batticaloa has a large presence of NGOs and INGOs. They are involved in many humanitarian and de- Given the present context, the Tamil people be- velopment work. After the tsunami, the numbers lieve the best-case scenario would be to have a of organisations and the amounts of funds have in- separate state for Tamils and did not discuss any creased, even though the work that had taken place other possibilities of settlement. This situation can and their impact remain as questions. Many per- prevail for several reasons, one is that awareness ceive the intervention of international actors as about various options available is lacking among colonization or as an invasion over our local cul- the middle level leadership. It is noteworthy, that ture. This perception will remain unless INGOs in the war-affected districts, there is no strong work with the support and coordination of the lo- middle level leadership with knowledge to sup- cal government bodies, mainly the Divisional Sec- port. Therefore, leadership development is impor- retariats. tant. It is worthy to note that some of the commu- nity leaders shared the lessons learnt from the It was also perceived by many Sinhalese and Mus- programmes of humanitarian agencies. If a better lims that the humanitarian agencies which work in understanding is provided for middle level lead- Batticaloa think that only the Tamil population is ership, we believe that would help bring in atti- affected by the ethnic conflict, therefore the other tudinal change. A possibility of a federal solution communities are not considered a main focus in their was one mentioned by many in reaching the best- initiatives. It was pleaded that the agencies look at case scenario. the aspirations of all communities.

56 District Reports

Part 2

Thereis no binding rule for NGOs to disclose in- Recommendations formation, therefore there is a need for ‘laws bind- ing NGO activities and fund coordination’. If the -Improve coordination with local state authority government would bring in transparent policies for better results. for international agencies to work in Sri Lanka, -Design and implement projects for immediate that would mitigate the doubts about their pres- needs and incorporate ethnic diversity. ence. - Bring viable mechanisms for grater transparency in all possible areas of operation.

57 Peace Audit 2006

Part 2

5. Galle District

District Data

• 16 Divisional Secretariat (DS) Divisions •Land Area 1635.6 Sqkm •Economic Activities i. Paddy Cultivation ii. Fisheries iii. Cash Crops iv. New jobs from INGO/NGO • Population 990,500 i. Muslims 3.5% ii. Sinhalese 94.4% iii. Tamils 2.0%

58 District Reports

Part 2

alle harbour was a famous place for According to the respondents, the present election sys- the Arab traders in ancient times. Even tem (Proportional representation / preferential vote) G today, a significant Muslim population is is too demanding from the District for the elected and in Galle city and suburbs. too little attention for the actual constituency. A dis- trict wide campaign is a financial burden on candi- Most of the coastal areas of the district had been de- dates. The vast sums spent on election makes the stroyed by the tsunami waves in 2004. After this elected member to search for means to recover his in- natural disaster, many INGOs and NGOs divert their vestment. attention to the rehabilitation and reconstruction ac- tivities in the Galle district, which sometimes also There is widespread dissatisfaction of the perfor- lead to negative aspects. mance of the elected. Services such as, transport, water, sanitation, unemployment, and housing are Before the cease-fire agreement, tension due to eth- some of the burning issues directly related to the nic conflict was one of the simmering issues in the political structure of the district. People believe that district as many youth had been working in the se- the provincial council and the central government curity forces which operated in the north and east. both attempt to obstruct their development activi- However, this situation has changed at the time of ties as they are from the opposition party. Road de- this report. velopment and maintenance is one of the major is- sues, which are under provincial council and cen- Hence, the prevailing tensions/problems relating to tral government. the Galle district is not ethno political alone. There are a number of social challenges within the com- Party leaders have more power in this system. They munity. Caste factor is one such element. It is not recruit officers of their liking and desire. Although a openly visible, yet it is a crucial determinant of so- Sinhala candidate polled maximum votes, there was cial life. an instance recently where the Mayor of the Galle MC, was a political appointee over a candidate with the 2. Structures and Actors highest preferential votes. He happened to be a Mus- lim. This added fuel to the already existing belief Political and Security among the majority Sinhalese that the Muslims en- joy/gain more power/opportunities. At a political level, a main source of conflict is ‘party politics’. Violence between the main political par- Promotions and appointments have been granted ties and among the members of the same political to the party members without considering their edu- party is prevalent in the district. However, these cational qualifications. This causes marginalization, are comparatively still at the manageable level. political vendetta and victimization further causing Conditions have improved since the SLFP and the tension in the government sector. JVP became partners of an alliance government in power. The local MPs and political interference in tsunami

59 Peace Audit 2006

Part 2

reconstruction and distribution of lands among the Imbalance in the economic growth of communities victims, goes as far as pressuring GS officers to is- is reason for inter community mistrust. Change of sue bogus documents to their supporters. Such in- opportunities for economic ownership creates inse- terference creates more marginalization of the af- curity. In economic competition, there remains some fected people of the tsunami situation. actual tension.

There are no major security issues relating to the 2. Socio- Economic forces or the police, as they are the only people who control/maintain the security situation in the Again, caste divisions play a major role in shaping district. They do not feel that they are in a vulner- social dynamics. This caste identity is present as able position. This sense of security makes them coast people versus the inland residents. There were to be less concerned about national level security such violent incidents in the recent past. Tragically, issues. some newly built houses under tsunami recovery projects were attacked by the surrounding tradi- A major security issue they face is the increase in tional villagers. crime. Emergence of politically backed armed groups of army deserters is one of the major secu- Caste-related tension increases, as they are identi- rity threats in the area. These groups are well ties for political mobility. While such actions fuel and trained and equipped with modern weapons. De- fan caste structures in society it has a downward spi- serters cannot find employment legally. Most of ral effect on promotions and affects development them are married and do not have any source of policies etc. income. By doing menial jobs they cannot afford a living. This leads most of them to resort to such Drug abuse and alcoholism are some major sources social crimes. of concern in the area leading to many social dis- turbances. A high level of alcohol consumption is Minority insecurity need not necessarily strike those apparent among people of the coastal areas. It was who are numerically a minority. It can equally af- a menace mentioned by almost every respondent. fect a majority community that is numerically supe- Post tsunami conditions may have increased this rior, to have a minority mind-set. The incidents that situation. An increase in income – (goods and ser- led to a communal clash between Muslims and Sin- vices provided by the agencies); – mourning for halese in Aluthgama and Beruwala1 are cases in dead relatives in the tsunami; changes in lifestyles point. Most of the time very trivial personal clashes (for the worse), i.e. temporary camps, new settle- even between neighbours can trigger a mass scale ments, and broken families are some reasons for ethnic tension or clashes. The fear and suspicion of this change. Demand for local production of alco- one community over the other for possible attacks hol has increased, bringing further health issues. at any time is mutual and grave. The community Recently 14 died of consumption of illicit liquor. expects from the police a greater role in peace build- The irony of this is that one of the victims was an ing. excise officer.

60 District Reports

Part 2

to most of the respondents are the police in the area Violence against women is a heightened, perennial who play an important role in preventing conflict issue that emerges as a related condition. This is among communities by taking early precautions by more prominent in families where men consume identifying issues in advance and providing security. alcohol leading to social decadence. The government has appointed a person to handle Religious conversion is a source of conflict that height- the peace committee in the district. However, this ens tension in the district According to the respondents, committee is inactive. This peace committee, oper- some families converted to Christianity purely for fi- ating at the village level, is considered as the only nancial benefits. The Buddhist community feels threat- problem solving structure at grassroots level. ened over this issue. They have formed special com- mittees to address this problem. Although one or two The Galle Business Club plays a considerable role particular groups are involved in such unethical con- to maintain unity between Sinhala and Muslim trad- versions, the tension grips the entire community and ers. This includes taking care of their members in even the Roman Catholic Church feels the threat. conflict situations such as the ‘Aluthgama incident’ where a crisis arose between Muslims and Sinha- Organizations such as ‘Voice of the Buddhist’ are lese. However, their activities are limited to busi- formed to protect Buddhism. ness circles, even though there are now signs of the inclusion of others. Post tsunami livelihood programmes have created major challenges. The traditional fishermen are lo- A group of religious leaders have formed an organi- cated far from the coastal area. They have to face zation for peace building and conflict mitigation. problems when they go fishing before daybreak or This team comprises the representatives from all the late at night. There is no public transport available three main religions. at this time. As most of them are religious leaders, they are able With the recent price increase in tea and rubber, small to gain some sort of control over the people. Espe- holders were able to make profit. However, they also cially where the Sinhala Buddhist is considered, the have problems with finding tea pluckers and rubber monks in the village temples wield much respect tappers. There are so many opportunities for carpen- and authority and a benign control over the villag- ters, masons, plumbers, and skilled labourers in the ers. The monks play a significant role in construction field. However, it is difficult to find such peacebuilding reaching out to other temples en- personnel for immediate recruitment. Addressing gaged in such activities in the area. This way they economic concerns can help reduce much tension. are able to convince other monks in the area about the importance of such community work and have Environment for Peace Building formed ‘peace committees’ in the villages they work.

Some of the visible connectors of the areas according The common perception is that Buddhist monks are

61 Peace Audit 2006

Part 2

against the peace process or they do not support or own territory. This natural event created conditions participate in these endeavours. However, some that helped mitigate or resolve many common chal- monks who are engaged in peace building activi- lenges relating to the Galle district. However, the ties by promoting people’s participation refute this authorities failed to utilize this opportunity. charge. However, they have problems/barriers in conducting these activities. In many respondents’ Religious conversion is a trigger factor in the dis- opinion, the people who support hard-line political trict. The ‘battle of the loud speakers’ for mosque parties such as the JVP continue to be against peace prayers or Pirith by temples is a much spoken about work for personal political advantages. but openly unopposed irritant between the two com- munities. In addition, when Muslims show solidar- When peace practitioners work at the village level, ity to their Muslim brethren outside Sri Lanka i.e. they become a target of political parties who criti- supporting Pakistan against Sri Lanka in a cricket cize the peace process. They are labelled as ‘Peace match, displaying of basic religious sentiments and Vendors’ representing the NGOs making a liveli- solidarity by certain groups breed hostility. Such are hood out of the ‘peace industry.’ potential trigger factors for conflict.

Peace promoting factors are activities of the police Lack of information and delay in government services and security forces that help establish and empower are a common grievance of the public. Many respon- peace committees – In some police areas a commit- dents stated that the people have to suffer because of tee supports and coordinates with the police and the the delays in government services. Lack of communi- public. If these continue and establish in society, they cation between government institutions, traditional would clearly serve as informal dispute resolution hierarchy systems, unavailability of alternatives to mechanisms that enable a peaceful environment in modern equipment, monitoring delays and the gov- the localities. ernment procedures are all concerns. The people in the area are not satisfied with the government services. Supporting CBOs engaged in peace building work and conflict sensitivity training for Government and Lack of opportunities for the youth causes social NGO senior-level officials will be a peace promot- unrest. There are no plans to develop the economy ing measure. Integrating conflict sensitivity/peace in the district. Compared to the urban areas job op- building to the agendas of the humanitarian agen- portunities are more frequent in rural areas. How- cies is a recommendation for consideration. ever, it is noted that these opportunities are not at- tractive to the youth. Especially, in the estate sector 4. Dynamics and Scenarios shortage of labourers pose a threat. Owing to this, some factories have employed youth from the other The tsunami had a tremendous impact not only on districts like Monaragala and Ratnapura. the physical structures of the district but also the thinking patterns and lifestyles of the community. The tsunami has made a major impact on the lifestyle For the very first time they feel insecure within their of the people especially in relation to the economy.

62 District Reports

Part 2

Some of them have become very aid dependent. Some nomic conditions. There has also been fair ethnic NGOs pay two times more wages for half a day’s composition in the distribution of goods. work. Such short-term incentives have led to some people even relinquishing their regular paying jobs. The impact of the tsunami on a few agencies has been severe in some cases, according to some, to the extent In addition, a simmering conflict of the above-men- of losing sight of their “vision-mission” owing to for- tioned ‘Walahanduwa’ type waits to flare up again eign aid. Some organizations (especially CBOs) have causing a security threat to many. abandoned activities carried out for a long period be- cause of the increased tsunami funds. The public as Construction of housing schemes without consid- well as government officials question the impact of ering livelihood requirements and the related de- agencies in creating new conflicts by the NGO. lays in housing construction for tsunami victims and overall lack of future economic plans for the district Recommendations are commonly sighted economic causes for conflict in the district. -Enhance human security (protection). -Conducting of awareness programmes on hu- 4. Humanitarian and Development Responses man rights for government officials and the public. In Galle, strengthening peace building activities sup- - Support for CBOs to empower women. Legal porting existing organizations to develop coordina- aid, counselling services, and means of address- tion among humanitarian agencies and raise aware- ing humanitarian and socio-economic needs are ness among government officials on human rights important. and conflict sensitivity are areas that one would rec- -Identify the need in the given area before imple- ommend to work on. mentation of projects. -Design projects to be more cultural sensitive. According to the findings, almost all the agencies -Increase working relationship with the local are working ‘around’ the conflict. The general feel- communities. ing is that they do not concern themselves with the -Discourage aid dependent culture. underlying areas of conflict in the district. Most of -Reduce repetition amongst Humanitarian Agen- the agencies that came into the district to conduct cies and NGOs by better coordination. special operations post-tsunami had to deal with -Concentrate on basic housing needs of tsunami immediate relief work and spent little time planning. victims. About housing issues, the main criterion of consid- -Design and implement projects targeted at the eration has been the geographical locations to see if unemployed youth. they were suitable for construction. - Support the CBO activities on peace building endeavours. Some organizations have made an effort to identify - Increase transparency the needs of certain communities related to their eco-

63 Peace Audit 2006

Part 2

6. Jaffna District

District Data

• 14 Divisional Secretariat (DS) Divisions •Land Area 983.6 Sqkm •Economic Activities i. Paddy Cultivation ii. Fisheries iii. Cash Crops iv. New jobs from INGO/NGO • Population 490,600* i. Muslims 1.6% ii. Sinhalese 0.8% iii. Tamils 97.6%

64 District Reports

Part 2

he burning issue of this District is the inter 2. Structures and Actors nally displaced persons (IDPs) created by T the declaration of HSZs. Due to the high se- Political Security curity zones and occupation of private houses by the security forces tens of thousands of people of Sri Lankan security forces captured Jaffna peninsula this area were forced out from their homes and de- in 1995. Since then almost one third of the penin- prived of their livelihood. For more than a decade sula consisting of: the entire Kankesanthurai (K.K.S) these people have been living in refugee camps, electorate including the surrounding area of the rented houses or have occupied empty houses pre- Palaly Air Base, part of Nagar Kovil and the vicinity viously deserted. of Subash Hotel in Jaffna City as well as part of Thenmaradchi which are part of the HSZs. While Subsequent to the eruption of violent activities af- the security forces refuse to grant permission to ter Presidential election the attitude of the security house owners to visit their houses in the HSZs, Sin- forces has changed. Killings, threats, arrests, abduc- halese tourists are using many of these houses as tions, and disappearances have almost become the free guesthouses. This attitude of the SLA aggravates norm of daily occurrence. Deployment of the army the negative feelings of the house owners towards along all main roads control LTTE activities. Gen- the forces. Hundreds of thousands of people are eral sentiment among the population is of constant evacuated from their homes in HSZs and deprived fear and threat as most of the people in the district of their livelihood (rich farmlands), after more than feel they are in a vulnerable position in case of any fifteen years have had serious political, security, eco- rapid action of the army. nomic and social impacts. Anger and anguish among the youth who have been subject to this violence Moreover, fishing, the third major economic activ- pushes them to join any armed group including the ity in the Jaffna peninsula was banned in 1983. The LTTE. Some decide to join other armed groups to ban was lifted when the cease-fire agreement (CFA) ensure their livelihoods, others join the LTTE to re- was signed in 2002. Nevertheless, subsequent to an claim their land taken by the SLA. These issues are LTTE attack on the Navy, fishermen, faced regular raised at national level and are part of the Track 1 physical attacks from the armed forces and the even- level discussions. If the Government gives the lands tual fishing ban on January 2006, forcing large num- back to its original owners, it may win the trust of ber of fishermen to be relocated in the LTTE con- the people. By establishing goodwill, SLA could fos- trolled area. ter friendly relationships with the people and such relationship would enhance the peace process. Due to the double taxation system (aside from the tax levied by the government, LTTE levies tax for Apart from the HSZs state armed forces forcibly all goods) the general costs of goods has escalated occupies hundreds of private houses and public and thus, people of this district have to meet the high places such as schools. Because of these occupa- cost of living compared to the other districts of this tions, hundreds are homeless. There is no compen- country. sation for these evicted people. Most of them are

