Chapter V

Discussion

5.1. Analysis of the Orchid Flora

The present work comprises a comprehensive study of the diversity of Orchid Flora of Darjeeling Himalaya. From extensive field collection spanning over from June 2007 – April 2015, the present study has enumerated 321 species of Orchids under 86 genera from the Darjeeling Himalaya region. The diversity seen in Orchid species, in a small area like Darjeeling, is indeed amazing. The reason for enormous richness in Orchid diversity within the area is because of favourable factors like conducive climatic, variation in edaphic, altitudinal and their natural complex inter-relationships within the species. The another reason could be of its sufficient rainfall distributed almost throughout the year.

As the region covers tropical to sub-alpine region, it holds a large number of very significant Orchid species having prospective to serve the humanity. It is also observed that many species are horticulturally important and are directly grown in the floral gardens by local people, research institutions, floral nurseries etc.

The species richness of the region upholds an integral part of “Himalayan Biodiversity Hotspot” in the Eastern Himalayan region. It provides an enormous variety of habitats and this is reflected in the richness of its Orchid flora. The Orchid species recorded during the survey from Darjeeling Himalaya represents the Himalayan origin with major representative taxa of Sino-Himalayan, followed by South-East Asian, Sumatra, Taiwan, Borneo, Afghanisthan, Australia, Malay-Archipelago, Japan, Cambodia, Laos, Java, Malaysia, Indonesia, Myanmar, Nepal, Thailand, Vietnam, New Guinea, Philippines, South West Pacific Islands, Sulawesi, Sri Lanka, and of African origin. Comparatively a very less number of cosmopolitan species of plants are recorded from the region.

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5.2. Habitat Groups

Darjeeling Himalaya covers tropical to sub-alpine region, it upholds a huge number of Orchids that grow over a wide range of habitats. Conducive environmental conditions like exposure to light regime, space, temperature, humidity, precipitation, soil type and soil pH play important role for the growth and regeneration of Orchids. The Orchids found in the Darjeeling Himalaya, based upon their habitats, can be primarily classified into epiphytes (rarely lithophytes) terrestrial and saprophyte (mycotropic) species. It has been recorded that 2 species with 2 genera are saprophytic, 100 species with 34 genera are terrestrial and the rest 219 species with 52 genera are epiphytic. The number of epiphytic are greater than the terrestrial and saprophytic species. It is observed that epiphytic species are more dominant than the terrestrial and the saprophytic throughout the region. While many of the species remain restricted to a specific type of habitat other occupy diverse habitat range. Cymbidium and Liparis are two genera which have both epiphytic and terrestrial habitats. The list of Orchid species of Darjeeling Himalaya with habitat, place of occurrence (locality), altitudinal range, date of collection, flowering time is presented in (Annexure A).

5.2.1. Epiphytic Genera

The epiphytes constitute a specialized group adapted to their habitats with the presence of clinging roots that help in their attachment and aerial roots with the spongy velamen tissue help them draw and retain moisture from the atmosphere. The majority of Orchid species are epiphytes and grow perching on tree trunks and sometimes even on moss covered boulders. The 52 epiphytic Orchid genera include Acampe Lindl., Acrochaene Lindl., Aerides Lour., Agrostophyllum Szlach., Appendicula Bl., Ascocentrum Schltr., Biermannia King & Pantl., Bulbophyllum Schltr., Ceratostylis Bl., Chiloschista Lindl., Cleisocentron Bruhl., Cleisostoma Bl., Coelogyne Lindl., Cryptochilus Wall., Cymbidium Sw., Dendrobium Sw., Epigeneium Gagnep., Eria Lindl., Esmeralda Rchb. f., Flickengeria A.D. Hawkes, Gastrochilus D. Don, Liparis Rich., Luisia Gaud., Micropera Lindl., Monomeria Lindl., Oberonia Lindl., Ornithochilus (Lindl.) Benth., Otochilus Lindl., Panisea (Lindl.) Steud., Pelatantheria Ridl., Papilionanthe Schltr., Phalaenopsis Bl., Pholidota Lindl. ex Hook., Phreatia Lindl., Pinalia Lindl., Pleione D. Don, Podochilus Bl., Pomatocalpa Breda , Porpax

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Lindl., Pteroceras Hasskari, Rhynchostylis Bl., Saccolabiopsis J.J. Sm., Smitinandia Holtt., Steriochilus Lindl., Sunipia Lindl., Thelasis Bl., Thunia Rchb. f., Trichotosia Bl., Tylostylis Bl., Uncifera Lindl., Vanda Jones ex R. Br. and Vandopsis Pfitz. The list of epiphytic species arranged in alphabetical order is presented in (Annexure B) and those that are epiphytic but occasionally modification of this habit and grow on moss covered rocks and boulders, such species are termed as ‘lithophytes’ and available species are Bulbophyllum bisetum, B. hirtum, B. leopardinum, B. odoratissimum var. odoratissimum, B. scabratum, Coelogyne corymbosa, C. cristata, C. fuscescens, C. flaccida, C. nitida, C. raizadae, Cymbidium aloifolium, C. bicolor, C. devonianum, Dendrobium aphyllum, D. chrysanthum, D. densiflorum, D. denudans, D. moschatum, D. nobile, Pholidota imbricata, Epigeneium amplum, E. rotundatum, Eria coronaria, E. lasiopetala, E. spicata, Otochilus albus, O. fuscus, O. lancilabius, Panisea demissa, Pholidota articulata, P. articulata var. griffithii, P. pallida, Pleione hookeriana, P. humilis, P. praecox, Rhynchostylis retusa, Thunia alba, Tylostylis discolor, Vanda cristata, Vandopsis undulata etc.

5.2.2. Terrestrial Genera

Terrestrial Orchids grow in soil and perinate with the help of tubers or rhizomes which store food material in them for inhospitable seasons. The availability of terrestrial Orchid genera in the region is lesser than the epiphytic genera. Present study found only 34 terrestrial Orchid genera in the region which include Acanthephippium Bl., Anoectochilus Bl., Anthogonium Wall. ex Lindl., Arundina Bl., Calanthe R. Br., Cheirostylis Bl., Chrysoglossum Bl., Cremastra Lindl., Crepidium Bl., Cymbidium Sw., Dienia Lindl., Diplomeris D. Don, Eulophia R. Br., Geodorum Jackson, Goodyera R. Br., Gymnadenia R. Br., Habenaria Willd., Herminium R. Br., Herpysma Lindl., Liparis Rich., Malaxis Soland. ex Sw., Nephelaphyllum Bl., Nervilia Commerson ex Gaud., Odontochilus Bl., Paphiopedilum Pfitz., Peristylus Bl., Phaius Lour., Platanthera Rich., Rhomboda Lindl., Satyrium Sw., Spirenthes Rich., Tainia Bl., Tipularia Nuttall, and Zeuxine Lindl. Of these, 78 species were found to grow in soil while, 19 species occur in the undisturbed humus on forest floors viz . Anoectochilus grandiflorus, Goodyera foliosa, G. fusca, G. hemsleyana, G. hispida, G. schlechtendaliana, G. vittata, Herpysma longicaulis, Liparis cathcartii, L. cordifolia, Odontochilus crispus, O. elwesii, O. lanceolatus, Tainia minor, Tipularia josephi, Zeuxine affinis, Z. flava, Z.

433484 goodyeroides, Z. reflexa etc. The soil growing terrestrial species is alphabetically presented in the (Annexure C).

5.2.3. Saprophytic Genera

Saprophytic is also terrestrial. But grow in soil rich in decaying organic substances and leafless characteristic has categorize them separately into saprophytic. The available saprophytic Orchid genera is very meagre in compared with epiphytic and terrestrial genera in the region. Present study found only two saprophytic Orchid genera in the region. They are Didymoplexis Griff. and Galeola Lour.

5.3. Monotypic Genera

There are three monotypic Orchid genera available in the region viz ., Acrochaene , Anthogonium and Herpysma and their species are Acrochaene punctata , Anthogonium gracile and Herpysma longicaulis .

5.4. Numerical Distribution of Species

The present floristic work on Orchid Flora of Darjeeling deals with an account of 86 genera and 321 species enumerated in this study. 52 genera that accounted for 59.09% were epiphytic and 34 or 38.64% were terrestrial and 2 or 2.27% of the Orchid genera of the region were saprophytic (Fig. 5.1). In terms of the species 219 or 68.22% were epiphytic with 100 or 31.15% being terrestrial and 2 or 0.62% saprophytic (Table 5.1, Fig. 5.2). Thus, the epiphytic species far outnumber the terrestrial species in this region being nearly one and a half time greater in terms of the representative genera and more than twice in terms of the species.

Table 5.1: Numerical Presentation of species

Habitat of species Total Epiphytic Terrestrial Saprophytic

Total number of 86 52 34 2 genera Total number of 321 219 100 2 species

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Fig. 5.1: Percentage Distribution of Orchid Genera

Fig. 5.2: Percentage Distribution of Orchid Species

5.4.1. Epiphytic Species Diversity

Some epiphytic Orchid species frequently occur as lithophytes if suitable habitat persists on rocks and stones with moist mosses. There are 52 genera with 219 epiphytic Orchid species recorded from the regions and some of epiphytic species frequently growing as lithophytes.

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Table 5.2: Numerical representation of epiphytic species with each genus along with their respective percentage

Sl. Epiphytic No. of % of Sl. Epiphytic No. of % of No. Genera spp. spp. No. Genera spp. spp.

1 Acampe 2 0.91 27 Ornithochilus 1 0.46 2 Acrochaene 1 0.46 28 Otochilus 3 1.37 3 Aerides 2 0.91 29 Panisea 2 0.91 4 Agrostophyllum 4 1.83 30 Papilionanthe 1 0.46 5 Appendicula 1 0.46 31 Pelatantheria 1 0.46 6 Ascocentrum 1 0.46 32 Phalaenopsis 4 1.83 7 Biermannia 1 0.46 33 Pholidota 6 2.74 8 Bulbophyllum 36 16.4 34 Phreatia 1 0.46 9 Ceratostylis 2 0.91 35 Pinalia 5 2.28 10 Chiloschista 1 0.46 36 Pleione 4 1.83 11 Cleisocentron 1 0.46 37 Podochilus 2 0.91 12 Cleisostoma 4 1.83 38 Pomatocalpa 1 0.46 13 Coelogyne 16 7.31 39 Porpax 1 0.46 14 Cryptochilus 2 0.91 40 Pteroceras 1 0.46 15 Cymbidium 12 5.48 41 Rhynchostylis 1 0.46 16 Dendrobium 34 15.5 42 Saccolabiopsis 1 0.46 17 Epigeneium 2 0.91 43 Smitinandia 1 0.46 18 Eria 11 5.02 44 Steriochilus 1 0.46 19 Esmeralda 2 0.91 45 Sunipia 4 1.83 20 Flickingeria 2 0.91 46 Thelasis 2 0.91 21 Gastrochilus 6 2.74 47 Thunia 2 0.91 22 Liparis 7 3.2 48 Trichotosia 2 0.91 23 Luisia 4 1.83 49 Tylostylis 1 0.46 24 Micropera 1 0.46 50 Uncifera 1 0.46 25 Monomeria 1 0.46 51 Vanda 3 1.37 26 Oberonia 9 4.11 52 Vandopsis 1 0.46

The diversity of Epiphytic Orchid species are maximum than the terrestrial species in the region. Of them, a maximum of 36 species of Bulbophyllum, 34 Dendrobium spp., 16 Coelogyne spp., 12 Cymbidium spp., 11 Eria spp., 9 Oberonia spp., 7 Liparis spp., 6 Gastrochilus spp., 6 Pholidota spp., 4 Agrostophyllum spp., 4 Cleisostoma spp., 4 Luisia spp., 4 Pleione spp., 3 Vanda spp., 3 Otochilus spp., 4 Phalaenopsis spp., 2 Acampe spp., 2 Aerides spp., 2 Ceratostylis spp., 2 Cryptochilus spp., 2 Epigeneium spp., 2 Esmeralda spp., 2 Panisea spp., 5 Pinalia spp., 2 Podochilus spp., 4 Sunipia spp., 2 Thelasis spp., 2 Thunia spp., 2 Trichotosia spp. and the rest

436487 solitary genus with 1 species represented in this region e.g. Acrochaene punctata , Appendicula cornuta , Ascocentrum ampullaceum , Biermannia bimaculata , Chiloschista parishii , Cleisocentron pallens , Flickingeria fugax , Micropera obtusa, Monomeria barbata , Ornithochilus difformis, Papilionanthe teres , Pelatantheria insectifera, Phreatia elegans, Pomatocalpa armigerum, Porpax elwesii , Pteroceras teres , Rhynchostylis retusa , Saccolabiopsis pussila , Smitinandia micrantha, Steriochilus hirtus , Uncifera obtusifolia and Vandopsis undulata . The list of Epiphytic genera with number of species and their respective percentage arranged alphabetical order in Table 5.2.

5.4.2. Terrestrial Species Diversity

During recent field studies, as many as 34 genera with 100 terrestrial Orchid species were recorded in the regions.

Table 5.3: Numerical representation of terrestrial species with each genus along with their respective percentage

Sl. Terrestrial No. of % of Sl. Terrestrial No. of % of No. Genera spp. spp. No. Genera spp. spp.

1 Acanthephippium 1 1 18 Herminium 5 5 2 Anoectochilus 2 2 19 Herpysma 1 1 3 Anthogonium 1 1 20 Liparis 9 9 4 Arundina 1 1 21 Malaxis 2 2 5 Calanthe 7 7 22 Nephelaphyllum 2 2 6 Cheirostylis 2 2 23 Nervilia 4 4 7 Chrysoglossum 1 1 24 Odontochilus 4 4 8 Cremastra 1 1 25 Paphiopedilum 6 6 9 Crepidium 4 4 26 Peristylus 8 8 10 Cymbidium 1 1 27 Phaius 3 3 11 Dienia 1 1 28 Platanthera 8 8 12 Diplomeris 1 1 29 Rhomboda 1 1 13 Eulophia 1 1 30 Satyrium 2 2 14 Geodorum 2 2 31 Spiranthes 1 1 15 Goodyera 7 7 32 Tainia 3 3 16 Gymnadenia 1 1 33 Tipularia 1 1 17 Habenaria 5 5 34 Zeuxine 4 4

The total numbers of recorded species of each genus are 2 Cheirostylis species, 7 Calanthe species, 4 Crepidium spp., 7 Goodyera spp., 5 Habenaria spp., 5 Herminium spp., 9 Liparis spp., 2 Malaxis spp., 2 Nephelaphyllum spp., 4 Nervilia spp., 4

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Odontochilus spp., 6 Paphiopedilum spp., 8 Peristylus spp., 3 Phaius spp., 8 Platanthera spp., 2 Satyrium spp., 4 Zeuxine spp. and the rest possess single species. The list of Terrestrial species and their respective percentage arranged in alphabetical order and is shown in Table 5.3.

5.4.3. Saprophytic Species Diversity

Present survey found 2 saprophytic species like Didymoplexis pallens and Galeola lindleyana from the region and are mentioned in Table 5.4. and (Annexure D).

Table 5.4: Numerical representation of Saprophytic species with each genus along with their respective percentage

Sl. No. Saprophytic species No. of % of spp. spp.

1 Didymoplexis pallens 1 50 2 Galeola lindleyana 1 50

5.5. Altitudinal Distribution

The altitude of the various hill ranges of Darjeeling district varies markedly and usually there is a distinct correlation between the altitude and vegetation. Altitude is an important aspect that plays a role in the range of distribution of different plant species including the Orchids. Altitudinal variation cause vast climatic differentiation in the region. Specially on Orchids, the climatic requirement of each species is different from the other. The areas located in higher rainfall regions, form better habitat of terrestrial species. Altitudinal variation of the region is ± 120 m from Sukuna-Siliguri (Tropical Zone) to 3660 m amsl. Sandakphu-Phalut (Sub-Alpine Zone) and it plays vital role in distribution of the species. Altitudinally, the district Darjeeling can be classified into five different categories (Yonzone et al . 2012a) that were visited during study and availability of species. The Orchids available in Darjeeling Himalaya are listed zonewise at different altitudinal ranges are presented below.

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5.5.1 Species restricted to a given altidudinal Zone

i. Tropical Zone (upto – 500 m)

An altitude ascends up to 500 m amsl is tropical zone. Dense humid tropical forests prevail in this zone and areas close by rivers and rivulets form excellent Orchid species habitat in the region. The temperature during daytime lies between 20-25 0C, drooping at night to 10-15 0C. Orchid species from this zone require absolute drying out during winters, except for the fragile species that grow besides riverside habitats and streams where the humidity would be in the range of 70-80%. In this zone summer day temperature range from 30-35 0C and summer maximum of 43 0C is not unfeasible with cooler nights. The humidity in summer is usually 90-100% with a rainfall of 2500-5000 m. Night temperature may range between 22-27 0C. In winter this zone becomes dry except those areas close to rivers and streams. Places like Bagrakote, Balasan, Birik, Chitrey-Teesta, Coronation Bridge, Dudhey, Fyangtar, Gorubathan, Gulma, Jaldhaka, Jholung, Kalijhora, Lohapul, Malli, Mongpong, Panighatta falls on this zone. Following epiphytic species like Bulbophyllum tortuosum , Papilionanthe teres and Saccolabiopsis pusilla , were found to be exclusively restricted to this zone.

ii. Sub – Tropical Zone (500 – 1200 m)

This zone is covered by mixed deciduous tropical forests. Summer day temperature during March – September varies from 25-30 0C, while night temperatures may go down to 20-25 0C. Heavy precipitation during monsoons may result in 850-2000 mm rainfall. Winters are dry and the day temperature between November and February varies between 19-25 0C. Night temperature may drop to 7-10 0C. October to end February is rainless. Few orchid species show a narrow distribution being exclusively restricted to the Sub-Tropical zone with an altitudinal range between 500–1200 m amsl. Places like Nimbong, Kumsi, Samalbong, Yangmakum, Kainjalay, Bong Busty, Echey Busty, Godok, Mungpoo, Mangaldara, Munsong, Nagari, Panbu, Pareng, Peshok, Pudung, Rangit Valley, Rongo, Samthar, Sangsay Bhalukhop, Sittong, falls to this zone. The species included Bulbophyllum appendiculatum , Cheirostylis pabongensis , Crepidium josephianum, C. maximowiczianum, Cymbidium eburneum, Dendrobium crepidatum , D. ochreatum , D. pendulum , D. primulinum , D. sulcatum , Eulophia spectabilis , Liparis dongchenii , L. duthei , M. purpurea , Paphiopedilium villosum , Thelasis pygmaea , Trichostosia pulvinata etc.

