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Quaternary Volcanoes and Widespread Tephras of the World

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Quaternary Volcanoes and Widespread Tephras of the World 3 Quaternary Volcanoes and Widespread Tephras of the World Hiroshi MACHIDA Professor emeritus, Tokyo Metropolitan University [email protected]/[email protected] Abstract It is the two contrasting volcanic products, flood basalt and silicic ignimbrite, that represent the largest known volcanism in the earth history. The former is a product of effusive eruption at hot spots and divergent plate margins, forming extensive lava plains and shield volcanoes. On the other hand the ignimbrite is usually associated with large calderas on the conversion boundary and continental rift, forming ignimbrite sheets and co-ignimbrite volcanic tephras. Many extraordinarily large tephras have been recognized not only on land but also from abyssal sediments. This paper particularly focuses on the significance of Quaternary widespread tephras. A catalogue of the large volume tephras of the Quaternary around the world is tentatively listed, because they are very powerful tools for correlating stratigraphic sequences and landforms extensively, particularly for land-sea correlation. Continual revision and supplement action for compilation of the tephra catalogue will be a task for future studies. Key words: co-ignimbrite ash, flood basalt, ignimbrite, plate tectonics, Quaternary, tephra catalogue, widespread tephra 1. Volcanoes of the World the Pacific, Indian and Atlantic Oceans. Examples include the Hawaiian islands, the Maldive Islands and The theory of plate tectonics is a well supported others. Volcanic islands of this type are chielfly model and one which is able to describe the distri- composed of basaltic lavas with small volumes of bution of volcanoes of different types on the surface silica-rich materials. They form large shield volca- of the earth. Figure 1 shows the distribution of vol- noes of the Hawaiian type. Therefore, tephras in- canoes in association with plate boundaries. The cluding scoria and hyaloclastic materials can be seen plate boundaries are classified into three types: diver- in very limited areas. gent, transform and convergent. Divergent bound- The principal expression of continental intra-plate aries are mid-ocean ridges where new crust is being volcanism is the eruption of extensive flood basalt in formed, and continental rifts like those of East Africa such regions as the Columbia plateau (USA), Deccan formed by active volcanism. Transform boundaries (India), South Africa, etc. Although volcanic activity are typified by the San Andreas Fault in California and is mainly effusive, producing lava flows with small represent areas in which plates move past each other. tephra (pyroclastic and volcanic ash) layers, there They are not associated with volcanism but with sometimes occur explosive eruptions with voluminous devastating earthquakes. Convergent boundaries are silica-rich tephra deposits. Examples include the complex areas forming linear mountain chains, Baegdusan volcano on the border between China and metamorphic belts and volcanic chains. There are North Korea and the Yellowstone volcanic complexes many distinct styles of plate collision and these (USA). These suggest that silicic continental crust produce various forms of volcanic activity and may have been melted by intrusion of basaltic magma. deposits. 1.2 Volcanism at divergent plate margins 1.1 Intra-plate volcanoes Volcanic activity is associated with two categories Intra-plate volcanic activity is driven by mantle of divergent plate boundary, mid-ocean ridge activity plumes that create volcanoes at hot spots on the and continental rift ones. The former is generally Earth’s surface. Activity occurs within both oceanic characterized by effusive volcanic activity, producing and continental plates. large amounts of basaltic lava flows on the deep sea Active and inactive volcanic islands and sea- bottom. One exception occurs in Iceland where the mounts are features of intra-plate oceanic volcanoes in Mid-Atlantic Ocean ridge has met a hot spot and, 4 H. MACHIDA rld. (Otsuka and Katsui (1976), revised) revised) Katsui (1976), and rld. (Otsuka Distribution of Quaternary volcanoes of the wo Quaternary volcanoes of of Distribution Fig. 1 Fig. 1 Quaternary Volcanoes and Widespread Tephras of the World 5 therefore, extraordinarily large amounts of volcanic plinian and sub-plinian eruptions and commonly occur products are being produced. The volcanic products in elongated fallout areas. Volcanic ash soil or ando- vary greatly from lava flows to pyroclastic ejecta, and, sol is usually a product of tephra of this kind. consequently, large amounts of tephra occur in Iceland Many tephra layers play important roles as time and the adjacent seas. markers in establishing