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Principles of Soil Management GREATSOILS Principles of soil management Contents 3 Introduction What is ‘healthy’ soil? 4 Soil classification 6 Soil composition Texture Cation exchange capacity Organic matter Structure Water 12 Principles to improve soil health 15 Soil-related problems 18 Soil assessments Physical condition Chemical condition Biological condition 19 Further information This publication was created as part of the Soil Biology and Soil Health Partnership. Funded by AHDB and the British Beet Research Organisation (BBRO), the partnership is a five-year (2017–2021) cross-sector programme of research and knowledge exchange. Photographic credits See page 19. Introduction This science-based guide can aid with the management • Regulate the flow of water and rainfall in the and maintenance of healthy soils. Until recently, the water cycle term ‘soil health’ has not been widely used. However, • Provide nutrients for plant growth, by breaking it has gained traction in the last few years by farmers, down organic matter and altering chemical fertilisers growers and the wider stakeholder community. • Transform and store organic materials, as part No single set of on-farm management practices can of the terrestrial carbon cycle put soils in good health. Good soil husbandry requires a flexible approach that is likely to vary from field to • Degrade contaminants applied through human field, and season to season. activities or left by floods and aerial deposition The agricultural industry has a huge breadth of A healthy soil is able to sustain, in the long term, these experience and depth of understanding of the practical important functions. In a healthy soil, the interactions issues involved in the management of soils within between chemistry (pH, nutrients and contaminants), UK crop rotations. Recent research, including that physics (soil structure and water balance) and biology funded by AHDB and the BBRO, has also advanced (including earthworms, microbes and plant roots) are knowledge of sustainable soil management. optimised for the conditions in that place. This publication brings together such information. It looks at what makes soil and how it is classified. It outlines soil-related issues and how they can be addressed. Finally, the guide highlights wider Biological reference sources, most of which can be accessed via ahdb.org.uk/soil-principles What is healthy soil? The intricate web of relationships between physical, chemical and biological soil components underpins crop and livestock health and productivity. Protecting Chemical soil health is also critical to environmental Physical sustainability, as soils: • Exchange gases, such as carbon dioxide and nitrogen oxides, with the atmosphere Upon this handful of soil our survival depends. Husband it and it will grow our food, our fuel, and our shelter and surround us with beauty. Abuse it and the soil will collapse and die, taking humanity with it Ancient Sanskrit Scripture (1500BC) 3 Soil classification Soils form over thousands of years (Figure 1) through Parent material is the main determinant of whether local interactions of climate, geology, hydrology and soils are likely to have a shortage or an abundance management. Physical and chemical alteration of particular nutrients – phosphorus (P), potassium (K) (weathering) break down parent materials (solid rocks and magnesium (Mg) or trace elements. and drift deposits). Finally, biological cycles of growth For example, some clays release enough potassium and decay produce the critical extra ingredient: organic to support moderate crop growth, without additional matter (OM). Each field has unique soils. fertilisation. Potassium-releasing clays include: chalky Underlying geology determines the soil parent material boulder clay, Gault Clay, Kimmeridge Clay, Weald Clay, and its properties, including soil depth, stoniness, Oxford Clay, Blisworth Clay. mineralogy and texture. Soil maps, therefore, often Note: Carboniferous clays do not release much closely resemble geological maps. potassium. ofile Soil pr Find out more about the underlying geology in your area. The Geology of Britain viewer is free to use and has good supporting information. Access the maps via 5% ahdb.org.uk/soil-principles organic matter 25% air Aerage soil coposition Aerage Losses s e Additions s 25% s e water c o r p il o S Transformations S Zn N Cu B 45% K P mineral Translocations K Mn Losses Years cm 1000 1.0 Parent Topography Climate Organisms Time material 500 0.5 0 0 Soilforing factors Foration of soil is a Figure 1. The formation of soil long and coplex process 4 Soil types are classified in a hierarchy based on The smallest classification units are the soil series observations of soil properties from soil pits (up to 1.5 m (equivalent to a crop variety or animal breed). Named deep). The number and arrangement of the layers that after the places where they were first fully described, make up the soil (horizons) and their texture and colour soils in