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iii. Sub – Temperate Zone (1200 – 1850 m)

Summer day temperature lies between 18-20 0C and night 12-14 0C. Winter day temperature ranges from 9-12 0C and at night may droop to 6-70C. Humidity from May- October is 80-90%, while from November to April it is between 65-75%. Rainfall is maximum during June-September when it may go as high as 75-80%. Some places like Mirik, Latpanjar, Toroyok, Tungsong, St. Mary’s Hill, Lopchu, Kuwapani, Durpin, Takdah, Today, Charkhol, Algarah, Dello Hill, Pedong, falls under this zone. Only one epiphytic species Liparis resupinata var. ridley, was found restricted to this zone.

iv. Temperate Zone (1850 – 3200 m)

The temperate zone is snowbound 3-5 months a year depending on the latitude. It is prevalent from 2850 m and above altitude. Light intensity is high and summer temperatures hardly go beyond 20 0C and rainfall is heavy. This zone is characterized by the presence of fog or mist during all times of the year. Humidity from May-October is 85-100%, while from November to April it is between 75-85%. Highest humidity is experiences between June-September when it may go as high as 85-100%. Rainfall is maximum during this period and may register from 600-1000 mm. November–March is dry with 10-45 mm. Some notable places that fall under this zone are Lava, Rachela, Tangta, Baggonra, Sonada, Dawhill, Pankhasari, Sukiapokhari, Togerhill, Manaybhanjang, Megma, Tonglu, Gairibas, Bikheybhanjang, Rimbik, Ramam, Sirikhola etc. Very few species available in the zone. Species like Calanthe trulliformis, Odontochilus elwesii , Panisea demissa , Peristylus superanthus etc. are distributed to this zone. v. Sub – Alpine Zone (3200 – 3800 m)

The highest altitude of the region is 3660 m amsl. This zone is snowbound six to nine months a year and only some terrestrial Orchid species grown in this zone. High light intensity and precipitation in form of snow, coupled with freezing temperatures reduces the Orchid species are characterized by a brief life span. The landscape of this zone being hill terrains, rocks, covered with scrubs to thick forest. Sandakphu, Moley and Phalut areas falls on this zone. No Orchid species found restricted to this zone.

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5.5.2. Species distributed over two different altitudinal zones i. Species extending from Tropical zone to Sub – Tropical zone

These zones are extended from 500 – 3200 m amsl altitudinal ranges and the area covered by this zone is very vast and found high to moderate and cool temperature loving species. Widely distributed species to these zones are Acampe carinata , A. rigida , Aerides multifora, A. odorata, Agrostophylum brevipes, A. myrianthum , Appendicula cornuta , Arundina graminifolia , Ascocentrum ampullaceum , Biermannia bimaculata , Bulbophyllum apodum , B. crassipes , B. gracilipes , B. polyrhizum , B. roxburghii , B. stenobulbon , Ceratostylis subulata , Cleisostoma asperum , C. filiforme , C. subulatum , Coelogyne flaccida , Cymbidium aloifolium , C. bicolor , Cleisocentron pallens , Dendrobium aduncum , D. amoenum , D. anceps , D. aphyllum , D. cathcartii , D. cumulatum , D. farmeri , D. fimbriatum var. oculatum , D. terminale , Diplomeris hirsuta , E. biflora , E. lasiopetala , E. pumila , Flickengeria fugax , Gastrochilus inconspicuus , Luisia filiformis , L. zeylanica , Micropera obtusa , Nervilia aragoana , N. plicata , Oberonia ensiformis , O. mucronata , O. pachyrachis , O. recurva , Panisea uniflora , Pelatantheria insectifera, Papilionanthe teres , Peristylus parishii , Phalaenopsis deliciosa , P. lobbii , P. mannii , Pholidota articulata var. griffithii , P. imbricata , Pinalia acervata , Pomatocalpa armigerum , Pteroceras teres , Rhynchostylis retusa , Smitinandia micrantha , Tainia megalantha, Thelasis pygmaea , Trichotosia pulvinata , Vanda pumila etc. ii. Species extending from Sub – Tropical to Sub – Temperate Zone

The Orchid that show an altitudinal distribution extending from the Sub-tropical to the Sub-Temperate zone included Acrochaene punctata , Bulbophyllum affine , B. guttulatum , B. sarcophyllum , B. triste , Calanthe triplicata, Cherirostylis griffithii , Coelogyne ovalis , C. prolifera , C. stricta , C. viscosa , Dendrobium denudans , D. fimbriatum , D. jenkinsii , D. lindleyi , D. moschatum, D. praecinctum , Didymoplexis pallens , Eria paniculata , Gastrochilus dasypogon , Geodorum densiflorum var. kalimpongense , Habenaria dentata , H. furcifera , Herminium macrophyllum, Liparis deflexa , L. odorata , L. platyrachis , L. somai , Luisia trichorrhiza , Dienia ophrydis , Nephelaphyllum cordifolium , Nervilia gammieana , N. macroglossa , Oberonia angustifolia , O. falcata , Odontochilus grandiflorus , Paphiopedilum venustum , Peristylus affinis , Phaius flavus , P. tankervilleae , Pholidota pallida , Pinalia amica , Pleione

441492 maculata , Porpax elwesii , Tainia penangiana , Thunia alba var. alba , T. alba var. bracteata , Tylostylis discolor , Vanda alpina , V. cristata , Zeuxine reflexa etc. iii. Species extending from Sub – Temperate to Temperate Zones

In these zones, distribution of epiphytic species are more dominant than the terrestrial. A total of 61 species under 29 genera are distributed in this zone. Of them, 45 species under 17 genera are epiphytic, 15 species under 11 genera are terrestrial, 1 genera with single species is saprophytic. Most of the species are cool loving and the distributed species to these zones are Acrochaene punctata, Anthogonium gracile , Bulbophyllum eublepharum , B. gamblei , B. hymenanthum ., B. khasyanum , B. leopardinum, B. reptans , B. rigidum , B. secundum , B. umbellatum , B. wallichii , B. yoksunense , Calanthe biloba , C. puberula , C. brevicornu , C. yuksomnensis , Ceratostylis himalaica , Chrysoglossum ornatum , Coelogyne barbata, C. cristata , C. nitida , C. occultata , C. punctulata , Cremastra appendiculatum, Cryptochilus sanguinea , Cymbidium cochleare , C. devonianum , C. longifolium , C. lowianum, Dendrobium heterocarpum , D. longicornu , D. stuposum , Epigeneium amplum , E. rotundatum , Esmeralda clarkei , Galeola lindleyana , Gastrochilus acutifolius , G. calceolaris , G. distichus , Goodyera schlechtendaliana , G. vittata, Habenaria pectinata , Herminium quinquelobum , Liparis bootanensis , L. cespitosa , L. gamblei , L. plantaginea , L. resupinata , L. viridiflora, Phreatia elegans, Pleione praecox , Steriochilus hirtus , Sunipia bicolor , S. intermedia , Tainia minor , Oberonia caulescens , Ornithochilus difformis , Peristylus tipuliferus, Zeuxine affinis , Z. goodyeroides etc. are available. iv. From Temperate to Sub – Alpine Zones

As the elevation rises up higher and higher, the species like P. cumminsiana , Pleione hookeriana , Satyrium nepalense var. ciliatum, Peristylus fallax , P. nematocaulon etc. are also distributed widely. Terrestrial species is dominant and widely distributed to these zones. High precipitation, cool air and acidic soil are most congenial for lavish growth of terrestrial species.

5.5.3. Species distributed over three altitudinal zones

v. From Tropical to Sub – Temperate Zones

These zones are extended from 250 – 3500 m altitudinal ranges. The summer day temperatures ranges from 30-35 0C in tropic zone and 18-20 0C in sub-temperate zone.

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The notable species like Agrostophyllum myrianthum , A. planicaule , Arundina graminifolia , Cleisostoma aspersum , C. filiforme , Cymbidium aloifolium , C. bicolor , D. aphyllum , D. transparens , Eria bractescens , Geodorum densiflorum, Phaius tankervilleae , Podochilus cultratus, Oberonia emarginata , Peristylis constrictus , Peristylus goodyeroides , Pholidota articulata, Pinalia stricta etc. are distributed to these three altitudinal zones.

vi. Extending from Sub – Tropical to Temperate Zones:

The most dominating species like these zones are Agrostophyllum callosum , A. planicaule , Bulbophyllum affine , B. careyanum var. sikkimense , B. cauliflorum var. sikkimense , B. thomsonii , Cleisostoma racemiferum , Coelogyne fimbriata , C. fuscescens, C. ovalis , C. prolifera , Cymbidium mastersii, Dendrobium chrysanthum , D. eriiflorum , Eria spicata , Liparis cordifolia , Monomeria barbata , Ornithochilus difformis, Bulbophyllum helenae , B. hirtum , Oberonia acaulis , O. angustifolia , Otochilus albus , O. fuscus , O. lancilabius , Paphiopedilum fairrieanum , P. venustum , Phaius mishmensis , Phalaenopsis taenialis , Pholidota recurva , P. rubra, Zeuxine flava , etc. The distribution of epiphytic species is more dominant in these zones.

5.5.4. Species distributed over four altitudinal zones

vii. Extending from Tropical to Temperate Zone

In these zones, species like Calanthe sylvatica , Coelogyne flaccida , Cymbidium lancifolium , Dendrobium bicameratum , D. densiflorum , Goodyera hispida , Habenaria stenopetala , Odontochilus cripsus etc. are available. Equal number of distributed epiphytic and terrestrial species found in these zones.

viii. Restricted to Temperate Zone

The available Orchid species restricted to temperate zone are Bulbophyllum striatum , B. yoksunensis , Coelogyne raizadae , C. occultata , Cremastra appendiculata var. appendiculata, Cymbidium erythraeum , C. hookerianum , Dendrobium porphyrochilum , Eria bambusifolia , Gastrochilus sonamii , Goodyera hemsleyana , Herminium quinquelobum , Liparis cespitosa , L. plantaginea , Odontochilus elwesii , O. lanceolatus , Panisea demissa , Platanthera clavigera , P. edgeworthii , Stereochilus

443494 hirtus , Tipularia josephi , Vandopsis undulata etc. The number of distributed epiphytic species is slightly greater than the terrestrial species.

While many of the species exhibit a restricted altitudinal distribution others show a wider range of distribution. In addition to the altititude the microclimate, soil pH and the forest cover also play important roles in the distribution of the Orchids. Some Orchid species extend from the temperate region to the sub-alpine region, and thus, the latter region shows the presence of but a few of the Orchid species. The present study recorded Gymnadenia orchidis , Herminium lanceum , H. macrophyllum , Malaxis muscifera, Peristylis fallax , P. nematocaulon , P. cumminsiana , P. exellina , Satyrium nepalense var. ciliatum , S. nepalense var. nepalense , Pleione hookeriana and Tipularia josephi .

Area visited during the course of field study with their altitudinal ranges and availability Orchid genera are mentioned in Table 5.5.

Table 5.5: Showing the name of the places visited along with their altitudinal range in metres and available Orchid genera.

Sl. Name of Altitude Available Genera No. visited (in m. Places amsl)

1 Algarah 1600- Agrostophyllum , Anthogonium , Arundina , Bulbophyllum , forest – 1900 m* Calanthe , Coelogyne , Cymbidium , Dendrobium , Epigeneium , Kalimpong Eria , Esmeralda , Habenaria , Herminium , Liparis , Malaxis , Oberonia , Otochilus , Peristylus , Pholidota , Phreatia , Satyrium , Sunipia, Tainia , Vanda , Zeuxine etc .

2 Alubari 2000- Bulbophyllum , Coelogyne , Cymbidium , Otochilus etc . Darjeeling 2200 m* 3 Bagrakot 250-300 Aerides , Biermannia , Bulbophyllum , Dendrobium , Eria , m* Rhynchostylis etc. 4 Balasan 300-600 Acampe , Bulbophyllum , Oberonia , Papilionanthe , m* Rhynchostylis etc .

5 Algarah- 1700- Agrostophyllum , Anthogonium , Arundina , Bulbophyllum , Baluwa 1800 m* Calanthe , Coelogyne , Crepidium, Cymbidium , Dendrobium , khani Epigeneium , Eria , Esmeralda , Habenaria , Herminium , Liparis ,

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Malaxis , Oberonia , Otochilus , Peristylus , Pholidota , Satyrium , Sunipia, Tainia etc .

6 Baggonra 1800- Bulbophyllum , Calanthe , Coelogyne , Cymbidium , Odontochilus , 2350 m* Phalaenopsis , Panisea , Pleione , Vandopsis , Zeuxine etc . 7 Bikhaybhanj 3100- Herminium , Malaxis , Pleione , Platanthera , Satyrium etc . ang 3400 m* 8 Birch Hill- 1900- Cryptochilus , Crepidium, Malaxis etc . Darjeeling 2100 m* 9 Birik forest 300-600 Acampe , Agrostophyllum , Appendicula , Bulbophyllum , m* Dendrobium , Eria , Malaxis , Papilionanthe etc . 10 Bong busty- 800-1000 Bulbophyllum , Cymbidium , Dendrobium , Dienia, Pholidota etc . Kalimpong m* 11 Chaitepani 1600 m Coelogyne , Cymbidium , Eria , Platanthera etc . Kurseong 12 Chitrey- 500 m* Cymbidium , Eria etc . Teesta 13 Chitrey 2100- Calanthe, Habenaria , Panisea , Platanthera Satyrium , 2600 m* Spiranthes etc . 14 Charkhol 1400- Anthogonium , Bulbophyllum , Calanthe , Chrysoglossum , forest (near 1600 m* Cymbidium , Epigeneium , Eria , Herpysma , Liparis , Oberonia, Kafer) Pholidota , Pleione etc .

15 Chimnay– 1900- Anoectochilus , Bulbophyllum , Calanthe , Cymbidium , Eria , Kurseong 2100 m* Esmeralda , Liparis , Odontochilus , Ornithochilus , Otochilus , Panisea , Pleione , Sunipia etc . 16 Chisang- 800-1000 Acanthephippium , Bulbophyllum , Chiloschista , Cleisostoma , Godok m* Coelogyne , Crepidium , Cymbidium , Dendrobium , Eria , Eulophia , Otochilus etc .

17 Chuikhim 500-600 Acampe , Aerides , Agrostophyllum , Arundina , Bulbophyllum , m* Cymbidium , Eria , Oberonia , Phalaenopsis etc .

18 Near 250 m* Diplomeris , Eria etc . Coronation Bridge 19 Dabaipani- 1300- Cymbidium , Liparis , Oberonia , Sunipia etc . Takdah 1800 m* 20 Dali- 2000- Bulbophyllum , Cymbidium , Pleione , Spiranthes etc . Darjeeling 2100 m* 21 Damsang 1600- Acanthephippium , Anthogonium , Bulbophyllum , Coelogyne , forest 2000 m* Cymbidium , Dendrobium , Eria , Goodyera, Habenaria , Liparis ,

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Nephelaphyllum , Oberonia , Odontochilus , Rhomboda , Sunipia, Zeuxine etc .

22 Darjeeling 2000- Anthogonium , Coelogyne , Cymbidium , Habenaria , Liparis , Ghoom 2100 m* Otochilus , Peristylus etc . Bhanjang 23 Dello Hill 1450- Anthogonium , Crepidium , Dienia , Herminium , Liparis , Malaxis , Kalimpong 1500 m* Oberonia , Otochilus , Platanthera , Thunia , Peristylus , Spiranthes , Uncifera etc . 24 Dowhill- 1600- Acrochaene , Bulbophyllum , Liparis , Otochilus , Peristylus , Sunipia Kurseong 1800 m* etc . 25 Dhotrey 2000- Anthogonium , Calanthe , Cryptochilus , Dendrobium , Galeola , 2500 m* Goodyera , Habenaria , Herminium , Liparis , Malaxis , Oberonia , Platanthera , Satyrium , Spiranthes , Steriochilus , Tipularia etc .

26 Dilaram 1700- Bulbophyllum , Epigeneium , Eria, Herminium , Phaius etc . 1850 m* 27 Dudhey 300-600 Acampe , Bulbophyllum , Cymbidium , Dendrobium , Podochilus , m* Pteroceras etc. 28 Durpin, 1300- Cheirostylis , Crepidium, Dendrobium , Herminium , Liparis , Kalimpong 1400 m* Oberonia , Otochilus etc . 29 East Man 1250- Coelogyne , Dendrobium , Otochilus , Pholidota etc . Road- 1300 m* Kalimpong 30 Echey- 1000- Bulbophyllum , Cymbidium , Dendrobium , Odontochilus , Kalimpong 1400m* Pholidota etc . 31 Fyangtar 300-500 Acampe , Bulbophyllum , Eria etc . m* 32 Gairibas 2750- Acampe , Goodyera , Herminium , Malaxis , Peristylus , Platanthera , 3000 m* Pleione , Satyrium , Tipularia etc .

33 Gasoke- 500-600 Micropera , Oberonia , Peristylus , Phalaenopsis , Pomatocalpa ., Kalimpong m* Pteroceras , Rhynchostylis , Thelasis , Trichotosia etc . 34 Geilkhola 350-600 Ascocentrum , Bulbophyllum , Cymbidium , Dendrobium , Nervilia , m* Oberonia , Rhynchostylis etc . 35 Gorkhey 2500- Calanthe , Panisea , Platanthera , Pleione , Satyrium etc . 2700 m* 36 Gorkhey- 2600- Bulbophyllum , Calanthe , Dendrobium , Gastrochilus , Pleione etc . Phalut 3000 m* 37 Godok 850-1000 Bulbophyllum , Calanthe, Dendrobium , Eria , Eulophia , Nervilia , m* Oberonia , Pholidota , Podochilus etc . 38 Goomtey 1100- Ornithochilus , Pholidota etc .

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Tea Garden 1200 m* 39 Gorubathan 200-600 Bulbophyllum , Dendrobium , Oberonia , Pelatantheria , Phreatia , m* Saccolabiopsis etc . 40 Guling 400-1000 Bulbophyllum , Cleisostoma , Dendrobium , Eria , Panisea , forest m* Phalaenopsis , Pholidota , Pteroceras , Trichotosia etc . 41 Gulma 200-250 Bulbophyllum , Papilionanthe , Pelatantheria etc . forest m* 42 Gumbadara 1800- Calanthe , Chrysoglossum , Cremastra , Cymbidium , Dendrobium , 2300 m* Eria , Monomeria , Odontochilus, Phreatia etc. 43 Happy 1900 m* Epigeneium , Pleione etc . Valley, Darjeeling 44 Hill Top 1300 m* Bulbophyllum , Coelogyne , Dendrobium , Thunia etc . (Kalimpong) 45 Jalapahar 2100- Anthogonium , Coelogyne , Liparis , Otochilus , Platanthera , 2300 m* Pleione , Spiranthes etc . 46 Jaldhaka 300- Cymbidium , Dendrobium , Flickengeria , Eria , Phalaenopsis , 400m* Rhynchostylis , Saccolabiopsis etc . 47 Jaributti- 2200- Calanthe, Cymbidium , Liparis etc . Neora 2350 m* Valley 48 Jaunbari 2800- Goodyera , Herminium , Malaxis , Peristylus , Platanthera , 3000 m* Satyrium etc . 49 Jholung 250- Bulbophyllum , Dendrobium , Eria , Flickingeria , Gastrochilus , 380m* Luisia , Tainia etc . 50 Jorebunglow 1800- Acrochaene , Anthogonium , Bulbophyllum , Coelogyne , Liparis , 2100 m* Peristylus etc . 51 Kafer forest 1500- Acrochaene , Agrostophyllum , Anthogonium , Bulbophyllum , 2100 m* Calanthe , Chrysoglossum , Coelogyne , Cymbidium , Dendrobium , Eria , Gastrochilus , Goodyera , Herpysma , Ione , Liparis , Oberonia , Otochilus , Phaius , Podochilus , Rhomboda , Sunipia , Uncifera , Zeuxine etc .