65 Peace Audit 2006

Part 2

living either on private lands or homes rented near Common crime has also been on the rise. Many so- their occupied homes. Political observers say that cial activists and civil society representatives alleged according to the CFA all the IDPs should have been that most thefts are carried out with the support of resettled within six months of the signing of the the armed forces. They substantiate their allegations agreement; nevertheless, this is yet to be imple- by citing cases and the army positions. Social crimi- mented. nals provide the army’s need for inside information about the situation and people within the The security forces’ attitude poses a threat to the neighbourhood, the army in turn turns a blind eye people in different ways in this district. The gen- to crime in these areas. eral sentiment of the IDPs in HSZs is of anger and anguish against the State and its security forces. Law and order mechanisms, for e.g. the police have Many bemoan the decrease in their living standards not functioned satisfactorily, mainly due to a lack of with the State’s alleged campaign to make them communication with the civilians because of lan- dependent and vulnerable to the forces that are try- guage differences. However, the police services are ing to benefit out of it. Further, occupation of pri- limited to the area under the protection of the SLA. vate and public buildings embedded in residential LTTE discourages the population to trust the state areas also poses a threat to the security of civilians police to solve their disputes; however, the popula- living near areas vulnerable to crossfires. Apart tion does not support LTTE’s approach in dealing from the lands that fall into the HSZs, consider- with disputes, as they seldom tend to provide vi- able sections within the rest of the farm lands have able alternatives. been identified as anti-personnel mine fields. There- fore, even those who still own the land cannot cul- Groups of unemployed IDPs allegedly indulge in tivate. illegal/anti-social activities such as petty theft, pro- ducing illicit liquor at times with life threatening con- Resumption of cordon and search operations is, once sequences. Most vulnerable are those under 18 years. again traumatizing the population due to the indis- They are living without much exposure to outside criminate arrests and harassments by the armed society. Adolescent problems lead to sexual relations, forces. This is especially true among youth and stu- extramarital sex and abortions. The displaced life dents of both sexes who are the preferred target of style of these IDPs has brought much trauma and these actions. Many respected citizens said, many destruction. young women married or unmarried living in houses along the roadsides choose to stay in rela- Socio-Economic tives or friend’s houses elsewhere for safety reasons. The lack of security may be reduced by invoking an Caste issue is a major social point of contention in order that any search operations should be made the peninsula. However, the issue was submerged with the presence of United Nations officials or any by the ethnic war. Gradual upward mobility of the other recognized INGO such as the ICRC or the deprived castes since the late 1970s with labour em- Human Rights Commission. ployment opportunities in Central Asian countries

66 District Reports

Part 2

coupled with the large amount of migration of the in 2005 for grade 9 students, revealed that Jaffna was upper caste people due to the ethnic war has in last place. Citing this example the teaching com- changed the demography. This change of balance munity blames frequent military activities, insecurity, aggravated tensions among castes. While the up- displacements, and lack of educational facilities. They ward mobility of the deprived section provokes the blame the government for blatant discrimination and upper strata of society, the deprived behaved with absence of relevant Tamil staffs in the relevant minis- more vigour due to its empowerment. Hence, even tries. any minor clash between two individuals of respec- tive castes could easily turn to violent conflict be- Lands surrounding the Palaly air base are very rich tween two communities. Such violent conflicts in soil nutrients, which could produce commercial erupted recently in Iddaikadu, Kodikamam and crops round the year. Even the landless peasants Achchuvely areas. These were managed by com- living in these areas could earn more than they need bined action of pressure and threat with the involve- to cover their basic needs. This land mass is un- ment of parliament members, LTTE and the Police. productive at present. Even the production of sub- Political leaders in this issue wanted to maintain foods and fruits from rest of the areas do not have their support base undivided. LTTE wanted to prove enough market facilities to provide profit. to the people that all matters are under their con- trol. Yet, it is the simmering issue of the peninsula, Furthermore, the ban on fishing while seriously af- which requires specific attention in order to avoid fecting the overall economic status of the people of further clashes. the District, has also directly deprived thousands of families who are dependent on fishing for their live- Another issue in the northern district is religious lihood. Fishermen communities have the custom of conversion activities. Some Christian Sects are try- having rich food daily. They are also aggressive prob- ing to convert people by ensuring regular income ably due to their nature of work. Hence, the conse- and livelihoods. In many cases, only one member in quence of pushing them to poverty may compel the family converts and this creates dispute with them to join or work in support of the LTTE as most other members of the family including serious dis- of them could not be satisfied with dry rations as putes between husbands and wives. These tensions substitute to their livelihood. To reduce such even- also have a spill over effect onto communities since tualities senior citizens suggests that the security there is a strong religious discrimination against forces should allow them to fish at least for a lim- those belonging to other minority religions. ited duration in day time.

According to government classification, Jaffna was 3. Dynamics and Scenarios one of the two most advanced districts prior to 1983. After 1990, the district lost 42 schools and a teachers Dynamics of conflicts in this District are varying. It training college. It enjoyed first place in university affects all section of the population including future admission up to the 1970s currently down to 14th generations i.e. a number of women are suffering place. Provincial level public examination conducted from physical hazards especially at times of preg-

67 Peace Audit 2006

Part 2

nancy due to mental trauma. Annual medical reports On the other hand, there is the general feeling that reveal that many newborns are affected either physi- the NGOs cannot contribute much to the overall so- cally or mentally due to the traumatic condition of lution of the main conflict. Furthermore, it is a com- the mother. mon acknowledgment that many project are incom- plete while those completed are not utilized i.e. com- Considering the complexities of the conflict, it is dif- munity halls; further monitoring and follow up pro- ficult to identify a best case of future scenario. Rather, grammes are needed. if the identified issues are addressed it would largely prevent many possible worst-case scenarios. Many of the said observers of the society express their opinion that only few local NGOs are genuine. On the best cases, some of the Jaffna intellectuals said They indicate the organizations that are working for that the caste conflict is mitigated. However, it would women’s empowerment and for the betterment of be a worst case scenario in case of any provocations orphans. However, local women’s NGOs are run- or antagonism of one caste to another as it would ning short of facilities. Staffs too are often are poorly easily erupt the flames of caste conflict again. paid.

The anti-state and anti-military sentiments of the One major allegation expressed by a section of po- IDPs would push a number of youth to join armed litical and social activists is that many INGOs are groups including the LTTE. They also became a pow- collecting a variety of information about the LTTE erful tool to have political mileage by the political and other organizations that is beyond their man- forces especially the LTTE. date. They suspect that under cover of these INGOs some staff are involved in intelligence gathering ei- Another worst case of future scenario is the fate of ther for the Sri Lankan government or to various the student community: If the war escalates, con- foreign intelligent agencies. They question the mo- siderable numbers of students are vulnerable and tive behind these activities. more likely to get absorbed by the war machinery. Recommendations 4. Humanitarian and Development Responses -Meet the needs of the fishermen: Since they have Most of the key social observers, appreciate the ser- no earnings, they have various needs such as vices of the NGOs or INGOs in many areas. Respon- food and education. dents are satisfied with tsunami recovery work. -Address the teenagers among IDPs: They should Women’s organizations appreciated the support of be ensured regular education or vocational train- the Human Rights Commission. ing. It is also necessary to provide psychologi- cal intervention to break their isolation with their However, dissatisfaction continues on the issue of peer group and absorption into mainstream so- the IDPs in the HSZs and the inability of the INGOs ciety. It may be addressed through effective in- in resettling them is seen as the INGOs limitation. teractive programmes.

68 District Reports

Part 2

-In the absence of any local methods to solve such books in Tamil. Help the schools to have enough enrooted issues such as caste tension in the Dis- textbooks and ensure that they get it on time. trict, new approaches are needed to support -Medical facilities for women and counselling cordial relations among various castes or non- care to assist with traumas. Furnish the local antagonistic relations among them. women’s organizations with monetary and ad- - Address the educational needs. Provide text- ministrative training to deliver effective service.

69 Peace Audit 2006

Part 2

7. Mannar District

District Data

•4 Divisional Secretariat (DS) Divisions •Land Area 1985.2 Sqkm •Economic Activities i. Fisheries ii. Cash Crops iii. New jobs from INGO/NGO • Population 151,600* i. Muslims 26.1% ii. Sinhalese 8.2% iii. Tamils 64.0%

70 District Reports

Part 2

2. Structures and Actors In the month of January of this year when the LTTE attacked a Navy convoy many sources allege that the annar District is experiencing conflicts army retaliated by attacking hundreds of houses in the in social, economic and security mat settlements near Thalaimannar. Some houses were M ters. The root cause of most of these con- burnt, people were attacked and four women includ- flicts is direct or indirect outcome of ethnic politics. ing a mother and three children disappeared. Twenty However, immediate causes differ from issue to is- families sought refugee in India and another section sue. Issues related to 1) the relationship among migrated to interior areas as IDPs again. At present, Catholics, Hindus and Muslims; 2) various chal- the resettlement houses remain empty; the disappeared lenges concerning the livelihood of the fishing com- women have not been found yet. Information from munity, and the IDPs; 3) the safety and security of fellow settlers allege that armed personnel burnt the people as a whole is a major concern for the District. disappeared alive. However, the govt forces deny this However, a number of other issues also call atten- allegation. Even though this matter was taken up in tion in peacebuilding. parliament, the government was not able to find out the fate of these people; currently there is no system or Political – Security mechanism to ensure the protection of the people.

It is the general perception of the people of this dis- Another dimension of the security problem relates trict that national politics has a direct impact on the to access and quality of police services. Language is behaviour and attitude of the security forces towards one of the important issues that determine the ac- people. Such changes in attitude have an impact on cessibility to police service and justice. This is one people’s safety, transport and in education. After the of the common issues in the entire Northern Prov- presidential elections, attitude of the security forces ince rather than in the entire nation. This issue has shifted drastically further from their previous cor- serious impact in Mannar. Police department infor- dial approach towards civilians. People allege that mation reveals that the vast majority of the police whenever LTTE attacks the forces retaliation is always officers in this district are Sinhalese. Most of the indiscriminately directed against innocent civilians police officers who deal with the complaints of the at any time and any areas of the district; attacks in- people have very poor ability in the Tamil language. clude killings and destruction of property. They write the complaints in the Sinhala language. The majority of the Tamils even among the educated Muslims feels unsafe and uncomfortable living in this cannot read Sinhala. Therefore serious lapses arise district. They are facing threats from both the LTTE in recording complaints and that affects people’s and the armed forces. Their grievance is that the LTTE chances of obtaining justice. suspects the Muslims of supporting the security forces. The suspicion stems from the Muslims’ sepa- Considering the size of the district, police stations rate or contradicting political leanings. Fears of the are spread out and far apart at times. People have to Muslim people need to be addressed to establish cor- travel long distances to have access to the police. dial relationship with the Tamils in the district. This difficulty of accessibility to law enforcement

71 Peace Audit 2006

Part 2

agencies not only alienates people but also deprives Increasing drug users, especially among the youth them police protection, access to law and justice and is a matter of serious concern in Mannar. Most of has a negative impact on people’s diminishing trust the addicts involve in violence and theft. Unemploy- on the state’s protection capabilities. Concerns are ment and frustration are causes attributed to this surfacing which give credence that most security addiction. According to the representatives of the forces and police seem to give priority to their own civil society, even though this issue has some atten- personal protection above that of the civilians they tion the campaign should be expanded to all the af- are protecting. Police sources say that lack of acces- fected areas. It also needs to employ some effective sibility is responsible for the decline in complaints. campaign methods to educate drug users and vul- Such lacuna compels the poor people to tolerate or/ nerable youth. and accept any injustice caused to them by power- ful persons. This trend virtually leads to a collapse Like in Vavuniya district, an uneasy relationship pre- of law and order, denying basic rights of the poor vails between the section of the Mannar district people and finally making a mockery of democracy . and the IDPs. People of Achchan Kulam in the Nanattan AGA division oppose the resettlement of The attitude of the security forces affects the district IDPs in their village. Similar situation is in Pesalai. transportation system too. Private bus owners and People of this area complained that IDPs occupied drivers face disturbances and at times threats from government land near Pesalai which was allocated the security forces. In Mannar, Vavuniya road they for a playground after much effort. This issue cre- travel 40 kilometres without any passengers because ated tension between the (IDPs) and the local popu- of army camps and check posts. The Army however, lation as their several years of efforts went in vain. use them and travel without paying. If pressed to The main cause of this problem they say is that the pay, they can be subject to arrest, harassment, and government authorities failed to find suitable places false accusations. This tension between private trans- to resettle the IDPs considering their religion, tradi- porters and the forces require intervention of neu- tional jobs and their skills. tral civil society groups. The main economic activity in this district is fish- Social Economic ing. However, after the LTTE attacks on the Navy in January 2006, the Navy proscribed night fish- Drug smuggling and drug usage are some of the ing. In most of the areas, permission for day fish- major concerns of this district. Mannar is the drug ing is limited to a few hours and within viewing smuggling gateway of Sri Lanka i.e. Pesalai and range from shore. These blockades seriously affect Thalaimannar. Some of the local people benefited the livelihood and lives of the fishermen and those from big investments such as owning many lorries engaged in fishing related ventures. One of the and other vehicles and houses through drug smug- main complaints in this economic sector is the con- gling, according to police and other social workers. trol over fishing. This approach of the security It needs consistent attention of the people and the forces compels the fishermen to move into LTTE police to contain the smuggling. controlled areas.