any given series have similar texture, depth, are particularly important. and mineralogy. On many farms, there are usually about three to four soil series but the number can be far higher The largest classification units (equivalent to species for than this. plants/animals) are the major groups. Most agricultural soils, except some upland soils, fall into one of the There are about 750 soil series in England and Wales. subgroups of well-drained brown earths. Usually, the National soil maps group soils that often occur together iron compounds in agricultural soils give the horizons into smaller ‘map units’. At present, there are about a reddish-brown colour. However, when deprived of 300 ‘soil associations’ and about 30 ‘soilscapes’ in oxygen, such as under waterlogged conditions, the England and Wales (Scotland and Northern Ireland compounds change to a grey or bluish colour in one have a different classification system). or more characteristic gleyed layers. Rusty orange-red The basic soil types determine many of the inherent mottles can also form, where air enters around roots soil-related constraints (e.g. waterlogging and erosion or on the surface of larger pores (Figure 2). risks, soil texture, depth and stoniness) reflected in the agricultural land use capability classification. Cultivated topsoil (clay with organic matter) Subsoil (clay, blocky and prismatic structure with mottling characteristic of seasonal waterlogging) Medium prism from subsoil Soil parent material (grey but with many rusty (grey clay with evidence mottles as a result of of waterlogging) intermittent waterlogging) Figure 2. Soil profile showing characteristic horizons. This is a surface-water gley soil showing gleying as a result of waterlogging. The clay soil is relatively impermeable and, therefore, anaerobic conditions occur during excess rainfall 5 Soil composition Texture Soil texture is determined most accurately by laboratory analysis. However, it is possible to get an indication The amount of primary particles (sand, silt and clay) in of the soil texture class by hand (Figure 4). Soils with more soil defines its texture. Marked changes in texture can than 50% sand and less than 18% clay feel predominantly occur vertically within the soil profile. Texture determines rough and gritty (sands, loamy sands and sandy loams). how easy the soil is to work and can indicate how Those with a high proportion of silt particles and under resilient the soil is to structural damage. Soil texture is 35% clay feel predominantly smooth and silky (silt loams also a major factor that controls how much water a soil and silty clay loams). Soils with more than 30% clay feel can hold (water holding capacity) (Figure 3), how predominantly sticky, mould to form a strong ball and take available it is to plants (available water capacity), how a polish (sandy clays, clays and silty clays). Loams fall good it is at holding onto lime or other nutrients (buffer into the middle with a good mix of sand, silt and clay capacity) and how well roots can grow. It is not easy particles. Organic (peaty) soils have an organic matter to change soil texture but management needs to content greater than 20% and are grouped according adapt to it. to the balance of sand and organic matter content. Sand Silt Clay Largest soil particle at 0.06–2 mm Smaller than sand but bigger than Smallest particle at less than clay at 0.002–0.06 mm 0.002 mm Water drains freely Good drainage Restricted drainage Figure 3. Drainage characteristics of soils where each of the primary particles is dominant 100 100 100 0 20 Peat Clay % silt 55 45 % clay Silty 50 50 Sandy clay Loamy peat1 (LP) or clay 65 Sandy peaty2 (SP) 30 Silty clay % organic matter Sandy clay Clay loam loam 35 35 loam 1 82 Peaty loam (PL) or 18 2 15 Peaty sand (PS) Sandy Sandy Silt 10 25 Loamy loam silt loam loam Sand sand 20 0 100 Organic mineral soil 100 85 70 50 20 0 % sand 10 6 mineral soil Heavy soils Medium soils Sandy and light soils 0 50 100 Figure 4a. Classification of mineral soils into soil texture classes % clay in the mineral fraction 1 Less than 50% sand in the mineral fraction 2 50% sand or more in the mineral fraction Peaty soils 6 Is the moist soil predominantly Does soil mould to form an easily deformed NO NO Start rough and gritty? ball and feel smooth and silky (butter)? Moisten a YES dessert spoonful of soil gradually, kneading Is it difficult to Does soil feel smooth and thoroughly, until Does soil stain YES NO YES soil crumbs are fingers? roll into a ball? silty as well as gritty? broken down. NO YES NO YES Sand Loamy sand Sandy loam Sandy silt loam Silt loam Soil moulds like plasticine, polishes Does soil mould to form a strong ball which NO and feels very sticky when wet? smears, but does not take a polish? YES YES YES YES YES Also rough Also smooth Also rough Also smooth and gritty? and buttery? YES and gritty? and buttery? YES YES YES YES Clay Sandy clay Silty clay Clay loam Sandy clay loam Silty clay loam Figure 4b.
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