52 Kalijhora 300- Acampe , Agrostophyllum , Appendicula , Ascocentrum , 550m* Biermannia , Bulbophyllum , Cleisocentron , Cleisostoma , Dendrobium , Diplomeris , Eria , Flickengeria , Luisia , Micropera , Nervilia , Oberonia , Panisea , Pholidota , Pomatocalpa , Tainia, Tylostylis etc .

53 Kalimpong 1200 m* Coelogyne , Otochilus , Vanda etc . (near forest museum)

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54 Kalpokhari 3000- Goodyera , Herminium , Habenaria , Malaxis , Platanthera , Pleione , 3300 m* Satyrium , Tipularia etc.

55 Kambal 400- Appendicula , Ceratostylis , Crepidium, Dendrobium , Eria , Busty 600m* Saccolabiopsis etc . 56 Kaneybreed 900m* Dendrobium, Paphiopedilum etc. Floral Nursery 57 Khaprail 180m* Bulbophyllum , Papilionanthe etc . 58 Kumai 300-700 Cleisostoma , Oberonia , Pelatantheria etc. m* 59 Kumsi forest 600- Acantheppium , Agrostophyllum , Ascocentrum , Bulbophyllum 900m* Coelogyne , Crepidium, Dendrobium , Dienia , Eria , Eulophia , Geodorum , Goodyera , Luisia , Nervilia , Ornithochilus , Peristylus , Rhynchostylis , Thunia , Trichotosia , Vanda etc . 60 Kuwa pani- 1650- Bulbophyllum , Goodyera , Sunipia , Zeuxine etc . Lava, 1700 m* Kalimpong 61 Labdah 600- Aerides , Agrostophyllum , Arundina , Bulbophyllum , Cheirostylis , Mungpoo 1400m* Cleisostoma , Coelogyne , Cymbidium , Dendrobium , Eria , Otochilus , Papilionanthe , Pholidota , Rhynchostylis , Thunia etc . 62 Lakpatar 1900- Bulbophyllum , Calanthe, Cymbidium , Dendrobium , Sunipia etc . Darjeeling 2100 m*

63 Latpanjar 500- Bulbophyllum , Cleisostoma , Coelogyne , Crepidium, Cymbidium , forest 900m* Eria , Odontochilus , Pholidota , Porpax , Rhynchostylis , Thelasis etc . 64 Lava forest 1900- Acrochaene , Agrostophyllum , Anthogonium , Bulbophyllum , 2300 m* Calanthe , Coelogyne , Cremastra , Crepidium, Cymbidium , Dendrobium , Epigeneium , Eria, Esmeralda , Gastrochilus , Goodyera , Habenaria , Herminium , Liparis , Malaxis , Monomeria , Oberonia , Odontochilus , Ornithochilus , Otochilus , Panisea , Pholidota , Phreatia , Pleione , Satyrium , Spiranthes , Sunipia, Tainia , Uncifera , Vandopsis , Zeuxine etc . 65 Lebong- 1500- Coelogyne , Liparis , Luisia etc . Darjeeling 1950m* 66 Lesh khola 300- Aerides , Appendicula , Biermannia , Bulbophyllum , Cleisostoma , 700m* Dendrobium , Smitinandia etc .

67 Lloyd 2100m* Calanthe , Cymbidium , Dendrobium , Epigeneium , Paphiopedilum Botanical etc . Garden

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68 Lohapul 300- Bulbophyllum , Cymbidium , Dendrobium , Eria , Pholidota etc . 350m* 69 Lopchu 1300- Bulbophyllum , Calanthe , Coelogyne , Dendrobium , Habenaria , forest 1600m* Liparis , Dienia, , Oberonia , Panisea, Tainia etc .

70 Lungshell- 1400- Acrochaene , Agrostophyllum , Anthogonium , Bulbophyllum , Suntalay 1800 m* Cleisostoma , Coelogyne , Cymbidium , Dendrobium , Epigeneium , Eria , Liparis , Oberonia , Sunipia , Vanda etc . 71 Malli- 500 m* Acampe , Aerides , Bulbophyllum , Dendrobium etc . Kalimpong 72 Majitar 400- Bulbophyllum , Cymbidium , Dendrobium , Eria , Luisia , Trichotosia 800m* etc . 73 Mamring 1400- Coelogyne , Cymbidium , Luisia etc . 1800m* 74 Manaybhanj 1900- Anthogonium , Bulbophyllum , Calanthe , Chrysoglossum , yang 2200m* Coelogyne , Cremastra , Dendrobium , Gastrochilus , Goodyera , Habenaria spp., Herminium spp., Liparis , Peristylis , Phaius , Platanthera , Pleione , Satyrium , Spiranthes etc .

75 Mangaldara- 700- Cheirostylis , Crepidium, Malaxis etc . Kalimpong 800m* 76 Mangmaya 600- Cheirostylis , Goodyera , Peristylus , Pholidota , Thelasis , Vanda 800m* etc . 77 Mangzing 350- Bulbophyllum , Dendrobium , Pholidota etc . 550m* 78 Matigara- 200 m* Bulbophyllum , Papilionanthe etc . Siliguri

79 Megma 2500- Coelogyne , Crepidium, Cryptochilus , Habenaria , Herminium ., 2800m* Liparis , Malaxis , Peristylus , Platanthera , Satyrium , Spiranthes etc . 80 Mim forest 1200- Agrostophyllum , Bulbophyllum , Calanthe , Coelogyne , Cymbidium , Darjeeling 1700m* Dendrobium , Epigeneium , Pleione , Sunipia , Tainia etc . 81 Mirik 1000- Anthogonium , Bulbophyllum , Coelogyne , Cymbidium , (Thurbo, 1500 m* Paphiopedilum , Phaius , Pleione , Vanda etc . Nigalay, Okaitae) 82 Mongpong 200- Aerides , Ascocentrum , Bulbophyllum , Cleisostoma , Eria , 300m* Flickengeria , Rhynchostylis , Smitinandia , Sunipia etc .

83 Mungpoo 600- Aerides , Agrostophyllum , Anthogonium , Arundina , 1450m* Bulbophyllum , Calanthe, Coelogyne , Crepidium , Cymbidium , Dendrobium , Eria , Luisia , Malaxis , Nervilia , Oberonia ,

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Odontochilus , Otochilus , Papilionanthe , Phaius , Phalaenopsis , Pleione , Pholidota , Rhynchostylis , Smitinandia , Thunia , Trichotosia , Tylostylis , Vanda etc .

84 Munsong 1000- Agrostophyllum , Bulbophyllum , Cheirostylis , Coelogyne ,

Kalimpong 1650 m* Crepidium, Cymbidium , Liparis , Nephelaphyllum , Oberonia , Pleione , Vanda etc . 85 NRC 2200 m* Acrochaene , Bulbophyllum , Calanthe , Coelogyne , Cymbidium , Orchid, Denbrobium , Eria , Habenaria , Liparis , Odontochilus , I.C.A.R., Paphiopedilum , Pleione , Zeuxine etc . Darjeeling 86 Nagari 1000- Bulbophyllum , Cymbidium , Tainia etc . 1400 m* 87 Najoke 300- Acampe , Ascocentrum , Bulbophyllum , Cleisocentron , forest, 600m* Cleisostoma , Cymbidium , Dendrobium , Eria , Oberonia , Papilionanthe , Phalaenopsis , Thelasis etc . 88 Namugaydar 850 m Didymoplexis etc. a- Samalbong

89 Neol forest 500- Agrostophyllum , Bulbophyllum , Crepidium, Dendrobium , Eria , 850m* Geodorum , Nephelaphyllum , Phalaenopsis , Podochilus , Thelasis , Tylostylis etc .

90 Neora 2200- Bulbophyllum , Calanthe , Coelogyne , Crepidium, Cymbidium , Valley 2700 m* Eria , Esmeralda , Galeola, Gastrochilus , Goodyera , Habenaria , Liparis , Monomeria , Phaius , Platanthera , Pleione , Zeuxine etc .

91 Nim forest 600- Bulbophyllum , Dendrobium , Epigeneium, Pholidota etc . 900m* 92 Nimbong 500- Agrostophyllum , Bulbophyllum , Ceratostylis , Cleisostoma , 1400m* Coelogyne , Cymbidium , Dendrobium , Dienia, Eria , Liparis , Luisia , Malaxis , Nervilia , Oberonia , Otochilus , Panisea , Porpax , Pholidota , Tainia, Thelasis , Vanda etc .

93 Nockdara 1800- Acrochaene , Agrostophyllum , Bulbophyllum , Cleisostoma , 2000m* Coelogyne , Cymbidium , Dendrobium , Epigeneium , Eria , Liparis , Otochilus , Ornithochilus , Stereochilus , Sunipia, Zeuxine etc . 94 Nurserymen 950 m* Dendrobium, Paphiopedilum etc. ’s Heaven, Holumba Floral Nursery

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95 Paiyung- 1100- Oberonia , Phaius , Trichotosia etc . Kalimpong 1200m* 96 Palmajua 1900- Bulbophyllum , Calanthe , Coelogyne , Cryptochilus , Goodyera , 2400m* Habenaria , Herminium etc . 97 Panbu 400- Agrostophyllum , Ceratostylis , Coelogyne , Eria , Goodyera, 900m* Oberonia , Peristylus , Podochilus , Pteroceras , Thelasis etc . 98 Panighatta 200- Cleisostoma , Smitinandia etc . 350m* 99 Pankhabari 250- Ascocentrum , Cymbidium , Dendrobium , Oberonia , Panisea etc . forest 500m* 100 Pareng 450- Acampe , Agrostophyllum , Ascocentrum , Bulbophyllum , 800m* Cymbidium , Dendrobium , Eria , Gastrochilus , Micropera , Nervilia , Oberonia , Peristylus , Phalaenopsis , Tylostylis etc .

101 Pattabong- 1800- Bulbophyllum , Habenaria , Liparis , Panisea , Sunipia etc . Darjeeling 1950 m* 102 Pedong 800- Agrostophyllum , Anthogonium, Bulbophyllum , Cymbidium , 1200m* Dendrobium, Eria , Goodyera , Liparis , Malaxis , Otochilus , Pholidota etc . 103 Peshok 800- Cymbidium , Dendrobium , Liparis , Malaxis, Phaius etc . 1200m*

104 Phalut forest 3350- Gymnadenia , Platanthera , Pleione , Satyrium etc . 3500m* 105 Phalut 3400m* Pleione , Satyrium etc . Valley 106 Pine View 900- Cymbidium , Dendrobium , Paphiopedilum etc . Nursery 1000m* 107 Pokhriabong 1200- Anoectochilus , Anthogonium , Coelogyne , Cymbidium , 1700m* Dendrobium , Eria , Gastrochilus , Pleione etc . 108 Pudung- 600- Agrostophyllum , Dienia, Porpax , Thelasis etc . Kalimpong 1000m* 109 Rachela 2600- Bulbophyllum , Calanthe , Coelogyne , Herminium , Malaxis , 3000m* Panisea, Spiranthes etc .

110 Rambi forest 1600- Acrochaene , Agrostophyllum , Anthogonium , Bulbophyllum , 2300m* Calanthe , Coelogyne , Cymbidium , Dendrobium , Epigeneium , Eria , Gastrochilus , Herminium , Liparis , Platanthera , Pleione , Satyrium , Steriochilus , Sunipia, Tainia , Uncifera , Vandopsis , Zeuxine etc .

111 Ramam 2200- Anthogonium , Bulbophyllum , Calanthe , Coelogyne , Cremastra ,

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forest 2700m* Cymbidium , Dendrobium , Epigeneium , Eria , Gastrochilus , Habenaria , Herminium , Liparis , Odontochilus , Phalaenopsis , Pleione , Spiranthes etc . 112 Rangayrung 1500- Anoectochilus , Bulbophyllum , Galeola , Liparis , Oberonia , 1800m* Otochilus , Herpysma , Pleione etc . 113 Rangit 700- Bulbophyllum , Dendrobium , Luisia , Oberonia etc . Valley 800m* 114 Ratay Busty 500- Arundina , Bulbophyllum , Oberonia spp., Peristylus etc . 700m* 115 Relli forest 400- Acampe , Arundina , Cleisostoma , Dendrobium , Eria , 700m* Flickengeria , Gastrochilus , Geodorum , Luisia , Micropera , Nephelaphyllum , Oberonia , Papilionanthe , Phalaenopsis , Pholidota etc . 116 Relli-Pala 600- Crepidium , Cymbidium , Habenaria, Malaxis, Peristylus , 800m* Tylostylis etc . 117 Rimbick 2000- Anthogonium , Bulbophyllum , Coelogyne , Cymbidium , 2250m* Dendrobium , Gastrochilus , Goodyera , Liparis , Phalaenopsis , Platanthera , Vandopsis etc . 118 Rongo 700- Bulbophyllum , Eria , Malaxis , Nervilia , Oberonia etc . 800m* 119 Rungdung 800- Bulbophyllum , Dendrobium , Nervilia , Pholidota etc . valley 1300m* 120 Ryang 250- Acampe , Aerides , Agrostophyllum , Ascocentrum , Bulbophyllum , Forest 500m* Cymbidium , Dendrobium , Eria , Liparis , Oberonia , Phalaenopsis , Pholidota etc . 121 Samalbong 700- Aerides , Anthogonium , Bulbophyllum , Calanthe , Cheirostylis , 1600m* Coelogyne , Cryptochilus , Cymbidium , Dendrobium , Didymoplexis , Goodyera , Habenaria , Malaxis , Nervilia , Otochilus , Pholidota , Podochilus , Rhynchostylis , Smitinandia , Tainia, Thunia , Trichotosia , Tylostylis , Vanda etc .

122 Samanden 2500- Anthogonium , Coelogyne , Dendrobium , Platanthera , Pleione, 2600m* Gastrochilus , Odontochilus etc .

123 Samsing 300- Cleisocentron , Cleisostoma , Coelogyne , Dendrobium , 900m* Micropera , Oberonia , Phalaenopsis , Tylostylis etc . 124 Samthar 700- Anthogonium , Bulbophyllum , Chilochista , Coelogyne ,

1400m* Crepidium, Dendrobium , Didymoplexis , Eria , Luisia , Oberonia , Otochilus , Trichotosia , Tylostylis , Vanda etc . 125 Sangsay 800- Calanthe, Cleisostoma , Coelogyne , Cymbidium , Dendrobium , Bhalukhop 1300m* Eria , Liparis etc .

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126 Sandakphu 3400- Goodyera , Gymnadenia , Habenaria , Herminium , Peristylis , 3600m* Platanthera , Pleione , Satyrium etc .

127 Senchale 2150- Anthogonium , Bulbophyllum , Calanthe , Coelogyne , Crepidium, 2400m* Cryptochilus , Cymbidium , Dentrobium , Epigeneium , Eria , Habenaria , Herminium , Liparis , Monomeria , Pleione , Satyrium , Vandopsis etc .

128 Seokbir 700- Aerides , Agrostophyllum , Bulbophyllum , Coelogyne , Cymbidium , khani 900m* Dendrobium , Eria , Gastrochilus , Goodyera , Luisia , Malaxis , Oberonia , Otochilus , Peristylus , Phaius , Pholidota , Podochilus , Tainia, Thelasis , Thunia , Vanda etc . 129 Sepkhola 300- Acampe , Agrostophyllum , Appendicula , Biermannia , 600m* Bulbophyllum , Ceratostylis , Chiloschista , Dendrobium , Eria , Flickengeria , Gastrochilus , Luisia , Micropera , Nephelaphyllum , Phalaenopsis , Saccolabiopsis etc .

130 Sendaybong 700- Agrostophyllum , Arundina , Eria , Geodorum , Goodyera , busty 900m* Habenaria , Liparis , Luisia , Malaxis , Thunia , Vanda etc . 131 Serikhola 2100- Anthogonium , Bulbophyllum , Coelogyne , Cremastra , 2700m* Dendrobium , Eria , Habenaria , Pleione , Satyrium , Steriochilus etc . 132 Sevoke 200- Acampe , Aerides , Agrostophyllum , Ascocentrum , Bulbophyllum , forest 400m* Dendrobium , Eria , Flickengeria , Micropera , Oberonia , Papilionanthe , Pelatantheria , Phalaenopsis , Rhynchostylis , Smitinandia , Tylostylis etc . 133 North 150- Acampe , Bulbophyllum , Cymbidium , Dendrobium , Papilionanthe Bengal 180m* etc . University Campus 134 Siliguri 150- Acampe , Aerides , Bulbophyllum , Cymbidium , Dendrobium , surrounding 200m* Papilionanthe etc . area 135 Singley 400- Luisia , Micropera etc . 500m* 136 Sinjee Busty 800- Phaius , Pholidota , Rhynchostylis , Tainia, Thunia , Vanda etc . 1200m* 137 Sittong 600- Acanthephippium , Agrostophyllum , Coelogyne , Eria , Eulophia , 1100m* Gastrochilus , Geodorum , Goodyera , Habenaria , Liparis , Luisia , Nervilia , Oberonia , Panisea , Peristylus , Phaius , Phalaenopsis , Pholidota , Porpax , Rhynchostylis , Smitinandia , Thelasis , Thunia , Trichotosia etc .

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138 Solok- 450- Aerides , Agrostophyllum , Bulbophyllum , Cleisocentron , Kalimpong 800m* Cleisostoma , Coelogyne, Dendrobium , Eria , Podochilus , Pomatocalpa , Tylostylis etc . 139 Sonada- 1300- Calanthe, Cymbidium , Liparis , Podochilus etc . Pacheng 1400m* 140 Sonada 1900- Anthogonium , Bulbophyllum , Ceratostylis , Coelogyne , 2100m* Cymbidium , Dendrobium , Liparis , Odontochilus , Peristylus , Uncifera etc . 141 Soreksa 900- 1000 Bulbophyllum etc. 142 St. Mary’s 1300- Anthogonium , Coelogyne , Cymbidium , Habenaria , Herminium , Hill – 1600m* Liparis , Otochilus etc . Kurseong 143 Sukiapokhar 1900- Agrostophyllum , Bulbophyllum , Calanthe , Coelogyne , Cymbidium , i forest 2300 m* Epigeneium , Eria , Esmeralda , Liparis , Pleione , Tainia , Uncifera etc . 144 Sukuna 250- Aerides , Bulbophyllum , Chilochista , Cymbidium , Phalaenopsis , 450m* Pomatocalpa, Smitinandia etc . 145 Suntalay 250- Cymbidium , Dendrobium , Eria , Luisia etc . Near 350m* Lohapul 146 Sureil- 1400m* Coelogyne , Cymbidium , Dendrobium , Eria , Pleione etc . Mungpoo 147 Suruk Busty 500- Bulbophyllum , Coelogyne , Cymbidium , Dendrobium , Eria , 900m* Oberonia , Otochilus , Peristylus , Porpax , Thelasis , Thunia , Trichotosia etc . 148 Takdah 1000- Agrostophyllum , Anoectochilus , Bulbophyllum , Calanthe , forest 1850m* Cymbidium , Dendrobium , Goodyera , Habenaria , Liparis , Malaxis , Otochilus , Phaius , Pleione , Podochilus , Sunipia , Zeuxine etc . 149 Tangta 2000- Bulbophyllum , Coelogyne , Cremastra , Dendrobium , Eria ,

forest 2700 m* Goodyera , Crepidium, Monomeria , Oberonia , Otochilus , Pholidota , Pleione , Steriochilus etc . 150 Tarkhola 450- Acampe , Dendrobium , Nephelaphyllum , Phalaenopsis etc . 600m* 151 Teesta 27 th 350- Acampe , Agrostophyllum , Appendicula , Ascocentrum , Mile 400m* Bulbophyllum , Cymbidium , Dendrobium , Eria, Flickengeria , Micropera , Nervilia , Oberonia , Phalaenopsis , Pholidota , Pomatocalpa , Thelasis etc . 152 Teesta river 300- Acampe , Aerides , Agrostophyllum , Arundina , Ascocentrum , sides 350m* Bulbophyllum , Cymbidium , Dendrobium , Eria , Flickengeria ,

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Luisia , Malaxis , Nervilia , Pholidota , Rhynchostylus etc . 153 Teesta 320m* Biermannia , Dendrobium , Eria etc . Bridge sides 154 Teesta River 400- Arundina , Dendrobium, Flickengeria , etc. Valley 450m* (below Teesta Valley) 155 Tiger Hill 2300- Coelogyne , Cymbidium , Eria , Liparis , Satyrium etc . 2500 m*

156 Tindharey 500- Bulbophyllum , Crepidium, Cymbidium , Dendrobium , Luisia , 750m* Malaxis, Smitinandia etc . 157 Todey forest 1000- Agrochaene , Anthogonium , Calanthe, Bulbophyllum , 1600 m* Ceratostylis , Coelogyne , Cymbidium , Dendrobium , Epigeneium , Eria , Esmeralda , Flickengeria , Gastrochilus , Goodyera , Liparis , Malaxis , Oberonia , Otochilus , Pholidota , Pleione , Podochilus , Sunipia etc .

