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Perceptual Processes and Interaction Dynamics in Academic Settings With www.ssoar.info Tokens in the Tower: Perceptual Processes and Interaction Dynamics in Academic Settings with ‘Skewed’, ‘Tilted’ and ‘Balanced’ Sex Ratios Hewstone, Miles; Crisp, Richard J.; Contarello, Alberta; Voci, Alberto; Conway, Laura; Marletta, Giorgia; Willis, Hazel Postprint / Postprint Zeitschriftenartikel / journal article Zur Verfügung gestellt in Kooperation mit / provided in cooperation with: www.peerproject.eu Empfohlene Zitierung / Suggested Citation: Hewstone, M., Crisp, R. J., Contarello, A., Voci, A., Conway, L., Marletta, G., Willis, H. (2006). Tokens in the Tower: Perceptual Processes and Interaction Dynamics in Academic Settings with ‘Skewed’, ‘Tilted’ and ‘Balanced’ Sex Ratios. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 9(4), 509-532. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430206067558 Nutzungsbedingungen: Terms of use: Dieser Text wird unter dem "PEER Licence Agreement zur This document is made available under the "PEER Licence Verfügung" gestellt. Nähere Auskünfte zum PEER-Projekt finden Agreement ". For more Information regarding the PEER-project Sie hier: http://www.peerproject.eu Gewährt wird ein nicht see: http://www.peerproject.eu This document is solely intended exklusives, nicht übertragbares, persönliches und beschränktes for your personal, non-commercial use.All of the copies of Recht auf Nutzung dieses Dokuments. Dieses Dokument this documents must retain all copyright information and other ist ausschließlich für den persönlichen, nicht-kommerziellen information regarding legal protection. You are not allowed to alter Gebrauch bestimmt. Auf sämtlichen Kopien dieses Dokuments this document in any way, to copy it for public or commercial müssen alle Urheberrechtshinweise und sonstigen Hinweise purposes, to exhibit the document in public, to perform, distribute auf gesetzlichen Schutz beibehalten werden. Sie dürfen dieses or otherwise use the document in public. Dokument nicht in irgendeiner Weise abändern, noch dürfen By using this particular document, you accept the above-stated Sie dieses Dokument für öffentliche oder kommerzielle Zwecke conditions of use. vervielfältigen, öffentlich ausstellen, aufführen, vertreiben oder anderweitig nutzen. Mit der Verwendung dieses Dokuments erkennen Sie die Nutzungsbedingungen an. Diese Version ist zitierbar unter / This version is citable under: https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:0168-ssoar-228056 Group Processes & G Intergroup Relations P 2006 Vol 9(4) 509–532 I R Tokens in the Tower: Perceptual Processes and Interaction Dynamics in Academic Settings with ‘Skewed’, ‘Tilted’ and ‘Balanced’ Sex Ratios Miles Hewstone Oxford University Richard J. Crisp University of Birmingham Alberta Contarello and Alberto Voci Università degli Studi di Padova Laura Conway Cardiff University Giorgia Marletta Università degli Studi di Padova Hazel Willis University of Gloucestershire We tested Kanter’s (1977a, 1977b) theory concerning the effects of group proportions (sex ratios) on visibility, polarization and assimilation, using natural groups of women and men in academia. Study 1 compared male-skewed and male-tilted settings and found evidence of greater polarization by minority women than majority men. The only effect of group proportions occurred for perceived dispersion as a measure of assimilation; replicating Brown and Smith (1989), men showed an out-group (OH), and women an in-group (IH), homogeneity effect, and both effects were accentuated in the skewed setting. Study 2 extended the research to include male- Author’s note skewed, male-tilted, balanced and female-tilted sex Address correspondence to Miles Hewstone, ratios. Men’s OH effect declined as relative out-group size increased, and women’s IH effect Department of Experimental Psychology, declined as relative in-group size increased. There Oxford University, South Parks Road, Oxford was also a linear decrease in relative perceived OX1 3UD, UK in-group impact and status as actual relative in-group [email: [email protected]] Copyright © 2006 SAGE Publications (London, Thousand Oaks, CA and New Delhi) 9:4; 509–532; DOI: 10.1177/1368430206067558 www.sagepublications.com Group Processes & Intergroup Relations 9(4) size declined. We discuss our findings with respect to also apply to other variables of ‘relational the validity of Kanter’s theory, gender and group size demography’ (Riordan, Schaffer, & Stewart, as moderators of perceived variability, and 2005), including race and ethnicity (e.g. methodological issues in studying diversity. Jackson, Thoits, & Taylor, 1995; Pettigrew & keywords gender, group size, in-group Martin, 1987). homogeneity, out-group homogeneity, perceived variability, sex ratios, tokenism Kanter’s theory of group proportions ‘Visibility and performance pressures’ refer to WOMEN in the US Senate and House of Rep- the fact that tokens are highly visible, receive resentatives, the Marylebone Cricket Club, the more attention than dominants, and hence feel Vienna Philharmonic, the Board of a Fortune ‘different’ (cf. Milliken & Martins, 1996; Taylor, 500 Company and the academic senate of every 1981). This awareness of difference leads to British university all have something in performance pressures for tokens who must common: they are members of a tiny minority. both act for themselves and represent their The existence of such skewed groups is immedi- category. It can adversely affect their perform- ately obvious in cases where women are ance in work groups (e.g. Lord & Saenz, 1985), referred to as hyphenated group members (e.g. increase their perceptions of vulnerability ‘woman engineer’, ‘female professor’). (Niemann & Dovidio, 1998), and decrease Kanter (1977a, 1977b) was the first to study feelings of comfort (Bourhis, 1994) and job the impact of relative group proportions, satisfaction (Mellor, 1996; Milliken & Martins, especially skewed sex ratios, on group phenom- 1996; Yoder, 1994). ‘Polarization and group- ena. Kanter (1977b) carried out a qualitative boundary heightening’ refer to the contrast case study of 20 saleswomen in the 300-person drawn between tokens and dominants, which sales force of a multinational corporation and might be reflected in negative perceptions of concluded that, ‘The life of women in the cor- the relations between the two groups. The poration was influenced by the proportions in presence of the tokens can lead to dominants’ which they find themselves’ (p. 207). The exaggerating both their within-group common- enduring influence of her work is reflected in alities and differences between the two gender half the chapters of the recent edited volume groups. This overgeneralization leads to a tight- on Discrimination at work: The psychological and ening of group boundaries, as dominants organizational bases (Dipboye & Colella, 2005). emphasize their culture and remind tokens of Kanter distinguished four group types based their difference, isolating tokens from on the proportions of majority and minority informal, social and professional networks. groups, varying from ‘uniform’ (e.g. all group Finally, ‘assimilation and role entrapment’ refer members are men), through ‘skewed’ (e.g. a to the fact that tokens’ personal characteristics huge majority of men are the ‘dominants’, and tend to be distorted to fit the generalized view a tiny minority of women are ‘tokens’), ‘tilted’ of members of the category, and the target of (e.g. a large ‘majority’ of men and a ‘minority’ these processes is forced to confirm the per- of women) and ‘balanced’. Kanter was especi- ceiver’s stereotype. These processes are evident ally interested in skewed settings, and she when a token woman is mistaken for another proposed that token women’s proportional member of her category, treated as though she rarity was associated with three ‘perceptual resembles women on average, and forced to phenomena’ (‘visibility’, ‘polarization’ and play a gender-stereotypical role (trapped in her ‘assimilation’) and three parallel ‘interaction gender role). This experience can reduce job dynamics’ (‘performance pressures’, ‘group- satisfaction and be a source of stress (see boundary heightening’ and ‘role entrapment’). Kanter, 1977a, pp. 283–284). The majority of relevant studies have focused There is extensive evidence that token on gender diversity issues, but tokenism can women suffer in some of the ways Kanter 510 Hewstone et al. perceptions in ‘skewed’, ‘tilted’ and ‘balanced’ sex ratios predicted, whether as the first policewomen on & Snavely, 1983a, 1983b). In fact, visibility may patrol (S E. Martin, 1980; Ott, 1989), women have no effect on men (Sackett, DuBois, & Noe, academics (C. J. Young, Mackenzie, & Sherif, 1991) or even confer advantages such as 1980), women enlisted in the armed forces enhanced promotional opportunities (e.g. (e.g. Rustad, 1982), women on workers’ com- Grimm & Stern, 1974; Heikes, 1991; Ott, 1989; mittees in Israeli firms (Izraeli, 1983), women Yoder & Sinnett, 1985). Despite these gender physicians (Floge & Merrill, 1986), or the first differences, the phenomena Kanter outlined women to serve as corrections officers in men’s are best seen not specifically as gender effects, prisons ( Jurik, 1985). Token women are especi- but as consequences of membership in numer- ally likely to report being the target of stereo- ically small groups with low status (see Alexan- typing and discrimination (e.g. Beaton & der & Thoits, 1985; Frable, 1993). In fact, the Tougas, 1997; Floge & Merrill, 1986; Johnson & negative effects of distinctiveness may be Schulman, 1989; Yoder, Adams, Grove, & Priest,
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