“I’m Doin’ It for Defense”: Messages of American Popular Song to Women during World War II A thesis submitted to the Graduate School of the University of Cincinnati in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the degree of MASTER OF MUSIC in the Division of Composition, Musicology, and Theory of the College-Conservatory of Music 2013 by Amy Brooks BM, Bob Jones University, 2008 Committee Chair: bruce d. mcclung, PhD Abstract World War II presented many new opportunities for American women. In this time of need, they were called upon to take an active part in the war effort, whether by means of working in a factory, growing a victory garden, or serving as a volunteer for wartime organizations. Women made great strides forward in areas such as the workforce and the military. The American popular song industry promoted these new roles for women. I have compiled over 150 songs from 1940 to1945 that relate to women’s roles during the World War II era. Of these songs, I have chosen a select number of songs that best demonstrate popular culture’s attitudes and actions towards women during the war. These songs can be divided into five categories: women in the military, women in the workforce, women’s war effort, women’s responsibilities to men in uniform, and women in the immediate post-war period. I have studied the representative songs by considering their lyrics to identify the objectives supported by the popular song industry. I took into consideration the venues in which they were presented and how these performances influenced their reception. I also considered the date songs were published and copyrighted, and their correlation to current political events. In this study I analyze the messages of the American popular song genre in order to demonstrate how songwriters promoted a new vision for women’s roles and responsibilities during World War II. iii Copyright © 2013 by Amy Brooks iv Table of Contents Introduction: “I’m Doin’ It for Defense”.........................................................................................1 Chapter 1: “Bars on Her Shoulders and Stars in Her Eyes”: Women in Uniform...........................7 “The Woman of the Year”: Positive and Negative Views on Women in the Military................................................................................................................................ 8 “Here Come the WAVES”: Hollywood and Women in the Military................................13 “The Song of the Army Nurse Corps”: Women in the Military as Caregivers................. 16 “The WAC Is a Soldier Too”: Women in the Military Post-War......................................16 Chapter 2: “Belt Line Girl”: Women in the Workforce................................................................ 19 Popular Imagery of Rosie the Riveter............................................................................... 19 “On the Swing Shift”: Romanticizing Women in the Workforce..................................... 23 “We’re the Janes that Make the Planes”: Doing a “Man’s Job”....................................... 26 Chapter 3: “Get Some Cash for Your Trash”: The War Effort on the Home Front...................... 30 “Any Bonds Today”: Selling War Bonds..........................................................................30 “Junk Ain’t Junk No More”: Scrap Drive Participation....................................................35 “How Does Your Garden Grow?”: Victory Gardens........................................................ 37 “Ration Blues”: The OPA and Rationing.......................................................................... 38 Chapter 4: “You Can’t Say No to a Soldier”: A Woman’s Duty.................................................. 44 “I’ll Be True While You’re Gone”: Depictions of Faithfulness.........................................44 “You Can’t Say No to a Soldier”: Sexual Connotations in Song...................................... 46 “Mother, Write Your Boy a Letter”: Patriotic Duties and Expectations........................... 48 “Corns for My Country”: Volunteer Organizations during the War................................. 51 Chapter 5: “When the Nylons Bloom Again”: Messages of Hope and Healing........................... 56 “V for Victory”: The End of the War in Sight.................................................................. 56 “Waitin’ for the Train to Come In”: The Men Coming Home.......................................... 58 “When the Nylons Bloom Again”: Sentiments about the Return to Peacetime................ 59 “Sweethearts in Overalls”: Only for the Duration?........................................................... 62 Conclusion..................................................................................................................................... 66 Bibliography.................................................................................................................................. 70 Appendix: Index of World War II Popular Songs Pertaining to Women..................................... 76 v Introduction “I’m Doin’ It for Defense” The onset of World War II brought about a significant change in women’s roles. Many new opportunities presented themselves, and in this time of need, American women were called upon to take an active part in the war effort, whether by means of working in a factory, growing a victory garden, or serving as a volunteer for various wartime organizations. Government organizations, such as the War Advertising Council (WAC) and the Office of War Information (OWI), released propaganda directed towards women through the outlets of film, radio, newspaper, poster art, and magazines. Propaganda promoted a “mixture of strength and dependence, competence and vulnerability, [and] egalitarianism and conservatism” for the new roles of wartime women.1 The popular song industry during World War II strongly advocated for and promoted the new roles for women. I have compiled over 150 songs from 1940 to 1945 that relate to women’s roles during the World War II era.2 These songs best demonstrate popular culture’s attitudes about women and can be divided into five categories: women in the military, women in the workforce, women’s war effort, women’s responsibilities to men in uniform, and women in the immediate post-war period. All of these areas saw significant changes in women’s roles and responsibilities. For the first time in United States history, women participated in their own military organizations, and over the course of the war, more than 350,000 women would 1 Maureen Honey, Creating Rosie the Riveter: Class, Gender, and Propaganda during World War II (Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press, 1985), 7. 2 See Appendix for complete list of songs, composers, lyricists, and years of publication. 1 voluntarily serve in the various military divisions.3 Women were also encouraged to get a factory job. The “Rosie the Riveter” image portrayed working women as strong, patriotic, and proud. Women were also asked to adhere to strict rationing regulations. They were expected to “Use it up, Wear it out, Make it do, Or do without!”4 They were also encouraged to write letters to servicemen as well as volunteer their time at canteens, the Red Cross, or any of the numerous organizations that supported the war effort. Then after the war was over, women were expected to leave their jobs and return to their pre-war lives as a homemaker and dutiful wife, because all of this had only been out of necessity “for the duration.” As a foundation for this study, I have first considered the cultural and gender-specific ideologies of the World War II era beginning with pre-war involvement with support for Great Britain to the end of the war and the return to peacetime. Within these specific ideologies, I surveyed the popular song genre and have analyzed those songs that address the qualities and character of women promoted through wartime propaganda. These songs comprised the basis for my research, and I examined representative songs by studying their lyrics to identify the messages that were being conveyed. I took into consideration the venues in which they were presented and how these performances influenced their reception. The venues in which the songs appear included films, musicals, radio, and live performances in various war effort drives, shows, and concerts. I also considered the date songs were published and copyrighted and their correlation to current political events. Much literature has been written about women in American society during World War II, but almost without fail these books omit the influence of popular song. The most recognition 3 D’Ann Campbell, Women at War with America: Private Lives in a Patriotic Era (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1984), 20. 4 Donald I. Rogers, Since You Went Away (New Rochelle, NY: Arlington House, 1973), 255. 2 these vital war songs receive is a passing mention of one or two titles of only the most popular songs. More time is given to the popular sentimental ballads of “boy meets girl and falls in love.” These songs, typically referred to as “slush songs,” were the most requested and most played songs during the war. Film and radio have also received their fair share of scholarly attention. However little attention has been devoted to American popular song. Two books were especially relevant and helpful to my research on popular songs of World War II: John Bush Jones’s The Songs That Won the War: Popular Music and the Home Front, 1939–1945,5 and William and Nancy Young’s Music