72 District Reports

Part 2

Another dimension of the conflict in fishing is the settlement was not suited to their traditional job, attempt by other fishermen from other ethnic com- they too are demanding permission to get into the munities to come and fish in the same areas. This in- fishing profession here. Their attempts to start fish- trusion represents itself in two ways. One is a section ing created tension between them and the local fish- of Negombo fishermen fishing in this district with ing community. Fortunately, local leaders were able some kind of agreement with wholesale fish sellers to mitigate this conflict. However, it needs suitable of the district and the other is the intrusion of Sinhala intervention to ensure it does not resurface. fishermen by force (under the alleged security cover of the armed forces). The first category creates con- Inter Religious Tension flict between the rich and lower strata local fisher- men. Pallimunai people are protesting against the Inter religious tension is one of the simmering is- influx of Negombo fishermen. The second category sues of this district. Conflict between Catholics and creates conflict between the local and migrant fisher- Muslims as well as with Hindus transformed into men. The migrant men are fishing in areas such as competition for the establishment of the authority South Bar and Vankalai Padu in competition with the of their respective religions in the district. local fishermen. These men receive the protection and support of the Army and the Navy. Since local men Some say there is political backing behind this is- too need the cooperation of the Navy and the Army sue. Others support the theory that religious funda- for their livelihood they could only register their pro- mentalist are trying to politicize religion. Another test and could not manifest aggressively as it would reason for tension is believed to be the misuse(s) of negatively affect the limited cooperation the armed student’s power to create religious tension. forces extended to them. The resentment between lo- cal fishermen and outsiders is still prevalent. Six months ago, Catholic fishermen erected a statue of the Virgin Mary in Erukkalampiddy, primarily a The third dimension of the economic conflict in this Muslim village. Catholic fishermen used to live area stems from the new settlers in the district known along this coast during the fishing season in tempo- as Internally Displaced People (IDPs). Shanthi rary huts. Muslims, fearing that a church would be Puram is one of the IDP settlements lying between erected, vandalized and broke the statue in protest. Mannar town and Southbar Jetty. The vast majority Tension mounted and a situation prevails for back- of them fall into the category of unskilled labour. lash. Even though the issue is managed with the in- District authorities confirm there is no livelihood tervention of religious leaders of both sides, an un- programmes integrated with this project. IDPs wish easy relationship has been created between the two to adopt fishing as livelihood. This fuels tension be- communities. Representing the sentiments of the tween the IDPs and local fishermen. Similar trends Muslims, a highly respected community leader said also prevail in Pesalai. Most of the IDPs settled in that considering the structure and control of the Thullukkudiyiruppu and Pesalai belong to the de- Catholic Church, it would be difficult to believe that prived caste and the so-called untouchables. Their they had no previous knowledge of the erection of traditional profession is toddy tapping. Since the the statue.

73 Peace Audit 2006

Part 2

Before the dust of this conflict could settle, another would budge; in reality, all three leaders are main- conflict erupted this time with Hindus. A few Hin- taining the new status quo of religious competition. dus built a temple in government land adjoining the district secretariat that was allocated for a common Another religious problem is the conversion efforts cultural centre. A section of the Catholics perceived of new sects of Christianity. The same issue is present this as an act of abuse on the part of the district au- in Vavuniya and is opposed, by all the established thorities. Hindus are the provincial majority of the religious groups. The new sect spent lot of money Northern Province. Most of the Catholics also per- to convert the poor and IDPs. Many poor people are ceived this act as an attempt to establish their pro- willing to convert from their religion for merely vincial hegemony in the district. They responded by monetary incentives. Some people say the attitude erecting a statue of the Virgin Mary in another stra- and approach of this new sect among resettled poor tegic place in the town on government land. IDPs are highly provoking and disturbing the cor- dial relations and peaceful life among them. On one Further, people who live in the city belonging to all occasion Catholics attacked the church of the new religions identified one influential person as the mas- group at Thalaimannar road. Some religious lead- termind behind the erection of the temple. He is a ers said that the new sect is now in the stage of native of Jaffna. A number of high ranking adminis- emerging in almost all the districts in the Northern trators of that district also hail from Jaffna. There- and Eastern Provinces. They choose to immerse si- fore, the temple issue created suspicion among the lently into other religions especially Hinduism and Catholics that that the erection of temple is with the Christianity. This is another simmering issue poten- secret blessings of all Jaffna men. Hence, there is a tial to invite violence. growing anti-Jaffna feeling. 3. Dynamics and Scenarios Muslims fearing their identity in the district would be undermined by the Catholics reacted by laying In Mannar, an inter- religious association was the foundations for an Islamic cultural centre and formed to mitigate the tension and ill feeling be- fenced the land belonging to the government origi- tween religious communities. It is comprised of nally allotted for building a shopping complex. Ul- various religious leaders of Mannar. However, timately, these confrontational actions reached a cli- many people view that there are no effective max. It is in this tensed climate the district adminis- programmes being implemented aiming towards tration intervened and created a common forum for solving the problem. the leaders of all three religious groups. The relationship among the religious leaders would The committee formed consisted of three religious be cordial if they discuss matters as frequently as leaders; unfortunately, they did not trust one an- possible. Better understanding among them would other. If all three leaders would agree to withdraw immensely help prevent any provocative action from the statues from the occupied lands, the issue would any side. Such understanding would effectively fore- be solved permanently. None of the three leaders stall religious conflict.

74 District Reports

Part 2

Eruption of violence between the LTTE and the se- capital to invest even in small farming. It is because curity forces already indicates the negative conse- of these reasons the IDPs are trying to explore the quences in security and in the livelihood of the field of fishing with local people. There is no orga- people. Therefore, fear of escalation of war is an- nization that intervenes effectively in this area. This other major area of concern that may cost all the hard issue is critical enough to create the said problems efforts of the government, humanitarian and devel- among them and to their neighbours. If this situa- opment agencies to build peace and normal life in tion is not addressed, it can disturb the peaceful re- this district. Hence, escalation of war not only would lations among communities. damage the work done for peaceful life and normal- ity but also would produce another set of displace- 4. Humanitarian and Development Responses ment, refugees, widows and orphans. In this district, the major areas of focus of the NGOs In the case of religion in Mannar, many allege that are rehabilitation, relocation, resettlement, relief Catholics expect the other religions to accept and ap- work and redevelopment. Some people observed preciate their primacy in this district. Any challenge the work mentioned above are “in the conflict”, be- to this position would trigger their sentiments. How- cause, these activities are meant to address the con- ever, dominant sections of Hindus are of the opinion sequences of the main conflict. Activities such as that the ancient Thiruketheeswaram (Sivan Temple) forming inter-religious organizations to mitigate in this district has a history of more than 2,500 years. the inter-religious tension and relief work are seen Thus, Catholics cannot have the claim of primacy. by the social activist as direct work “on the con- They believe that no other religion can exert any con- flict’. Generally, these agencies are appreciated for trol over their affairs. Any such move of other reli- their effective projects and faster responses than the gions would trigger their religious sentiments. government especially in giving humanitarian as- sistance. Particular organizations are appreciated In the case of the Muslims, they want to maintain for their approach in identifying the problem and their authority and identity as local people without addressing it with the relevant government sector bet or hindrance. They are of the opinion that while so that they could deal with the matter quickly. other religions act upon their historic antecedents and moral authority based on history the district Nevertheless, there are some complaints and alle- should not undermine their share. Therefore, refusal gations about these activities. Some express dissat- to recognize their identity within the district may isfaction with functions of the local NGOs. They al- lead to mounting tensions. leged that some are making money rather than man- aging effective programmes. There were also com- Livelihood is the primary issue of any human being plaints from the government sector that some NGOs without which any other assistance would be incom- do not coordinate with Grama Sevakas and do not plete and even meaningless. Most of the IDPs are keep proper communication channels with the gov- unskilled labourers; sections of them are familiar ernment authorities. Such shortcomings affect the only with their traditional job. They do not have success of the projects negatively.

75 Peace Audit 2006

Part 2

One point of view among the population is that at -Bring need-based projects. one level conflict affects work and on the other level - Increase inter agency coordination work affects the conflict. Meaning that escalation of -Provide training and exposure opportunities to the main conflict used to affect the work or even pre- state officials in new humanitarian issues. vent the work of the humanitarian and development -Develop programmes that would increase and agencies. foster social and religious harmony -Create livelihood projects especially for those Recommendations: who have lost their traditional jobs -Increase focus on youth and especially the youth - Include social sensitivity in project planning. of the IDP community. -Pay attention to local cultural and social prac- tices.

76 District Reports

Part 2

8. Matara District

District Data

•11 Divisional Secretariat (DS) Divisions •Land Area 1282.5 Sqkm •Economic Activities i. Paddy Cultivation ii. Fisheries iii. Cash Crops • Population 671,400 i. Muslims 2.9% ii. Sinhalese 94.2% iii. Tamils 2.9%

77 Peace Audit 2006

Part 2

he ethnic composition makes a major im and cooperation. Army deserters are often hired by pact on the thinking pattern, attitudes, politicians for their extra-judicial activities. Law and T behaviour and decision making of the order situation is also highly politicised. people in the Matara district. They identify them- selves as “southerners and saviours of the nation”. Thre are no major security challenge for inter ethnic There is wide spread nationalism. Since the district harmony. Tension related to the ethnic conflict has has contributed to the national army considerably, dramatically reduced due to the cease-fire agreement. the war has a direct impact on the socio – psychol- Incidents, which occurred outside the district between ogy. the Sinhala and Muslims communities, have led to some tension in the community where Muslims re- After the violent riots of 1983, the district has lost side. However, precautionary action taken by the almost all connections with the Tamils of the North. police have prevented possible eruption of conflict Youth unemployment is the single most challenge between the two communities. Apart from this, sev- now added on by the tsunami devastation. eral incidents of killings, thefts etc have been reported.

Matara district has been the base of activities for both Apart from major crimes, “Samatha Mandalaya,” JVP led insurrections in 1971 and in 1988 (locally appointed ‘peace’ body) addresses minor in- cidents/issues for which they are very effective in 2. Structures and Actors solving the problems at village level.

Political and Security Caste system is a significant factor that creates dif- ferences among the people, although, one sees only Highly fragmented partisan political rivalry creates the tip of the iceberg of this deep-rooted social phe- the social tension. Post tsunami recovery was highly nomenon that is simmering. Villages/ communities politicised and lacked transparency. Relief work was have been located according to their caste in the dis- done with a political motive in mind. trict. According to the respondents the caste factor creates a major impact on allocation of funds to cer- District representation and different parties control- tain areas, job opportunities, promotions etc. The po- ling different administrative bodies have affected the litical parties also present their candidates based on coordination and efficiency of the state services to caste, which at times contribute to, further fragmen- the people. tation in the community.

There is a remarkable reduction in the political ha- Social rassment and victimization after 2002. Because of the tsunami, most people lost their homes Politicised manipulations were reported in the post and lands. They are provided with new land located tsunami recovery programmes. Development of the in the interior areas of the district. Most of those who entire district seems too dependent on political will lost their lands are fishermen or those who are in-

78 District Reports

Part 2

volved in the fisheries industry. They are provided served to be worst in remote areas and tsunami af- with land almost three to eight km away from the fected settings. Children and women are the most sea. They have problems with water, electricity, edu- affected segment of the district due to this, where the cation for their children and transport. Most of these men in their families are alcohol imbibers. However, fishermen have difficulties with their livelihood ow- the police and some anti alcohol movements have ing to a combination of the foregoing factors. taken some action to reduce/control the problem and they are urged to be strengthened more. Delays and setback in policy formulations have af- fected reconstruction and rehabilitation work in the Conversion to other religions is one of the causes of district. This leads to developing tension in the com- tension in the district in the past decades. This be- munity. As a result of this, many affected families came a heightened issue post tsunami because of are still in temporary shelters. The hundred-metre the activities carried out by some NGOs. According buffer zone was the major issue of contention in re- to many, some agencies have had hidden agendas construction. Despite restrictions, some were able to convert Buddhists to other religions. Because of to carryout reconstructions within this zone. this, it is commonly believed that almost every NGO has some such hidden motive in their relief work. Humanitarian Agencies played a major role in the rehabilitation and reconstruction projects. Those To counter this situation, some Buddhist monks have who lost their property had a chance to improve their formed organizations/movements to ‘protect’ Bud- living standards with the facilities and support pro- dhism. To mitigate the tension this has caused, a vided by these agencies. committee has been formed with representatives of all the religions. They are conducting several activi- Involvement of humanitarian agencies some times ties to minimize the tension in the area. also develops tension in the district. Owing to lack of cooperation among agencies and the government, Under this programme, many cross religious activi- there were irregularities in providing aid. A com- ties have been initiated where Christian priests have monly quoted example from the district is that some asked Buddhist monks to offer sermons at Sunday fishermen received more that one boat whereas he services. The Buddhist monks to the Christian clergy never owned one before. However, there were many inviting them to participate in Buddhist religious ac- boat owners who lost boats but did not receive even tivities have reciprocated this magnanimous gesture. one. Providing in excess and misappropriation has Some Catholic families have started to offer alms to created corruption. Some beneficiaries have also sold the temples. Such actions enhance the understand- their aid received and become total dependents ing and coordination between two main religions. again under a new donor. Economic According to the respondents, consumption of alco- hol has become a major hazard in all the social and According to most of the respondents interviewed, economic levels in the district. This situation is ob- the root causes for tension and conflict that disrupt

79 Peace Audit 2006

Part 2

peace in the district are economic factors. The dis- at times has led to tensions developing among the com- trict has not seen any major economic development munity. This happens mainly owing to lack of coop- project within the last decade. The traditional indus- eration and coordination between the government and tries such as coir, cinnamon etc., have been neglected the humanitarian agencies and within these groups. in the economic context. To address tension arising from youth unemploy- Disparity in the distribution of wealth, resources, ment, some NGOs have started vocational training unemployment (especially among the youth); lack facilities considering the needs of the district. These of industrial expansion, closure/bankruptcy of in- youth who had training in carpentry, masonry, house dustries; disruption of agricultural production etc., wiring etc have a demand where the reconstruction could be identified as main factors that create ten- and rehabilitation activities take place. sion in the community. It is noted that unemployment, especially among the The construction of the “Southern Expressway,” is educated youth has not been adequately addressed pointed out to be one of the development initiatives over the years. Although the government has taken that have long-term objectives and implications for some action to provide employment opportunities the Southern Province. It is hoped that access to an for graduates in the government sector, it is not a efficient road transportation system would enhance satisfactory solution to overcome the problem. opportunities to develop industries and improve the quality of life of the people in the district. In addition to training facilities, humanitarian agen- cies have provided financial assistance to develop Public transport system is very poor especially in traditional industries and to begin self-employment the rural areas. Private bus services do not operate projects in the area. However, there should be at night. As a result, many are motivated to purchase complementary small industries also supported by motor cycles and three wheelers. NGOs for the sustainability and development of these economic ventures. For such meaningful en- Most road conditions are also very poor causing dif- terprises, coordination among NGOs is essential. E.g. ficulty in transportation. This leads to another malady Should one support the manufacturing of coir cords, directly affecting agriculture and commercial crops. there needs to be a complementary industry to Tea small holders/farmers come across grave diffi- manufacture a secondary product of i.e. floor rug, culties when they transport their products to the town. nets etc to back up the industry. NGOs must coordi- nate to facilitate such inter-linked ventures. Compared to the rest of the districts down south, the Asian tsunami caused a lesser impact in Matara. With Tension between the plantation community and the cooperation of the humanitarian agencies, the gov- neighbour villages: ernment has been able to rehabilitate the fisheries in- dustry, which was worst, affected due to tsunami. It Tension in the remote areas of the district where the was observed that, providing instrument and service plantation labourers reside is another prevalent long-

80 District Reports

Part 2

term phenomenon specially in Deniyaya and sur- cism for employing Tamils and in specially settling rounding areas. There is a common belief among them in the Deniyaya town. Through many such Sinhala people that the plantation community is a ‘sec- ‘peace building’ activities they have been able to ond-class’ community and that they should be treated build trust among plantation people and the Sinhala differently. This mindset has grown from generation community. Such measures had helped resolve one to generation and the people in the plantation sector of the clashes aroused between estate workers and themselves have grown and lived inheriting this men- Sinhala people in the area, which could not be ad- tality. The estate administration system also helps fos- dressed even by ‘police’ intervention. ter the situation. Lack of expectations and ambition underestimates their capacities. ‘Education’ is a tool to 3. Dynamics and Scenarios retain them in their capacities as’‘plantation workers.’ Compared to the other districts down south, Matara Many Tamil medium schools do not have teachers has better facilities for education. Hence, there is a com- for subjects especially mathematics, science and En- munity of educated yet unemployed youth. Politicians glish. In most of these instances, these teachers are /political parties tend to take advantage of the vulner- from remote areas. They use various influences to ability of these groups for their own agendas. get appointments/transfers to other areas and leave. As a consequence of this, schools do not have Ad- There is a strong perceived threat among the Sinha- vanced Level classes. There is no opportunity to re- lese community in Matara areas that the Muslims are cruit teachers from this area. Because of this, stu- spreading in numbers and that they will have the dents have to go to Matara for higher education. power of controlling the area in the future. A real threat However, this is not a practical solution, as they have in the district is the usage of loud speakers for prayers to spend money and time. in mosques and temples in the city and outside. These ‘loud speaker’ chanting of prayers start every day at Most of the time personal incidents become an eth- the same time. Some time ago, Buddhist temples did nic issue leading to ethnic violence among these not use these loud speakers for ‘pirith’ chanting. This communities. Sometimes, the Sinhala people alleg- recent phenomenon was begun as a reaction to the edly encroach the so-called ‘line rooms’ and confis- mosque’s calls for prayers. This is an attempt by the cate the belongings of the Tamil plantation work- Sinhala groups to make their presence felt. ers. In a recent incident, estate workers also attacked some villagers. This has made the Sinhalese believe Tensions on religious issues grow to the point of vio- that they have links with the LTTE. lation of each other’s right to practise it. The coordi- nation and inter-communication between the two To mitigate tension between villagers and estate major religions need strengthening. The religious workers, an NGO known as Apeksha plays an im- leaders have a major role to play in this context. portant role. The organization has recruited Tamil These activities will be more sustainable if the hu- youth on to their staff. Earlier the Sinhala people did manitarian agencies implement their activities in a not welcome this and they had to face a lot of criti- more conflict sensitive way.

