Cyber Security Management: a Review Kouroush Jenab1 and Saeid Moslehpour2

Business Management Dynamics Vol.5, No.11, May 2016, pp.16-39

Cyber Security Management: A Review Kouroush Jenab1 and Saeid Moslehpour2

Key words: Computer, Cyber, Abstract Security, Attack

This paper presents a review of selected literature on cyber security topics. A wide range of topics is looked at that relate to cyber security. Several references Available online are provided. www.bmdynamics.com ISSN: 2047-7031

INTRODUCTION The online IT dictionary Techopedia defines cyber attacks as “…deliberate exploitation of computer systems, technology-dependent enterprises and networks.” “Cyber attacks use malicious code to alter computer code, logic or data, resulting in disruptive consequences that can compromise data and lead to cybercrimes, such as information and identity theft.” (Techopedia online dictionary, n.d.) Cyber attacks are unleashed on corporations and personal computers every day. In a green paper published by the Department of Commerce Internet Policy Task Force (2011), Secretary of Commerce Gary Locke states that, “Protecting security of consumers, businesses and the Internet infrastructure has never been more difficult. Cyber attacks on Internet commerce, vital business sectors and government agencies have grown exponentially. Some estimates suggest that, in the first quarter of this year, security experts were seeing almost 67,000 new malware threats on the Internet every day. This means more than 45 new viruses, worms, spyware, and other threats were being created every minute – more than double the number from January 2009. As these threats grow, security policy, technology and procedures need to evolve even faster to stay ahead of the threats.” (Cybersecurity, innovation and the internet economy, 2011). That was 2011; imagine what those numbers are today. The world has been seemingly more and more dependent on the internet since it was introduced to the masses in the early 1990’s. Businesses have created large network systems to share and manage data about their products, vendors, and employees with other company locations around the world. These same systems are used to market their products to consumers and sell them to these same consumers via their company website or third party vendor. Over the last twenty years we have seen the general public increase their ownership of electronic devices such as laptops, and personal computers at home to shop online, pay bills online, manage personal information and to work remotely. They have also increased their personal share of tablets, smart phones and other mobile devices to update their social media, stay informed of events and to remain in frequent contact with family and friends. This need to share information about the company’s products, manage company and employee data, the need for people to stay connected, shop online, paying bills online has offered an opportunity to the computer world’s bad guys, the hackers. Regardless of ability, the black hat hacker’s goal is to wreak havoc upon a company’s business and your average internet user’s life by introducing malicious software to their computer network or personal smart device. A few examples of black hat hacks are overloading internet servers to impact access to business, hijacking websites to blemish reputations, and identity theft for financial gain. These hacks introduce malware or phishing techniques to steal valuable information or to somehow have a negative impact on targets image.

1 Faculty of College of Aeronautics, Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University, 600 S. Clyde Morris Blvd Daytona Beach, FL 32114-3900, USA E-mail: [email protected] 2 Faculty of College of Engineering, Technology, and Architecture, University of Hartford, Hartford, CT, USA E-mail: [email protected]

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According to the Economist online publication: Securing cyberspace is hard because the architecture of the internet was designed to promote connectivity, not security. Its founders focused on getting it to work and did not worry much about threats because the network was affiliated with America’s military. As hackers turned up, layers of security, from antivirus programs to firewalls, were added to try to keep them at bay. Gartner, a research firm, reckons that last year organizations around the globe spent $67 billion on information security. On the whole, these defenses have worked reasonably well. For all the talk about the risk of a “cyber 9/11” or a “cybergeddon”, the internet has proved remarkably resilient. Hundreds of millions of people turn on their computers every day and bank online, shop at virtual stores, swap gossip and photos with their friends on social networks and send all kinds of sensitive data over the web without ill effect. Companies and governments are shifting ever more services online. But the task is becoming harder. Cyber-security, which involves protecting both data and people, is facing multiple threats, notably cybercrime and online industrial espionage, both of which are growing rapidly. A recent estimate by the Centre for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS), a think-tank, puts the annual global cost of digital crime and intellectual-property theft at $445 billion—a sum roughly equivalent to the GDP of a smallish rich European country such as Austria” (“Defending the digital frontier”, 2014). Companies buy software and hire network security specialists to monitor the networks. All of these are to assist in the detection and prevention of attacks on the networks. The average internet user on the other hand can buy the security software and adhere to use preventive measures and practices to limit attacks. Cybersecurity as defined by Techopedia is, “…preventative methods used to protect information from being stolen, compromised or attacked.” “It requires an understanding of potential information threats, such as viruses and other malicious code. Cyber security strategies include identity management, risk management and incident management” (Techopedia online dictionary, n.d.). This paper aims to review some of the available literature on the primary threats to cyber security and available tools used to combat them. Table 1 lists the sources where most of the references used in this paper came from.

Table 1: Sources of Most of the References Serial No. Source 1 International Journal of Computer Science and Information Security 2 International Journal of Information Security 3 IET Communications 4 Secure List 5 Information Management and Computer Security 6 Journal of Computer Security 7 Linux Journal 8 Economic Times 9 International Journal of Information Security and Privacy

CYBER SECURITY Cyber security is growing more and more as we are made aware of more and more threats. There are several different types of cyber security issues, but for the purpose of this paper we will only cover a few. Spyware is one of several sneaky approaches hackers can use to gain access to your network and personal information. Spyware is software that collects information about a user without their knowledge. Spyware, like most tools hackers use, can be used for harmless efforts such as collecting data to display relevant advertising to your interests to collecting private information. Hackers can also use this software to install other programs like keyloggers that can record your keystrokes and keep record of your history and passwords. Some spyware even comes from “anti-spyware” companies that create malware to infect your system and then offer a solution for a fee to remove it. Spyware infections are predominant. The following graphs show the percentage of PCs estimated to have spyware/adware and percentage of PCs lacking up to date protection. The pie chart shows the percentage breakdown of the threat level of spyware, the most common being a minor threat. To protect your PC from spyware you should be careful

©Society for Business and Management Dynamics Business Management Dynamics Vol.5, No.11, May 2016, pp.16-39 when downloading free software: run a search on the software for claims of being spyware, read the license when installing.

