Transference in Everyday Experience: Implications of Experimental Research for Relevant Clinical Phenomena

Susan M. Andersen and Michele S. Berk New York University

Experimental research examining the clinical concept of transference (S. Freud, 1912/1958; H. S. Sullivan, 1953) using a social-cognitive model has demonstrated that mental representations of significant others are stored in memory and can be activated and applied in new social encounters, with consequences for cognition, evaluation, affect, motivation, expectancies, and self-evaluations (S. M. Andersen & N. S. Glass- man, 1996; S. M. Andersen, I. Reznik, & S. Chen, 1997). These findings constitute an empirical demonstration of transference in everyday social relations and suggest that transference is a normal, nonpathological process, occurring both inside and outside of psychotherapy, following basic rules of social information processing. In this article, clinical implications of this research are discussed, including how the content versus process of transference may contribute to maladaptive transference responses and the potential value of identifying triggering cues in transference in real life and in therapy, to promote more adaptive responding.

Mental representations of significant others they are stored in memory and applied to new profoundly influence everyday life. In daily interpersonal encounters. social interactions our emotions, motivations, In our own work, we have examined this inferences, self-evaluations, and behaviors are process empirically and have conceptualized it all affected to an extent by information in in social-cognitive terms, that is, in terms of memory about our past relationships with mental representations of significant others that important others. Indeed, interpersonal relation- can be activated and applied to new people. We ships have long been thought to be basic to both regard careful empirical work on this topic as personality and psychopathology (e.g., Bowlby, crucial in uncovering the precise mechanisms by 1969,1973,1980; Freud, 1912/1958; Greenberg which past relationships may influence present & Mitchell, 1983; Guidano & Liotti, 1983; ones and in establishing the validity of this kind Homey, 1939; Horowitz, 1991; Kelly, 1955; of phenomenon. To this end, we have proposed a Luborsky & Crits-Christoph, 1990; Rogers, social-cognitive model of transference that has 1951; Safran & Segal, 1990; Shaver & Ruben- been examined in carefully controlled experi- stein, 1980; Sullivan, 1953; Wachtel, 1981). The mental research with "normal" samples of common assumption across the numerous theo- participants. (For related conceptual approaches, ries in these areas is that interpersonal- see Baldwin, 1992; Mayer et al., 1993; Singer, relationship patterns learned earlier in life with 1985, 1988; Singer & Singer, 1994; Wachtel, significant others may provide a framework for 1981; Westen, 1988.) In this research, it has later social relations. Relationship patterns may been shown that mental representations of influence current everyday behavior because significant others serve as storehouses of information about given individuals from one's Susan M. Andersen and Michele S. Berk, Department of life, and can be activated (made ready for use) Psychology, New York University. and applied to (used to interpret) other individu- Preparation of this article was supported by Grant als, and that this is especially likely when the R01-MH48789 from the National Institute of Mental Health. We would like to thank Noah Glassman, Dan Hart, Mardi new individual in some way resembles a Horowitz, and Marlene Moretti for their comments on an significant other (Andersen & Baum, 1994; earlier draft of this article. Andersen & Cole, 1990; Andersen, Glassman, Correspondence concerning this article should be ad- Chen, & Cole, 1995; Andersen, Reznik, & dressed to Susan M. Andersen, Department of Psychology, New York University, 6 Washington Place, 4th Floor, New Manzella, 1996; Baum & Andersen, in press; York, New York 10003. Hinkley & Andersen, 1996). We argue that this

81 82 ANDERSEN AND BERK is the basic process by which transference findings as a springboard for describing the occurs in everyday social relations (Andersen & clinical implications of this work. In particular, Glassman, 1996). Because this process is we describe the ways in which the interpersonal consistent with what is known about basic social problems clients present in psychotherapy and cognition and the operation of social constructs, the suffering they often experience in relation to stereotypes, and exemplar representations such problems can be understood, under some (Andersen & Klatzky, 1987; Andersen, Klatzky, circumstances, in terms of the content of & Murray, 1990; Brewer, 1988; Higgins, 1989b; significant-other representations and the process Higgins & King, 1981; Smith & Zarate, 1992), by which they are activated and applied to new this work suggests that basic social-cognitive people. In this context, we highlight the processes may be at the root of transference in implications of our work for identifying transfer- everyday social perception. ence when it occurs—both inside and outside Specifically, we have shown that people use therapy—and briefly consider matters of clinical significant-other representations to "go beyond intervention also. Although the implications we the information given" about a new person draw for the clinical enterprise are speculative, (Bruner, 1957) by making representation- we believe that they are meaningfully linked consistent inferences about him or her, that is, both to the theoretical framework on which the misremembering him or her in terms of qualities social-cognitive model is based and to its that he or she does