158 Tonglu 2800- Coelogyne , Crepidium, Herminium , Peristylus , Platanthera , 3000m* Pleione , Satyrium etc . 159 Toonang 500- Coelogyne , Dendrobium , Eria , Pholidota , Porpax , Tylostylis etc . forest 800m* 160 Toroyok 1400- Anthogonium , Bulbophyllum , Calanthe , Coelogyne , Cymbidium , 1700m* Epigeneium , Eria , Gastrochilus , Liparis , Oberonia , Otochilus , Phreatia , Platanthera , Pleione , Podochilus , Tainia , Vandopsis etc . 161 Tumling 2700- Habenaria , Platanthera , Satyrium , Spiranthes etc . 2800 m* 162 Tungsong 1200- Agrostophyllum , Bulbophyllum , Crepidium, Dendrobium , Liparis , 1700m* Oberonia , Otochilus , Phreatia , Spiranthes , Uncifera etc . 163 7th Mile 900m* Coelogyne , Cymbidium , Dendrobium etc . Kalimpong 164 8th Mile, 950 m* Cheirostylis , Chiloschista , Coelogyne , Cymbidium , Dendrobium , Kalimpong Phaius etc . 165 9th Mile 1000 m* Coelogyne , Cymbidium , Dendrobium etc . Kalimpong 166 Kalimpong 1400 m* Anthogonium , Coelogyne , Cymbidium , Dendrobium , Habenaria , 15th Mile Liparis etc . near Algarah

167 Yangmakum 400- Cleisostoma , Crepidium, Pholidota , Podochilus , Thelasis etc . Busty 900m*

* Altitude where more than two species available

455506

5.6. Phytogeographical Distribution

The largely inaccessible landscape makes biological surveys in the Eastern Himalayan Mountains extremely difficult. The complexity of the mountains in the Eastern Himalayan region contributes to high biological diversity in several ways and biologically richest areas on the earth. One of the important factors to contribute to the exceptional biological diversity of the Eastern Himalayas is its multiple biogeographical origins. The topographic difficulty normally separates islands of habitat. Rivers and streams separated by mountain massifs may support reproductively isolated populations of low elevation species. High ridges separated by valley may isolate high elevation species. This can give to genetic differences among populations, a step toward the evolution of endemic species.

Hooker (1906) attributed the floristic diversity of the Indian subcontinent “To the immigration of the plants from widely different bordering countries, notably Chinese and Malayan on the East and South, of oriental, European and African on the West and of Tibetan and Siberian on the North”.

The Orchid Flora of Darjeeling Himalaya represents a mixed with numerous species of common distribution from various biogeographic region of the world. The migration of the species from other parts of the world has been taken place prior to the advent of Britishers during the nineteen century. The detail analysis of the Orchid flora of Darjeeling Himalaya reveals about the following results. a. Cosmopolitan species: The cosmopolitan Orchid species are widely distributed throughout the world. The representing elements from the study area are Appendicula cornuta, Arundina graminifolia, Cleisostoma subulatum, etc. b. Asiatic elements: The Orchid species representing the Asiatic and commonly from Iran, Afghnistan, Pakistan along with some from distant parts of Western India, Russia, and China are Herminium lanceum, Nervilia gammieana, Peristylus goodyeroides, Spiranthes sinensis, Trichotosia pulvinata, etc.

456507 c. Australian species: There are six Australia species which are also recorded from the region. The representing Australian species are Didymoplexis pallens , Dienia ophrydis, Nervilia aragoana, N. plicata, Phaius tankervilleae, Pholidota imbricata, etc. d. Indian and Indian Subcontinental species: The species under this category also represent Indo-Gangetic part of India. The representing species of Indian subcontinental origin from the study area are Acampe carinata, Aerides odorata, Arundina graminifolia, Bulbophyllum appendiculatum, B. careyanum, B. careyanum, var. sikkimense, B. guttulatum, B. hirtum, B. triste, B. umbellatum, Dendrobium sulcatum, D. transperens, Eria bambusifolia, Liparis viridiflora, Malaxis muscifera, Pelatanthera insectifera, Pholidota pallida etc. e. Himalayan elements: The species of the region also constitute many native species of Himalayan ranges. The representing Himalayan species from the study area are Anoectochilus brevilabris, Bulbophyllum bisetum, B. cauliflorum, B. eublepharum, B. gamblei, B. hymenanthum, B. khasyanum, B. odoratissimum var. racemosum, B. polyrhizum, B. rigidum, B. rolfei, B. sarcophyllum, B. scabratum, B. roxburghii, B. striatum, B. thomsonii, B. tortuosum, B. yoksunense, Calanthe yuksomsensis, C. sylvatica, Ceratostylis himalaica, Chiloschista parishii, Coelogyne barbata, C. pantlingii, C. pempahisheyana, C. stricta, Crepidium maximowiczianum, Cryptochilus lutea, Cymbidium erythraeum, Dendrobium denudans, D. primulinum, Epigeneium rotundatum, Esmeralda cathcartii, Gastrochilus acutifolius, G. distichus, G. sonamii, Herminium mackinnonii, H. jaffreyanum, Liparis dongchenii, L. duthiei, L. nervosa, L. resupinata var. ridleyi, Nervilia gammieana, Oberonia angustifolia, O. caulescens, Odontochilus elwesii, Otochilus lancilabius, Paphiopedilum insigne, Peristylus superanthus, Phalaenopsis manii, Pholidota articulata var . griffithii, Sunipia intermedia etc. f. Eastern Himalayan elements: The representing species of Eastern Himalayan origin from the region are Acampe rigida, Acrochaene punctata, Agrostophyllum planicaule, A. callosum, Anoectochilus grandiflorus, Anthogonium gracile, Ascocentrum ampullaceum, Bulbophyllum affine, B. careyanum, B. gamblei, B. guttulatum, B. helenae, B. leopardinum, B. rolfei, B. sarcophyllum, Calanthe

457508

puberula, C. biloba, C. brevicornu, Ceratostylis himalaica, Cleisostoma aspersum, Coelogyne corymbosa, C. cristata, C. occultata, C. stricta, Cryptochilus sanguine, Cymbidium erythraeum, Dendrobium cathcartii, D. chrysanthum, D. denudans, Esmeralda cathcartii, Flickingeria fugax, Gastrochilus acutifolius, G. dasypogon, G. distichus, Goodyera hemsleyana, G. vittata, Nervilia gammieana, Otochilus lancilabius, Paphiopedilum fairrieanum, Phalaenopsis deliciosa, P. mannii, P. taenialis, Pinalia acervata, Thunia alba var. alba, Vanda alpina, Vanda cristata etc. g. Sino-Himalayan elements: There are some Chinese Orchid species that have been recorded from the region. The common Chinese species collected from the study region are Coelogyne fimbriata, C. flaccida, C. fuscescens, C. raizadae, Cymbidium cochleare, C. elegans, C. iridioides, Diplomeris hirsuta, Gymnadenia orchidis, Goodyera vittata, Habenaria pectinata, H. stenopetala, Herminium macrophyllum, H. quinquelobum, Liparis cordifolia, L. platyrachis, L. resupinata, Odontochilus crispus, Peristylus fallax, P. nematocaulon, Phalaenopsis taenialis, Platanthera bakeriana, P. clavigera, P. exelliana, P. leptocaulon, P. stenantha, Satyrium nepalense var. ciliatum etc. h. Species distributed from the Eastern Himalaya to Japan: The representing Orchid genera of above category recorded from the study area are Calanthe puberula, Cremastra appendiculata etc. i. Eastern Himalaya to Vietnam: The representing species from Eastern Himalaya to Loas and Vietnam are Bulbophyllum appendiculatum, Phaius flavus, Thelasis pygmaea, etc. j. Species extending East Himalaya to South East Asia, Pacific Islands, Myanmar: The representing Orchid species is Arundina graminifolia, Oberonia mucronata, Trichotosia pulvinata etc. k. Species extending Myanmar, Thailand and Vietnam are Coelogyne viscosa, Dendrobium aduncum, D. chrysanthum, Liparis odorata, Otochilus albus, Panisea demissa, Papilionanthe teres, Pinalia amica, Vanda pumila etc.

458509 l. Species distributed from the Eastern Himalaya to Sumatra: The representing species distributed from Eastern Himalaya to Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, Malaysian, Philippines and Sumatra recorded from the region are Aerides odorata, Appendicula cornuta, Crepidium acuminatum, Cymbidium dayanum, Habenaria dentata, Herpysma longicaulis, Liparis bootanensis, Nervilia plicata, Tylostylis discolor etc. m. Species distributed from the Eastern Himalaya to Malaysian: The representing species distributed from Eastern Himalaya to Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam and Malaysian recorded from the region are Acanthephippium striatum, Aerides multiflora, Anthogonium gracile, Bulbophyllum odoratissimum var. odoratissimum, B. reptans, B. secundum, Dendrobium farmeri, D. heterocarpum, D. jinkinsii, Gastrochilus calceolaris, Luisia brachystachys, Ornithochilus difformis, Tainia penangiana, Trichotosia dasyphylla etc. n. Species distributed from India to Cambodia: The representing species distributed from India, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, Laos to Cambodia recorded from the region are Bulbophyllum wallichii, Cleisostoma filiforme, Dendrobium chrysotoxum, D. crepidatum, D. moschatum, Eria bractescens, E. paniculata, Liparis cathcartii, Smitinandia micrantha etc. o. Species distributed from India to Sumatra: The representing species distributed from India, Java, Myanmar to Sumatra recorded from the region are Coelogyne ovalis, Peristylus goodyeroides etc. p. Species distributed from India to Vietnam: The representing species distributed from India to Borneo, Cambodia, Myanmar, Thailand and Vietnam recorded from the region are Dendrobium cumulatum, Otochilus fuscus, Peristylus constrictus, Pholidota articulata, P. imbricata etc. q. Species distributed from India to South East Asia: The representing species distributed from India to Borneo, Java, Malaysia and South East Asia recorded from the region are Ceratostylis subulata, Cymbidium aloifolium, Eria pannea, Goodyera procera etc.

459510 r. Species extending to Cambodia, Malay Archipelago, Taiwan, Thailand and Sri Lanka are Chrysoglossum ornatum , Phaius tankervilleae, Porpox elwesii etc. s. Species distributed from India to Philippines: The representing Orchid species distributed from India to Afghanisthan, Australia, Japan, Malaysia, New Guinea and Philippines recorded from the region are Didymoplexis pallens, Dienia ophrydis, Nervilia aragoana, Pteroceras teres, Phaius mishmensis, Rhynchostylis retusa, Rhomboda lanceolata, Thelasis pygmaea, etc.

The General Distribution of available Orchid species of Darjeeling Himalaya are provided in following Table 5.6.

Table 5.6: General Distribution of Orchid species

North-West Eastern Himalaya General Himalaya Distribution

Sl. Botanical name of No. species

and Kashmir Jammu Pradesh Himachal Garhwal Kumaun Nepal Darjeeling Sikkim Bhutan Pradesh Arunachal Meghalaya-Nagaland Myanmar China Malaysia Thailand Vietnam India South Lanka Sri 1 Acampe carinata + + + + + + + + + + + + 2 A. rigida + + + + + + + + + + + + + 3 Acanthephippium + + + + + + + + striatum 4 Acrochaene punctata + + + + + 5 Aerides multiflora + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + 6 A. odorata + + + + + + + + + + + + + 7 Agrostophyllum + + + + brevipes 8 A. callosum + + + + + + + + 9 A. myrianthum + + + 10 A. planicaule + + + + 11 Anoectochilus + + + brevilabris 12 A. grandiflorus + + 13 Anthogonium gracile + + + + + + + + 14 Appendicula cornuta + + + + + + + 15 Arundina + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

460511

graminifolia 16 Ascocentrum + + + + + + + + ampullaceum 17 Biermannia + + + bimaculata 18 Bulbophyllum affine + + + + + + + + + + 19 B. apodum + + + + + + + + + + 20 B. appendiculatum + + + + 21 B. bisetum + + + + 22 B. careyanum + + + + + + + + + + 23 B. careyanum var. + + sikkimense 24 B. cauliflorum + + + + + 25 B. cauliflorum var. + + sikkimense 26 B. crassipes + + + + + 27 B. eublepharum + + + + + 28 B. gamblei + + + + 29 B. gracilipes + + 30 B. guttulatum + + + + + + + 31 B. helenae + 32 B. hirtum + + + + + + + 33 B. hymenanthum + + + + + + 34 B. khasyanum + + + 35 B. leopardinum + + + + + + + + + + 36 B. odoratissimum + + + + + + + + + + var. odoratissimum 37 B. odoratissimum + var. racemosum 38 B. polyrhizum + + + + + + + + 39 B. reptans + + + + + + + + + + 40 B. rigidum + + + + 41 B. rolfei + + + + + + 4 B. roxburghii + 43 B. sarcophyllum + + + 44 B. scabratum + + + + 45 B. secundum + + + + + + + + + 46 B. stenobulbon + + + + 47 B. striatum + + + + + 48 B. thomsonii + + + +

461512

49 B. tortuosum + + 50 B. triste + + + + 51 B. umbellatum + + + + + + + + + + 52 B. wallichii + + + + + + + + + + 53 B. yoksunense + + + + + 54 Calanthe biloba + + + + + + + + 55 C. brevicornu + + + + + + + 56 C. puberula + + + + + + 57 C. sylvatica + + + + + + + + + 58 C. triplicata + + + + + 59 C. trulliformis + + + 60 C. yuksomnensis + + 61 Ceratostylis + + + + + + + himalaica 62 C. subulata + + + + + + 63 Cheirostylis griffithii + + + + + + + + 64 C. yunnanensis + + 65 Chiloschista parishii + + + + + 66 Chrysoglossum + + + + ornatum 67 Cleisocentron pallens + + + 68 C. aspersum + + + + + 69 C. filiforme + + + + + + + + + 70 C. racemiferum + + + + + + + + + + + 71 C. subulatum + + + + + + + + 72 Coelogyne barbata + + + + + + 73 C. corymbosa + + + + + + 74 C. cristata + + + + + + + + 75 C. fimbriata + + + + + + 76 C. flaccida + + + + + + + + + 77 C. fuscescens + + + + + + + 78 C. raizadae + + + + + + 79 C. nitida + + + + + + 80 C. occultata + + + + + 81 C. ovalis + + + + + + + + + + 82 C. pantlingii + + 83 C. pempahesiana + 84 C. prolifera + + + + + + + 85 C. punctulata + + + + + + 86 C. stricta + + + +

462513

87 C. viscosa + + + + + + 88 Cremastra + + + + + appendiculata 89 Crepidium + acuminatum 90 C. josephianum + + 91 C. khasianum + 92 C. maximowiczianum + 93 Cryptochilus lutea + + + + + + 94 C. sanguinea + + + + + + 95 Cymbidium + + + + + aloifolium 96 C. bicolor + + + + + + + 97 C. cochleare + + + + + + + 98 C. dayanum + + + + + + + 99 C. devonianum + + + + + + + 100 C. eburneum + + + + + + + 101 C. erythraeum + + + + + + + 102 C. hookerianum + + + + + 103 C. iridioides + + + + + + + + 104 C. lancifolium + + + + + + + + 105 C. longifolium + + + + + + + + 106 C. lowianum + 107 C. mastersii + + + + + + 108 Dendrobium + + + + + aduncum 109 D. amoenum + + + + + + + + 110 D. anceps + + + 111 D. aphyllum + + + + + + + + + + 112 D. bicameratum + + + + + + 113 D. candidum + + + + + 114 D. cathcartii + + + + 115 D. chrysanthum + + + + 116 D. chrysotoxum + + 117 D. crepidatum + + + + + + + 118 D. cumulatum + + + + + + + 119 D. densiflorum + + + + + + + + 120 D. denudans + + + + + + + 121 D. devonianum + + + + + 122 D. eriiflorum + + + + + + + + +

463514

123 D. falconeri + + + + + 124 D. farmeri + + 125 D. fimbriatum + + 126 D. fimbriatum var. + + + + + + + + + + oculatum 127 D. heterocarpum + + + + + + + + + 128 D. jenkinsii + + + + + 129 D. lindleyi + + + + + + 130 D. longicornu + + + + + 131 D. moschatum + + + + + + + + + + + 132 D. nobile + + + + + + + 133 D. ochreatum + 134 D. pendulum + + + + 135 D. porphyrochilum + + + + + + + + 136 D. praecinctum + + + + + 137 D. primulinum + 138 D. stuposum + + + + + + + 139 D. sulcatum + + + + 140 D. terminale + + + + + + + + + 141 D. transparens + + + + + + + 142 Didymoplexis pallens + + + + 143 Dienia ophrydis + + + + + + + + + + 144 Diplomeris hirsuta + + + + 145 Epigeneium amplum + + + + + + + 146 E. rotundatum + + + + + + + 147 Eria bambusifolia + + + + + + + 148 E. biflora + + + + + + 149 E. bractescens + + + + + + + + + 150 E. clausa + + + + + + 151 E. coronaria + + + + + + + + + 152 E. lasiopetala + + + + + + + + 153 E. paniculata + + + + + + + + 154 E. pannea + + + + + + + 155 E. pumila + + + + 156 E. spicata + + + + + + + + + 157 E. vittata + + + + 158 Esmeralda cathcartii + + + + 159 E. clarkei + + + + + + + 160 Eulophia spectabilis + + + + + 161 Flickengeria fugax + + + + +