Survey of PCs SPYWARE Threat level 85% 80% Severe 75% 15% Threat 70% Moderate 25% Threat 65% 60% 60% Minor Threat PCs lacking up to PCs with date protection spyware/adware

Worms are another cyber security problem. Worms have similar characteristics to a virus and are self- replicating. Some of the different types of worms that PC and mobile device users are vulnerable to are email worms, instant messaging worms, internet worms, IRC worms, and File-sharing network worms. Since the early 1980s the Internet community has understood the mechanics of viruses and worms, yet the internet remains vulnerable to large scale worm outbreaks to this day. The 1988 Morris worm taught the internet community to be diligent in watching for potential threats of dangerous worm and has led to several sorts of security equipment being installed from antivirus software to intrusion detection systems. As long as the virus writers keep improving and innovating their tactics the antivirus industry will continue to work to catch up and outbreaks will continue to be a problem. These viruses and worms are successful because of the security vulnerabilities that computers and devices have that can be exploited; the internet is just a gateway for some of this activity.

Threats by Type

Viruses

Mis. Trojans

Trojan downloaders

Misc. Potentially unwanted software Adware

Exploits

Worms

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Passwords are “secret” words or phrases used by many sites and organizations to identify users. Passwords are unfortunately a large security threat because they are vulnerable to being broken or guessed by a person or program. Passwords can also be transmitted over a network or stored insecurely somewhere. A report from Global consulting firm Deloitte stated that more than 90% of user-generated passwords will be vulnerable to hacking. More and more often major companies are announcing a hack exposing information of patients and customers putting millions of people at risk for identity theft. Passwords can be secure when users protect them and construct them to prevent brute-force attacks and inspection or decryption of passwords. The human factor is the largest risk in almost all cyber security, especially passwords. People particularly have a hard time remembering multiple complicated passwords that they change frequently. Having multiple complicated passwords that change frequently is to encourage hard-to-guess passwords. Sometimes humans can guess passwords, but there is also software available to automate the guessing process of passwords and try millions possible combinations per second. Back in 2012 a password cracking expert unveiled a computer cluster than can cycle through as many as 350 billion guesses per second. This machine can try every possible Windows passcode in the typical enterprise in less than six hours.

Actual password reuse between two breached web sites with plaintext passwords Used unique passwords

Reused with capitalization differences Actual password reuse between two breached web sites with plaintext Reused exact password passwords

0% 50% 100%

Computer viruses have a long history for both Windows and Apple products. Computer viruses are malware programs that duplicate themselves by attaching copies of the program within other programs on a computer system. These programs are inserted without the user’s consent. They may also be replicated by attaching to data files or the boot sector of a hard drive. Computer viruses are often spread by attachments in emails. They may also be spread through instant messaging. Viruses can be disguised as attachments of video files, funny images, and fake charity sites. Once these viruses are downloaded they perform unfavorable activity to the system. This includes retrieving private information, logging a user’s keystrokes, pirating CPU space, sending unsolicited mail to the person’s contacts, or corrupting files. These programs have caused financial problems the last two decades. The cyber thieves who insert viruses have found several ways to extort money from personal and corporate devices. A common form of malware virus will encrypt a computer file or crash your browser. Once the file is in your computer, they may change your password. This will be followed up with a message demanding money to unlock the password, or to retrieve locked files. This type of virus is also known as a trojan. Trojan viruses are all over the internet today. Unlike most computer viruses, trojans do not replicate themselves. They are offered as a program that will help a user get rid of computer viruses. Once downloaded, trojans spread viruses to the system. Problems caused by trojans include: data sending, denial of service, remote access to system, and disabling software security. These viruses invade privacy,

©Society for Business and Management Dynamics Business Management Dynamics Vol.5, No.11, May 2016, pp.16-39 but may be hard to detect at first. Again, they appear to be a routine useful piece of software. They will often cause the computer to be slow. Another common trojan may be spread through a popular screen saver. Downloading the infected screen saver to the computer will install the trojan onto the computer. A site may appear to offer a free download for a program, game, product or subscription that normally costs money. Downloading this pirated version would make you think you are allowed access to it. During installation this allows the trojan to gain access to your computer. You may receive an email that appears to be from a friend who asks you to view a new program that they have been using or look at a video or file. Opening the file will infect your computer with the trojan horse. Once interaction is made with the trojan program, the computer’s network may be scanned by the hacker. This gives the hacker control over the network. Phishing is another common way for hackers to steal information through several avenues. Phishing is an attempt to gather private information such as bank account info, usernames/passwords, and other details. This is often done through email communication. The person sending an email appears to send a trustworthy communication that deceives a victim by offering the user help or a deal that appears to be legitimate. The email may contain a link to a fake website. The user gives personal information to the site. Once this happens the hacker has control and may use the information to gain money, passwords, or security codes. Sometimes these emails and websites contain malware or trojan viruses. Phishers commonly target bank customers as well as online payment services. Hackers are using phishing as a tool through social media. This is growing as social media outlets become more popular each day. Hackers use fake identities to gain a user’s trust through the various social sites. The hacker is attempting to gain personal information such as passwords, social security numbers, banking information through social avenues. The damage caused by phishing can be costly. It may mean denial to email access, or deleted files. It may cause a financial loss through online or banking fraud. Combating all cyber security threats is an important task today. Many internet users have been victims to security breaches. This can make you susceptible to losing money, or damaging credit. It is important to continue to develop security measures to prevent data breaches. These breaches have caused a new underground economy with hackers gaining access to banking information, or fraudulently purchasing property and establishing lines of credit. This can also cause private personal information to be accessible to the public. More must be done to attain intelligence of network and information security Identity theft can cost you many hours of time by trying to correct damage to your credit. This can also cost a lot of money by paying someone to delete the programs, viruses, and trojans off her your devices. Companies all over the globe use resources to defend themselves against these attacks. Cybercrime is a global phenomenon and continue to hinder efforts to successfully execute punishment against hackers. It is important that efforts are made to coordinate streamlined methods to fight cybercrime. As these crimes evolve, all user groups (private sector, military, and user groups) must continue to establish task forces to combat these attacks. It is important for each user to recognize these criminal attempts by modifying internet browsing. It is also important to not release any personal information if the site or email is suspicious.