81 Peace Audit 2006

Part 2

Humanitarian agencies have identified the difficul- sion in certain contexts and to work”“in” the con- ties/ harassments in relation to the plantation com- text. An agency that conducts vocational training munity. Addressing the need of the plantation com- and provides relevant instruments/facilities is a munities will help foster a peaceful environment in good example as they have a well-coordinated plan the remote areas. This will also prevent the inflow for every stage of the project. of external actors (dividers) into the district. ‘Apeksha’ is a CBO working in the Matara district. 4. Humanitarian and Development Responses Their main objective is to improve the life of the people who work in the plantation sector of the district. They Most humanitarian agencies started work in the dis- are working on peace building also. Recently, they trict post-tsunami. In addition to this, some agen- implemented a housing project to strengthen coopera- cies who worked on other issues paid their atten- tion and coordination among the communities. The tion to rehabilitation and reconstruction as the need ultimate objective of this housing project is to build here was large. rapport between these two communities by giving them a chance to work together. They were asked to The focus of humanitarian agencies is to address the help each other to build their own houses. These houses needs of the tsunami victims. Since these agencies were distributed among the Sinhala and Tamil people came in to conduct relief work they had to immedi- who do not have proper homes. ately carry out relief work. It was also difficult to find instances where most of these organizations ac- Recommendations tually practised conflict sensitivity approaches. At times, such situations lead to tension in social eco- -Create awareness programmes on human rights nomic structures. In addition, they had to face some and legal aid for government officials and the problems in coordinating these activities with the public. government authorities. -Bring projects for Post Trauma counselling ser- vices to tsunami victims and providing train- There are criticisms about humanitarian activities ing for them to face an emergency. on grounds of corruption and spending on irrelevant - Support the CBOs who work for the empower- activities, allocating/ wasting money etc. At times ment of women. INGOs collaborate with the local, small CBOs to - Introduce project for poverty alleviation carry out their work, making them deviate from their -Vocational training for youth own original projects. -English Language programmes for youth and young adults Results revealed that most of the agencies are work- -Improve communication and coordination with ing “around” the conflict issues. Either they are not state agencies and improve public relations concerned about the conflicts or they do not feel the -Improve transparency importance of the presence of such issues. Very few - Strengthen the work of the district consortium agencies have attempted to identify the need/ten- of CHA

82 District Reports

Part 2

9. Nuwara Eliya District

District Data

•5 Divisional Secretariat (DS) Divisions •Land Area 1720 Sqkm •Economic Activities i. Cash Crops • Population 703,600 i. Muslims 2.9% ii. Sinhalese 40.2% iii. Tamils 57.1%

83 Peace Audit 2006

Part 2

1. Structures and Actors nities in the district. On the other hand, Tamils too feel that their concerns are not addressed in the pro- Political and Security cess of policymaking and they are virtually treated as second-class citizens of the country. They fear that Partisan politics has caused many divisions. The they have a significant security threat in case vio- current election system, Proportional Representation lence is triggered between the two communities, and Preferential Vote system have reduced political mainly because they are largely surrounded by accountability. Sinhala villages without outside help. These feelings of being an ethnic minority create security concerns Political service to the district is at very unsatisfac- for both groups (Sinhalese & Tamils), and it not only tory level. There is growing dissatisfaction on the gives rise to unwillingness for peaceful interactions, traditional political leadership and established par- but it also gives rise to a demonized perception of ties. Party monopoly is also witnessed. Yet, these the out-group2 in the district. leaders manage to wield control over the estate population, taking for granted the estate popula- There is considerable concern and fear amongst the tions’ general weakness of not being in a position to Sinhalese regarding the potential LTTE influence in stand for their rights, due to lack of education and the area. This has caused in-built suspicions between dependant-mentalities as a result of suppression for the two communities. decades. In the meantime, as there are control mechanisms to prevent other political group or Socio- Economic unions coming up, it creates a considerable amount of tension in the estate sector. ‘Corruption’ is a deficiency in the administrative sys- tem. Respondents, apart from complaining that the While the district poses multiple potential, lack of poor Sinhala villagers and the Tamil estate workers planning and very poor infrastructure has kept pov- are ill- treated by the government officials, including erty level without much improvement for decades. the police department, gave no detailed evidence.

Concerning security issues, ‘double minority’1 status Tamil speakers face major difficulties in working in is a cause for concern. Consequently, while Sinhalese their language even while this is the Tamil majority in the district feel that the Tamils in the estates con- district. State sector service providers, have insuffi- siderably outnumber them, the Tamils who are the cient language fluency. Education system and the numeric majority in the districts also feel they are an facilities are below some other district level. Com- ethnic minority, as their geographical focus is on the petition between Sinhala and Tamil schools for re- country as a whole that goes beyond the district. This sources is seen. feeling is reflected in the responses from the district. Land distribution between the communities has The common feeling is that the Tamils intentionally caused tension, as private companies own greater ill treat the Sinhalese and grab most of the opportu- part of the land in the district.

84 District Reports

Part 2

Sinhalese complain that Tamil politicians distribute Many attempt to find employment by migrating to fertile, cultivable land for tea plantation, and lands other parts of the country. However, a significant from forest conservation areas among Tamil estate number fail to find satisfying employment in the dis- workers. On the other hand, Tamils complain that trict or elsewhere. This high rate of unskilled, un- the government settles Sinhalese in the lands that employed youth is a cause for concern in Nuwara belong to the Tamil community as they have lived Eliya district as they can be easily provoked to fuel in these lands for over a century. There are Sinhala ethnic tension and violence. ’ groups however, who believe that these lands be- long to them. This argument, based on the British Nuwara Eliya is a district with possibly the highest planter’s invasion of lands that belonged originally number of taverns in the country. Arrack, toddy and to Sinhalese, where the British settled Tamil migrants illegal liquor have a serious impact on the society. to work in the estates. Such debates put the land In the estate, sector ‘alcohol abuse’ is a significant issue at the epicentre of the existing ethnic differ- problem among women too and affects the economy. ence in the districts. Although this issue does not directly contribute to interethnic conflicts, alcohol is a factor that provokes Proposed Upper Kothmale Hydro Power Genera- conflicts at a personal level and is a common cause tion Project is seen as politically motivated project of accidents. These individual or personal events to displace the Tamils thus to break the majority they have the potential to trigger or turn into inter-group presently enjoy. conflicts.

At the same time, this project is largely accepted and Although the district generates a large income recommended as inevitable for meeting the rising through the tea industry, the benefits are not dis- demand for electricity. Thus,’‘land issues’ reign in tributed among those who labour for this. Apart the already existing ethnic divide in the district with from tea plantations, paddy, potato and vegetables politicians taking advantage of the cleavages in the also generate income. Most farmer families live be- communities. low the poverty line and the intermediaries enjoy the profit of their harvest. On the contrary, most Unemployment is another social issue in the district families in the estate sector earn a comparatively as in many other parts of the country. The problem larger income since there are often three to four in- is common to youth in Sinhala areas such as come earners in a family. However, a large portion Walapane, Kothmale, and Hanguranketha as well of their earnings is spent on alcohol and not on up- as Tamil youth in the estate sector. One reason for lifting the living standards of their families. Thus, this is the lack of industrial projects that generates the hardships and malnutrition continue to prevail. jobs. On the other hand, most youth do not want to get involved in plantation work or in traditional 3. Dynamics and Scenarios small-scale industries. Worsening the problem is the higher number of school dropouts that creates a large People are getting conscious about their ethnic and uneducated, unskilled labour market in the district. religious identities by the day. (Especially in observ-

85 Peace Audit 2006

Part 2

ing what other groups have, got and how deprived chances of inter-group conflicts, most agencies seem their own group is). In such a milieu all groups gen- to work ‘around’ the conflict. Lack of sensitivity in erally feel vulnerable and contribute negatively in selecting areas for development projects is one ex- precipitating and prolonging the conflict lines in the ample. There were many complaints regarding some district. organizations only focusing on the estate sector, overlooking the bordering Sinhala villages that are There is also the possibility of conflict situations giv- suffering from similar problems that need attention. ing rise to religious contentions. Respondents view These development projects not only affect harmony that the conversions of the Hindus in the estate sec- among people in the nearby villages and estates, but tor and the poor Sinhala Buddhist peasants to Chris- also create an environment of envy and hatred for tianity as highly unethical. Respondents openly each other. This also facilitates the’‘double minor- named leading INGOs who are engaged in such ac- ity’ thinking pattern that could largely contribute to tivities. inter-group conflicts.

Unrest among youth owing to unemployment or Organizations should also concentrate on the alle- under employment too is a situation that can trig- gations made against them regarding unethical con- ger violent conflicts even over trivial incidents, such versions to Christianity. As this is a source of ten- as a road accident involving different ethnic groups. sion and brings disrepute to humanitarian and de- velopment agencies in general, it is advisable that With long-term projects for development some hu- organizations should not engage in promoting faiths manitarian agencies are focusing now on the most resulting in conversions of individuals. deep-rooted problems discussed earlier. If these con- tinue, and if the benefits spread to all communities However, most respondents believe that NGOs are in need, it would work as a mechanism strengthen- doing a considerable amount of important work ing the unity and harmony in the district. presently. In addition, they also noted that there is much more that needs to be done. Here is a list be- Addressing the educational needs of the population low. and health issues is another interesting aspect that would contain and control many simmering issues Some leaders of all four major religions are co-op- in the district. It will enhance living standards of the erative and prevent any contentious issue turning people and make social mobility a possibility for the into an inter-group conflict. Direct intervention of future generations of all communities, especially for religious leaders in confliction situations has pro- the people in the estate sector. duced positive results. Religious leaders being in- volved in other religious ceremonies and special 4. Humanitarian and Development Responses events, is an effective measure uniting communities. A few NGOs too carry out such effective work in Although there are some organizations who work the eyes of many. One NGO was particularly praised ‘in’ conflict and attempt to contribute to minimize for forming and strengthening community groups,

86 District Reports

Part 2

such as the ‘People’s Forums’. These are commit- - Introduce livelihood development. tees for resolving conflicts and disputes at the local -Improve projects on empowering and educat- level (Janatha Mandapa) in Walapane, ing women Ambagamuwa, and Kothmale. - Increase health education -Help the Sinhala community in the area for sup- Recommendations port in their small-scale vegetable cultivation and marketing their products. -Primary and upper education facilities need se- - Introduce civil and human rights educational rious attention. programmes. Education on matters of democ- -Create common educational facilities for inter racy will help the inter community relations. community harmony -Work closely with the states decision-making - Introduce vocational training for the youth sec- bodies for better co-ordinations. tor. - Introduce inter-community trust building mechanism in common projects.

87 Peace Audit 2006

Part 2

10. Puttalam District

District Data

• 10 Divisional Secretariat (DS) Divisions •Land Area 3013.4 Sqkm •Economic Activities i. Paddy Cultivation ii. Fisheries iii. Cash Crops • Population 709,700 i. Muslims 18.8% ii. Sinhalese 73.7% iii. Tamils 7.1%

88 District Reports

Part 2

uttalam district is traditionally considered Adding to it, contemporary politics among the IDPs an underdeveloped district. Accommodat- is allegedly promoting feelings and behaviour that P ing the internally displaced people due to the promotes ‘regionalism,’ (a term locally used to im- conflict had brought in many new dimensions of chal- ply negative sentiments towards the oneness of a lenge both positive and negative to this district. population of a particular district showing neglect/ disregard of the other.) Such sentiments have led to The main issue in Puttalam for the past 15 years the creation of ‘new villages’ within IDP camps rep- had been the subject of IDPs and matters related to resenting ‘their hometown’ including the mainte- their resettlement. An obvious issue like in the cases nance of separate mosques for prayers for ‘their of any IDP-host community, tensions, here too the people’ etc. These divisions affect the security and IDP community has not only changed the political social structure in these areas as people compete culture in Puttalam but also the nature of security, against the interest of one another. The rationale be- economy, and social lives of the people of Puttalam. hind such behaviour also stems from the feeling of They have also introduced the new ‘NGO, INGO insecurity and ‘hurt’ the host community unleashes culture’ that has helped vulnerable people to stand on them. on their own. Such ‘us’ vs. ‘them’ behaviour needs one’s serious 2. Structures and Actors intervention to prevent further division as the re- gion has witnessed many a clash and violence in the Political and Security community owing to the differences between the IDP and the host community.’‘Violence’ in the dis- Sinhala political parties have dominated control. trict stems from the nature of the conflict, especially Muslims feel under represented in the district. This owing to the ‘political divisions.’ situation changed drastically after the arrival of Mus- lim IDPs in vast numbers to Puttalam. Their tempo- In terms of creating a strong political power for all rary settlements prolonged the creation of a strong people in Puttalam, the Government Agent is play- political representation for the community. A signifi- ing an important role as ‘connector.’ He recom- cant grievance of the host community at this point mends voter registers of IDPs in the district and is that some Muslim politicians favour the IDP Mus- provide them permanent residency. Many in the lim population, whereas the local Muslims were kept host community have opposed this idea. They fear in isolation. The government funds, allocated with future discrimination. One of the main reasons for a mandate to serve only one part of the community such opposition is ‘sharing of natural resources’ while the others are obviously deprived. This in the that the district is not abundantly blessed with. Ex- end created competition among the Muslims them- ploitation of land by a population more than it can selves due to the policies of the government and its sustain will lead to other related challenges. An- implementers. Therefore, the hopes of the local com- other reason why the host community does not munity in Puttalam remained underdeveloped in the favour the IDP settlement is, also the environmen- political arena. tal pollution caused by improper camping and toi-

89 Peace Audit 2006

Part 2

lets that had contaminated the drinking water in Socio- Economic the district. Puttalam is still a place where different ethnic soci- There had been mobilization that is more social af- eties co-exist. Overall, unlike certain other parts of ter their emergence, and the significant interest in the country here people are not completely divided, promoting women’s education among the Muslims there is salvaging of positive mindset and capacity has increased, when they try to emulate the IDPs for inter community co existence. In essence, the whose women are far ahead in education compared main problem is about the proper distribution and to the Muslim in the host community. The host com- usage of resources. Within the given context, if the munity is appreciative of the human resource they political and economic needs of all communities, are brought in to develop the district in many ways to addressed without discrimination on ethnic or re- where it stands today. gional basis, this would help maintain a peaceful environment and prevent further conflict. The security situation in terms of movement and freedom of expression has never been restricted for Economic any group or curtailed by any person. There were many who perceived the Sinhala community as a This is an agriculture, fishery and trade economy. threat to the Muslim minority. With the latter’s phe- The end products are also main income generating nomenological increase in the population with an sources to the country but they do not have regular IDP community of 80, 000 Muslims adding to it (that marketing facilities, which is the biggest challenge has grown to more than 100 000 in the past 15 years) faced by the farmers and fishermen. Accordingly, such fears are allayed. 70% of the people are suffering poverty.

