THE PROLIFERATION OF SMALL ARMS AND LIGHT WEAPONS IN INTERNAL CONFLICT: THE CHALLENGE OF HUMAN SECURITY IN NIGERIA By Jennifer Douglas Abubakar Submitted to the Faculty of the School of International Service of American University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy In International Relations Chair: Randolph Persaud, Ph.D Peter Lewis, Ph.D atriek Jackson, Ph.D AJ,'A (a J Dean of the School of International Service T f f ) ^ '2tr?7 Date / 2007 American University Washington, D.C. 20016 AMERICAN UNIVERSITY LIBRARY n in Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. UMI Number: 3269571 Copyright 2007 by Douglas Abubakar, Jennifer All rights reserved. INFORMATION TO USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. 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THE PROLIFERATION OF SMALL ARMS AND LIGHT WEAPONS IN CIVIL CONFLICT: THE CHALLENGE OF HUMAN SECURITY IN NIGERIA BY Jennifer Douglas Abubakar ABSTRACT At the end of the Cold War, a surplus of small arms and light weapons exacerbated civil unrest throughout the Third World. West Africa has been particularly susceptible to this unfortunate situation. This research applied a human-interest approach in analyzing small-arms proliferation by examining perceived threats to human security rather than focusing on state security. The study was conducted within the most populous West African country of Nigeria with concentration on the religious, subcultural, and modernization issues facing the country. The uneven distribution of power and disenfranchisement of specific ethnic groups that fuel the sense of insecurity and civil strife are a collective focus of the investigation. This study examines the effects of demand-side dynamics upon militarization in civil conflict. The relatively new nature of the approach and dearth of related literature are also discussed. Data for the case studies were collected using the following three techniques: (1) initial field interviews with key informants, (2) detailed interviews conducted in both a structured and unstructured manner through focus-group discussions, ii Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. and (3) field visits to conflict zones. Data analysis involved the classification of data into thematic domains that included the identification of sentinel encounters, episodes or practices precipitating violent conflict that led to small-arms proliferation, and the subsequent militarization of conflict. This study discusses organizations, groups, and subcultures, as well as the relationships among them that influence conflict. Information relevant to policy making is presented by providing a groundbreaking, in-depth analysis of internecine conflict within Nigeria. The findings of this research will provide policy makers with strategic options for containing the problem of arms proliferation effectively, and recommendations are made toward concrete measures for reducing its spread within Nigeria and the balance of West Africa. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This research could not have been possible without the help and encouragement of many people and the invaluable input from friends and scholars. I will also be forever grateful to my husband and children for their enduring patience and understanding. My interest in the proliferation of small arms and light weapons stems from the class work and passionate discussion within the doctoral human-security course taught by Dr. Randolph Persaud. This study would never have been completed without the urging of this caring and skilled professor. I owe him a debt of thanks for guiding my initial writing and the framework for this research. His continued guidance through to completion of the dissertation was invaluable to me. My focus on the subject was also sharpened by Dr. Habu Galadimah of the University of Jos, to whom I also owe special thanks. Profound thanks are extended to my other committee members. Dr. Peter Lewis was instrumental in the initial formulation of my ideas and in structuring the outcome of the case studies and overall research. Dr. Patrick Jackson provided valuable guidance on the methodology. The assistance of these valued academic professionals was crucial to the completion of this work. To my friends and colleagues, Dr. Yoku Shaw-Taylor and Dr. Cynthia Ticao, thank you for the time spent working with me and discussing my ideas, as well as for your honest and constructive criticism. Dr. Ogoh Alubo and his researchers at the iv Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. National Institute for Policy and Strategic Studies, Jos; Dr. Sunday Ochoche of the Institute for Peace and Conflict Resolution, Abuja; and Dr. Leo Fwa provided tremendous assistance in obtaining interviews and material. Special thanks are extended to Nura Rimi and Dr. Adeola Akande who helped me to compile source material. Appreciation is also expressed to all those who made the fieldwork possible—His Excellency, Diepreye Alamieyeseigha, the Former Governor of Baylesa State; His Excellency, Governor Goodluck Jonathan, and Her Excellency, Mrs. Patience Jonathan; His Excellency, Governor Joshua Dariye, and her Excellency, Mrs. Valentine Dariye; Oronto Douglas; and Dimeari Von Kemedi. To his Excellency, the Vice-President of Nigeria, Atiku Abubakar, a world of gratitude and heartfelt thanks is extended for your support of this research. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION The Problem Since the 1990s, increasing attention has been drawn to the proliferation of armed violence in the internal conflicts of Nigeria. Within the North, Middle Belt, and Niger Delta regions of the country, the proliferation of small arms among ethnic populations is serving to increase violent conflict. These groups are not only fighting the central government, but each other, for control of land and social structures, as well as for control of resources such as oil. Recent violent activities have become deadly as a result of the dramatic influx of small arms and light weapons (SALW). The marked proliferation of such weaponry among the civilian population is causally linked to the social tension that has transformed into violent armed confrontation. The acute demand for firearms for use in civil conflict has become common throughout Nigeria and West Africa in general, where the search for greater security has intensified. A growing body of evidence indicates that arms demand and a subsequent diffusion in civil conflict has presented a significant security dilemma. The problem is heightened by the fact that, during the 1990s, West Africa suffered bloody civil wars, particularly within countries such as Liberia and Sierra Leone, which experienced a major influx of arms into conflict zones. Small arms are now the primary weapons used Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 in ethnic, religious, and political feuds; insurgency; and local wars. The civil war that destabilized Liberia for a decade was fueled by illicit arms proliferation. Boutwell and Klare (2000) illustrated the impact of small-arms proliferation within Liberia by documenting observation of the invasion of insurgent leader Charles Taylor into his country with one hundred civilians solely armed with AK-47s. The aim was to take control of the mineral and timber resources to gamer enough profit to purchase additional light weapons. Similar to Liberia, SALW are visible within most conflict areas of Nigeria. There is troubling evidence that the diffusion of small arms has become an even greater security issue after contributing to a decade of unrest throughout the country (“Guns Out of Control” 2007). An unexpected consequence of this proliferation of arms is found within the Niger Delta region where the taking of hostages, attacks on oil installations, and fighting among rival militias have become commonplace. The militia group known as the Movement for Emancipation of the Niger Delta [MEND] claim that their agitation for a greater share of the oil profits is in the interest of other impoverished groups within the region. The current trend in the use of arms in such civilian conflicts highlights the distressing effects of their availability. As Gebre-Wold