CLASSIFICATION OF LITERATURE The topic of cyber security can be divided into many sub categories. The relatable topics of cyber security are the types of attacks and ways of preventing attacks. Table 2 is a classification of literature according to cyber security topics. Emphasis is given to the topics of network and information security, as well as intrusion detection.

Table 2: Classification of Literature According to Topic Serial No. Topic References 1 Trojans and backdoor attacks [1, 8, 17, 31, 37, 55, 98, 107, 115] 2 Denial of service [2, 11, 24, 27, 66, 80, 97, 125, 129, 130, 138] 3 Network security [3, 9, 13, 16, 19, 38, 39, 45, 62, 82, 91, 99, 100, 108, 119, 135, 136, 140]

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4 Information security [4, 5, 7, 30, 44, 46, 47, 50, 52, 53, 58, 68, 75, 77, 78, 81, 84, 100, 104, 117, 123, 131] 5 Cybercrime [16, 23, 34, 37, 38, 83, 84, 85, 90, 95, 105, 112, 113, 121, 123, 126] 6 Cloud security [6, 26, 32, 65] 7 Intrusion detection [34, 37, 39, 43, 51, 56, 64, 69, 73, 76, 81, 94, 96, 99, 114, 118, 119, 127, 137] 8 Spyware [10, 15, 122] 9 Phishing [12, 22, 33, 41, 59, 60, 63, 71, 111] 10 Viruses [14, 18, 20, 21, 25, 29, 35, 36, 42, 48, 67, 72, 74, 106, 120, 124, 128, 132, 133] 11 Worms [14, 28, 54, 89, 128] 12 Man-in-the-middle attacks [70, 86, 88, 134, 135, 136, 139] 13 Passwords [40, 49, 57, 61, 75, 79, 87, 92, 93, 101, 102, 103, 109, 116]

REVIEW OF LITERATURE This section is a review of literature on the topic of cyber security. The literature is presented by topic.

Trojans and Backdoor Attacks Abdulla and Ravikumar [1] looked at combating trojans and backdoor attacks. By use of time fingerprints, trojans can be detected and traced through infected files. Desired properties in UNIX and DOS have been verified. Barker [8] explains that the Trojan backdoor Yebot is capable of implementing many negative actions on an infected machine. It downloads and decrypts the Trojan and transfers control to it after sending a request to the remote server. It will monitor and interfere with surfing, and is also capable of logging keystrokes. Analysts show this as a multiple use malware being used as a banking Trojan. Cloherty and Thomas [17] discuss a malware program that is a threat to U.S. national security. Sources believe software sponsored by the Russian government is used to control oil and gas pipelines, as well and water and filtration systems. The Department of Homeland Security states that a computer network has been hacked as a threat, but the malware hasn’t been activated. Kaspersky Labs’ Global Research and Analysis Team [31] discuss an international science conference in Houston, TX 2009. The Trojan DoubleFantasy sends basic system information to the hackers. This allows them to upload another malware to the victim’s machine. Garnaeva et al [37] observe mobile banking Trojan statistics in 2014. Statistics show that USA is the top country under attack. Russia leads in number of individual users attacked by bank malware. Mobile banking Trojans increased nine times more in 2014 compared to 2013. Kaspersky Labs’ Global Research and Analysis Team [55] observe the EquationDrug Trojan by the Equation Group. This malware copies information remotely and customized attacks for each of its victims. Trojan horse viruses are still being distributed through unsolicited emails today. Pillai [98] describes this malware as a cheap and easily distributed program that can take remote control of a computer. Cyber criminals use this virus as a means to illegally transfer money to overseas account after they obtain banking information from victims. Russell [107] examines a report that the Japanese government being hacked by a Chinese Trojan horse attack. This was discovered after a politician opened an email attachment. It is not clear what information was compromised. Maj Gen Shaw, who heads up the British Ministry of Defence’s cyber programme, told the Daily Telegraph that “the biggest threat to the country by cyber is not military, it is economic”. At this point in 2011, Asia had a reported 117 government websites that had been hit by Trojan viruses.

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Shaw [115] questions proposed legislation that would allow the government to regulate the internet. This could limit internet use or allow extra fees to be charged for streaming services. The proposal to micromanage the internet has a platform for security against malware.