not have, but rather are part empirical findings. Empirical investigation of of the significant-other representation (i.e., those the clinical implications outlined awaits future not seen in the new person, but consistent with work. Finally, after having dealt explicitly with the significant-other representation; see Andersen our own research, we review related literatures et al, 1995; see also Cantor & Mischel, 1977). on interpersonal motivation and attachment, Perceivers seem to treat what they inferred at the self-representations and relational schemas, per- time of learning about a new person based on the sonal-action schemas, relationship patterns, nar- significant-other representation as something ratives, and self-discrepancy theory, and con- actually learned (see Johnson, Hastroudi, & sider their interface with our own work on trans- Lindsay, 1993; Johnson & Raye, 1981). Hence, ference as well as their clinical implications. the new person is remembered as if he or she were more similar to the significant other than is actually the case (Andersen et al., 1995, 1996; Andersen & Baum, 1994; Andersen & Cole, The Clinical Concept of Transference 1990; Hinkley & Andersen, 1996). Moreover, The clinical concept of transference, which when a given significant-other representation is has long been considered an essential compo- activated, representation-consistent evaluative, nent of psychodynamic psychotherapy (e.g., emotional, motivational, and self-definitional Ehrenreich, 1989; Greenson, 1965; Luborsky & processes stored in memory with the significant- Crits-Christoph, 1990), primarily has been other representation are also set into play examined theoretically rather than empirically. (Andersen & Baum, 1994; Andersen et al., The notion that people superimpose old feel- 1996; Baum & Andersen, in press; Hinkley & ings, expectations, and patterns of behavior Andersen, 1996). Hence, this body of work has learned with a past significant other, onto new empirically demonstrated that the transference others—especially a therapist—is arguably the process does occur, that it consists of significant- cornerstone of psychodynamic psychotherapy other activation and application, and that it has (e.g., Homey, 1939,1945; Sullivan, 1940,1953; multiple consequences of various kinds in see also Ehrenreich, 1989; Freud, 1912/1958; interpersonal relations. Greenberg & Mitchell, 1983; Luborsky & In this article, we describe our program of Crits-Christoph, 1990). In classical Freudian experimental research on transference and theory, transference (Freud, 1912/1958) is a consider its clinical implications. First, we crucial clinical phenomenon, occurring when briefly review major theoretical perspectives on the patient superimposes childhood fantasies transference and describe the basic tenets of the and conflicts about a parent onto the analyst empirically based social-cognitive model. Next, during psychoanalysis by weaving "the figure we review the model's basic methods and of the physician into one of the 'series' already TRANSFERENCE IN EVERYDAY EXPERIENCE 83 constructed in his mind" (Freud, 1912/1963a, p. offered by Karen Homey (Homey, 1939) 107; see also Andersen & Glassman, 1996).1 emphasizes relationship patterns with others In this process, the patient draws the analyst termed neurotic trends, although without ex- into his or her own unconscious psychosexual plicit discussion of significant-other representa- conflicts, which the analyst attempts to analyze tions. These relational patterns are thought to be by making the patient more aware of the learned with significant others as a means of displaced conflicts and their childhood origins satisfying basic needs (again for warmth, (Andersen & Glassman, 1996; Ehrenreich, mastery, and security), and are thought to be 1989; Greenberg & Mitchell, 1983; Luborsky & played out in new relationships via transference. Crits-Christoph, 1990). Although we do not Although the term "neurotic" clearly implies endorse the complex psychosexual-conflict and psychopathology, Homey argued that interper- drive-structure model proposed by Freud, nor sonal trends may also emerge in "normal" the notion that this process need necessarily be development and be played out as "normal" at the heart of psychotherapy and psychothera- transference. This idea is quite consistent with peutic success in all cases, we do find the the "normality" of Sullivan's notion of the general notion of transference to be of consider- significant-other-self linkages in dynamisms able importance. In particular, Freud's relatively and how these play out in everyday interactions simple assertion that people hold in memory among "normal" people as transference (parataxic "imagoes" of significant others that influence distortion). On the other hand, although Homey relations with new individuals, both in psycho- discussed self-representations in terms of the analysis and in everyday life (Freud, 1912/1958; ideal self, she did not propose mental representa- Luborsky & Crits-Christoph, 1990; Schimek, tions of significant others, nor did she regard 1983), makes sense to us and might well have neurotic trends as mental representations per se. broad-based implications for social life and its Thus her theoretical framework is less close to vicissitudes, of course subtracting out the ours than is Sullivan's, in which a specific proposed drive-based origins of such imagoes. significant other is linked to the self via a relational pattern or dynamism (see also Bald- Harry Stack Sullivan (1953) argued that win, 1992). Sullivan's focus on the idiosyn- children construct "personifications" of the self cratic, individualized quality of personifications and of the significant other (the caretaker)— and dynamisms also differs from