The other challenge is that, internally displaced Unemployment is a major threat in this district too. people in the country are moving in to Puttalam, It is estimated that there are more than 12,000 youth initially Muslims and presently Tamils. This situa- unemployed. This also creates competitions for the tion is creating security threats to the local commu- limited resources of the district. nity. Since Puttalam is, bordering Anuradhapura and Mannar people have an implied fear of an intrusion There had not been any major scale infrastructure by the LTTE. development. The initiation of the coal power indus- try work; there is significant development in roads In addition to the security threat there is also the and other facilities. It is hoped that these investments fear of ever-increasing population and the cost of would bring communication and infrastructure de- meeting their needs. Internal conflicts among the dis- velopment and employment opportunities. At the placed and host communities continue despite the same time, many groups voice that the negative af- little efforts by some interested parties. The under- fects of the coal power industry are greater than the standing and cooperation among these communi- benefits it can bring, for it will destroy the natural ties needs to improve. resources including a healthy environment.

90 District Reports

Part 2

The challenge faced by the local community in terms proper toilet facilities; they have some arrangements of finding day-to-day employment is a major issue. to solve their toilet requirements in a temporary The competitive if not cheap labour offered by the manner. However, this temporary system is not ad- IDPs has hit the local community, which cannot af- visable for longer periods and is not in design with ford to be so competitive. Reason being that the IDPs the existing infrastructure. During the rainy season get government rations, monthly allowances and people face further difficulties. This type of situa- also support from humanitarian agencies hence they tion adversely affects all forms of development in could afford to work for lesser wages, whereas the people’s day-to-day life. poor local community do not get any supplemen- tary provisions, and also lose on the job opportuni- Most people are suffering from diarrhoea, stomach ties due to lack of demand for them. pain, scabies and other water borne diseases also be- cause of inadequate knowledge of good hygiene and The people in Puttalam feel that the most affected health practices. There are possibilities of an increase by the ethnic conflict in Sri Lanka, is the Muslim in diseases among the IDP population in the near fu- community, on the one hand the IDP’s who left be- ture. Due to this, the surroundings are becoming un- hind all their properties and left homes overnight suitable for living. At present, there is no system or with just Rupees. 500/- came to Puttalam even with- guidance given regarding health and hygiene issues. out a toothbrush, losing on education, income and Because of this, children, influenced by unadvisable assets etc., The local community Muslims who sup- practices suffer the impact of which is very disastrous. ported and shared their resources have also lost nor- Therefore, there is imminent need for life skills edu- mality and sources of income. Therefore the national cation. conflict has affected negatively mostly in Puttalam in the sharing of resources. In the same way, appre- In the district, there is no proper waste management ciation of the Muslim communities go to the local system; garbage disposal system is not effective. Sinhala communities for accommodating the IDPs Mostly, people dump their garbage onto public roads without causing any new conflicts owing to such and the urban council on a regular basis does not resource sharing. collect garbage. It creates larger environmental pol- lution in this area. Diseases affect most of the chil- Health dren who play on the roadside. According to the en- vironmental authority report compared to the past, Data indicates that hygiene and life skills education pollution level has drastically increased. is very weak, as there are no ongoing health programmes to promote hygiene practices or de- Women velop life skills. Poor hygiene practices lead to a heightened risk of the spreading of water borne dis- Participation of women in politics is almost non-ex- eases in the district. Water supply and environmen- istent in Puttalam. About their security, the threat is tal sanitation facilities for camps and for schools are due to the kind of work women undertake in cer- often inadequate. Most of the families do not have tain parts of the district. Men under the influence of

91 Peace Audit 2006

Part 2

drugs and alcohol abuse them. Incidents of child ments and see no continuity in the process and do abuse is also reported. not meet the society’s needs/objective. The challenge for development agencies is also the long term in- The main cause for women to be abused is also be- vestment for any of their initiatives. cause they are uneducated and unaware of sexual and gender-based rights and preventive mecha- Tsunami- IDP Disparity nisms. Men too due to unemployment are in isola- tion. Sexual abuses including incest are regular in Tension was created and voices rose against the gov- certain societies, which go unreported in many in- ernment for the disparity shown between the pro- stances; the causes are also due to improper hous- visions set aside for the tsunami IDPs and war IDPs. ing facilities, bad living conditions and the transi- They were irking emotional issues for those who tion of culture in the camps. The Muslims deal with were suffering in temporary camps for many years these issues in the religious manner, following the whereas the government’s attention was absorbed Muslim law under the mosque leadership and do rather on a new similar catastrophe. Although it is not complain to the police for further action. Accord- understood that the tsunami gained global attention ing to UNHCR only about 1% is reported to the Po- and help and every institute had a mandate in terms lice. of addressing post tsunami development, the re- sponsibility of the government is being questioned Social mobilization and opportunities for livelihood as to how sensitive they were in providing relief. projects are lacking for women. In most of the house holds women do not qualify to get white-collar jobs; The funds allocated for IDP’s monthly rations were therefore, the social standards have not improved not increased with the rise in the cost of living de- for the past 15 years for many families. spite continuous requests, whereas the tsunami vic- tims at the same time were provided a higher al- Within the different dimensions of issues the most lowance to cover their cost of living. In terms of per- affected are the women and children due to their manent houses the funds allocated varied between vulnerability. Men easily abuse them. Women do not the two categories of victims, these had been con- find opportunities for labour since there are no in- cerns of the war IDPs. dustries/factories etc where they can find employ- ment. Hence, they are dependent on men. 3) Dynamics and Scenarios

Very few agencies are involved in supporting and Puttalam, although consists of a Sinhala majority, building the capacity of women. There is a dire need considerable change has taken place in the popu- for improvement and work on their part. A few In- lation density and ethnicity after the arrival of ternational agencies are working with local partners IDPs. Therefore, a sizable Muslim community has in terms of training on skills development and gen- been created there; this enabled a good ‘Sinhala- der based awareness raising, but the lacuna in these Muslim relationship’ in the district. At present, activities are that they are very short term arrange- Tamils are settled in the town. It is noted that

92 District Reports

Part 2

throughout history, the Muslims had dominance should be increased People fear the environmental the town where they had influence in business, and health hazards this could cause. On the other leadership, politics and all other matters. There- hand, the project anticipates much development. fore, it is feared that the Tamil families that are Hence, like any good cause there is an opportunity moving into the district and their alleged link to cost at work here. However, a rational choice would the LTTE might create tension between the two be to see to the long-term benefits such a project communities in the near future. would yield for the people in the district and the country as a whole. To address the question of the IDPs being relocated in Puttalam, the government is planning to con- The best case scenario for Puttalam would be ide- struct 5800 houses with the help of the World Bank ally maintaining a multi ethnic, multi religious so- to relocate the IDPs. This might cause more issues ciety, where people accept the pros and cons these for concern in the future in terms of resources, fa- new communities bring to the district in terms of cilities, environmental pollution etc. and the related economy and social mobilization. issue of increase in the population and the neces- sity and possibility of fulfilling their fundamental Politically a best-case scenario would be to provide needs, will remain to be matters to be addressed permanent residency to the IDPs who are willing to and for early planning of measures for construc- settle down in the district, which would bring in a tive preventive diplomacy. broader and stronger political representation for all the people including the local community. On the other hand if the IDP’s wish to return one also needs to see how feasible it would be for them The worse case scenario for Puttalam is a politically to settle back and request the LTTE not to purchase scattered environment stalling all development of the lands of the Muslims in Mullaitivu etc to enable the district. Improper planning in addressing the is- a respectable return? sue of relocation of IDPs and its consequences will result in a long-term environmental problem for the The overarching feeling is that it is timely and nec- whole district. essary to consider the resettlement of IDPs. Failure to concentrate on the seriousness of the long term In terms of the Sinhala community of the district, effects would reflect on the failure of good gover- there is need for education, awareness and liveli- nance and planning and evaluation of many devel- hood development. If the government ignores these opment agencies. Therefore, longer term plans for aspects, there is high probability of youth uprising this population is essential at the policy level. against the state.

The coal power station is the latest cause of disagree- 4) Humanitarian and Development Responses ment where development takes negative perception. The establishment of a coal power industry needs Focus of humanitarian and development agencies more study and awareness among the public and is on addressing the needs of the IDPs. In doing so,

93 Peace Audit 2006

Part 2

the donors, INGOs and NGOs sometimes do not needs to be revised. Otherwise their efforts will only realise the harm their intervention can cause. One fail and create new problems. reason for this is that except for few agencies, many intervening organizations do not practise Conflict Overall, unlike in certain other parts of the country, Sensitivity or Do No Harm methodologies. This has there is still much space and capacity for a paradigm created new dimensions in the scene by creating shift in instilling a positive mindset for community problems mentioned above in the economic section. co existence. In essence, the main problem is about Agencies addressing poverty issues and doing re- the proper distribution and usage of resources. lief work should also be considerate about the pov- Within the given context, if the politics and economy erty-stricken poor local community. of all communities are addressed without discrimi- nation that would help maintain a peaceful environ- Most NGOs do not have their own funds and are ment and prevent further conflict. often donor dependent to carry out their projects. About development work by NGOs there was a need Recommendations: felt by many to strengthen the community based or- ganizations for them to be sustainable. The much -Design projects for the actual needs of the dis- spoken coordination is also an issue in the district trict. Needs Analysis is vital prior to project de- to avoid duplication of activities in saving man and signing. material resources. -Introduce low-tech knowledge transfer projects. - Coordinate with the local state bodies and other There is a huge presence of NGOs and INGOs in key influencers. Puttalam. Agencies that intervene with a genuine -Create a common resource centre for many CBO interest should also be mindful of new conflicts that and their staff who work under limited capaci- may be generated through their intervention. Being ties and facilities. conflict and culturally sensitive is important for these - Introduce projects to lobby for the rights of the agencies, accordingly their policies and strategies IDPs and a permanent solution regarding their future.

94 District Reports

Part 2

11. Trincomalee District

District Data

• 10 Divisional Secretariat (DS) Divisions •Land Area 2630.8 Sqkm •Economic Activities i. Paddy Cultivation ii. Fisheries iii. New jobs from INGO/NGO • Population 340,200 i. Muslims 29.3% ii. Sinhalese 33.4% iii. Tamils 35.4%

95 Peace Audit 2006

Part 2

he strategic location of one of the biggest in Kinniya a majority Muslim area, and the poli- natural harbours in Asia, and the geo-politi tics of the LTTE and the TNA that remain a chal- T cal interest of many actors has made lenge. Trincomalee a district of continuous tension. In re- cent times it has been the spark point for hardline The Tamils and Muslims however, have also begun politics between the nationalist elements. There to notice and talk of an alleged ‘divide and rule’ seems to be a direct LTTE- JVP confrontation in the policy of the govt and the military at play here that politics of the district. fuels the animosity between the Tamil- Muslim re- lationships. This, widely stems from the ever increas- Being the transit port for military operations there ing generous government job opportunities as ‘home is a large presence of the military and the Navy. The guards,’ exclusively for the Muslim youth and how recent spate of killings have sent shock waves across government appointments are almost nil for them the civilian population in Trinco and is likely to cause in other sectors. counter attacks as has always been the case in the past. There is also a very large NGO presence. The huge presence of the Security forces contributes to the increasing tension and security vulnerability. 2. Structures and Actors The armed groups in the villages are causing much unrest between the two communities. The LTTE is Political and Security allegedly providing arms training to the civilians in Sampur and so does the alleged training of Muslim Due to the demography of the district and its im- youth by state troops in Muthur to be deployed as portance in future national politics all major politi- home guards: the lowest rung in the police force. cal parties are keenly active in the district. The gov- The LTTE continues to warn the Muslim youth ernment has always appointed a Sinhalese GA, against attacks on them should they be deployed as which is a political irritant to the Tamil Muslim the first line of defence in new sentry points follow- population of the district. ing the recent appointment of 900 Muslim home guards. These home guards in return become a se- The district has witnessed some bitter political ma- curity threat to their own communities when LTTE nipulations and conflicts due to the divided nation- avenges in retaliation the so-called ‘acts of betray- alist elements. These were at their height in the af- als’ committed by the home guards when they pass termath of the ‘Buddha Statue’ incident. The Tamil information to the SL troops. There have also been communities find the JVP, the govt troops (who al- many incidents of ‘arrests’ of home guards. The ar- legedly bring in mobs to massacre Tamil civilians, rest and subsequent release of two home guards every time the LTTE hits a military target, as was from Valachchenai and Thoppur by the Tamil Eelam the case in the pre Sinhala-Tamil new-year killings courts, is an incident in point. of 30 odd civilians in Trinco town) and the Muslim home guards to be an issue of threat. For the Mus- Daily law and order is under the military in the main lims, it is their poor political representation even city centre creating further tension.