Denial of Service Aggarwal et al. [2] presented a technique for protecting dynamic mobile agents against denial of service attacks. The procedure presented involves malicious hosts being located, and then they are excluded from future paths. Mobile agents are beneficial because they reduce network latency and traffic, but their introduction has also left networks more open to denial of service attacks. Boteanu and Fernandez [11] looked at combating denial of service attacks on connection oriented protocols. After first developing a mathematical model to analyze the tradeoff during attacks, several preventative measures are offered using queue management strategies. Dolev et al. [24] addressed distributed denial of service attacks in which traffic comes from multiple sources on the internet in order to tie up a target’s resources. This type of attack can be combated by allowing the target to control incoming traffic. Traffic of high importance is given precedence in order to weed out potential denial of service attacks. Dolev et al. [24] argue that ISPs should allow customers greater control in traffic shaping. References [97, 125, 129, and 138] also address distributed denial of service attacks. The use of active routers to combat denial of service attacks is discussed by El-Moussa et al. [27]. The authors presented a network with distributed active routers that are integrated with cryptographic algorithms, firewalls, and intrusion detection. The firewalls and intrusion detection can block malicious traffic traveling through the network, while cryptography provides safe connections between users. Furthermore, this active network approach can detect and block an attack close to it origin. Li et al. [66] recognized that trust management in decentralized systems is vulnerable to attack. In trust management systems, servers must evaluate credentials submitted by a client. Here, attackers can use the delegation feature in this system to use up resources by forcing the server to perform long credential verification procedures. By caching credentials in trust management systems, servers can speed up the process of verifying credentials and denial of service attacks can be diminished. Reference [138] also discusses trust management. Min-Shiang et al. [80] looked to key agreement protocol to combat denial of service attacks. The Hiros- Matsuura protocol is presented and found to have several weaknesses. Min-Shiang et al [80] propose an enhanced version of the Hiros-Matsuura protocol in which key validation is strengthened and bandwidth is increased. Phatak et al. [97] introduced Spread Identity to combat distributed denial of service attacks. This dynamic network addressing mechanism provides anonymity and enhanced denial of service protection during internet connections. Filtering in this model successfully blocks attacks with limited impact on important traffic. Timcenko [125] explored denial of service attack in mobile ad-hoc networks (MANET). Timcenko argues that MANETs are far more vulnerable to attacks that conventional networks due to their mobile nature. An intrusion prevention system scheme is presented to combat distributed denial of service attacks. Walfish et al. [129] offered a unique approach to defending against denial of service attacks. They look to the using offensive means by using a system referred to as “speak up”. The idea is that as traffic becomes congested, the server causes clients to send even more traffic to better represent the good clients. Bad clients will not be able to keep up as they are already using too much upload bandwidth. Wang et al. [130] discuss using client puzzle techniques as a countermeasure to denial of service attacks. Two options are presented: puzzle auctions and congestion puzzles. Puzzles auction provide protection between users and congestion puzzles provide control flow. Yu et al. [138] looked at application layer distributed denial of service attacks. These requests are difficult to distinguish from legitimate request in the network layer. By using four aspects of trust, an overall trust can be computed and be used in order to determine whether or not to accept a client’s next request.

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Network Security Prevention of attacks on computers and the networks they reside on is a constant priority for businesses and home users. Ahirwar et al. [3] discussed that human-related incidents are the cause of a large number of security threats and that the constantly evolving developments in technology make it difficult to keep up with new threats. They also discussed security solutions and provide possible resources to assist users in staying current on security measures. Traditional techniques and approaches are not enough to protect data and that improving security should start with the education of database specialist was discussed by Blake [9]. Chaudhry et al. [13] identified four factors that impact the security of networks in organizations: security policy documentation, access control, employee awareness, and top level management support. CISCO [16] reported that popular campaigns to execute email worms abuses the trust of email users’ by delivering emails related to news trends or hot topics at the time so users’ do not question the receipt of the email. Command [19] states that if you work with or use a device that requires a CAC/ID card then be sure to remove the card every time you leave your device. Gil & Barabasi [38] state that despite substantial efforts, it has become all too common to hear a story in the news of a large-scale data breach impacting consumers and putting their personal information at risk. Goodall et al. [39] discussed the importance of network analysts having expertise knowledge in networking, security and problem solving skills. They highlighted the learning process needed to attain this knowledge. Guynes et al. [45] introduce two issues to the business network and transaction security and that most systems are reactive when they should be proactive to avoid delays to addressing issues. Kreitz [62] presented a flow stealing attack. Here, a victim’s browser is redirected while browsing. Flow stealing can be used to obtain important financial information. Kreitz discussed policies that can be adopted by browser vendor to combat these attacks, as well as methods that stores and payment providers could adopt. Mohammed et al. [82] analyzed the best policies and guidelines that should be implemented by administrators to enhance the effectiveness and strength of the network. Papanikolaou et al. [91] study the importance of teaching network security with a hands-on approach and the manner in which it is taught such as using challenges and real world exercises. Saeed et al. [108] consider the impact of user on network systems, and point out that internet connections are the main source of threats on the network. They point out the importance of network users reading and abiding by usage policies and being aware of the threats when accessing the internet. Zuleita and Jorswieck [140] looked at signal leakage to eavesdropping users in multi-user wireless networks. A proposed relay design improves worst-case signal secrecy performance. Puzis et al. [99] addressed attacks on user’s anonymity on the internet. Through eavesdropping, attackers may be able to obtain information such as IP addresses, list of web sites visited, and personal interests. Puzis et al. demonstrate that attackers can obtain vital information through a collaborative attack on less prominent nodes, even if the most prominent nodes cannot be eavesdropped. Spark, Embleton, and Zou [119] presented a backdoor on a chipset level that allows intrusion into a network. The chipset is the Intel 8255x. The backdoor allows sending and receiving of packets without the need to disable security software. Xia et al [135] proposed a physical layer key negotiation mechanism to secure wireless networks. This mechanism can complement existing wireless network protocols to improve security. Yang, Lou, and Yin [136] examined quantum key distribution (QKD). A new protocol is proposed that expands on Hwang’s QKD protocol by strengthening its weakness of shared key encryption.

Information Security The primary purpose of protecting computers and the networks is to prevent the unauthorized access of the data and information on those computers. Ahmad et al. [4] report that organizations are in a preventive mindset when it comes to information security measures. They discuss how organizations expose themselves to unnecessary security risks in order to ensure continued access to services for their users. Aleem et al. [5] present approaches to mitigating blended threats in the areas of physical security