Horney's focus essentially as mental representations of self and on fixed neurotic trends, common across indi- other—in the context of early interpersonal viduals, and hence nomothetic (see Allport, relations. This process occurs on the basis of 1937; Kelly, 1955). Like Sullivan, in our needs for tenderness and connectedness with the approach we utilize ideographic content from other, as well as needs for self-expression, people's own lives in defining their mental effectiveness (satisfaction), and overall safety representations of their significant others, exam- and security. Personifications are linked together ined in a nomothetic experimental design. in memory by "dynamisms"—or dynamics— Hence, our model most closely parallels that characterize the typical relational patterns Sullivan's. enacted by self and other. In describing transference, which Sullivan termed parataxic distor- Of course, numerous other theorists have tion, he emphasized the idiosyncratic and written about transference with tremendous subjective nature of people's personifications of variability, ranging from self-object transfer- significant others and associated dynamisms. ences (Kohut, 1971) and borderline transfer- Importantly, he also argued that an illusory ences (Kernberg, 1976), to those involving situation can emerge with a new person in which role-relationship-model configurations (Horo- the interaction pattern learned with the signifi- witz, 1989; 1991) or core-conflictual relationship cant other might be more or less "replayed" themes (Luborsky & Crits-Christoph, 1990). with the new person, although the process may be more subtle than a replay (Wachtel, 1981). The notion of parataxic distortion, Sullivan's 1 In a different translation (from the Standard Edition vs. definition of transference, is one that we largely the Macmillan paperback), this same quote reads "the adopt. cathexis will introduce the doctor into one of the psychical 'series' which the patient has already formed" (Freud, A related conceptualization of transference 1912/1958, p. 100). TRANSFERENCE IN EVERYDAY EXPERIENCE 99 other hand, the positive bolstering of the ute to psychopathology, the question emerges as self-concept as a whole that is likely to occur to how any therapeutic strategy might work to may be a valuable coping mechanism, or it may change these mental representations. As noted be transparently false and brittle, requiring briefly, therapy may fundamentally alter the sensitive, careful, and respectful assessment and structure and/or content of one's significant- treatment. other representations and therefore the problematic patterns linked with them so that both are Therapeutic Strategies and Outcomes in essentially "gone," that is, no longer in memory Dealing With Transference in the same way. Alternatively, it may be more likely that therapy essentially creates an overlay In considering specific therapeutic strategies of new responses on top of old ones that is then for transference remediation, the demonstrated used in the place of the old responses. That is, usefulness of cognitive techniques for the the older, well-learned responses remain stored remediation of schematic processing and auto- in memory, but are not used. Instead, thoughts, matic thoughts (Beck, 1976) is worth consider- feelings, and actions acquired more recently are ing. As indicated, encouraging a client to used in their place, perhaps eventually with become more mindful of transference processes some ease or automaticity (Smith & Lerner, as they occur, as a first step in learning to change 1986). The question is, what happens to any these patterns, may be helpful and is a original memory representation when a new, long-standing part of the cognitive-behavioral competing response is learned? Does the treatment arsenal, referred to as self-monitoring representation remain in memory in "latent" (Mahoney & Thoresen, 1974). Because our form, usable under the right circumstances, or research verifies that transference occurs outside does it decay entirely so that no trace remains? of the therapy context, the simple monitoring of As an example, one may have recently acquired these responses as they occur in daily life, using strongly held beliefs (disliking a former lover) an event-based recording method such as diary that conflict with older, prior feelings (tender- keeping or simple self-observation, may help ness and attraction) such that these older increase attentiveness to these if-then patterns. feelings are capable of resurfacing if the overlay A client can also learn to monitor in-session of the more recent beliefs is somehow disrupted. transference reactions as a way of practicing Hence previous memory traces may rarely "on-line" monitoring for real-world situations. decay entirely, no matter what type of interven- Once the client realizes that a maladaptive tion is implemented. This remains a provocative transference pattern exists, has learned to question for future research, with implications recognize its occurrence, and has decided that he for how various treatment strategies may be or she would like to work to change it, effective when they are effective, as well as for intentional efforts can then be implemented to the conditions under which a "relapse" in practice new ways of responding in place of the change processes may occur (see Marlatt, 1979; problematic (neurotic) ones, even in the pres- Marlatt & Gordon, 1985; see also Bensley, ence of relevant triggering cues (e.g., Horney, Kuna, & Steele, 1988). 