464515

162 Galeola lindleyana + + + + + + 163 Gastrochilus + + + + + acutifolius 164 G. calceolaris + + + + + + + + + + 165 G. dasypogon + + + 166 G. distichus + + + + + + + 167 G. inconspicuus + + + + + + + + 168 G. sonamii + + 169 Geodorum + + + + + + + + densiflorum 170 G. densiflorum var. + kalimpongense 171 Goodyera foliosa + + + + + + + + + + 172 G. biflora + + + + + + + 173 G. hemsleyana + + + + 174 G. hispida + + 175 G. procera + + + + + + + + + + 176 G. schlechtendaliana + + + + 177 G. vittata + + + + + 178 Gymnadenia orchidis + + + + + + + + 179 Habenaria arietina + + + + + + + + + 180 H. dentata + + + + + + + + 181 H. furcifera + + + + + + + + + + + 182 H. pectinata + + + + + + + 183 H. stenopetala + + + + + + 184 Herminium + + jaffreyanum 185 H. lanceum + + + + + + + + + 186 H. mackinnonii + + + + + + + + 187 H. macrophyllum + + + + + + + + + 188 H. quinquelobum + + + + 189 Herpysma longicaulis + + + 190 Liparis bootanensis + + + + + + + 191 L. cathcartii + + + 192 L. cespitosa + + + + + + + + + + + + + + 193 L. cordifolia + + + + + + + + + + 194 L. deflexa + + + + 195 L. dongchenii + + 196 L. duthiei + + 197 L. gamblei + +

465516

198 L. nervosa + + + + + + 199 L. odorata + + + + + + + 200 L. plantaginea + + + + + + 201 L. platyrachis + + + + + + 202 L. resupinata + + + + + 203 L. resupinata var. + + ridleyi 204 L. somai + + 205 L. viridiflora + + + + + + 206 Luisia brachystachys + + + + + + + + 207 L. filiformis + + + + + 208 L. trichorrhiza + + + + + + + + + + 209 L. zeylanica + 210 Malaxis muscifera + + + + + + + + 211 M. purpurea + 212 Micropera obtusa + + + + + 213 Monomeria barbata + + + + + + + 214 Nephelaphyllum + + + cordifolium 215 N. pulchrum var. + + + + sikkimensis 216 Nervilia aragoana + + + + + 217 N. gammieana + + + + + 218 N. macroglossa + + + + + 219 N. plicata + + + + + + + + + + 220 Oberonia acaulis + + + + + + + 221 O. angustifolia + + 222 O. caulescens + + + + 223 O. emarginata + + + + + 224 O. ensiformis + + + + + + 225 O. falcata + + + + + + + 226 O. mucronata + + + + + 227 O. pachyrachis + + + + + + + + + + 228 O. recurva + 229 Odontochilus crispus + + + + 230 O. elwesii + + + + 231 O. lanceolatus + + + + + + 232 Ornithochilus + + + + + + + + + difformis 233 Otochilus albus + + + + + + +

466517

234 O. fuscus + + + + + + + 235 O. lancilabius + + + + 236 Panisea demissa + + + + + + + + 237 P. uniflora + + + + + + 238 Paphiopedilum + + + + fairrieanum 239 P. hirsutissimum + + + + + 240 P. insigne + + 241 P. spicerianum + + + 242 P. venustum + + + + 243 P. villosum + + + 244 Pelatantheria + insectifera 245 Papilionanthe teres + + + + + + + 246 Peristylus affinis + + 247 P. constrictus + + + + + + + + + 248 P. fallax + + + + + + + 249 P. goodyeroides + + + + + + + + + 250 P. nematocaulon + + + + + 251 P. parishii + + + + + 252 P. superanthus + + + 253 P. tipuliferus + + + + 254 Phaius flavus + + + + + + + + 255 P. mishmensis + + + + + + 256 P. tankervilleae + + + + + + + + + 257 Phalaenopsis + + deliciosa 258 P. lobbii + + + + + + 259 P. mannii + + + + + 260 P. taenialis + + + + + 261 Pholidota articulata + + + + + + + + + 262 P. articulata var. + + griffithii 263 P. imbricata + + + + + + + + + + + + 264 P. pallida + + + + + 265 P. recurva + + + + + + 266 P. rubra + + + + 267 Phreatia elegans + + + 268 Pinalia acervata + + + + + + + 269 P. amica + + + + + + + + + +

467518

270 P. excavata + + + + + 271 P. graminifolia + + + + + + 272 P. stricta + + + + + + 273 Platanthera + + + + bakeriana 274 P. biermanniana + + + 275 P. clavigera + + + + + 276 P. cumminsiana + + + 277 P. edgeworthii + + + + 278 P. exelliana + + + + 279 P. leptocaulon + + + + 280 P. stenantha + + + + + + + + 281 Pleione hookeriana + + + + + + + + 282 P. humilis + + + + + + + + 283 P. maculata + + + + + + + 284 P. praecox + + + + + + + + + + 285 Podochilus cultratus + + + + + + + 286 P. khasianus + + + + 287 Pomatocalpa + + armigerum 288 Porpax elwesii + + + + + 289 Pteroceras teres + + + + + + + 290 Rhomboda lanceolata + + + + 291 Rhynchostylis retusa + + + + + + + + + + + + 292 Saccolabiopsis + + + + + + + + pusilla 293 Satyrium nepalense + + + + + + + var. ciliatum 294 S. nepalense var. + + + + + + + + + + nepalense 295 Smitinandia + + + + + + + + micrantha 296 Spirenthes sinensis + + + 297 Stereochilus hirtus + + + 298 Sunipia bicolor + + + + + + + + 299 S. cirrhata + + + + + 300 S. intermedia + + + 301 S. scariosa + + + + + + + 302 Tainia megalantha + + 303 T. minor + + +

468519

304 T. penangiana + + + + + + + 305 Thelasis longifolia + + + + 306 T. pygmaea + + + + 307 Thunia alba var. alba + + + + + + + + 308 T. alba var. + + + + bracteata 309 Tipularia josephi + + + + + + 310 Trichotosia + + + + + dasyphylla 311 T. pulvinata + + + + + 312 Tylostylis discolor + + + + 313 Uncifera obtusifolia + + + + + + 314 Vanda alpina + + + 315 V. cristata + + 316 V. pumila + + 317 Vandopsis undulata + + + + + + 318 Zeuxine affinis + + 319 Z. flava + + + 320 Z. goodyeroides + + + 321 Z. reflexa + + +

Orchid flora of Darjeeling Himalaya is significantly diverse and peculiar in its floristic composition. The orchid species of the region are reasonably interesting and exceptionally rich floristic composition.

5.7. Cultivated Species

The species which are found in the floral nurseries, botanical garden, research institution and floral garden of local people are categorized as cultivated. i. Orchids under cultivation

Many of the species available in the Floral Nurseries, Lloyd Botanical Garden and National Research Centre for Orchids, Indian Council of Agriculture Research, Darjeeling Campus, Darjeeling, flower nurseries and personal collections in cultivated

469520 conditions for their ornamental values are categorize as cultivated and the species of this category from the Darjeeling Himalaya have been enumerated below:

a. Frequently cultivated by local people

Orchid species frequently found grown by the local people of the region include: Aerides multiflora, A. odorata, Coelogyne barbata , C. corymbosa , C. flaccida , C. fuscescens , C. nitida , Cymbidium cochleare , C. devonianum , C. hookerianum , C. lowianum, C. mastersii, Dendrobium aphyllum , D. densiflorum, D. farmeri , D. fimbriatum , D. moschatum, D. nobile , Esmeralda clarkei , Rhynchostylis retusa , Vanda cristata etc. b. Grown at Floral Nurseries

Many orchid species are being introduced to cultivation from North East states of India. The most commonly found species in Floral Nurseries include: Aerides multiflora, A. odorata, Bulbophyllum appendiculatum , B. bisetum , B. helenae , B. leopardinum , B. triste , Cymbidium cochleare , C. hookerianum , C. lowianum , C. mastersii , C. iridiodes , Coelogyne corymbosa , C. flaccida , C. punctulata , C. viscosa , Dendrobium aphyllum , D. bicameratum , D. cathcartii , D. chrysanthum , D. farmeri , D. fimbriatum , D. lindleyi , D. jenkinsii , D. primulinum , Eria biflora , Fleckingeria fugax, Gastrochilus desipogon, Liparis cordifolia , Oberonia acaulis , Pinalia acervata , P. amica , P. graminifolia , Rhynchostylis retusa , Vanda cristata , V. pumila etc. c. Grown at Lloyd Botanical Garden

Orchid species grown in the Lloyd Botanical Garden, Darjeeling houses are Calanthe yuksomnensis, C. brevicornu , Bulbophyllum leopardinum, Coelogyne corymbosa , C. cristata , C. nitida , Cymbidium hookerianum , C. iridioides , C. lowianum , Dendrobium chrysanthum , D. chrysotoxum , Epigeneium amplum , E. rotundatum , Paphiopedilum fairrieanum, P. hirsutissimum , P. insigne , Phaius tankervilleae , Pleione praecox , Vandopsis undulata etc. d. Grown at National Research Centre for Orchids, ICAR

The National Research Centre for Orchids, Indian Council for Agricultural Research, Darjeeling Campus, Darjeeling has been cultivating following Orchid species viz ., Acrochaene punctata , Calanthe puberula , C. sylvatica , Coelogyne barbata , C.

470521 corymbosa , C. cristata , C. flaccida , C. punctulata , C. viscosa , Cymbidium cochleare , C. devonianum , C. lowianum , C. hookerianum , C. iridioides , Dendrobium amoenum , D. chrysanthum , D. fimbriatum var. occulatum , Epigeneium amplum , E. rotundatum , Eria vittata , Goodyera hemsleyana, G. procera , G. schlechtendaliana , Liparis bootanensis , L. resupinata , Otochilus lancilabius , Paphiopedilum fairrieanum , P. insigne , P. venustum, P. villosum , Pinalia acervata , P. excavata , Pleione humilis , P. praecox , Vandopsis undulata etc.

5.7.1. Availability Status

The present availability status of all the collected specimens has been determined by visual observation on the spot during repeated field trips. Orchid species found only in the planted condition are categorized as cultivated and the species available and distributed different areas of the study region and their natural population are still populous are considered as common and the species which are found in less population but available throughout the region is considered as frequent and the species which are available throughout the region but lesser population then the frequent is considered as sparse. The species which are found only in 6-7 places throughout the entire regions and their natural population very less is categorized as rare and the species which are found only 4-5 places and their natural population is less and persist maximum risk of threats is categorized as threatened and the species which have meager natural population, less availability and distribution and having high risk of threats is categorized as endangered. i. Cultivated: Cultivated Species in the region

The cultivated species available in the region are Cymbidium lowianum, Dendrobium chrysotoxum, D. crepidatum, D. cumulatum, D. devonianum, D. falconeri, D. jenkinsii, D. lindleyi, D. ochreatum, D. pendulum, D. primulinum, Paphiopedilum fairrieanum, P. hirsutissimum, P. insegne, P. spicerianum, P. venustum, P. villosum, Phaius tankervilleae and Vanda pumila.

471522 ii. Common : Species commonly available in the region

The Orchid species that are commonly available in the region include Acampe carinata , A. rigida , Agrostophyllum callosum , Arundina graminifolia , Bulbophyllum affine , B. bisetum , B. gamblei , B. helenae , B. khasyanum , B. odoratissimum var. odoratissimum, B. scabratum , B. yoksunense , Calanthe biloba , C. brevicornu , C. puberula , Cleisostoma filiforme , Coelogyne cristata , C. fimbriata , C. flaccida , C. fuscescens , C. prolifera , Crepidium maximowiczianum , Eria lasiopetala , Liparis plantaginea , Oberonia mucronata , O. pachyrachis , Tainia minor , Thelasis pygmaea , Thunia alba var. bracteata and Vanda cristata . iii. Frequent : Species frequently available in the region

Orchid species like Bulbophyllum cauliflorum var. sikkimense , B. crassipes , B. hirtum , Coelogyne corymbosa , C. nitida , Cymbidium devonianum , C. iridioides , Dendrobium aphyllum , D. chrysanthum , D. denudans , Epigeneium amplum , Eria coronaria , E. spicata , Goodyera procera , Liparis odorata , L. resupinata , Malaxis muscifera , Otochilus albus , O. fuscus , O. lancilabius , Pholidota articulata , P. imbricata , Pinalia excavata , Platanthera cumminsiana , P. leptocaulon , Rhynchostylis retusa, Satyrium nepalense var. ciliatum and Sunipia bicolor , are frequently available in the region. iv. Sparse : Species sparsely available in the region

Orchid species like Acrochaene punctata , Agrostophyllum brevipes , A. myrianthum , Anthogonium gracile , Ascocentrum ampullaceum , Bulbophyllum careyanum , B. careyanum var. sikkimense , B. cauliflorum , B. leopardinum, B. odoratissimum var. racemosum , B. reptans , B. secundum , B. striatum , Coelogyne ovalis , C. raizadae , Crepidium acuminatum , C. josephianum C. khasianum , Cymbidium aloifolium , C. bicolor, C. cochleare , Dendrobium amoenum , D. anceps , D. candidum , D. densiflorum , D. eriiflorum , D. fimbriatum , D. longicornu , D. moschatum , D. nobile , Dienia ophrydis , Diplomeris hirsuta , Epigeneium rotundatum , Eulophia spectabilis , Flickengeria fugax , Gastrochilus sonamii , Goodyera foliosa , G. schlechtendaliana , Habenaria arietina , H. furcifera , H. stenopetala , Herminium jaffreyanum , H. lanceum , H. macrophyllum , Herpysma longicaulis , Liparis bootanensis , L. cespitosa , L. nervosa , L. resupinata var. ridleyi , L. viridiflora , Luisia trichorrhiza , L. zeylanica , Malaxis

472523 purpurea , Micropera obtusa , Nervilia aragoana , N. macroglossa , N. plicata , Oberonia acaulis , O. emarginata , O. recurva , Ornithochilus difformis , Panisea demissa , Papilionanthe teres , Peristylus constrictus , P. goodyeroides , P. superanthus , P. tipuliferus , Phalaenopsis deliciosa , Pholidota articulata var. griffithii , P. pallida , P. rubra , Pinalia amica , P. stricta , Platanthera biermanniana , P. clavigera , P. exelliana , Pleione hookeriana , P. humilis , P. praecox , Smitinandia micrantha , Spiranthes sinensis , Sunipia cirrhata , Tainia penangiana , Tylostylis discolor and Vandopsis undulata are sparsely available in the region. v. Rare : Available Rare species in the region

Orchid species like Acanthephippium striatum , Aerides multiflora, A. odorata, Anoectochilus brevilabris , Appendicula cornuta , Biermannia bimaculata , Bulbophyllum eublepharum , B. gracilipes , B. guttulatum , B. rigidum , B. sarcophyllum , B. stenobulbon , B. thomsonii , B. triste , B. umbellatum , Calanthe sylvatica , C. triplicata, C. trulliformis, C. yuksomnensis , Ceratostylis subulata , Cheirostylis yunnanensis , Chiloschista parishii , Chrysoglossum ornatum , Cleisostoma aspersum , C. racemiferum , Coelogyne barbata , C. occultata , C. pantlingii , C. pempahesiana , C. punctulata , C. stricta , C. viscosa , Cremastra appendiculata, Cryptochilus lutea , Cymbidium dayanum , C. erythraeum , C. lancifolium , C. longifolium , Dendrobium aduncum , D. bicameratum , D. cathcartii , D. fimbriatum var. oculatum , D. heterocarpum , D. porphyrochilum , D. stuposum , D. sulcatum , D. transparens , Didymoplexis pallens , Eria bractescens , E. bambusifolia , E. paniculata , E. pannea , E. pumila , E. vittata , Esmeralda cathcartii , E. clarkei , Gastrochilus acutifolius , G. calceolaris , G. dasypogon , G. distichus , G. inconspicuus , Geodorum densiflorum , G. densiflorum var. kalimpongense , Goodyera biflora , G. hemsleyana , G. hispida , G. vittata , Habenaria dentata , H. pectinata , Herminium mackinnonii , H. quinquelobum , Liparis cathcartii , L. deflexa, L. dongchenii , L. gamblei , L. platyrachis , L. somai , Luisia filiformis , Monomeria barbata , Nervilia gammieana , Oberonia angustifolia , O. caulescens, O. ensiformis , O. falcata, Odontochilus crispus , O. elwesii , O. lanceolatus , Panisea uniflora , Peristylus affinis , P. nematocaulon , P. parishii , Phaius flavus , P. mishmensis , Phalaenopsis lobbii , P. mannii, P. taenialis , Pholidota recurva , Phreatia elegans, Pinalia acervata , Platanthera bakeriana , P. edgeworthii , P. stenantha , Podochilus cultratus , P. khasianus , Porpax elwesii , Pteroceras teres , Saccolabiopsis pusilla , Satyrium nepalense var. nepalense, Stereochilus hirtus , Sunipia intermedia , S. scariosa , Thelasis longifolia , Thunia alba

473524 var. alba , Tipularia josephi , Trichotosia dasyphylla , T. pulvinata , Uncifera obtusifolia and Zeuxine goodyeroides , are rarely available Orchid species in the region.

vi. Threatened : Available Threatened species in the region

Orchid species like Agrostophyllum planicaule , Anoectochilus grandiflorus , Bulbophyllum apodum , B. hymenanthum , B. polyrhizum , B. rolfei , B. tortuosum , B. wallichii , Ceratostylis himalaica , Cheirostylis griffithii , Cleisocentron pallens , Cleisostoma subulatum , Cryptochilus sanguinea , Cymbidium eburneum, C. hookerianum , C. mastersii , Dendrobium farmeri , Eria biflora , E. clausa , Galeola lindleyana , Gymnadenia orchidis, Liparis cordifolia , L. duthiei , Luisia brachystachys , Nephelaphyllum cordifolium , N. pulchrum var. sikkimensis , Peristylus fallax, Pinalia graminifolia , Pleione maculata , Pomatocalpa armigerum , Rhomboda lanceolata , Tainia megalantha, Vanda alpina , Zeuxine affinis and Z. reflexa, fall under threatened category in the region.

vii. Endangered : Available Endangered species in the region

The six endangered Orchid species found in the region are Bulbophyllum appendiculatum , B. roxburghii, Dendrobium praecinctum, D. terminale Pelatantheria insectifera and Zeuxine flava .

Numeric representation of species availability status are presented in Table 5.7.

Table 5.7: Showing the name of Orchid genera with number of species and their present availability status

[Abbreviation used : Cu – Cultivated; C – Common; F – Frequent; S – Sparse; R – Rare; T – Threatened and E – Endangered].

Sl. Orchid Genera No. of Cu C F S R T E No. spp.

1 Acampe Lindl. 2 - 2 - - - - - 2 Acanthephippium Bl. 1 - - - - 1 - - 3 Acrochaene Lindl. 1 - - - 1 - - - 4 Aerides Lour. 2 - - - - 2 - - 5 Agrostophyllum Bl. 4 - 1 - 2 - 1 - 6 Anoectochilus Bl. 2 - - - - 1 1 -

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7 Anthogonium Wall. ex 1 - - - 1 - - - Lindl.