©Society for Business and Management Dynamics Business Management Dynamics Vol.5, No.11, May 2016, pp.16-39 and information security. They discuss possible combined solutions that would address both areas. Astakhova [7] discusses the concept of information security in a way to address behavioral ethics issues. He proposed that the solution to security issues lies within the human nature side instead of the technical side. According to Enescu & Sperdea [30], with the rapidly growing technology that additional research is conducted on all facets of security in use by organizations. They mention areas of interest such as developments in the security industry, how security systems are managed, and the overall function of security in the organization. Gupta & Hammond [44] examine security issues in small businesses; they discover that while most have systems and procedures in place to address threats they feel that most are ineffective. Hagen et al. [46] study information security procedures and their effectiveness. Their study indicated that in order to have effective security measures that they be used in combination in a staircase concept with a strong foundation. Hamid et al. [47] highlight the difficulty of obtaining approval for purchasing system security resources for a threat event that may or may not occur. They also highlighted the need for a reliable security network in order to protect information and computer systems. The team subsequently mentions that when the organization is running optimally then that positive momentum leads to a productive and successful network security team. Hong et al. [50] offers their perspective on enterprise security strategies to assist management teams in decisions concerning securing their information and networks. Hussein et al. [52] discuss information threats that occur from within the organization by authorized users and the processes they execute. They demonstrate that only a few security resources are able to defend against information leakage and that encryption of data is a critical measure that needs to be implemented. Ifinedo [53] covers how specific cultural aspects impact decisions on security threats and the resources that control them. Understanding these different aspects would assist in determining the best approach in creating and maintaining security measures. Keller et al. [58] indicate that even though many small businesses are taking the proper steps to protect information there still areas that can be overlooked leaving them vulnerable to attacks. The team goes on the write that even though these small businesses do not have the budget as many of the larger companies they are avoiding issues and keeping up with the current standards. In their conclusion they point out that internal employees pose the largest threat to information and network security. Mlitwa & Birch [81] investigate how effective intrusion detection systems are when protecting information on networks. They conclude that combining all security resources in a continuous manner improves overall security results. A paper by Raiwani [100] discusses the challenges associated with buying and selling products online. Businesses have access to resources to keep them up to date on security measures while consumers typically do not have that kind of critical access to help keep their information safe. Mehta & Manhas [77] examine banking on-line and impacts to the information being shared by the banking network and the customer. They investigate parameters such as how the size of the company has a relationship to the amount of their budgets applied to security resources and how being a public versus private impacts performance. Liu et al. [68] study the management of medical information and the strategies to prevent security events. They explain how to best protect medical information in today’s highly evolving tech environment. Medlin et al. [75] discuss social engineering as a main threat to securing medical information. They explain how hackers use social engineering to obtain information from employees to allow them access to the hospital network. According to Mensch & Wilkie [78], college student’s awareness of information technology security issues continues to be lacking. They offer solutions towards education awareness and best practices to keep their information secure. Ransbotham & Mitra [104] explain the concept of Choice and Chance attacks on networks. The Choice method being a deliberate attack based on attractiveness and size of presence. The Chance method is an attack that is based on opportunities typically using information gathering techniques. Smith [117] describes how easily computer system may be accessed by unauthorized internal personnel and by hackers but provides suggestions on how to prevent intrusions. Nakashima [84] mentions that just this year, 2015, “President Obama has signed an executive order establishing sanctions for a program to allow the administration to impose penalties on individuals overseas who engage in destructive attacks,” that has been in the work for over two years.

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Taylor [123] discusses a series of highly publicized breaches in U.S. health care organizations have led to several settlements and a heightened awareness by the general public of how important it is to protect their personal information. According to Warkentin & Willison [131] great harm to company information and their security network comes from users within the company as they have direct access to the system.

Cybercrime Economic Times [23] published an article reporting cybercriminals by emailing links using Barack Obama’s 2008 election win as a Trojan horse file to obtain personal information. Naughton [85] argues that cybercrime is receives low priority attention from authorities due to low resources and lack of technical knowledge. Paganini [90] discusses the Trojan horse Aurora that attacked several western companies in 2009. Sujit [121] discusses cybercriminals increasing volumes of malware viruses year over year from 2006- 2009. These programs are being used to find passwords for bank and email accounts as well as credit card information. Paulson [95] covers cyber security after 9-11 interviewing IT professionals on concerns of the slow response to security threats and solutions to the issues they see as unchanged.

Cloud Security Fernandes et al. [32] discusses the trend of movement to the advantageous cloud computing environments and the security concerns that have to be addressed with this new environment. Alzain et al. [6] presented a model for cloud computing. It is suggested that a secret sharing algorithm with multiple clouds can be used in order to ensure data integrity and to reduce security risks. Alzain et al. [6] compare this model to Amazon’s cloud service and find many benefits over a single cloud model. Du et al. [26] proposed a security mechanism based on virtualization. The mechanism analyzes system calls in process and calculates deviation. The model is lightweight and scalable as to provide more universal appeal. Lee et al. [65] introduced a cloud based testbed for collecting malicious data instead of a typical network testbed. By testing spread of harmful code in a cloud based system, savings can be achieved in both time and cost.

Intrusion Detection Green et al. [43] reviewed data obtained from active intrusion prevention (AIP) systems in order to enhance network security. Green et al. used the AIP findings and suggested that a strict firewall should be in place for local attacks. Furthermore, computers should be shut down during times when not in use in order to decrease the chance of attack as most attackers are more active at night. Huang [51] researched distributed intrusion detection technology. Huang combines agent models and peer to peer models of intrusion technology to develop his system APDIDS, agent based P2P distributed intrusion detection system. This model alleviates some of the most severe problems that traditional intrusion detection systems have, such as high bandwidth and poor scalability. Jan et al. [56] demonstrated security weaknesses found in wireless network systems. Monitoring users already connected to a network can help protect against attacks, while verification and authentication can ensure eligible users are only permitted to access networks. Kruse et al [64] introduced a stacking approach for improving intrusion detection accuracy. Accuracy of detectors is improved by use of stacked decision trees that raise scores in case of a true attack. This approach helps to reduce false alarms. Makanju et al [73] explored problem with evaluating the robustness of machine learning based detectors used in intrusion systems. The training data presented in the learning algorithms determines how robust the detector can be. Through use of previous data, machine learning detectors can better detect a variety of attacks. Cross-attack robustness means that machines can detect attacks that are similar to attacks they are already trained for.