96 District Reports

Part 2

It is alleged that the black-masked military men of fast militarization of the civilians of all ethnic groups. the special force and the army carry out search op- Rumours of small arms and light weapons in circu- erations in homes, take people away for interroga- lation and a bullet sold for a mere five rupees are tion and ‘police’ residential areas and beat up civil- noteworthy developments. ians. This discrimination has caused bitterness amongst the Tamils. Lack of educational facilities and freedom of mobil- ity makes a grave issue. Mobility of civilians are There is indirect ethnic influence in every activity in highly restricted due the military and intelligent the district. The LTTE- Muslim community relation- activities. Young students of both sexes cannot get ship has dwindled in the recent times on the accu- about on their own unaccompanied by an elder sation that the Muslim youth are continuing to col- should they seek education or tuition out of town. laborate with the state troops. LTTE’s extortions and There are afternoons or evenings that they may not killings of Muslim home guards and the counter at- be able to return home from Anuradhapura junc- tacks on their villagers are serious security threats. tion, should there be a ‘harthal’ or a bomb explo- Such attacks on the villagers take place when a home sion. Tamil and Muslim communities here suffer the guard tips off the police or expose Tamil villages to most should they not get their children enrolled in military attacks. the few popular schools in town. If not have stu- dents boarded outside the district. Education for Socio-Economic girls will certainly be at an even higher price risking lives. This is not worth it for many members of the There is a working relationship in the social con- Muslim communities. The killings of the five prom- text among the three communities in the towns. The ising undergrad Tamil boys on the beach of Trinco, Tamil-Muslim relations in some villages is very cor- is hard to forget. dial and at times bonded as in the town areas. Com- mon language remains the strong point of link be- While this is one of the potential districts for eco- tween them. Muslims are grateful to the Tamil nomic progress and development, due to the pre- teachers who gave them early education and pay vailing conditions all communities suffer economi- respect to the Tamil language as the medium in cally. Unemployment (especially among educated which Islam was taught first in the country where youth) and non-existence of industries and factories translations of Islamic religious scripts too were have left the district economically backward. Access available in Tamil. The Sinhalese relate to the other to economic resources make the majority communi- community with caution, although Sinhalese ties here – Muslims and Tamils compete at times vio- would clearly avoid the Tamil dominated area of lence for land, agriculture etc. the district. Resettlement and Land issues Drug abuse among unemployed youth is a social menace in the lower income families. It is very com- Post tsunami resettlement and land allocations still mon at the grass roots level. A related menace is the lag behind. Government intervention is largely lack-

97 Peace Audit 2006

Part 2

ing. There is a growing perception that owing to the women are keeping us alive today.” The number of GA being ethnic Sinhalese, the Sinhala community motherless children in homes shows. The only receives favours. The Tamils who had lost all docu- source of employment the government provides for ments of ownership continue to face hardships in them (leaving them also with no other choice) is the getting documentary evidence of their land and job of home guards. A clear exploitation of their vul- homes and have hardly any assistance in this regard. nerability of a crisis, they feel. . Nevertheless, this is Resettlement and housing process has not been over- an attraction for many. The Sinhala, Tamil and Mus- all successful even by non-state actors. The Sinha- lim traders in the town carry on with regular busi- lese and the Muslims on the other hand believe that ness except when they are disturbed during harthals the NGOs and development agencies help only the and mob attacks. Tamil communities. In their view, both the govern- ment and the development agencies have forsaken Agriculture and Extortions them. The Tamil and Muslim villagers who have agrar- The struggle for land as in the entire east between ian based livelihoods continue to live in hardships. the Tamils and the Muslims is prevalent here too. The Tamil villagers have continued to move into While Muslims maintain their right to land, LTTE LTTE controlled area that they feel ‘secure’ in. wishes to eliminate the Muslims’ identity with the Hence, they continue to be governed by taxes for land as they firmly believe that they have no origi- their harvest etc by the terms set out by the LTTE. nal claim as their interest lies in trade. Hence, the Pronounced are the hardships of the Muslims who struggle is also to carve out territories on ethnic di- are subject to attacks by the LTTE when they go vides. for firewood collection or cultivations at certain times. Extortions and taxes levied by the LTTE Ban on fishing from them is often a source of violence and kill- ings. The grass roots and those in the lower rung of the economy are most affected. Members of all com- The Peace Committee consisting of leading religious munities involved in the fishing industry are af- clergy is seen to be a prominent ‘connector’ in the fected. The restriction for fishing and the ban im- district. There are a few NGOs also seen to be play- posed are clear impediments on the local fishing ing the’‘connector’ role. However, the ability of these communities. groups is limited. They cannot take preventive mea- sure so bring immediate remedies. This brings lack The affects of the limitations of fishing is so severe of faith in these mechanisms. in the economy that the men in fishing communi- ties that are in a majority in the districts are out of Some sports committees in areas like Kinniya are jobs. In Kinniya, there are a large number of women connectors too, apart from the English classes the seeking employment in West Asia as house cleaners children from all communities commonly attend in to earn for the families. The men in Kinniya say, “Our certain areas like in the town.

98 District Reports

Part 2

3. Dynamics and Scenarios hands of the LTTE. The urge in them is to get back to normality in relationships with the Tamil com- Many groups often cause trigger factors, in the dis- munities as in the early 80s. trict. From a ‘hand bill’ to an occasional throwing of a grenade can disturb normality. The District is ‘the All communities generally feel there will be no full most happening place’ where incidents range from frontal war in predicting a’‘best case scenario’ al- simple shut down protests (kadai adaipu) to hartlals, though they feel times ahead can be worse than in killings, mob attacks and bombings that await to be times of open hostilities. There is space for the bick- unleashed at given times. ering kept alive by the concerned parties that at times heightens the violence level that the district In May 2005, the appearance of the statue of Lord gets subject to, especially where Tamil people live. Buddha installed by the three-wheeler association In the recent past, one sees a trend in the rise of allegedly supported by the govt troops caused much violence i.e. student unrest etc., in Trinco, especially controversy causing ripple effects elsewhere in the when it comes to showing solidarity to anti-govt island. This triggered more violence. In Trincomalee, initiatives in the north. It is widely believed by the one also sees the large naval base and certain ac- Sinhalese that there are LTTE’s civilian-led forces tions of the SL navy on the ground also as ‘trigger’ at work in Trinco and feel justified by the SL troops’ factor of violence here unprecedented presence in the district (in great numbers). The relations ships among the three communities in the towns are normal, but in the remote villages, The worse case scenario that is likely to unfold in there is clear delineation of the communities out of the district is a situation that would make it far more mutual fear. A Tamil from Anbuvelipuram close to difficult for people to lead normal lives. More blood Trinco town will fear entering Seruwila a predomi- bath waits to unfold given the present trend of how nantly Sinhala DS division, so will a Muslim or mobs brought in to unleash atrocities against the Sinhala fear entering Eachchlampathai or Sampur Tamils in the district. There is also more blood bath that are LTTE dominated areas. The Sinhalese in for the Muslims where both majority communities Trinco town who are a minority have their free will crush them. In the hands of the Sinhalese they movement in the district thoroughly curtailed. Sin- would suffer each time mobs attacks the Tamils, halese three-wheeler drivers would not ride in the where they get caught in the cross fire and so is the out skirts of the town. The Tamils and the Sinhalese case when they suffer casualties and get injured and are closer to the Muslims in the district than each attacked by Govt troop attacks and aerial bombings other are. Muslims on the other hand are sand- etc. In the next one year, the district is more likely to wiched and torn between the two whose relation- see more and more people and organizations leav- ships with the Tamils in both towns and districts ing especially the town area where the Tamils are are closer to the Tamils identifying with the ‘Tamil populated and the Muslim areas of Kinniya, Muthur cause’ of the Tamil people are fast turning against etc. Both the Tamil and Muslim communities will them as a result of the hardships they faced at the feel more insecure and vulnerable at the hands of

99 Peace Audit 2006

Part 2

both LTTE and the SL army, each time violence oc- happened. The district stands bleeding ––‘wounded’ curs. and’‘abandoned.’

A humanitarian intervention of a large scale to act The immediate cry of the day like in the immediate as an alternative mechanism to the State is what the post violence stages (especially in the town areas) is people want, as there seems to be no control over for NGOs specially doing humanitarian and devel- the madness and mayhem in the district. opment work to return to the district and continue humanitarian assistance. Their presence has multi- 4. Humanitarian and Development Responses farious benefits to the people of the district, ranging from providing a sense of security to being recipi- An obvious function of the humanitarian organiza- ents of their aid and development work. The city tions in the district is to work ‘in’ the conflict. Many saw not only untold misery, let loose by the atroci- feel that there is actually very little or no humani- ties unleashed by the two main militant groups but tarian work carried out in the district. However, the also the violence perpetrated by allegedly organized fact that some organizations, (local and interna- Sinhalese mobs who were brought into the district tional) work, in highly tensed ethnic groups in the to carry out atrocities against the Tamils. (Many Mus- district, would give the organizations a fair knowl- lims lost their lives in April post Geneva violence, edge of the conflicts and the needs of the people. caught in the crossfire). The challenge for NGOs working in Trinco on their return in the next phase Although ‘NGOisation’ ( there is no word in the dic- becomes one of devising ways to achieving as much tionary so far unless you want to contribute this of the goals as possible- Here, we see an urgency for word which is allowed in social science!) of the civil prevention of the cost of escalation and the promo- society in Trinco is felt and are not trusted by the tion of compromise. Sinhalese, the Tamil community needs their pres- ence to provide them the security backdrop for nor- The Sinhalese strongly believe that the NGO com- mal functioning of a day. Their presence makes them munity in the district has done no good to them. feel secure especially in Trinco town. “When the The Muslims also feel they have not been heard/ SLMM intervene the gravity of incidents could be given attention. Since there is a tendency to suspect reduced’ says a schools teacher and mother of three. other communities’ who are seen to directly benefit Many feel the same. The vast number of ceased op- from NGO activities in comparison, one strong sug- erations of these non-state actors (in the days pre- gestion that emerges from the district is for the NGOs ceding Geneva Talks and the heightened violence to help establish a civil society for the Sinhalese that in the aftermath of Geneva talks speak volumes of can promote civil society dialogue. how vulnerable the district becomes in the hands of the warring parties. It became a playing field for A call and need for humanitarian and development multiple barrel rocket launchers and aerial bomb- agencies need to return and continue their presence ings. Had there been the usual large INGO presence in the district is intense. Preventive diplomacy in many feel that the latter atrocities would not have this case is expected to initiate an internal media-

100 District Reports

Part 2

tion in the district. This is believed to help change - Provide orderly methods of making choices, attitudes, highlight the stakes of a recurring conflict, recommend internal mediation by local exter- and reorient disputant tactics away from violence. nal actors i.e. by a group of eminent persons, and most importantly reiterate the need to chan- Recommendations nel the conflict through legitimate political in- stitutions etc. -District demands very carefully designed inter- - Focus on conflict prevention work. Develop and community relation building project under se- improve training on effective negotiations and curity conditions. conflict management. - Introduce mechanism and projects for -Problems of Trincomalee may need a greater co- -‘preventive diplomacy’ that are rooted in ordination and effort at national level than some ground realities other districts taking into account of the high pro- -Help establish a strong NGO lobby in Trinco, pensity for violence between main contenders. representing leading Colombo NGOs.

101 Peace Audit 2006

Part 2

8. Vavuniya District

District Data

•4 Divisional Secretariat (DS) Divisions •Land Area 1966.9 Sqkm •Economic Activities i. Paddy Cultivation • Population 149,800 i. Muslims 6.8% ii. Sinhalese 16.6% iii. Tamils 76.4%

102 District Reports

Part 2

amil districts in the Northern and Eastern flare up of the ethnic war in 1983. 3) Displaced provinces are directly affected by the ethnic people from other districts of the Northern Prov- T war. Vavuniya is on the border of the North- ince relocated and living in camps within this dis- ern Province, where Tamils are the majority popu- trict. lation; there is also a sizeable Muslim and Sinhala population. Having a tropical climate, the district Among those who migrated from other districts to depends on an underdeveloped or rather conven- Vavuniya, there are a number of them who have pur- tional agricultural (paddy cultivation) economy. It chased land and built houses on their own without is one of the most backward districts administered the support of the government or NGOs. The rest by the government, especially in the field of educa- have migrated intermittently due to the conflict; this tion. Furthermore, it is also affected by inadequate number fluctuates depending on the magnitude of infrastructure such as roads, health services, etc. the war and on the security situation in their respec- tive districts. At present, the IDPs in this district are A large part of the divisional secretariat area of in the process of being resettled largely by INGOs Vavuniya district comes under the LTTE controlled and NGOs. Among the local displaced people, those area. Around fifteen thousand people in this area who returned from India still live as refugees as they are restricted free mobility to the other parts of the could not regain their lands, livelihood and houses district (especially to Vavuniya town) they are con- due to lack of land titles of property where they have strained from moving around to meet even their lived for generations. These unresolved issues be- most basic needs such as medical care, earning their come potential grounds for a variety of conflicts and livelihood or to meet their relatives and friends and pose serious question on peace and conflic situation vice versa. The rest of the district also suffers from in this district. the impact of the war: threats to their wellbeing by the actions of the armed groups and security forces 2. Structure and Actors and certain social and cultural issues emanate from the IDPs and resettlements. Ethnic conflict in this district means conflict be- tween the Tamils and the State. Despite its multi- The total population of the district is currently at ethnic composition, in general there is a sense of 151, 1424 of which total non-displaced people are pride in having no conflict with other communi- 1691 consisting of 625 families5. These figures show ties living within the district. The heart of the con- that almost the entire population experienced dis- flict and discrimination seems to be inherent within placement at different stages of the war. Displace- the government and the NGOs. Major sources of ment and resettlement are affecting the district’s conflict in this district are issues related to IDPs, population in various ways. The district has three violent activities by the LTTE, and other armed categories of IDPs; 1) Displacement within the dis- groups allegedly supported by the State’s security trict 2) Natives of the district living in India as refu- forces or police. Other issues to highlight include gees and have since returned. These two sets of dis- bias practices by political representatives, lack of placed people are natives of Vavuniya before the equal access to justice for the poor, the activities of

103 Peace Audit 2006

Part 2

a new group of Christians in their attempt to con- who have turned aggresive and hostile towards the vert the poor of other religions. Muslims.

There are three types of IDPs in Vavuniya. Similarly, the defeated political leader who belongs to the Sinhalese community was appointed by the 1. Those who previously lived in Vavuniya, government as coordinator for the developmental and were displaced within Sri Lanka or work in Vavuniya. Therefore, he has a say in the al- fled to India. location of funds and decides on projects for the dis- 2. Those from northern districts who have trict. He too diverts funds for infrastructural facili- migrated as refugees here. ties to his constituency (southern Vavuniya). The 3. Those who migrated from other districts, health sector of the district feels that the government purchased land and built houses on their projects under his administration are discriminatory. own. For instance, while the smooth functioning of the main hospital of the district which treats people of Political and Security all three districts is hampered by a lack of supplies, labour and particularly medical specialists, and all Albeit, Tamils are the majority in the district, Mus- the other essentials for a hospital to run smoothly, lims constitute the second largest population, fol- in contrast, Southern Vavuniya is going to get a third lowed by nearly fifteen thousand Sinhalese. Out of hospital, which will serve approximately 15,000 the six members elected to Parliament from the Wanni people. They also complain that the hospitals in district, (Wanni electoral district includes Vavuniya, Puliyankulam and Nedunkerni (in the LTTE con- Mannar and Mullaitivu administrative districts) five trolled area) lacks permanent doctors. However, de- MPs are Tamils and one from the Muslim commu- spite these shortcomings they appreciated the help nity. The Sinhalese do not have a representative; and provided by NGOs as their support helped in solv- the Muslim Member of Parliament appointed Minis- ing some problems faced by the health sector of the ter implements infrastructural and developmental district. programmes advantageous only to his community. The statement of some of the leading Muslims per- All the Tamil districts are directly affected by the sonalities enhances this observation. They said, “We war. Thus, they form the nucleus of armed activi- (a particular predominantly Muslims village) are ties of the government security forces, LTTE and much better off than [during] pre-war situation”. other armed groups. A large part of Wanni electoral Government authorities also expressed resentment district including the northern part of the Vavuniya at the attitude and approach of the Minister who is administrative district falls under the control of the overruling the Government Agent (GA) by directly LTTE. The LTTE claims that it is the sole representa- dealing with a particular divisional secretary (a Mus- tive of the Tamil people. Based on this claim, they lim) of the Muslim division to accomplish his wishes. declared other organizations/ armed groups carry- Political observers say that this discriminatory ap- ing weapons as traitors. On the one hand, other proach created distress among Tamils of this district armed groups are challenging such claims and the

104 District Reports

Part 2

security forces want to weaken the group. This sce- forces and all the militants have weapons in their nario brought an understanding or connivance be- hands on the pretext of protecting the people. How- tween the armed groups and the security forces, ever, people have lost the protection of either side partially due to the need to survive and to meet their and consequently have lost their peaceful existence. economic needs. Since such conflict affects even social activities it could be branded as politically motivated and sup- Coupled with this scenario and mostly due to the portive of one side or the other. Hence, the issue conflict the district’s elevated position as commer- needs to be addressed to enhance peacebuilding cial capital of the Northern Province induces a lot of activities in the district. It requires a permanent so- floating population from other Tamil districts, par- lution to the ethnic conflict to banish the people’s ticularly to the main town. Therefore, the district has fears. However, in order to mitigate this vendetta, a the potential for intelligence activities of the state system or an organization that could consist of mem- forces as well as their informers among Tamils bers of civil society entrusted with the task of hav- against the LTTE and vice versa. According to the ing constant dialogue with the conflicting parties. It LTTE, traitors would get capital punishment. All needs the initiative of reputed NGOs and human these factors made this district a fertile ground for rights activists. revenge killings between armed groups. One of the clauses of the CFA stipulates the disarming of such Socio Economic armed groups in order to stop violent activities. However, it has not been implemented, instead fre- Absence of livelihood programmes in many of the quent killings are a norm rather than the exception. resettlements push many of them to engage in ille- gal activities such as deforestation to sell firewood, Some of those killed, are identified as either mili- producing illicit liquor, thefts in neighbouring vil- tary or police intelligence, or operatives belonging lages and prostitution. This chain effect of a lack of to other armed groups and at times civilians. The income produces an additional number of social root cause of the assassinations seems to eliminate problems. Due to lack of income most of their chil- the possible threats to their free function and chal- dren especially teenagers do not attend school and lenges to their claim of sole representative by the are usually idle at home. Idleness induces pre-mari- LTTE. On the other hand, security forces or armed tal sexual affairs, abortions, early marriages and groups kill civilians suspected of being part of the child labour; furthermore, it is noted that this had LTTE. The consequences are not merely the loss of increased extra marital affairs, quarrels among fami- life but it also affects an entire society under fear lies and child abuse. and trauma. Even the families and close relatives of the victims are under constant threat against pro- Lack of school buildings, furniture, water, laborato- viding any information about the killings. This is ries and other facilities is another issue of concern especially true of the LTTE. in this district. Since the district receives waves of migrant population, the existing facilities are not Ethnic conflict created an arms culture. Security enough to serve the increasing student community.