8 Appendicula Bl. 1 - - - - 1 - - 9 Arundina Bl. 1 - 1 - - - - - 10 Ascocentrum Schltr. 1 - - - 1 - - - 11 Biermannia King & 1 - - - - 1 - - Pantl. 12 Bulbophyllum Thour. 36 - 8 3 8 9 6 2 13 Calanthe R. Br. 7 - 3 - - 4 - - 14 Ceratostylis Bl. 2 - - - - 1 1 - 15 Cheirostylis Bl. 2 - - - - 1 1 - 16 Chiloschista Lindl. 1 - - - - 1 - - 17 Chrysoglossum Bl. 1 - - - - 1 - - 18 Cleisocentron Bruhl 1 - - - - - 1 - 19 Cleisostoma Bl. 4 - 1 - - 2 1 - 20 Coelogyne Lindl. 16 - 5 2 2 7 - - 21 Cremastra Lindl. 1 - - - - 1 - - 22 Crepidium Lindl. 4 - 1 - 3 - - - 23 Cryptochilus Wall. 2 - - - - 1 1 - 24 Cymbidium Sw. 13 1 - 2 3 4 3 - 25 Dendrobium Sw. 34 10 - 3 9 9 1 2 26 Didymoplexis Griff. 1 - - - - 1 - - 27 Dienia Lindl . 1 - - - 1 - - - 28 Diplomeris D. Don 1 - - - 1 - - - 29 Epigeneium Gagnep. 2 - - 1 1 - - - 30 Eria Lindl. 11 - 1 2 - 6 2 - 31 Esmeralda Rchb. f. 2 - - - 2 - - 32 Eulophia R. Br. ex 1 - - - 1 - - - Lindl . 33 Flickingeria A.D. 1 - - - 1 - - - Hawkes

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34 Galeola Lour. 1 - - - - - 1 - 35 Gastrochilus D. Don 6 - - - 1 5 - - 36 Geodorum Jackson 2 - - - - 2 - - 37 Goodyera R. Br. 7 - - 1 2 4 - - 38 Gymnadenia R. Br. 1 - - - - - 1 - 39 Habenaria Willd. 5 - - - 3 2 - - 40 Herminium R. Br. 5 - - - 3 2 - - 41 Herpysma Lindl. 1 - - - 1 - - - 42 Liparis Rich. 16 - 1 2 5 6 2 - 43 Luisia Gaud. 4 - - - 2 1 1 - 44 Malaxis Soland. ex Sw. 2 - - 1 1 - - -

45 Micropera Lindl. 1 - - - 1 - - -

46 Monomeria Lindl. 1 - - - - 1 - - 47 Nephelaphyllum Bl. 2 - - - - - 2 - 48 Nervilia Commer. ex 4 - - - 3 1 - - Gaud. 49 Oberonia Lindl. 9 - 2 - 3 4 - - 50 Odontochilus Bl. 3 - - - - 3 - -

51 Ornithochilus (Lindl.) 1 - - - 1 - - - Benth. 52 Otochilus Lindl. 3 - - 3 - - - - 53 Panisea (Lindl.) Steud. 2 - - - 1 1 - - 54 Paphiopedilum Pfitz. 6 6 ------55 Pelatantheria Ridl . 1 ------1 56 Pepilionanthe Schltr. 1 - - - 1 - - - 57 Peristylus Bl. 8 - - - 4 3 1 - 58 Phaius Lour. 3 1 - - - 2 - - 59 Phalaenopsis Bl. 4 - - - 1 3 - -

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60 Pholidota Lindl . ex 6 - - 2 3 1 - - Hook. 61 Phreatia Lindl . 1 - - - - 1 - - 62 Pinalia Lindl. 5 - - 1 2 1 1 - 63 Platanthera Rich. 8 - - 2 3 3 - - 64 Pleione D. Don 4 - - - 3 - 1 - 65 Podochilus Bl. 2 - - - - 2 - - 66 Pomatocalpa Breda 1 - - - - - 1 - 67 Porpax Lindl. 1 - - - - 1 - - 68 Pteroceras Hasskarl 1 - - - - 1 - - 69 Rhomboda Lindl. 1 - - - - - 1 - 70 Rhynchostylis Bl. 1 - - 1 - - - - 71 Saccolabiopsis J.J. Sm. 1 - - - - 1 - - 72 Satyrium Sw. 2 - - 1 - 1 - - 73 Smitinandia Holtt. 1 - - - 1 - - - 74 Spiranthes Rich. 1 - - - 1 - - - 75 Stereochilus Lindl. 1 - - - - 1 - - 76 Sunipia Lindl. 4 - - 1 1 2 - - 77 Tainia Bl. 3 - 1 - 1 - 1 - 78 Thelasis Bl. 2 - 1 - - 1 - - 79 Thunia Rchb. f. 2 - 1 - - 1 - - 80 Tipularia Nuttall. 1 - - - - 1 - - 81 Trichotosia Bl. 2 - - - - 2 - - 82 Tylostylis Bl. 1 - - - 1 - - - 83 Uncifera Lindl. 1 - - - - 1 - - 84 Vanda Jones ex R. Br . 3 1 1 - - - 1 - 85 Vandopsis Pfitz. 1 - - - 1 - - - 86 Zeuxine Lindl. 4 - - - - 1 2 1

Total 321 19 30 28 85 118 35 6

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The present study revealed that immediate conservative measures must be adopted if the Orchid flora of the region is to be saved and preserved. One of the earlier cause was their large scale collection for commercial purposes. The study shows that at present, only about 30 species (9.34%) falling under the category of common; 28 (8.72%) being frequent; 85 (26.47%) being sparse. At present as many as 118 species (36.76%) have become rare with high risk of extinction looming large over 35 species (10.90%) that are threatened and 6 species (1.86%) endangered. About 19 species (5.91%) find refuge under cultivation (Fig. 5.3). Thus, immediate conservation strategies have to be implemented or in a few years from hence we may lose many of these beautiful plants from the region.

Fig. 5.3: Present availability status of species

The following Table 5.8. Gives an account of the present availability status of Orchid species of Darjeeling Himalaya.

Table 5.8: Total number of Orchid species with their present availability status

Sl. No. Present Availability Status Total no. of species

1 Cultivated 19 2 Common 30 3 Frequent 28 4 Sparse 85 5 Rare 118 6 Threatened 35 7 Endangered 6 Total 321

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Under the study of the Orchid flora of Darjeeling Himalaya the field survey and recording of such category of Orchid species were simultaneously carried out during 2007-2015. The recorded data is based on repeated visits to the locality of occurrence and study of their distribution and present availability status within the Darjeeling Himalaya.

5.7.2. IUCN Categorization of recorded species

It is estimated that about 10% of the flowering plant species in India are threatened (Rao, 1994). Naturalization of numerous exotics, excessive increase of pollution, over grazing etc. are exerting tremendous pressure on the natural vegetation and thereby the flora of this area (Das, 1995, 1996, 2002, 2004) resulting in the loss of many Orchid species and leading many others to different levels of threatened status. As many as 300 species of Orchids have already become endangered in the Eastern Himalaya (Rao, 1994) and 215 species are endangered and 20 are feared to have become extinct in Indian Subcontinent (Goel & Roy, 2007).

During the study, some of the threatened species of India, under Red Data Books of Indian plants (Nayer & Shastri, 1987, 1988, 1990) is also being recorded. This species seems to be widely distributed inside the region in different altitudinal zones. But multifarious anthropogenic activities and natural calamities cause drastic loss of species population in natural habitat. Now the survival of many species is under threat. Loss of habitat is certainly exerting tremendous pressure on the survival of numerous restricted distributions of taxa in the region.

The 'International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources' (IUCN) have estimated that about 10% of the world's vascular plant species totaling about 20,000–25,000 species are under varying degrees of threat (Nayar & Shastry, 1987). Later in 1997 IUCN Red List includes 33,798 species of vascular plants under different categories of threat, in different parts of the world (Walter & Gillett, 1998). Species are assigned to different categories of threat basing on the degree of threat of extinction they face (Rao, et al . 2003).

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The threatened Orchid species of Darjeeling Himalaya may be accounted according to Red List of Threatened Vascular Plants Species in India (Rao, et al . 2003) into following categories (Table 5.9):

Table 5.9: Threatened Orchid Species of India recorded from Darjeeling Himalaya

Categories Species % of total species

Extinct/ Endangered (Ex/E) _ _

Endangered (E) 1 0.31

Vulnerable (V) _ _

Rare (R) 4 1.25

Indeterminate (I) 6 1.86

Total 11 3.42

Source: Red List of Threatened Vascular Plants Species in India (Rao, et al . 2003)

In the present study, as many as 11 (3.42%) Orchid species were found to be threatened categories.

Endangered: There was only 1 Orchid species (0.31%) that belongs to the endangered category.

The following is the list of the endangered species:

i. Paphiopedilum fairrieanum (Nayar & Sastry, 1987).

Rare: There were 4 Orchid species (1.25%) which belong to the rare category. The rare species list provided below:

i. Esmeralda clarkei (Arora & Gupta, 1983).

ii. Coelogyne cristata (Arora & Gupta, 1983).

iii. Coelogyne nitida (Arora & Gupta, 1983).

iv. Paphiopedilum hirsutissimum (Arora & Gupta, 1983).

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Indeterminate: In the Orchid flora of the Darjeeling Himalaya only 6 species (1.86%) were found to be the indeterminate category. Following is the list of indeterminate species:

i. Anoectochilus brevilabris (Arora & Gupta, 1983).

ii. Coelogyne barbata (Arora & Gupta, 1983).

iii. Coelogyne flaccida (Arora & Gupta, 1983).

iv. Coelogyne prolifera (Arora & Gupta, 1983).

v. Liparis duthiei (Jain & Sastry, 1983).

vi. Phaius mishmensis (Arora & Gupta, 1983).

5.8. Comparative Study

There are ten floras pertaining to the fractional works on the Orchid Flora of Darjeeling Himalaya by many earlier workers and according to them, there are 90 genera with 283 species reported from Orchid of Bhutan (Pearce & Cribb, 2002); 25 genera with 35 species from Flora of Eastern Himalaya, first report (Hara Hiroshi, 1966); 13 genera with 20 species from flora of Eastern Himalaya, second report (Hara Hiroshi, 1971); 16 genera with 26 species flora of Eastern Himalaya, third report (Ohashi, Hiroyoshi, 1975); 29 genera with 62 species from Guide to the Orchids of Sikkim (Bruhl, 1926); 11 genera with 29 species and 56 genera with 212 species from

Indian Orchids guide to identification and culture vol. I , and vol. II (Pradhan, 1976, 1979); 44 genera with 87 species from 100 Beautiful Himalayan Orchids and how to grow them (Pradhan & Pradhan, 1997); 6 genera with 7 species from Flora of British India (Hooker, 1888-1890); and recently 85 genera with 311 species reported from Darjeeling Himalaya (Yonzone et al . 2012a). A numerical comparison of the different Orchid species in the ten published flora and paper and present work has been highlighted in the following Table 5.10.

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Table 5.10: Comparative numerical representation of different Orchid species in the ten published flora and paper and in the present work

PF FBI FEH FEH FEH OS IOIG IOIG HO OB PO (1) (2) (3) (1) (2)

Total 6 25 13 16 29 11 56 44 90 86 no. of Gen . Gen. Gen. Gen. Gen. Gen. Gen. Gen. Gen. Gen. genera

Total 7 35 20 26 62 29 212 87 283 321 no. of spp. spp. spp. spp. spp. spp. spp. spp. spp. spp. species

[Abbreviation used : PF – Published Flora; FBI – Flora of British India; FEH (1) – Flora of Eastern Himalaya, first report; FEH (2) – Flora of Eastern Himalaya, second report; FEH (3) – Flora of Eastern Himalaya, Third Report; OS – Guide to the Orchids of Sikkim; IOIG (1) – Indian Orchids Guide to Identification and Culture, vol. 1; IOIG (2) – Indian Orchids Guide to Identification and Culture, vol. 2; HO – 100 Beautiful Himalayan Orchids and how to grow them; OB – Orchids of Bhutan; PO – Present Work; Gen.-Genus; Sp.- Species].

The above table highlights the comparative figures of numerical representation of Orchid species as recorded in ten floras with the present work. The figures reveal that the highest number of Orchid species of Darjeeling Himalaya was recorded in the present work which accounts 321 species with 86 genera is the remarkable record and lowest 7 species with 6 genera in Flora of British India (Hooker, 1888-1890). Subsequently, highest number of Orchid genera reported from Orchid of Bhutan while number of species was lesser in comparison with finding of present work and it stands second highest position in case of reported species. Pradhan, 1976 and 1979 reported 11 genera and 29 species and 56 genera with 212 species was the third highest number of species from Darjeeling Himalayan region but in Pradhan & Pradhan, 1997, there were 44 genera with 87 species reported and Bruhl. 1926 report 29 genera with 62 species and lesser number of species reported from Flora of Eastern Himalaya, Hara Hiroshi, 1966, 1971 and Ohasi Hiroyashi 1975. It is interesting to note that present work report highest number of species from the region.

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5.9. Endemic Species

Endemic elements of a region throw light on the biogeography of the area, centres of speciation, areas of extinction, vicariance and adaptive evolution of the flora and fauna of the area (Ahmedullah, 2000). Only a particular species of Orchids is found distributed in a specific phytogeographical region, resulting in endemism. Particularly the endemic species with small population are under high risk of extinction, unless an immediate effort in made for their conservation through scientific assessment (Gajurel et al . 2006). India has approximately 46,000 plant species, of which about 17,000 are vascular plants and about 5,000 species are endemic (Nayar & Sastry, 1987). Sir J. D. Hooker in 1849 claims that majority of the Indian floristic species are migrated from other part of the world. However, D. Chatterjee (1939), for his estimation of about 60% of the Indian flora are of Indian origin, and out of which 14% being exclusively endemic to India. The “British India” had 133 endemic genera of angiosperms (Chatterjee, 1940) and according to Nayar (1980) there are 141 endemic genera in India.

A good degree of endemism is found in all the altitudinal zones of the Himalayan vegetation. About 40 genera are restricted to the Eastern Himalayas but 11 genera are confined to the Western Himalayas (Ahmedullah, 2000). According to Chatterjee, 1940, at species level there are as many as 3,161 endemic restricted to the Himalayas. It is estimated that North West Himalaya harbour about 1000 endemics, but of about 3000 total species, while the Eastern Himalaya has about 1500 endemic species out of a total of about 4500 species (Rao, 1994). According to (Bhujel & Das, 2002) recorded a total of 397 dicotyledonous species are endemic to Eastern Himalaya including those extending to North East India. About 40% of the Himalayan floristic elements are endemic to the region, particularly to the Eastern flank (Ghosh, 2006). The endemic status of Darjeeling flora is quite high, around 30% (Das, 2004). Some of these plants are also with extremely restricted distribution like ‘Endemic to Darjeeling’ of West Bengal. Hence, Darjeeling Himalaya shares a common representation in endemic Orchid species. The several efforts may be essential to identify and to protect these vanishing endemic species in the region.

Endemics constitute another important element of biologically interesting plants (Hajra & Verma, 1996). The climatic and edaphic isolation of this Sub-Himalayan region have resulted in the high percentage of endemism (Bhujel & Das, 2002; Das

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2004; Rai, 2006). The Orchids in India are represented by 1250 species belonging to 157 genera. Of these 1250 species about 300 are endemic to India (Kher & Vij, 1997). More than 1300 species in about 190 genera of Orchids are recorded in India of which nearly 350 species are endemic to the country (Misra, 2007; Singh, 2001). In Eastern India, there are about 120 species occurring with 5 endemic species distributed in the Eastern ghats of Orissa and in the plains of West Bengal (Hedge, 1985).

The Darjeeling Himalaya is well known for its wide range of vegetation covering almost all major groups of plants including a high number of endemics (Biswas, 1940; Chatterjee, 1940a; Das & Chanda, 1987; Das, 1995). While many species migrated to this flora, a number of species may have originated in this region. The analysis of the Orchid flora of Darjeeling Himalaya holds about 29.58% of the recorded species as endemic flora. Analysis of the Orchids revealed that a proportion show restricted distribution and such endemic Orchid species may be categorized into the following.

The Endemic taxa are categorized broadly into following phytogeographical divisions:

I. Endemic to Darjeeling II. Endemic to Darjeeling and Sikkim Himalayas III. Endemic to the Eastern Himalaya IV. Endemic to Himalayas V. Endemic to Indian Subcontinent

I. Species Endemic to Darjeeling Himalaya

There are 11 of the 321 species (3.42%) showed a highly restricted distribution (i.e . endemic), occurring only in the Darjeeling Himalaya. The species included: Bulbophyllum helenae , B. odoratissimum var. racemosum , B. roxburghii, Coelogyne pempahesiana , Crepidium acuminatum , C. maximowiczianum , Cymbidium lowianum , Dendrobium ochreatum , D. primulinum , Geodorum densiflorum var. kalimpongense , Luisia zeylanica , Malaxis purpurea , Oberonia recurva and Pelatantheria insectifera .

II. Species Endemic to Darjeeling and Sikkim Himalayas

Quite a large number of orchid species with their distribution restricted within the Darjeeling and Sikkim Himalayas. There are 23 species (7.16%) showed a wider

484535 distribution, occurring in the Darjeeling and Sikkim Himalayas. These species included: Anoectochilus grandiflorus , Bulbophyllum careyanum var. sikkimense , B. cauliflorum var. sikkimense , B. gracilipes , B. tortuosum , Coelogyne pantlingii , Dendrobium farmeri , D. fimbriatum , D. ochreatum , Gastrochilus sonamii , Goodyera hispida , Herminium jaffreyanum , Liparis dongchenii , L. duthiei , L. gamblei , L. resupinata var. ridleyi , L. somai , Phalaenopsis deliciosa , Pomatocalpa armigerum , Tainia megalantha, Vanda cristata, V. pumila and Zeuxine affinis .

III. Species Endemic to the Eastern Himalaya

The distribution of some Orchid species is restricted within the Eastern Himalaya. Phytogeographically the region encompasses Darjeeling, Sikkim, Nepal, Bhutan and extends to North Eastern state of Arunachal Pradesh of India. Quite a large number species with their distribution restricted within the Eastern Himalayan region have been recorded from the Darjeeling Himalaya. This, in fact, expressed the originality of the Orchid flora of this region. There are 33 species (10.28%) were found to be endemic to this region. The species included: Agrostophyllum myrianthum , A. planicaule , Biermannia bimaculata , Bulbophyllum gamblei , B. rolfei , B. sarcophyllum , B. scabratum , B. striatum, B. thomsonii , B. yoksunense , Cleisocentron pallens , Coelogyne corymbosa , Crepidium khasianum , Dendrobium candidum , D. cathcartii , D. chrysanthum , D. chrysotoxum , D. longicornu , D. praecinctum , Esmeralda cathcartii , Gastrochilus dasypogon , Nephelaphyllum cordifolium , N. pulchrum var. sikkimensis , Liparis deflexa , Paphiopedilum fairrieanum , Pholidota rubra , Platanthera bakeriana , P. cumminsiana , P. edgeworthii , Spirenthes sinensis , Vanda alpina , Zeuxine flava , Z. goodyeroides and Z. reflexa .

IV. Species Endemic to Himalayas

The distribution of some Orchid species is extending outside the Eastern Himalayan region but remain restricted within Himalayas. Only 14 species or 4.36% were found to be endemic to the Himalayas. These included: Bulbophyllum triste , Coelogyne cristata , Cryptochilus sanguine , C. lutea , Cymbidium aloifolium , Dendrobium denudans , Diplomeris hirsuta , Gastrichilus distichus , G. inconspicuus , Gymnadenia orchidis , Habenaria pectinata , Liparis nervosa and Malaxis muscifera .