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Patel, Qassim, and Wills [94] presented a survey on the comprehensive state of intrusion detection and protection systems. These systems should use a combination of techniques to assist them in determining actual intrusion from normal activity. Puzis et al [99] studied effectiveness of attacking anonymity through collaborating eavesdroppers. Central nodes on the internet are well protected from eavesdropping. However, by use of eavesdropping on several smaller nodes it is possible to compromise anonymity of a user. Future research calls for analysis where nodes have anonymity services as well as eavesdropping protection. Sharma [114] looked at intrusion in wireless local area networks (wireless LANs). Most anybody can gain access to wireless LANs, making it hard to pinpoint intruders. In open networks, any mobile device is open to join. In closed networks, intruders can usually crack service set identifiers by simple means. Sharma lists several ways intrusion can be detected when in infrastructure mode. Sodiya et al. [118] provided insight into developing a more effective intrusion detection system. By combining data mining and expert systems, detection is more effective and false alarms are reduced. Periodic profiling ensures user activity is always up to date. Sparks, Embleton, and Zou [119] presented findings about intrusion through a chipset level network backdoor. The backdoor has the ability to send and receive packets in secret. The backdoor also can bypass virtually all firewalls and intrusion detection software. Limitation of this study was implementation of a specific chipset and hardware. If support could be extended to other chipsets, however, it is apparent that the threat could increase. Viera et al. [127] examined intrusion detection in grid and cloud computing environments. Intrusion detection in cloud computing is especially difficult to detect because attacks do not leave traces in a node’s operating system where the detection system hides. The system proposed by Viera et al. is designed to cover attacks that are unable to be detected by network and host based intrusion detection systems. The system also has low processing cost with satisfactory performance. Yasinsac [137] described a method to detect intrusion in security protocol environments. Classic intrusion detection considers activities against object. Yasinsac’s method differs by addressing behavior relative to protocol activation. Liu & Cheng [69] analyze the attack patterns, trends and challenges with cyber security. They conclude that organizations must use enhanced intrusion detection devices as well as know the weaknesses and strengths of their own security to be successful at combating threats. Meharouech et al. [76] discuss the purpose and limitations of Intrusion Detection Devices (IDS) and proposes the need to manage alerts and analyze information as it becomes available. Pfleeger [96] studies an intrusion on a large company and based on the results shares how to possibly recognize attacks early, best response options and prevention of future threats.

Spyware Spyware is software available to attackers that gathers information about users without their knowledge or conscious permission. Some forms of this software are considered harmless because its purpose is to track your activities in order to find and display relevant ads to users’ needs. Other types of spyware that can take control of your system are much more difficult to deal with. A similar software known as ransomware will seize the control of user’s data and then demand a ransom to get control of their information back, these type of attacks soared 113% in 2014 [133, 113]. Spyware threats can multiply dramatically on computers with shared users. Spyware is more often downloaded onto a user’s device via free software downloads. Spyware is sometimes masked as other software to fool the user into downloading [10]. When harmful software infects a system it gathers details and information about the device and the user. The information the software collects transmits it back to attackers for attacker’s review [122]. The threat of spyware and malicious attacks are not limited to attackers in the United States. In 2006 it was discovered that China had double the Web sites hosting spyware as the U.S. [15]. Just this year, 2015, “President Obama has signed an executive order establishing sanctions for a program to allow the administration to impose penalties on individuals overseas who engage in destructive attacks,” that has been in the work for over two years [84].

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Phishing Chapman [12] examines spear phishing. A traditional phisher may send mass emails. A spear phisher will target a business or organization by learning all available information about the company or group. They will often target an administrator of the company. They will make an attempt to communicate with the administrator to build trust, then will send a link or email that directs them to a malware site or downloads a file to their system. This allows the phisher access to the group’s network. Combating spear phishing involves a three-pronged defense: email filtering, organization-wide training, and network monitoring. Constantin [22] writes about a reported a phishing attack against Microsoft Office 365 Outlook Web App users. This was done to gain access to emails with spear-phishing techniques. The group attacks using two fake domains that would be familiar to the victims. The attackers would then construct phishing emails that would attract the victims such as well-known events or conferences. Ferrara [33] comments that phishing attacks are ahead of the technology and training that defends against it. Payment services make up 47% of phishing attacks. This causes a long-term risk to the economy. Many of the attacks are successful due to victims oversharing private information. It is important for management teams to educate employees to how to recognize and avoid phishing attacks. Cyber criminals make diligent efforts to utilize seasonality topics for financial gain. Goretsky [41] covers two cyber Monday phishing emails from 2014. These emails were disguising to be The Home Depot or Costco online order receipts. They were used to obtain personal data such as credit card numbers. King [59] reports manufacturing and mining industries are at high risk for spear-phishing scams. One in three organizations in these sectors was subjected to at least one targeted spear-phishing attack. Korolov [60] discusses phishing email scams during the holiday season using shopping sites such as Amazon and EBay as disguises. This email campaign uses fake online order receipts and attachments used to obtain login information. The hacker changes information and accesses the information within 30 minutes of obtaining the information. Kruck [63] advises email spoofing is a form of phishing that makes it appear that the email originated from someone or somewhere other than yourself. Email spoofing is intended to obtain personal information about the victim without them ever knowing. One defense against spoofing emails is to install and update virus scanning software. Luo [71] proposes the new two-factor interlock authentication protocol will give successful defense against phishing attacks. A series of hacking scenarios show that this protocol can withstand standard phishing strategies. Schupak [111] explains that phishing is a numbers game. The Target and Anthem data breaches released tens of millions of email addresses earlier this year. This breach also gave the phish attackers access to the names associated with each email to make the disguised emails look more legitimate. Kruck & Kruck [63] evaluated the increasing threat of phishing on businesses, educational, and individuals. They offer methods to protect users and make recommendations for future reference. Luo & Guan [71] propose a new authentication protocol to defend against phishing attacks. Their paper shows how attack simulations are defeated by the use of the protocol.

Viruses Chen [14] explains the evolution of computer viruses. From the beginning they were used to reproduce by attaching to a normal computer program to corrupt the other programs after controlling the first program. They have grown in sophistication over the years by continuing to hide their existence and use social engineering to spread the attack. Cole [18] features an article about a computer virus that targets the top 1% wealthy in the U.S. and Asia. This can be executed from waiting on the victim to check in through a hotel WiFi network to steal data. UPS data was compromised and exposed by a computer virus in 2014. The Associated Press 2014 [20] reported 51 stores in 24 states were breached by a virus that gained access to postal and email addresses as well as credit card numbers from over 100,000 transactions. Identity protection and credit monitoring were provided by UPS to affected customers.