105 Peace Audit 2006

Part 2

Government support to meet these issues are far among communities. Some Tamil citizens have ex- from meeting the real needs, authorities have re- pressed concern that while the Tamils tolerate these vealed. These needs are largely addressed by the discriminative attitudes of political leaders they are members of parliament and the NGOs. not recognized or endorsed by government. They suspect that the plan to have a third hospital in Vavuniya district is currently a land of displaced southern Vavuniya may be an indication of the State people who are at different stages of resettlement sponsoring ‘colonization’ attempts in order to in- and a great number of them are still in IDPs camps crease the Sinhala population. They perceive that this or with friends or relatives. The economic status of issue has the potential to exacerbate the anti-state these people could be understood from the fact that feelings among Tamil people of the district and thus, almost 60% of the district’s population is entitled to further fuel the main ethnic conflict. government’s Samurdhi benefits (however only an average of 400 people are actually receiving this ben- Those affected by the revenge killings between the efit). armed groups are one of the most vulnerable sec- tors of the population. They need protection against Major resettlment programmes are aimed at those vengence and support for their survival. Most of who came as IDPs from other districts. Among the them belong to the side of victims of the revenge families many are headed by widows, most of them, killings who prefer to work either on their own or resettled among locals. Components of the settle- with a powerful section against the killer(s) group ments are houses with sanitary facilities and a small and even with the security forces. Such trends would plot of land for farming (livelihood). However, ac- lengthen the LTTE’s list of traitors and would lead cording to political leaders, representatives of civil to an increase in the killings of civilians. society and the district authorities, in many settle- ments the lands allocated along with their houses District authorities say that the issue of unbalanced for farming are inadequate and, are without water development emanates from vote bank politics and facilities. Many of the settlements have a common the ethnic bias attitude of the government. Therefore, well or share a well with a number of houses. Fur- a solution to this issue lies within the permanent so- ther, they do not have capital to invest and the vast lution to the main conflict. However, they express fear majority are unskilled. They emphatically reveal that that if this trend continues, Tamils’ anti-state feeling the lack of integration in resettlement projects paved may turn as anti-ethnic feeling in the district. the way for a number of social and cultural conflicts. The IDP issue bears short and long-term affects if 3. Dynamics and Scenarios not addressed suitably. Problems such as produc- tion and selling of illicit liquor, petty thefts and ex- The issue of misrepresentation and discrimination tra marital affairs could be changed over a period in the development of the district by the political through continuous intervention. However, resi- leaders belonging to the minority communities of dents are deeply concerned about the consequences the district is an indicator for unhealthy relations of the present lifestyle and culture of the IDPs and

106 District Reports

Part 2

of the future society emerging with anti-social ideas. - Introduce youth development programmes -Programs aimed at rehabilitating former com- Suitable intervention among teenagers and elders batant for civilian life to arrest the negative development would possibly -Introduce a dialogue with LTTE on project give positive results. Such intervention could change implementation, as there still remains some area the relationship between the IDPs and the domestic of conflicts people. -Introduce youth empowerment programmes Unemployed youth become victims and target 4. Humanitarian and Development Responses of many forces.

An average of more than forty humanitarian and End notes development agencies serve in this district. Focus 1 In a double minority condition, all parties within a given geo- of these NGOs is mainly in the areas such as reha- graphical area feel as an ethnic minority. It is apparent that bilitation, relocation, resettlement, relief work for the in any given population, the sizes of different sub-popula- IDPs, infrastructural facilities, irrigation, enhancing tions inevitably differ; consequently, it is usually easy to identify one group that is a majority group relative to an- education facilities, supporting the health sector, other. But as the perceivers focus of attention is shifted to a sustainable livelihood programmes and issues con- broader geographical area, it is natural that one perceives cerning women and children. one’s own group as an ethnic minority, irrespective of the fact that one’s own group is the majority in the locality. (e.g., Sinhalese are the majority ethnic group within Sri While most of the people from all sectors appreciate Lanka. However, as the focus of attention shifts to the larger the services rendered by the NGOs, they also point geographical sphere of south Asia, Sinhalese become a mi- out certain shortcomings in the areas of identifica- nority in presence of Tamils who vastly out number them). tion of the problems planned to solve the core is- 2 Psychological consequences of minority status are problem- atic enough when just one group perceives one’s own-group sues and implementation. as a threatened minority; the problems are magnified in the double-minority context. In such cases, all members of the People affected by the revenge killings between the population, regardless of their actual group membership, armed groups are one of the most vulnerable sec- may perceive themselves to be in a threatened minority group. Therefore, each group may perceive the other to be tions. They need protection and support for their especially malevolent and untrustworthy. Therefore, they survival. Intervention to protect civilians will en- may feel the use of violence against the other as justifiable hance NGO work in peace building. (and justified), and may be especially suspicious of negoti- ated attempts at conflict resolution. 4 Recommendations 2004 District Secretariat records 5 2004 District Secretariat records 6 Statistical Abstract - Department of Census and Statistics 2005 - Introduce training programmes targeting the 7 District population statistics for Jaffna, Mannar and Vavuniya state sector decision makers in areas such as districts are estimated figures based on Statistical Abstract - Department of Census and Statistics 2001 project planning and implementation 8 Population percentages are based on Statistical Abstract - - Increase education facilities for the children of Department of Census and Statistics 1981 the IDP community.

107 Peace Audit 2006

Part 2

108 Timeline of Events – October 2005 to May 2006

Annexures

Annexures

121 Peace Audit 2006

Part 2

110 Timeline of Events – October 2005 to May 2006

Timeline of Events – October 2005 to May 20061 Annexures

October 22, 2005 2006 Presidential election scheduled for November 17, 2006. Decisions made to establish clustered polling January 12, 2006 booths that would be located 500 metres from SLA Nine Sri Lankan Navy personnel were killed and check points for the Presidential Election. eight injured in a suspected LTTE triggered claymore mine blast in Chettikulam on the Mannar- October 28, 2005 Medawachchiya road. The Sri Lanka Monitoring MOU signed between the United States of America Mission (SLMM) condemned the attack. and Sri Lanka on combating terrorism January 13, 2006 November 09, 2005 A vehicle belonging to the SLMM was damaged by Announcement of Sri Lanka’s Defence Expenditure a bomb that was exploded in the Batticaloa town. being increased to 39% January 24, 2006 November 17, 2005 The Norwegian Minister for International Develop- Presidential Election ment Co-operation Erik Solheim also the Facilitator to the Sri Lankan Peace Process visits Sri Lanka to November 18, 2005 meet with , GoSL officials and Mahinda Rajapaksa wins the Sri Lankan Presidency. the LTTE. He also conveyed to both parties the ac- Norway offers to continue as facilitators for the Sri ceptance of the government’s offer to commence Lankan peace process. talks in Geneva on strengthening the effective imple- mentation of the Ceasefire Agreement. December 07, 2005 Sri Lankan President Mahinda Rajapaksa invites January 29, 2006 Norway to continue as Sri Lanka peace facilitator. Karuna welcomes the proposed cease-fire talks to Yasushi Akashi, Representative of the Government be held in Geneva and says that his group would of Japan for Peace-building, Rehabilitation and Re- unilaterally stop all “self-defence military cam- construction in Sri Lanka visited Sri Lanka from the paigns” to give an opportunity to President Mahinda 7th to the 12th of December 2005, to discuss with Rajapaksa to continue with his peace effort. the Government and the parties concerned, of the current situation of the Peace Process. February 7, 2006 LTTE confirms its participation in peace talks sched- December 11, 2005 uled to be held in Geneva between February 22-23. The GoSL blocks Yasushi Akashi from visiting Kilinochchi. February 8, 2006 LTTE informs that they are not ready to talk to the Sri Lankan Government if the Muslim delegation is at the negotiation table, but adds that a representa-

111 Peace Audit 2006

Part 2

tive from the Muslim community could join the talks February 26, 2006 as a member of the Government peace delegation The LTTE asks the Government to implement the or as a representative of the Tamil-speaking people Geneva agreement within two months and ex- in the Northeast. They also ruled out the possibility pressed its intention to talk to the Muslims and dis- of any “modifications” to the CFA. cuss the issue of separate Muslim representation in future rounds of talks and the Muslim concerns in February 9, 2006 the multi-ethnic eastern province. Information Minister, Anura Priyadharshana Yapa, reveals that there had been 5,464 cases of cease-fire Karuna, leader of the LTTE breakaway faction, vows violations committed by the LTTE from February 22, to resist any attempt by the Government to disarm 2002 to February 4, 2006. The number of extortion his group and threatened to end a unilateral cease- cases reported within this period is 106. fire.

February 10, 2006 March 9, 2006 Sri Lanka Muslim Congress leader, Rauf Hakeem, Sri Lanka’s chief Muslim party, the SLMC, accuses states that there should be a separate Muslim del- the LTTE of carrying out a ‘sinister operation’ to link egation at the peace talks as per the Oslo agreement. Sri Lankan Muslims with extremist Muslim groups such as al Qaeda and vehemently denies accusations February 16, 2006 that a Muslim ‘Jihad’ group was operating in the LTTE says that the forthcoming talks in Geneva east. would decide “if there is peace or war.” March 11, 2006 February 19, 2006 Thuyavan, a ‘political leader’ of the Karuna faction, President Mahinda Rajapaksa states during an all-party tells Lankadeepa that his group is not a gang but an meeting that the Government has decided to approach organisation. He stated, “Nobody can disarm us. We the Geneva peace talks on a multi-party basis, though have our own arms. They are not given by the gov- the two main parties that will participate in the dis- ernment or anybody else. We will hand over our cussions are the Government and the LTTE. arms on the day Prabhakaran hands over his. Until then we will not lay down arms.” The Peace talks between the GoSL and the LTTE be- gins in Geneva with Norwegian facilitation and con- March 13, 2006 tinued till February 23, 2006 Anton Balasingham, the LTTE’s chief negotiator, said, “The Geneva peace talks will face grave dan- February 23, 2006 ger if the Sri Lanka government refuses to disarm Peace talks between the Government and LTTE con- Tamil paramilitary organizations. cludes in Geneva with both sides agreeing to meet again between April 19-21 at the same venue for an- March 16, 2006 other round. The British Government agrees to curb illegal fund

112 Timeline of Events – October 2005 to May 2006

Annexures

raising from the Sri Lankan Tamil Diaspora in the April 10, 2006 UK by the LTTE. Canada formally proscribes the LTTE as a terrorist group. March 22, 2006 The LTTE rejects ‘new preconditions’ for the re-en- April 12, 2006 try of their political cadres into Government-con- At least 13 persons are killed and 40 others injured trolled areas in the Northeast. in a series of bomb blasts and arson.

March 23, 2006 April 16, 200 The Karuna faction along with other Sinhala and Tamil The LTTE announces suspending participation in the groups form a new organization called the Alliance second round of Geneva peace talks “until hurdles” for Protection of Rights of the People of the East. placed before it by the Government were removed and “a more conducive environment” was created March 26, 2006 for the negotiations. The Government lays down 28 conditions for the LTTE to re-open its political offices in Government- April 25, 2006 controlled areas. LTTE Suicide bomber attempts to assassinate Army Commander Lt. General . The Gen- March 29, 2006 eral was critically injured, while seven others were The Sri Lanka Government said that it would con- killed. tinue peace talks with the LTTE despite the deaths of eight sailors in a suicide blast on March 25. The April 26, 2006 LTTE chief negotiator, Anton Balasingham, assures Announcement of the closing of the A9 road at the LTTE’s participation in the peace talks sched- Omanthai. uled to be held at Geneva on April 19, if safe pas- sage through Colombo is provided for their negoti- Sri Lanka’s military launched new strikes on Tamil ating team. Tiger areas in the island’s northeast.

April 6, 2006 April 29, 2006 Norway’s International Development Minister Erik All May Day events were cancelled, citing secu- Solheim after his meeting with the Sri Lankan Presi- rity concerns on the direction of the Sri Lanka Min- dent Mahinda Rajapaksa informs that the President istry of Defence. has assured safe passage to the LTTE delegation trav- elling to Switzerland for peace talks scheduled to May 11, 2006 be held between April 19-21 at Geneva. A Sri Lanka Navy (SLN) Dvora Fast Attack Craft was destroyed in Vettilaikerny in a naval fight be- President Mahinda Rajapaksa appointed Dr. Palitha tween the Sea Tigers and SLN vessels in LTTE con- Kohona as the Secretary General of SCOPP. trolled Nagarkovil.

113 Peace Audit 2006

Part 2

May 29, 2006 June 17, 2006 The European Commission formally proscribes the A large number of civilians who were at the Church LTTE as a terrorist group. of Our Lady of Victory in Pesalai for safety was in- jured as a result of armed troops attacking the church June 8, 2006 following a battle between the Navy and the Sea Ti- Scheduled talks in Oslo between the Sri Lankan gov- gers near Pesalai. A woman was killed and at least ernment and the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam 44 persons were wounded. (LTTE) broke down even before they started. The two delegations arrived in the Norwegian capital, June 26, 2006 were escorted to a hotel for discussions on June 8-9, A senior top official of the Sri Lanka Army (SLA), but never sat down together at the negotiating table. Major General Parami Kulatunga, who holds the third position in the SLA high command, was killed June 15, 2006 in Pannipitiya, 15 km southeast of Colombo, by a 64 civilian passengers including 15 children were suicide bomber who was riding a motorbike around killed and around 87 were wounded when a civil- 7:45 a.m. ian bus hit a Claymore mine near Kebitigollewa, 23 km southeast of Vavuniya, Thursday around 7:50 End notes a.m. Majority of the victims were Sinhalese civilians. 1 The time line captures only some of the events that had a national level impact during the period of the Peace Audit A landmark case for “dirty war”. October, 2005 – June, 2006.