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V. Species endemic to Indian Subcontinent

There is another group of Orchid species basically endemic to Indian subcontinent. The Indian Subcontinent that included India, Bhutan, Nepal, Burma, and Sri Lanka showed the presence of 14 species (4.36%) species that were endemic. These species included: Bulbophyllum affine , B. polyrhizum , Chiloschista parishii , Coelogyne occultata , Dendrobium bicameratum , D. candidum , D. falconeri , Pinalia graminifolia , Paphiopedilum villosum, Peristylus tipuliferus , Phreatia elegans, Satyrium nepalense var. nepalense, Thelasis longifolia and T. pygmaea .

Table 5.11: Endemic species restricted to Darjeeling Himalaya to Indian Subcontinent

Restricted zones Number of % of Endemic endemic Species species

A. Darjeeling Himalaya 11 3.42

B. Darjeeling- Sikkim Himalayas 23 7.16

C. Eastern Himalaya 33 10.28

D. Himalayas 14 4.36

E. Indian Subcontinent 14 4.36

Total 95 29.59

Thus, the endemic value of the Orchid flora of the region remains relatively high while 11 species remain restricted to the region, 95 of the 321 species are endemic to various smaller or larger region of India or the Indian subcontinent. This is the 29.59% of the total Orchid species of the region. Out of the different categories of endemic Darjeeling Himalayan elements are minimum and representing 3.42% and Eastern Himalayan elements are maximum and representing 10.28% of the total number of endemics in region. This is followed by Darjeeling-Sikkim Himalayan species 23 which is 7.16%, Indian subcontinent representing 14 which is 4.36%, Himalayas possesses 14 which is 4.36% of the recorded endemics (Table 5.11).

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5.10. Exotics

A series of studies has been undertaken by (Biswas, 1940, Hara, 1966, 1971, Ohashi, 1975, Mathew, 1981, Das, 2002 and Das & Chanda, 1986) on exotic plant species of Eastern Himalayan region. Exotic species can be classified as (i) migratory and (ii) introduced exotic species, which formed one of the major components of the flora and vegetation of Eastern Himalaya. No exotic species observed in the Orchid flora of the region except some hybrid cultivars of Cymbidium from America by British personnel during British Raj in India, tissue culture plantlets by floral nurseries. Some Orchid species has been introduced in the region from North Eastern states of India. Those species are

Not a single species naturalized in the Himalayas. Therefore, no exotic Orchid species recorded in the present survey from Darjeeling Himalaya.

5.11. Economic Assessment

The Darjeeling Himalaya is store house of large number of Orchid species, which are economically significant. Many of those are holding precious medicinal, ethnobotanical and ornamental values. The region also inhabited by a good number of high value ornamental Orchid species which has been directly cultivated by local growers and they sold to the markets.

The many Orchid species of Darjeeling Himalaya are economically important. Important of Orchid species of Darjeeling categories into three categories: (i) Orchids of medicinal value, (ii) Orchids of ethnobotanical value and (iii) Orchids of ornamental value.

5.11.1. Medicinal Value

Orchids are also rich in phytochemicals and alkaloids having therapeutic value and many of them are therefore, used in the indigenous system of medicine for treatment of various ailments.

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The Orchid resources of the Darjeeling Himalaya are high value assets from the economic point of view having therapeutic properties are variously used for the treatment of many of the commonly occurring human ailments. The study on the Orchid Flora of Darjeeling Himalaya has revealed many such species of medicinal value. After relevant literature survey, (Yonzone et al. 2013) have recorded 27 genera with 48 Orchid species found in the regions are medicinally important and their medicinal usage are known worldwide, especially in indigenous herbal medicine and the pharmaceutical industries. A list of Orchid species of Darjeeling Himalaya having therapeutic values and their use is provided here (Table 5.12).

Table 5.12: Medicinal uses of Orchid species

Medicinal Orchid Parts used Purpose of use species

Acampe carinata Freshly collected Rheumatism and neuralgia scorpion and roots and root snake bites and stomach disorder caused paste and by hyper acidity (Chowdhery, 1998 and admixture of leaf Sood et al. 2006 ; Deb et al . 2009, paste and garlic Yonzone et al . 2011b). piece

Aerides multiflora Whole plant juice Cuts and wounds (Sood et al. 2006; Singh & Duggal, 2009, Yonzone et al . 2011b).

Aerides odorata Roots and leaves Joint pain and swellings (Sood et al. paste of mixed 2006). with leaf paste of Azadirachta indica Fresh leaf juice Tuberculosis (Sood et al. 2006; Dash et al . 2008; Yonzone et al . 2011b).

Anoectochilus Fresh leaves Snake bite (Sood et al. 2006 and Yonzone brevilabris paste et al . 2011b).

Arundina Rhizome paste Bacterial infected wounds (Sood et al. graminifolia 2006; Singh & Duggal, 2009; Yonzone et al . 2011b; Yonzone et al . 2012e).

Calanthe sylvatica Whole plant parts Epistaxis (Sood et al. 2006; Yonzone et al . 2011b).

Coelogyne Pseudobulb Stomach ache (Roy et al . 2007).

488539 fuscescens decoction C. corymbosa Juice of fresh Burn wounds (Roy et al . 2007). pseudobulbs C. ovalis Whole plant parts Cough, urinary infection and eyes disorders (Yonzone et al . 2012o).

Coelogyne Dried Burn injuries healing of the wound punctulata pseudobulbs (Chowdhery, 1998; Sood et al. 2006; Deb et al. 2009).

C. stricta Freshly collected Headache and fever (Sood et al. 2006; pseudobulbs Yonzone et al . 2011b).

Cremastra Roots and tuber Toothache and as emollient abscesses, appendiculata paste scrofula, freckles antidote to snake bite (Yonzone et al . 2012o).

Cymbidium Fresh leaves juice Ear otitis and inflammatory (Chowdhery, aloifolium 1998).

Seeds Healing wounds (Chowdhery, 1998).

Root powder Reduce paralysis (Chowdhery, 1998).

Entire plant Purgative, emetic, tonic and in treating earache. Mature seeds are used for healing wounds (Chowdhery, 1998; Sood et al. 2006; Dash et al . 2008; Medhi & Chakrabarty, 2009, Yonzone et al . 2011b).

C. iridioides Fresh leaf juice Clotting of blood in wound (Medhi & Chakrabarty, 2009; Yonzone et al . 2011b).

C. longifolium Fresh roots Nervous disorders, madness, epilepsy, decoction hysteria, rheumatism, spasms (Sood et al. 2006; Yonzone et al . 2011b).

Dendrobium Whole plant parts Nerves, cholera, pimples and boils (Sood, jenkinsii 2006; Yonzone et al . 2011b).

D. amoenum Fresh shoots Wounds and ulcers (Sood et al. 2006; extraction Yonzone et al . 2011b). D. chrysanthum Powdery seeds Haemostatic (Deb et al . 2009; Yonzone et al . 2011b). D. chrysotoxum Whole plant Antitumorous and anticancerous (Sood et extract al. 2006). D. densiflorum Fresh leaf Bone fracture (Sood et al. 2006)

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poultice Powdery seeds Haemostatic (Deb et al . 2009). D. denudans Raw stem High fever and body aches (Mao, 2006). D. fimbriatum Decoction of Liver upsets and nerves debility flowers and (Chowdhery, 1998). leaves Poultice of fresh Boils and pimples (Chowdhery, 1998). leaves Fresh leaves and Cure cholera (Medhi & Chakrabarty, flowers 2009; Yonzone et al . 2011b). D. moschatum Fresh leaf juice Earache Powdery seeds Haemostatic (Sood et al. 2006; Medhi & Chakrabarty, 2009; Deb et al . 2009; Yonzone et al . 2011b). D. nobile Whole plant parts Pulmonary tuberculosis, flatulence, general debility, cut and wounds healing, dyspepsia, night sweats, fever and anorexia Antiphlogistic, pectoral, stomachic and tonic (Chowdhery, 1998; Sood et al. 2006; Medhi & Chakrabarty, 2009; Singh & Duggal, 2009) Powdery seeds Nervous disorder (Deb et al . 2009; and root-powder Yonzone et al . 2011b). Eria bambusifolia Whole plant parts Hyper acidity and stomach disorder (Dash et al . 2008). E. pannea Fresh roots and Boneache (Chowdhery, 1998). leaves decoction Whole plant parts Bath for ague (Chowdhery, 1998; Medhi & Chakrabarty, 2009; Yonzone et al . 2011b). Eulophia spectabilis Tubers Aphrodisiac and leaf decoction is used against vermifuge (Dash et al. 2008; Yonzone et al . 2011b). Geodorum Fresh root paste Regularize menstrual cycle in women densiflorum (Dash et al . 2008; Yonzone et al . 2012e; Yonzone et al . 2012r). Gymnadenia orchidis Both fresh and Cure intestinal ulcer, cut and wounds and dried tubers fracture (Yonzone et al . 2012e; Yonzone et al . 2012r). Habenaria dentata Whole plant parts Analgesic, disinfectant, aphrodisiac, antirheumatic, urinary trouble and orthopedic ailments (Sood et al. 2006). H. pectinata Fresh leaves juice Snake bites (Singh & Duggal, 2009).

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Tubers Arthritis rheumatism (Singh & Duggal, 2009). Roots Blood purifier, also used to increase sexual power in males (Singh & Duggal, 2009; Yonzone et al . 2011b; Yonzone et al . 2012r). Liparis odorata Fresh leaf juice Burns, cancerous ulcers and gangrene (Sood et al. 2006; Singh & Duggal, 2009; Yonzone et al . 2012e). Luisia trichorhiza Root paste mixed Jaundice (Sood et al. 2006). with Turmeric and Ginger Root extract Anti-diarrhoea and to reduce muscular pains in humans (Sood et al. 2006; Dash et al . 2008; Yonzone et al . 2011b). Crepidium Decoction of Fever, tuberculosis, burning sensation, acuminatum Pseudobulb bleeding diathesis and phthisis (Chowdhery, 1998; Sood et al. 2006; Singh & Duggal, 2009; Deb et al. 2009; Yonzone et al . 2012e). Malaxis muscifera Decoction of Fever, burning sensation, bleeding fresh diathesis phthisis and as aphrodisiac pseudobulbs (Sood et al. 2006; Singh & Duggal, 2009; Yonzone et al . 2012r). Nervilia aragoana Entire plant parts Preparation of Ayurvedic drugs Decoction Protective medicine after childbirth in prepared from the Malaysia (Sood et al. 2006; Yonzone et fresh leaves al . 2012e). N. plicata Decoction of Cough, urinary trouble, diarrhoea, asthma whole plant parts (Sood et al. 2006; Yonzone et al . 2012r). Oberonia caulescens Tubers Liver diseases (Sood et al. 2006). Paphiopedilum Whole plant parts Amoebic dysentery (Roy et al . 2007). insigne Papilionanthe teres Leaf paste High fever (Sood et al. 2006). Roots decoction Antifertility medicine (Sood et al. 2006). Leaves decoction Typhoid fever. (Sood et al. 2006; Medhi & Chakrabarty, 2009). Phaius tankervilleae Fresh Bone fracture and dysentery (Chowdhery, pseudobulbs 1998). Pounded Poultices for boils, infested wounds and pseudobulbs, abscesses (Chowdhery, 1998; Medhi & roots and leaves Chakrabarty, 2009). Pholidota articulata Entire plant parts Tonic. (Sood et al. 2006).

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P. imbricata Pseudobulbs Poultice for finger abscess and paste rheumatism (Sood et al. 2006). Plant decoction Skin rash (Deb et al. 2009). P. pallida Pseudobulbs of Rheumatic pains (Chowdhery, 1998). crushed and mixed with mustard oil Pleione maculata Fresh rhizome Liver complaints (Sood et al. 2006; Yonzone et al . 2011b). Rhynchostylis retusa Root paste Blood dysentery and wounds (Chowdhery, 1998). Poultice of leaves Rheumatic ailment. (Chowdhery, 1998; Sood et al. 2006 and Dash et al. 2008). Satyrium nepalense Tubers Tonic and to cure dysentery and malaria var. nepalense fever. (Chowdhery, 1998; Medhi & Chakrabarty, 2009; Yonzone et al . 2012e; Yonzone et al . 2012r). Vanda cristata Fresh leaves Tonic and expectorant. (Sood et al. 2006; Medhi & Chakrabarty, 2009 and Yonzone et al . 2011b).

Of these, 31 are epiphytic and the rest 17 are terrestrial. The number of epiphytic is greater than the terrestrial. Among 27 genera, 13 are epiphytic and the rest 14 are terrestrial and 2 Aerides spp., 5 Coelogyne spp., 3 Cymbidium spp., 9 Dendrobium spp., 2 Eria spp., 3 Pholidota spp., 2 Habenaria spp., 2 Malaxis spp., 2 Nervilia spp. and the rest genera possess single species are medicinally important. Some species have multiple utilities and some are used as revitalizer and energizing tonic and some are used as aphrodisiacs.

5.11.2. Ethnobotanical Values

Ethnobotany is a total natural and traditional relationship and the interrelations between man and his surrounding plants wealth (Jain, 1987). After proper literature survey, like other plant species, 17 Orchid species of Darjeeling have ethnobotanical uses also. Inflorescence of Aerides odorata, used on hair by womenfolk of Assam (Rao, 1979); root powder of Anthogonium gracile , makes gummy substance (Rao, 1990); tender shoots and leaves of Arundina graminifolia , used for flavouring curries and also eaten raw. Fragrant of Coelogyne corymbosa , considered symbolic for performing

492543 religious ceremonies; flower of Pleione praecox , used by Khasi in their religious ceremonies (Hajra, 1981); flowers of Coelogyne punctulata , used by Assamish womens for adornment (Rao, 1979); rhizome of Cymbidium aloifolium , are edible (Basu & Kirtikar, 1935); pseudobulbs of C. longifolium , eaten as vegetable in Assam (Dam & Hajra, 1981); rootstock of Geodorum densiflorum , crushed and rubbed on cattle to kill flies (Ambasta, 1986); Root powder of Anthogonium gracile and tubers of Platanthera clavigera , used as vegetables (Bennet, 1983); Paphiopedilum insigne , believed to have religious importance in folk beliefs of ‘Khasia’ people (Hajra, 1981); flowers of Rhynchostylis retusa , used principal head adornment for girls and brides (Hajra & Baishya, 1981; Gogoi & Borthakur, 1991); root powder of Satyrium nepalense , is added to wheat flour to increase the nutritive value of ‘Chapaties’ (Sood et al , 2006); tuber of Satyrium nepalense var. ciliatum, is used as vegetable by Khiru-Tibetan (Hajra & Verma, 1996); flowers of Papilionanthe teres , used for adornment by womenfolk of Assam (Rao, 1979); and pseudobulbs of Phaius tankervilleae for strengthening twine for fishing nets (Sood et al . 2006).

5.11.3. Ornamental Value

In 1990, Das & Chanda, has analysed the ornamental value of the flora of adjacent Darjeeling Hills. Orchid species are popular for their ornamental showy and attractive flowers in innumerable diverse forms. Many species of Orchids are valued for their beautiful and brilliantly coloured flowers, which remain fresh from several weeks to a few months. Besides this, species of jewels Orchids are ornamental due to their shining colouration on leaf lamina. Trade of Orchid cut-flowers and whole plants has become a main source of income in many floral nurseries of the region. The Orchid species of Darjeeling is immensely rich and widely distributed. A large number of Orchid species growing in Darjeeling Himalaya are of great ornamental value, some of them being exclusively in great demand in floriculture trade. Many of them have already found places into the gardens of plant lovers and floral nurseries. There is a bright prospect for the economic utility of these Orchids resources in future. There are many Orchid species which can be domesticated by the people living in the vicinity for the beautification of their houses, gardens and parks. These Orchid species of great ornamental values are Aerides multiflora, Cymbidiu m lowianum , C. hookerianum , C. devonianum , Dendrobium aphyllum , D. ameonum , D. chrysanthum , D. densiflorum , D.

493544 fimbriatum var. oculatum , D. densiflorum, D . farmeri , Paphipedilum insigne , Phaius tankervillae , Rhynchostylis retusa , Vanda cristata etc. Some Orchids of this category bear attractive flowers while others have attractive foliage. Many such beautiful species are being introduced to home gardens from wild habitat and some species from North Eastern States of India. Species frequently sold in the local markets of Darjeeling, Kalimpong and Kurseong by local collectors are Coelogyne barbata, C. corymbosa, C. flaccida, C. nitida, C. occracea, C. ovalis, Cymbidium devonianum, C. erythraeum, C. hookerianum, C. lowianum, C. mastersii, Dendrobium densiflorum, D. farmeri, D. heterocarpum, D. transparens, Eria vittata, Gastrochilus calceolaris, G. dasypogon, Paphiopedilum hirsutissimum, P. insigne, P. venustum, Phaius tankervilleae, Tainia penangiana, Thunia alba var. alba, T. alba var. bracteata, Tylostylis discolor, Vanda cristata etc. Amongst large number of such important Orchid species of the region, following are some significant ornamental epiphytic Orchid species given in Annexure E, and terrestrial species in Annexure F.

5.12. Importance of the Orchid Flora

The natural resources in various forms establish the economy of a nation is the biggest wealth of the country. Rich vegetational resources of the region play important role to bust of the economic condition by utilizing them in raw form or in their finished products. Therefore, flora of certain geographical region is directly helpful for the livelihood purposes to residing people of surrounding and conservation as well as sustainable utilization is the major responsibility those who resides nearby areas. Similarly, Orchids of Darjeeling Himalaya plays great role for the economic growth of the region.

The Orchid flora of Darjeeling Himalaya greatly signifies the vast source of diverse gene bank. The entire region is huge diverse and include large proportion of economically significant species. Those may be either medicinal, ethnobotanical or of ornamental values. The rich diversity of Orchid species are also feasible attraction for foreign tourists.

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The immensely rich taxa of diverse habitat also have vast scope of scientific research around the world. The taxa of the region hold significant representation of endemic. The diverse vegetation, natural beauty and congenial climatic condition of the region has attracted a huge or innumerable tourists from across the nation/world.

A large number of economically important species of medicinal, ethnobotanical and ornamental exist in the sanctuary reveals about the significance of the Orchid flora of the region. The medicinally important species could be exploited for formulation of useful medicines, against various indispensable diseases, etc. The checklist of the species of the region prepared through present work will be useful for botanists, horticulturists, orchidologists, policy makers, administrators and planners to frame proper strategies for their future exploitation and/or conservation related actions of Darjeeling Himalaya.