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Dowling [25] presents virus attacks under the categories of resident and non-resident. Resident viruses install themselves in an operating system while a non-resident looks for a victim, attaches the infection, and then exits the system. Times Colonist 2015 [29] reported a computer virus that was presented to a company as a resume. The file was presented to a District of Saanich employee and spread to many company computers. Their information technology staff controlled the virus with a backup file system. Technology 2015 [36] published an article about a virus that targeted gamers. This virus was a form of ransomware. It would encrypt in the computer system. Once attached the hacker would stop the victim from playing the game. They would only offer to reveal a code to unlock the game only if the victim would pay at least $500 in Bitcoins or $1000 in PayPal My Cash payment cards.video Gray [42] reports a malware virus used to steal money during tax season. Hackers use an attachment that claims to contain information about the victim’s tax return. Once it is opened it is used to control different parts of the PC and may also record video and sound if a webcam is attached to the computer. Heisler [48] explains the first computer virus created. Elk Cloner was the first Apple virus to be developed in 1981. It was used to exploit security flaws. Brain was the second virus and it was developed in 1986. Its purpose was to track and punish anyone who may attempt to steal their medical software. Computer Business Review ranked 10 of the worst computer virus outbreaks. Lima [67] writes about various virus programs that have cost billions of dollars in damage. MyDoom is a virus that attached itself to a Windows system folder as a Trojan and infected one in every 41 email messages. The hacker who created the virus was never found. Lyne [72] contributes an article about malware who holds the victim’s files as ransom. These types of programs cause data to be inaccessible in attempt to get the victim to pay them to regain control. It is important to have an up to date security system and backup strategy in place to combat this time of attack. McLaughlin [74] exams a scam that took place in Portland, ME. The scam is used to target the elderly claiming to fix a virus on the victim’s computer. They use this to obtain the person’s personal financial information as well as computer passwords. Roeder [106] discusses Air Force Academy ongoing research attempting to stop computer viruses. They are developing a program that will scan for malware and has compared over 4.5 million examples of viruses to help combat against newly emerging attacks. The Associated Press 2015 [120] reports Suffolk County NY successfully contained a virus that affected thousands of government computers. The virus was used to send bogus messages. The technology department installed an update to prevent reinfection from this virus. A correspondent for Mid Day.com [124] explains 10 of the most notable computer viruses. This included the Michelangelo that was programmed to activate on March 6 of every year. This caused between 10,000-20,000 different cases of data being lost. Flame is a modular malware used to gain access through Microsoft Windows operating systems. This versatile virus can use computers as beacons by downloading through local Bluetooth connections and through Skype conversations. Waugh [132] examined a virus that disguised itself with fake online bank statements. The Crimeware virus would steal passwords from your internet browser. The hackers used the program to obtain debit card numbers. The numbers would be adjusted once you visited the site so the victim wouldn’t recognize the theft. Schreiber [110] reports that police in Auburn, NH are investigating an email virus that made its way through the local government and school system.

Worms Worms are malicious programs that are self-replicating on computers and/or computer networks without the user’s knowledge. When a malicious program is capable of spreading via network or remotely and self-replicates it is classified as a worm [128]. Some words spread as network packets, directly penetrating computer memory and activating the worm code. Worms are also spread as file attachments in emails, links sent via instant messaging, and peer-to-peer (P2P) networks.

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Email worms send a copy of itself as attachments in email messages or a link to a network resource. The worm code activates when the infected attachment is launched or the link is opened. These worms use a variety of different sources to find email addresses to target with the infected files such as address books in Microsoft Outlook, a WAB address database, emails in a hacked email inbox. To increase chances of infecting machines and networks most email-worms will use more than one of these sources [28]. Popular campaigns to execute email worms abuse the trust of email users’ by delivering emails related to news trends or hot topics at the time so users’ do not question the receipt of the email [16]. Instant message worms spread through instant messaging systems by sending a link to message contacts. Once someone clicks the link and opens the file the worm is activated and replicates [54]. P2P worms spread via peer-to-peer file sharing networks. To get access the worm simply has to copy itself to the file sharing directory, usually on a local machine. Once the worm is copied to the P2P network it informs users of the file and provides access for users to download the file from the infected computer, thus infecting the user’s computer [89]. As technology improves and capabilities of users and attackers improve a more worrisome trend in worms are extremely fast worms targeted to specific vulnerabilities to saturate a target population within hours [14]. Users can take steps to protect their devices from intrusion by keeping their firewall turned on, to try to deter hackers who may want to intrude and gain access to information [34]. Installing updated Antivirus software designed to prevent malicious programs from infecting devices and keep the device operating system up to date. Operating systems are updated to stay fix bugs and security holes. Another way to protect devices is to be careful and aware of what users are downloading. Do not open an email attachment in an unexpected email [34]. If you work or use a device that requires a CAC/ID card, be sure to remove the card every time you leave your device [19]. Users should also be aware that the current frontier in cyber security involves social media accounts and information that users are making public without considering risks involved [83].

Man-in-the-Middle attacks Luettmann and Bender [70] looked at the security vulnerabilities in auto-updating software. Automatic updates were introduced to ensure that user software remained current. However, having no standard for a protocol makes this an area that could be exploited. Luettmann and Bender present two man in the middle attacks against HTTP downloads and proceed to demonstrate how the attacks are used against auto updating software. Nor et al. [86] looked at man-in-the-browser attacks, a type of man-in-the-middle attack which targets information flow between a client and server. The lack of security on the client side can is responsible for the vulnerability. This type of attack lends concern to online banking applications. A proposed enhanced remote authentication protocol with hardware based attestation can effectively deter attacks and preserve privacy. Wu et al. [134] looked at man-in-the-middle attacks in wireless LANs. Wireless LANs have increased in use but are far more susceptible to MitM attacks. Wu et al propose a dynamic password technology to overcome this susceptibility. Demands for security will need to be met as wireless LANs become more popular. Xia et al [135] also looked at MitM attacks in wireless LANs. A physical layer key negotiation method is proposed. In this mechanism, the wireless networks can quickly exchange keys and establish the security protocol. It also increases resistance to eavesdropping and brute force attacks. Yang, Lou, and Yin [136] examined quantum key distribution (QKD) and proposed a new key expansion scheme. Yang et al. showed that Hwang’s QKD protocols is weak in its encrypting of the shared key. The proposed model can prevent the attack by encrypting the key into a sequence of unitary operators. Reference [139] also looks at QKD. Zhang, Wang, and Tang [139] looked at fake-state attacks. Typical fake-state attacks are combated by installation of a watchdog. The presented attack scheme, however, is hard to detect. The scheme shows quantum cryptography needs more research to ensure protection.