1939; see also Adler, 1929, 1927/1957). Once the person learns to recognize triggering condi- Additional Clinical Implications tions in advance of the response occurring, he or she may begin to expand whatever "moment of of More Recent Social-Cognitive freedom" may exist between the trigger and the Transference Studies typical response (Mahoney & Thoresen, 1974; May, 1981; Yalom, 1980) so as to make a choice More recent experimental research using our as to how to respond. With practice, the person standard experimental paradigm has examined might be able to override old habitual responses the clinically relevant questions of whether and to use a more adaptive, satisfying ones, transference persists over time and how role although defining which are more satisfying, of relationships may influence transference. course, is a task that must be done by the client. It has been shown that transference persists over a 2-week time period and also increases in Given our assumption that mental representa- magnitude over this period, as assessed in terms tions of self and significant others may contrib- of representation-consistent inference and 100 ANDERSEN AND BERK memory (Glassman & Andersen, in press). suggests that once all of a client's symptoms are These effects are presumably due to significant- played out in the transference, the full pattern of other representations being chronically acces- the transference completes itself and diminishes sible, which means that they should remain (Blum, 1971; Freud, 1914/1963b; Weinshel, active longer than other representations (Bargh 1971). The formation of the transference neuro- et al., 1988) and should have a special readiness sis and its successful resolution is seen as to be used over time (Higgins & King, 1981). essential in psychoanalysis (Laplanche & Ponta- Even though transient influences on activation lis, 1973). Interestingly, the data on persistence effects may also persist over time, chronically and exacerbation of transference over time accessible constructs have a strong likelihood of (Glassman & Andersen, in press) imply that the activation and use over any period of time phenomenon of an increasing magnitude of following a transference experience. Hence transference over time conceivably may be when the significant-other representation is explained by basic social-cognitive processes activated, as it naturally is post-encoding, the and hence, may not necessarily be pathological various featural pathways within the significant- or even curative, in contrast to the suggestion of other representation should be traversed via psychoanalytic theory. Indeed, the data demon- spreading activation (Collins & Loftus, 1975), strate an increase in transference effects over strengthening them, and strengthening even time in a "normal" population (Glassman & those pathways between features of the signifi- Andersen, in press). It is important to acknowl- cant other that were not learned about the target edge, however, that after initially learning about person. This strengthening of linkages should the new person, there was no further contact. We cause a greater exacerbation in memory effects suspect transference effects may also increase over time for significant-other representations, over time when the new target person is seen as has been demonstrated (Glassman & regularly on an ongoing basis, such as in Andersen, in press). Such work is clinically psychotherapy, but have yet to examine ongoing important because the most problematic experi- relationships in our work. ences in an individual's life are those that are robust and enduring (Andersen & Glassman, Along these lines, it is likely that any given 1996). long-term intimate relationship, including a therapeutic relationship, may serve to trigger One obvious clinical implication of the and re-trigger the significant-other representa- increasing influence of the significant-other tion in combination with the chronic accessibil- representation on perceptions of a transference ity of the representation. Indeed, aspects of the object over time is that interventions might therapist or of the therapeutic situation may lead profitably be targeted toward preventing such an to even more exacerbation than the research increase by encouraging the client to examine discussed has shown based on exactly this kind the real characteristics encountered in the new of triggering and re-triggering of the significant- person in a systematic way after the transference other representation, which conceivably could has occurred to help disrupt further concept- be the case in long-term intimate relations also. driven processing (Fiske & Neuberg, 1990). In On the other hand, aspects of the real situation other words, once transference has occurred, it or the real target person might explicitly may also be important to help a client be contradict the significant-other representation mindful of these recent transference responses and might thus be inhibitory or deactivating, so as not to permit the responses to become which could contribute to a lessening of the more pronounced as time passes. Of course a effect over time. Work examining the precise more ambitious therapeutic goal is to help the ways in which transference plays out over time client learn to recognize a likely transference in long-term, intimate relationships or in psycho- response before it occurs, so as to circumvent it therapy clearly would be of considerable entirely. importance. More provocatively, the exacerbation effect In examining role relationships in transfer- over time may speak to the long-standing ence, the chronic relational role of the signifi- psychoanalytic notion of transference neurosis, cant other in relation to the self was assessed in which refers to an intensification over time of terms of whether the new person's interpersonal transference toward a therapist. This notion role was congruent or incongraent with the 118 ANDERSEN AND BERK

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