114 Research Methodology

Research Methodology Annextures

esearch methodology for the three main ations, capacities for peace building in the areas of Peace Audit 2006 is described un- district and the future scenarios relating R der relevant sub-topics below. to the peace and conflict situations. 3. Humanitarian /Development Agencies 1. Peace and Conflict Assessment (PCA) Analysis: Attention was drawn to the work of INGO/NGOs in the district. That Data collection was carried out in two stages to as- is, how conflict sensitive are they in con- sess the status of peace and conflict in the selected ducting development projects, what is districts with the best possible accuracy and the au- their contribution in peace making and thenticity of the information. These two aspects give how they can contribute to the develop- strength to validate the findings. ment of the district and building unity among communities. Interviews Selection of sample Level I Interviews were conducted with policy makers, policy implementers and community leaders in the Sampling was made on the understanding that con- respective districts. Interviews from the top level flict situations in districts seriously impact on the were conducted with the help of an interview guide environment for peace at the macro level. Most of following the DFID framework for peace and con- the interviews were carried out among: flict assessment. Three main areas were focused in the interviews.1 •Government Agent /District Secretariat/ Additional District Secretariat 1. Structures and Actors: Under structures •Religious leaders political, security, social and economic •Legal/ Judicial/ Medical and Technical conditions in the district were focused. Professionals Researchers paid attention on how these •Human Rights Commission/Activists structures play a role in prevailing con- •Representatives of NGOs flicts as precipitators and root causes. Ac- • Education Officers tors involve connectors; who play a role •Executives in the private sector in building unity among communities, •Trade Unions dividers; who create, escalate problems • Security Personnel (Police/armed forces) among communities, and affected groups •Other relevant officers and office bearers in conflicts. of various institutions (according to the 2. Dynamics: This is where information need of the district) was gathered on the interviewee’s per- •Political leaders ceptions on trigger factors to conflict situ- 18 to 20 interviews were conducted in each district.

1 See diagram 2 A number of respondents selected from each sector

115 Peace Audit 2006

Part 2

differed according to its relative importance in the DFID framework, mainly focusing on the structures, respective district. Sector selections were done with actors, dynamics, of the district situation, and some the assistance of CHA district officers/partner or- information regarding the macro level conflict. ganizations. Research Assistants (RAs) were trained by Research Interviews Among Grassroots Officers to administer the questionnaire; conduct data collection smoothly and accurately. Adding to Questionnaires were designed to collect the informa- the training given, the prior knowledge based on tion from the grassroots. In each district 120 – 140 their own experience, the guideline diagram2 pro- questionnaires were used by four Research Assistants vided them for selection of sample in the district, who were familiar with the people, their customs and the research assistants selected the respondents. attitudes. They administered the questionnaires with the guidance and observations of CHA research of- Selection of Sample Level II ficers and district officers/partner organizations. Approximately 120 – 140 respondents were selected The questionnaire consists of largely close ended and in each district. ‘Diagram 1’ explains the sample se- a few open ended questions that requested short lection criteria. Every district under study was di- answers. Questionnaires were prepared in three lan- vided into four geographical areas (divisions). Each guages and questions were formed in simple lan- research assistant covered one division. Respondents guage for easy comprehension. were selected to represent the varied dimensions in society; urban-rural, class, ethnicity, religion, and This questionnaire too is structured according to the gender.

2 See diagram 1

116 Research Methodology

Annextures District

Division 1 Division 2 Division 3 Division 4

Development

Urban Rural

Class

Rich Poor

Ethnic/Religion

Sinhala Tamil Muslim Tamil - Muslim Hindu – Christian Hindu – Buddhist

Magnitude/Level of conflict

National Level Local Level

Gender

Male Female

Diagram 1

117 Peace Audit 2006

Part 2

/ Humanitarian need

Work “in” conflict

Work “on” conflict

Conflict affected work

Work affected conflict

Work “around” conflict

To enhanced security (protection)

To foster confident peace building

To address socio-econ development

Diagram 2 Diagram

1 Focus

2 Impact

3 Strategies

Humanitarian /Development Agencies Analysis

PCA

Who ? Interest ? Capacities ? Relationships? How to Influence ?

Worse Case

Social

Dividers

Affected

Security

Economic

Political

Connectors

Trigger Factors

Future Scenario

Peace Capacities

Best Case

Context Analysis

Sources)

2. Actors

(Conflict

3 Dynamics

1 Structures

118 Research Methodology

Annextures

2. Assessing Conflict Sensitivity of the Post sion by respondents. They were largely categorized Tsunami Reconstruction and Rehabilitation into four major sections as follows: Projects 1) General information about the organization Our survey attempted to assess conflict sensitive e.g.,Name of the organization, field of function, practices of development projects planned through- project locations, overall assessment of project out Sri Lanka, and help mainstream conflict sensi- success, familiarity with ‘conflict sensitivity, tivity among humanitarian and development agen- etc… cies. 2) Planning Specifically, the audit focuses on assessing conflict e.g., Did you undertake need assessments for post- sensitivity of the post-tsunami reconstruction and tsunami projects? rehabilitation work of CHA member agencies com- Did you involve stakeholder representatives in prising international and local humanitarian and the needs assessments? development agencies. 3) Implementation As an initial step towards assessing Conflict Sensi- e.g., Apart from the project progress monitoring do tivity practices of organisations in the humanitar- you also monitor the interaction between the ian, development and peacebuilding sectors, CHA’s project implementation and the operational selected member organisations involved in post-tsu- context? nami reconstruction and rehabilitation work were Are your project related administrative and invited for a meeting in Colombo, to introduce the financial systems adjustable if tension/con- aims and objectives of this survey. flict considerations demand changes in strat- egies? Following this meeting, questionnaires were dis- tributed to organizational heads of a sample con- 4) Evaluation of Conflict Sensitivity in tsu- sisting of 50 CHA members, some affiliated agen- nami rehabilitation and reconstruction cies, which are involved in post tsunami rehabili- carried out by each organization. tation and reconstruction activities in six districts e.g., Is the evaluation of conflict/peace of your (i.e., Galle, Matara, Ampara, Batticaloa, projects generally part of the evaluation? Trincomalee, and Jaffna) Do you include beneficiaries in such learning sessions? They broadly included a) organizations that at- tended the meeting and b) organizations that did 3. Mapping Local Method of Conflict Resolution not attend the meeting. Researches used an exploratory method in data col- The questionnaire comprised more closed questions lection with a snowball approach as this is an area than open ended ones to enable easy comprehen- with less research work done in Sri Lanka, and as

119 Peace Audit 2006

Part 2

documented information on these methods are lim- at district and national levels. ited. Each interview approximately lengthened 60 to 90 In conducting interviews for data collection, re- minutes as researchers used a semi-structured in- searchers selected respondents at two levels. Prelimi- terview guide with a reasonable number of open- nary, a round of interviews was conducted with a ended questions. These mainly aimed at identify- number of academics working in the field of con- ing existing/no longer existing local methods of con- flict resolution and peace building. The purpose of flict resolution, their current situations; i.e., whether these interviews was to explore the type of work they exist at present or not, what sort of issues/con- already done on local methods for conflict resolu- flicts could they best solve, successfulness of these tion from an academic perspective in order to en- methods for resolving disputes, social acceptance rich the scope of the study. each method receives, possibility of introducing any successful method to another locality, and what The next round of interviews was with pre identi- other methods of conflict resolution exist in the area. fied practitioners (individuals & institutes) of local methods of conflict resolution. In addition, inter- Data was descriptively analyzed discussing the ef- views were also conducted with individuals who fectiveness of each method, possibility of introduc- were knowledgeable on certain methods of conflict ing them to other local communities, and what les- resolution practised by the grassroots. These practi- sons could be learned from methods that existed in tioners and informants were selected on the recom- the past (but no longer exist) in forming new meth- mendations of CHA district officers, research assis- ods/mechanisms for resolving conflicts in local com- tants, academics, and other sources of information munities.

120 Examples of Local Methods of Conflict Resolution/Mitigation

Examples of Local Methods of Conflict Annextures Resolution/Mitigation

Kokpitiya

Kudagama

Walapane

Dickwella

Name of the Method If not practised currently, Where is/was it practised? For what sort of conflicts? when was it practised? Among whom?

Wariga Sabhawa Till early 1950s Kokpitiya village, 1. Family level disputes. Mahapathana - Nuwara Kalaviya - 2. Community customs related Anuradhapura District matters

Wariga Sabhawa Till early 1980s Kudagama – Thabuththegama 1. Family level disputes (among decendants from 2. Matters concerning to tribal Andra Pradesh, India.) customs

Janatha Mandapa Currently in Practised Dickwella – Matara district 1. Caste problems (example-1) (since 2001) 2. Family disputes 3. Inter/intra group issues

‘Dilini’ Sarwodaya Currently in practised Liyanwala Pahalagama – 1. Family disputes Sramadhaana Samithiya (since 1998) Walapane district 2. Minor matters relating to (example-1) land, village roads & paths, money, etc.

Rajakeeya Mederapitiya Currently in practised Dehipitiya gama, Agakpola – 1. Family disputes Sramadhaana Samithiya (since 1986) Walapane district 2. Minor issues (land, water, (example-1) money loans, etc…)

121 Bibliography

Anderson, Mary, B., Do No Harm: How Aid Can Support Peace - or War, USA, Lynne Rienner Pub, 1999. Azar, Edward E., “The Analysis and Management of Protracted Conflicts,””in Vamik D. Volkan, Joseph V. Montville, and Demetrios A. Julius, Lexington (Eds., The Psychodynamics of International Relationships, Vol 2, SA 1991, 93. Berghof Handbook for Conflict Transformation, Vol 1, Berghof Research Centre for Constructive Conflict Management, Germany. 2001. Bush, Kenneth, “A Measure of Peace: Peace and Conflict Impact Assessment (PCIA) of Development Projects in Conflict Zones.” Working Paper 1, IDRC, The Peacebuilding and Reconstruction Program Initiative, Ottawa. 1998. Centre for Policy Alternatives, Informal Dispute Resolution in the North East and Puttalam, 2002. CHA, A Trainer’s Manual, “Conflict-SensitiveApproches to De velopment, Humanitarian Assistance and Peace-building”, November 2004

CHA, A Resources Pack, “Providing an Understanding of Current Practice, Avalable Framework and Les- sons Learnt”, January 2004 Chirot, D., Introduction. in Chirot, D. & Seligman, M. E. P. (Eds.), Ethnopolitical Warfare: Causes, Consequences, and Possible Solutions, Washington DC: American Psychological Association. 2001. Decker, S.H., & Van Winkle, B., Life in the Gang: Family, Friends, and Violence. New York, Cambridge University Press. 1996. Department for International Development, Conducting Conflict Assessments: Guidance Notes, 2002. Dodge, K. A., “Social Cognition and Children’s Aggressive Behavior,””Child Development, 51, 1980, 162-170. Eidelson, R. J., & Eidelson, J. I., “Dangerous ideas: Five Beliefs that Propel Groups Toward Conflict.””American Psychologist, 58, 2003, 192-192. Ferdinands T., Rupasinghe K., Saravanamuttu, P., Uyangoda, J., Ropers, N., The Sri Lanka Peace Process at a Crossroads, Colombo, 2004. Fernando, A.K., Alternative Dispute Resolution: A Better Way for Resolving Conflict, Manuscript. Floyd J. Fowler, Jr., Improving Survey Questions Design and Evaluation, California, Sage Publications Inc., 1995. Harris, Simon and Lewer, Nick, “Operationalising Peacebuilding and Conflict Reduction. Case Study,” Working Paper 11, Oxfam in Sri Lanka Centre for Conflict Resolution, 2002. Hasbulla, Shahul H., Balasundarpillai, P., Silva, Kalinga Tudor, Addressing Root Causes of the Conflict Land Problems in North East Sri Lanka, Colombo, FCE – UNHCR., 2005. Insko, C. A., Schopler, J., & Sedikides, C. “Differential Distrust of Groups and Individuals.” in C. Sedikides, J. Schopler, & C. A. Insko (Eds.),”Intergroup Cognition and Intergroup Behavior, Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. 1998. 75–107. Kapila, Mukesh, Conducting Conflict Assessments: Guidance Notes, Conflict and Humanitarian Affairs Department, DFID, 2002. Kodagoda, Yasantha, “Victim – Offender Dispute Settlement in Sri Lanka,””Bar Association Law Journal,”Vol 1, 2004.

122 Kriesberg, Louis, “Escalating Conflicts”, Constructive Conflicts from Escalation to Resolution, USA, Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 1998, 340-355. Lederach, John Paul & Jenner, Janice Moomaw (Eds.), A Handbook of International, Peacebuilding: Into the Eye of the Storm, San Francisco, Jossey-Bass, 2002. Lederach, John Paul, The Little Book of Conflict Transformation, Good Books, 2003. Miall, Hugh, Ramsbotham Oliver & Woodhouse, Tom, Contemporary Conflict Resolution, Cornwall, TJ International, 2004. Paffenholz, Thania, “Designing Transformation and Intervention Process,” in Alex Austin, Martina Fischer and Norbert Ropers (Eds.), Transforming Ethnopolitical Conflict, the Berghof Handbook, Germany, 2004, 158-159. Park, Jacqueline & Deshapriya Sunanda, On the Road to Peace – Reporting Conflict and Ethnic Diversity: A Research Report on Good Journalism Practices in Sri Lanka, United States Institute of Peace. Roberchek, C., “Motivations and Material Causes: On the Explanation of Conflict and War.” in J. Haas (Ed.), The Anthropology of War. Cambridge UK: Cambridge University Press. 1990, 56-76. Roland, Paris, At War’s End – Building Peace After Civil Conflict, Cambridge University Press, 2004 Schaller, M., & Abeysinghe, A. M. N. D., “Geographical Frame of Reference and Dangerous Intergroup Attitudes: A Double-Minority Study in Sri Lanka.” Political Psychology, 27, 2006, 615-631. Schaller, M., Park, J. H., & Faulkner, J. “Prehistoric Dangers and Contemporary Prejudices.” ”European Review of Social Psychology, 14, 2003, 105-137. Uyangoda, Jayadeva, Conflict, Conflict Resolution, and Peace Building, Colombo, (IMCAP) , 2005. Witharana, Dileepa, “Community Peace Work in Sri Lanka: A Critical Appraisal,””Working Paper,12,”University of Bradford, 2002. Zartman, William I., “The Politics of Boundaries in North and West Africa,””Journal of Modern African Studies, Vol. 3, No. 2. 1965, 155-173. Summary of web sources ♦ www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sri_Lanka ♦ www.afsc.org/pwork/aboutpw.htm ♦ www.flashpoints.info/FlashPoints_home.html ♦ www.historyguy.com/index.html ♦ www.infolanka.com/org/srilanka/issues/kumari.html ♦ www.mediationadr.net/student/Students-gen/what is conflict.htm ♦ www.nri.org/waterlaw/AWLworkshop/DESALEGN-CE.pdf ♦ www.transboundarywaters.orst.edu/publications/indigenous ♦ www.wanep.org/lessons_learned.htm ♦ www.nepaldemocracy.org/conflict_resolution

123