Passwords Medlin et al. [75] study social engineering attacks on hospitals to gain access to medical information on the hospital networks. The results showed that 73% of the employees tested shared their password proving that hospitals need additional training on security awareness. A password is a secret word or phrase that is used to prove identity before granting access to particular resources. In the digital age passwords are a string of characters used in combination with a unique username to gain access on different devices such as computer systems, mobile devices, gaming consoles, etc. Passwords are in place for security purposes, to protect personal and proprietary information, but every password is at risk for a security breach [116]. Krebs [61] explains that a strong password can go a long way in protecting your information from hackers. In 2005 identity-related attacks in the US totaled more than 56.6 billion dollars and should serve as a picture of why creating strong passwords to protect your information is vital [126]. Users should use a combination of words, characters, numbers, upper-case letters, and lower-case letters to create unique passwords. Users should avoid using passwords that are simple or words in the dictionary. There are several password-cracking tools available to the general public that will try thousands of common names and passwords to crack passwords. It is also good practice to avoid using obvious keyboard combinations like “qwerty” or “123456.” A strong password can be created by using a collection of words that form a phrase or sentence while incorporating the use of characters and numbers previously mentioned. Users should go a step further in lessening their vulnerability by avoiding using the same password for multiple log-ins or sites. Users should avoid using their email password for any other account. Users may also find added protection in using a third-party program that can help safeguard passwords. Scherzer [109] goes on to explore the sufficient length of a password to ensure the most protection against attackers. The longer and more complicated the combination of characters for a user’s password the longer it takes software to crack it. With the rise of security breaches via password hacks the security community has explored the necessity of passwords and consequences of eliminating them. Most professionals believe passwords are here to stay, but MicroStrategy has released a cyber security product, Usher Mobile, allowing employees to identify themselves and enter secure spaces via their smartphones, eliminating the need for traditional forms of identification, including passwords [57]. It is also very important for users to avoid storing passwords unless absolutely necessary and users must store passwords that they are stored securely [87]. The human factor in creating and storing passwords assures us that there will always be vulnerability’s in this area of cyber security. When people have trouble remembering passwords they will typically write them down, forget them and require frequent assistance, use very simple passwords or reuse old passwords [49, 105]. Despite substantial efforts, it has become all too common to hear a story in the news of a large-scale data breach impacting consumers and putting their personal information at risk [38]. Targeted attacks are becoming an established part of the cyber security threat landscape [37]. A series of highly publicized breaches in U.S. health care organizations have led to several settlements and a heightened awareness by the general public of how important it is to protect their personal information [123]. In addition to high profile health care breaches, back in 2011 attackers stole 90,000 pairs of emails and passwords from military contractor Booz Allen Hamilton among many other large-scale attacks, this gives hackers direct access to very sensitive information [75]. In 2012 hackers stole 6.5 million passwords from the professional networking website, LinkedIn. In 2013 attackers were able to obtain account information from 2.9 million Adobe users. While these are only a few examples from a few years, there are several attacks happening every year, some that make it into the news and some that do not. Attackers are using more advanced tools and sometimes it seems that humans cannot protect themselves enough. Tools such as GPUs are being used more than CPUs because their capability to crack passwords is much faster than CPUs [102]. GPU computing is contributing to mostly offline password cracking, because online sites typically have a limited amount of attempts to login before the account is locked. In 2012 a GPU cluster was revealed that could crack every standard Windows password in less than 6 hours [40]. This machine was the first to use

©Society for Business and Management Dynamics Business Management Dynamics Vol.5, No.11, May 2016, pp.16-39 a package of virtualization software on a five-server system and allow the servers to function as if they are all running on a single computer, making the process four times faster than before. Password hashes were created for storing users passwords. This one-way hash encrypts passwords since they are not stored in plain text so the system that a user is logging into has something to match it to. Rankin [102] shares that the idea behind the one-way hash is that a user’s password can easily be converted to a hash, but not easily be converted from a hash back to a password. Essentially an attacker must know the users hash to crack the password. There are several software options available that perform one of two main attacks: dictionary and brute-force attacks [103]. To perform a dictionary attack the attacker provides the cracking software with a dictionary full of possible passwords to try. In executing a brute-force attack the software iterates through all possible combinations for a password of a specified length [101]. Several password studies have been conducted over the last few years in reference to how often users changed their passwords, the strength of the passwords changed, how many passwords are maintained, etc. In 2014 statista was interested in comparing Millennial password practices to Generation X password practices. They found that 19% of Millennials in the U.S. change their online password once a month and only 13% of Generation X change their online passwords once a month [79]. A 2012 study of Sony and Yahoo! Passwords found that 59% of the users compared in the 2012 Yahoo! Voices password database breach and 2011 SonyPictures.com password data breach reused the exact same password. Two percent of the users reused the same password with capitalization differences and only 39% of users used unique passwords [92]. A study conducted in 2012 sought to answer how many passwords online adults maintain. The study found that 58% of online adults maintain five or more unique passwords, 30% maintain ten or more unique passwords and 8% maintain a whopping twenty-one or more unique passwords [93]. Users will have to continue to be aware of fundamental technology for security and privacy on the Internet and apply this information to steps like creating passwords [88].

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