a chronology for the Quater- Continental rift volcanism is well studied in the nary, because they occur within very short intervals of East African rifts and the Basin and Range region of time over wide areas. Individual tephras, however, the USA. The East African narrow rift is a place of vary significantly and are restricted spatially by such swarms of volcanoes of many different types. Vol- factors as the magnitude and direction of prevailing canic products generated in those rifts are much more wind, particle size of the tephra, etc. Consequently it variable than those of mid-ocean ridges. Lava flows had been said that tephra is only useful for local and and a variety of pyroclastic materials, including ignim- regional stratigraphy. brites commonly occur. Compositions range from Progress in characterization techniques for identifi- basalts to silica-rich trachytes and rhyolites and are cation and dating methods has made possible a generally more alkaline. long-distance correlation between tephras and, there- fore, placed local tephra studies on a more solid 1.3 Volcanism at convergent plate margins framework since the early 1970s. Details in Japan It is estimated that about 80% of the active will be described in the next chapter, “Volcanoes and volcanoes occur above subduction zones in the con- Tephras in the Japan Area”. vergent plate margins. The circum-Pacific volcanic The discovery of the co-ignimbrite ash is one of zone is known a place of high magnitude and frequent the major results of recent tephra studies. They are devastation wrought by eruptions. Magmas range predominantly fine-grained vitric fallout tephras from basalt to dacite and rhyolite. Consequently ejected at the same time as large-scale pyroclastic type of volcanic landforms and products vary from flows (Machida and Arai, 1976; Sparks and Walker, lava flows to ignimbrite plateaus around calderas, and 1977). The volume of co-ignimbrite tephra often from local ash soil to widespread sheet of ignimbrite approximates or exceeds that of the ignimbrite itself. and/or co-ignimbrite ash, respectively. These vol- These eruption-types are closely associated with canic areas supply major tephra deposits extensively gigantic caldera collapses. as shown in Fig. 2. Many extraordinarily large tephras have been Volcanoes found in these convergent plate margins recognized not only on land but also from abyssal may be divided into two categories: 1) those occurring sediments. They are very powerful tools for correlat- at continental margins such as the Andes, and 2) those ing stratigraphic sequences and landforms extensively, related to island arcs. particularly for land-sea correlation. In addition, such The nature and style of volcanoes and their pro- large-scale eruptions have a serious impact on human ducts may be controlled by many factors such as societies as well as ecosystems over wide areas and thickness of the crust, tectonic stress, geometry and consequently have been recognized as one of the trig- age of plate subduction, etc. The Late Cenozoic vol- gers for global changes, as will be discussed in the canism of the Andes is characterized by infrequent but other papers of this volume. very large ignimbrite forming eruptions in central Such widespread co-ignimbrite and large plinian areas where thick continental crust evolved. On the tephra layers occurring in various places of the world other hand, frequent eruptions of lava and pyroclastic clearly indicate extraordinary explosive eruptions with materials alternately occur forming stratovolcanoes Volcanic Explosivity Indices of 7 or 8 (total volume and volcanic ash soil in southern areas with relatively on the order of 102~103 km3; Newhall and Self, 1982) thin and young continental crust. in those regions. Examples include the Aira-Tn ash, The main difference between young arc volcanism Aso-4 ash and other tephras in Japan as shown in the and that found in areas of evolved island arcs such as next chapter. Studies in North America disclosed the Japan, Indonesia and New Zealand is related to the widespread Mazama tephra, product of the ~7,600 nature of the magmas produced. Whereas in the cal.yBP Mt. Mazama volcano (Crater Lake caldera) former case they are predominantly silica-poor and first described about 60 years ago (e.g., Williams, consequently effusive, in the latter, silica-rich ande- 1942). The volume of the eruptive product was sites and dacites are associated with explosive vol- about 78 km3, and has been identified about 1,700 km canism together with eruptions of various types. from the source. In addition, the three on-land Yellowstone tephras, the Lava Creek, Mesa Falls, and 2. Major Widespread Tephras of the World Huckleberry Ridge Tuffs (e.g., Christiansen and Blank, 1979) and the Bishop Tuff erupted from Long Valley In highly volcanic areas, thick volcanic
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