Orchids are a thing of beauty and growing them is a fascinating hobby. Orchid flowers would come virtually in all colours and are one of the most bizarre and diverse on this planet. Some species like Aerides multiflora, A. odorata, Arundina graminifolia , Ascocentrum ampulaceum , Bulbophyllum guttulatum , B. leopardinum , B. umbellatum , Coelogyne barbata, C. corymbosa, C. cristata, C. flaccida, C. nitida, C. punctulata, Cymbidium devonianum, C. hookerianum, C. eburneum, C. erythraeum, C. mastersii, Dendrobium aphyllum, D. chrysanthum, D. densiflorum, D. fimbriatum, D. heterocarpum, D. moschatum, D. nobile, Epigeneium amplum, Eria graminifolia, E. vittata, Esmeralda cathcartii, E. clarkei, Gastrochilus calceolaris, G. desypogon, Liparis bootanensis, Tainia megalantha, Otochilus fuscus, Papilionanthe teres, Phaius flavus, P. mishmensis, P. tankervilleae, Phalaenopsis lobbii, P. mannii, Rhynchostylis retusa, Thunia alba var . alba, Tylostylis discolor, Vanda alpina, V. cristata, Vandopsis undulata, etc. are directly cultivated in the domestic gardens of local people of the region. Domestication of these species enrich the aesthetic beauty of gardens and conserve the species under protection.

Many species are strongly fragrant and can extract aroma in perfumery industries. Commercialiazation and trading of those species certainly enrich the economy of the region is on one hand and conserve the species on the other hand.

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Species introduced from North Eastern states of India creating great aesthetic value in the region. Many species of Dendrobium and Paphiopedilum cultivated in the floral nurseries, research institutions, botanical garden and domestic gardens of local people are good evident.

The hybrids have been more attractive, long lasting flowers, diseases, insects- pests resistant, fertilizers responsive, drought and frost tolerance than their parent species. Therefore, available germplasm of Orchids can be use for quality improvement programme like interspecific and intraspecific hybridization, mass multiplication by micropropagation, commercialization etc. which help to conserve the taxa as well as enrich the economy of the region.

Creation of Orchid parks and Orchidoriums for education, aesthetic and promotion of eco-tourism etc. in the region. It will draw attention of the visitors of these curious plants with highly ornamental flowers. It will help to understand Orchids well which in the long run would aid the conservation efforts. Many places of the region like Mirik, Pokhriabong, Nagaray, Takdah, Kalimpong, are famous for the business of ornamental plants including Orchids.

Significantly, the region uninterrupted vegetation, presence of distinct climatic bands for migration, favorable climatic conditions and diversity in habitat condition might have supported for evolution of taxa.

5.13. New Taxon

In the present work only 1 new taxon (var. nov.) have been recorded. Its distinguished characters, detailed description, Latin translation, distribution, illustration photograph plates have been provided in the systematic treatment under genus Geodorum Jackson. Holotype has been submitted in Central National Herbarium, Calcutta (CAL), 1 Isotype has been deposited to the Herbarium of University of North Bengal (NBU) and another Isotype was retained in the Taxonomy and Ethnobiology Research Laboratory, Cluny Women’s College, Kalimpong and at present it was shifted

547 496 to the herbarium of Department of Botany, St. Joseph’s College, North Point, Darjeeling.

Nomenclatural details of var. nov. has been given below:

Geodorum densiflorum (Lamk.) Schltr. var. kalimpongense Rajendra Yonzone, D. Lama, R. B. Bhujel & Samuel Rai, (Orchidaceae) McAllen Int. Orch. Soc. J.13(6) 5 – 10. 2012.

Location - Kumsi 800 m. HOLOTYPE – CAL.

5.14. New Distributional Records

Extensive survey of available literatures (Hooker, 1888-1890; King & Pantl., 1898; Bruhl, 1926; Hara, 1966, 1971; Ohashi, 1975; Pradhan, 1976, 1979; Pradhan & Pradhan, 1997; Bose et al . 1999 and Pearce & Cribb, 2002) revealed that the occurrence of 41 of following species which were found and collected during the course of study which were not been reported earlier from Darjeeling Himalayan region and hence the present collections are the first record of occurrence for Darjeeling Himalaya of West Bengal, India. They are listed below:

1. Acampe rigida (Buch.-Ham. ex J.E. Sm.) P.F. Hunt, Kew Bull. 24:98. 1970. Specimen cited: Najoke 500 m, dt. 21. 05. 2007; Rajendra Yonzone, D. Lama and R. B. Bhujel 0050; altitudinal range 160 – 1200 m; Status: Common; Local distribution: Teesta River sides, Fyangtar, Tarkhola forest, Pareng, General distribution: India (Sikkim and West Bengal); Nepal, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam and Malaysia.

2. Bulbophyllum affine Lindl., Gen. Sp. Orchid. Pl.: 48. 1830. Specimen cited: Samalbong 830 m; Rajendra Yonzone, D. Lama and R. B. Bhujel 0066; dt. 21. 06. 2007; Status: Common; Local distribution: Samthar, Mungpoo, Nimbong, Bong Busty, Pedong, Seokbir khani, 700 – 1800 m; General distribution: India, (Eastern and Western Himalayas); Bhutan, Cambodia, China, Japan, Laos, Nepal, Vietnam.

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3. Bulbophyllum bisetum Lindl., Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. 10: 186. 1842. Specimen cited: Kafer 1960 m, Rajendra Yonzone, D. Lama and R. B. Bhujel 0958, dt. 21. 09. 2009; Status: Common. Local distribution: Samalbong, Hill Top, Takdah, Tangta forest, Toroyok, 1200 – 2000 m. General distribution: India (Sikkim, Darjeeling Hills, Meghalaya).

4. Bulbophyllum careyanum (Hook.) Spreng. var. sikkimense Lucksom, Orchids Sikkim and N.E. Himalaya. pp. 700-701. (fig. 433, pl. 31). 2007. Specimen cited: Samalbong 1200 m, Rajendra Yonzone, D. Lama and R. B. Bhujel 0168, dt. 26. 10. 2007. Status: Sparse. Local distribution: Soreksa, Mangzing, Kuwapani-Lava, Echey busty, 800 – 2100 m. General distribution: India (Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Sikkim, West Bengal, Utter Pradesh); Bhutan, Myanmar, Nepal, Thailand.

5. Bulbophyllum crassipes Hook. f., Fl. Brit. India 5(2): 760. 1890. Specimen cited: Mungpoo 890 m, Rajendra Yonzone, D. Lama and R. B. Bhujel 0102, dt. 05. 09. 2007. Status: Frequent. Local distribution: Suruk, Samalbong, Rambi, Tindharay, Seokbir khani, Gorubathan, Dudhay, Khaprail, Lohapul, Matigara, 200 – 1000 m. General distribution: India, (North East India, Sikkim, West Bengal); Malaysia, Myanmar and Thailand.

6. Bulbophyllum helenae (Kuntze) J.J. Sm., Bull. Jard. Bot. Buitenzorg 2(8): 24. 1912. Specimen cited: Mim forest 2000 m, Rajendra Yonzone, D. Lama and R. B. Bhujel 0908, dt. 23. 07. 2009. Status: Common. Local distribution: Todey, Tangta, Kafer, Dilaram, Sonada, 600 – 2100 m. General distribution: N.W. India, Nepal, N.E. India, Myanmar and Thailand.

7. Bulbophyllum scrabratum Rchb. f., Walpers, Ann. Bot. Syst. 6: 259. 1861. Specimen cited: Rachela 2850 m, Rajendra Yonzone, D. Lama and R. B. Bhujel 0324, dt. 21. 04. 2008. Status: Common. Local distribution: Lower Lungshel, Takdah, Algarah, Lungshel, 1200 – 1800 m. General distribution: India (Darjeeling, Meghalaya); Nepal.

8. Bulbophyllum secundum Hook. f., Fl. Brit. India 5(2); Icon. Pl. 21:t.2042. 1892. Specimen cited: Lopchu forest 1500 m, Rajendra Yonzone, D. Lama and R. B.

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Bhujel 1621, dt. 18. 06. 2011. Status: Sparse. Local distribution: Damsang Gari, Rangayrung, 1400 – 2300 m. General distribution: India (Sikkim, Nagaland); Myanmar, Nepal, China, Laos, Thailand and Vietnam.

9. Bulbophyllum stenobulbon Par. & Rchb. f., Trans. Linn. Soc. London 30: 153. 1874. Specimen cited: Kalijhora 370 m, Rajendra Yonzone, D. Lama and R. B. Bhujel 0870, dt. 22. 05. 2009. Status: Rare. Local distribution: Guling forest, Gulma forest, Sepkhola, Rongo, 250 – 700 m. General distribution: India (Sikkim).

10. Calanthe yuksomnensis Lucksom, J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 95(2): 319. 1998. Specimen cited: Sukiapokhari 2200 m, Rajendra Yonzone, D. Lama and R. B. Bhujel 0853, dt. 12. 05. 2009. Status: Rare. Local distribution: Takdah, Mim Tea Estate, Rambi forest, Dhotrey, 1700 – 2900 m. General distribution: India (Darjeeling, Sikkim).

11. Cheirostylis yunnanensis Rolfe, Bull. Misc. Inform. Kew 1896: 201. 1896. Specimen cited: Mangaldara 700 m, Rajendra Yonzone, D. Lama and R. B. Bhujel 0211, dt. 09. 03. 2008. Status: Rare. Local distribution: 8 th mile Kalimpong, Samalbong, Mangaldara, 600 – 1000 m. General distribution: India (Sikkim); China, Thailand, Vietnam.

12. Coelogyne raizadae S.K. Jain & S. Das, Proc. Indian Acad. Sci., B. 87(5): 119. 1978. Specimen cited: Rimbick 2100 m, Rajendra Yonzone, D. Lama and R. B. Bhujel 0821, dt. 20. 04. 2009. Status: Sparse. Local distribution: Baggonra, Toroyok, Rambi forest, Nockdara, Lava, Damsang gari, 1800 – 2400 m. General distribution: India (North East India, Sikkim); Bhutan, Laos, Nepal, South West China.

13. Coelogyne pantlingii Lucksom, Orchid review, vol. 113 (1262): 108 – 109. 2005. Specimen cited: Sukiapokhari 2200 m, Rajendra Yonzone, D. Lama and R. B. Bhujel 0892, dt. 11. 06. 2009. Status: Rare. Local distribution: Ramam, Senchale, Samanden, Serikhola, 2000 – 2600 m. General distribution: India (Darjeling hills and Sikkim).

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14. Coelogyne viscosa Reichb. f., Berg. Alig. Gartenz. 24: 218. 1856 & Gard. Chron. 1085. 1870; Hook. f., Fl. Brit. Ind. 5: 832. 1890. Specimen cited: Godok 900 m, Rajendra Yonzone, D. Lama and R. B. Bhujel 0767, dt. 26. 02. 2009. Status: Rare. Local distribution: Todey, Kumsi, Mirik, Latpanjar, Samsing, 500 – 1800 m. General distribution: India (Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram and Sikkim); Myanmar, Thailand and Vietnam.

15. Cymbidium lowianum (Rchb. f.) Rchb. f., Gard. Chron. 11: 332, 404, t. 56. 1879; Du Puy et al . Kew Bull. 40: 421-434. 1985. Specimen cited: Todey (Cultivated) 1400 m, Rajendra Yonzone, D. Lama and R. B. Bhujel 1094, dt. 25. 03. 2010. Status: Cultivated. Local distribution: Neora Valley, Lloyd Botanical Garden, N.R.C. Orchids, I.C.A.R., Darjeeling; (Cultivated condition in Kalimpong, Kurseong and Darjeeling), 1200 – 2700 m.

16. Dendrobium devonianum Paxt., Paxt.’s Mag. Bot. 7: 169. 1840. Specimen cited: Holumba Floral Nursery – Kalimpong 900-1000 m, Rajendra Yonzone, D. Lama and R. B. Bhujel 0861, dt. 17. 05. 2009. Status: Cultivated. Local distribution: 800 – 2050 m. General distribution: India (North East India); Bhutan, China, Myanmar and Thailand.

17. Dendrobium jenkinsii Wall. ex Lindl., Bot. Reg. 25: t.37. 1839. Specimen cited: Holumba Floral Nursery Kalimpong 900-1000 m, Rajendra Yonzone, D. Lama and R. B. Bhujel 1574, dt. 26. 04. 2011. Status: Cultivated. Local distribution: Holumba Floral Nursery – Kalimpong. General distribution: India (North East India, Sikkim, West Bengal); Bhutan, China and Myanmar.

18. Dendrobium lindleyi Steud., Nomencl. Bot. ed.2: 490. 1840. Specimen cited: Holumba Floral Nursery – Kalimpong 900-1000 m, Rajendra Yonzone, D. Lama and R. B. Bhujel 1120, dt. 05. 04. 2010. Status: Cultivated. Local distribution: Holumba Floral Nursery – Kalimpong 900-1000 m. General distribution: India (Manipur); China, Laos, China, Myanmar, Thailand and Vietnam.

19. Dendrobium pendulum Roxb., Fl. Ind. 3: 482. 1832; Hook., Fl. Brit, India 5: 741. 1890. Specimen cited: Holumba Floral Nursery – Kalimpong 900-1000 m, Rajendra

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Yonzone, D. Lama and R. B. Bhujel 1559, dt. 26. 03. 2011. Status: Cultivated. Local distribution: 1200 – 1500 m. General distribution: India (Manipur); Arracan hills, Myanmar and Thailand.

20. Dendrobium praecinctum Rchb. f., Gard. Chron. n.s. 7: 750. 1877. Specimen cited: Todey 1300 m, Rajendra Yonzone, D. Lama and R. B. Bhujel 1284, dt. 30. 06. 2010. Status: Endangered. Local distribution: Tangta, 1000 – 1900 m. General distribution: India (North East India, West Bengal, Sikkim); Bhutan and Thailand.

21. Dendrobium stuposum Lindl., Bot. Reg. 24: misc. 52, no.94. 1838. Specimen cited: Takdah 1800 m, Rajendra Yonzone, D. Lama and R. B. Bhujel 1314, dt. 10. 07. 2010. Status: Rare. Local distribution: Dabaipani, Rambi forest, 1400 – 2300 m. General distribution: India (North East India, Sikkim); Bhutan, China, Myanmar and Thailand.

22. Gastrochilus sonamii Lucksom, Orchid Review, 111 (1253): 278 – 280. 2003. Specimen cited: Ramam 2400 m, Rajendra Yonzone, D. Lama and R. B. Bhujel 0740, dt. 28. 11. 2008. Status: Sparse. Local distribution: Neora Valley, Manaybhanjang, 1800 – 2600 m. General distribution: India (Sikkim).

23. Goodyera biflora (Lindl.) Hook. f., Fl. Brit. India 6: 114. 1890. Specimen cited: Gairibas forest 2800 m, Rajendra Yonzone, D. Lama and R. B. Bhujel 1377, dt. 31. 07. 2010. Status: Rare. Local distribution: Neora Valley, Damsang forest, 1900-2850 m. General Distribution: India (Darjeeling, North West India), Nepal.

24. Herminium mackinnonii Duthie, J. Asiat. Soc. Bengal 71: 44. 1903. Specimen cited: Dello Hill 1450 m, Rajendra Yonzone, D. Lama and R. B. Bhujel 0124, dt. 19. 09. 2007. Status: Rare. Local distribution: Manaybhanjang, Lava, Durpin- Kalimpong, 1100 – 1600 m. General distribution: India (North East India, North West India, Sikkim); Nepal (Yonzone et al . 2012u).

25. Liparis cordifolia Hook. f., Icon. Pl. ser.3(19): t.1811. 1889. Specimen cited: Takdah 1700 m, Rajendra Yonzone, D. Lama and R. B. Bhujel 1515, dt. 27. 10.

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2010. Status: Threatened. Local distribution: Damsang Gari, Algarah, 550 – 2000 m. General distribution: India (North West Himalaya to Assam); Bhutan and China.

26. Liparis dongchenii Lucksom, J. Forestry 23(1): 113-115. 2000; Specimen cited: Kumsi forest 650 m, Rajendra Yonzone, D. Lama and R. B. Bhujel 0593, dt. 01. 08. 2008. Status: Rare. Local distribution: Panbu, Nimbong, Pudung-Sendaybong, Sittong, 600 – 1000 m. General distribution: India (Sikkim).

27. Liparis duthiei Hook. f., op. cit. t.1857B. 1889. Specimen cited: Najoke 500 m, Rajendra Yonzone, D. Lama and R. B. Bhujel 1321, dt. 13. 07. 2010. Status: Threatened; Local distribution: Relli River sides, Manaybhanjang, 400 – 1500 m. General distribution: India (North West India, Sikkim, West Bengal).

28. Liparis odorata (Willd.) Lindl., Gen. Sp. Orchid. Pl.: 26. 1830. Specimen cited: Kafer 1500 m, Rajendra Yonzone, D. Lama and R. B. Bhujel 0587, dt. 01. 08. 2008. Status: Frequent; Local distribution: Dello hill, Durpin-Kalimpong, Tunsong, Todey forest, 800 – 2000 m. General distribution: India (Sikkim, West Bengal); Bhutan, China, Laos, Myanmar, Nepal, Taiwan, Thailand and Vietnam

29. Liparis platyrachis Hook. f., Icon. Pl. ser.3(19): t.1890. 1889; Fl. Brit. India 5(2): 706. 1890. Specimen cited: Todey 1300 m, Rajendra Yonzone, D. Lama and R. B. Bhujel 1705, dt. 09. 10. 2011. Status: Rare; Local distribution: Algarah forest, Durpin-Kalimpong, Kafer, Lopchu, Takdah, 1000 – 1800 m. General distribution: Nepal, North East India and China (Yunnan).

30. Liparis somai Hayata, Icon. Pl. Formos. 4: 33, t.6. 1914. Specimen cited: Sangsay Bhalukhop 900 m, Rajendra Yonzone, D. Lama and R. B. Bhujel 0969, dt. 07. 10. 2009. Status: Rare. Local distribution: Samalbong, Algarah forest, Rangayrung, Lungshel, 450 – 1100 m. General distribution: India (Sikkim); China and Japan.

31. Oberonia emarginata King & Pantl., Ann. Roy. Bot. Gard. (Calcutta) 8: 6, t.2A. 1898. Specimen cited: Todey forest 1300 m, Rajendra Yonzone, D. Lama and R. B. Bhujel 0921, dt. 08. 09. 2009. Status: Sparse. Local distribution: Dello, Durpin hill,

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Kalimpong, Algarah, Takdah, Tungsong, 1000 – 2000 m. General distribution: India (North East India, West Bengal); Bhutan and Thailand (Yonzone et al . 2012q).

32. Paphiopedilum fairrieanum (Lindl.) Stein, Orchid.-Buch: 467. 1892. Specimen cited: Pine View Nursery 900-1000 m, Rajendra Yonzone, D. Lama and R. B. Bhujel 1739, dt. 23. 11. 2011. Status: Cultivated. Local distribution: Holumba Floral Nursery – Kalimpong, National Research Centre for Orchids, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, Darjeeling, Lloyd Botanical Garden-Darjeeling, 1000-2100 m. General distribution: India (Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam); Bhutan.

33. Paphiopedilum insigne (Wall. ex Lindl.) Pfitz. Morph. Stud. Orchideenbl. 11. 1886. Specimen cited: Pine View Nursery – Kalimpong 900-1000 m. Rajendra Yonzone, D. Lama and R. B. Bhujel 1529, dt. 16. 12. 2010. Status: Cultivated. Local distribution: Holumba Floral Nursery – Kalimpong, National Research Centre for Orchids, Indian Council for Agricultural Research, Darjeeling, Lloyd Botanical Garden - Darjeeling, 1000-2100 m. General distribution: India (Meghalaya).

34. Paphiopedilum villosum (Lindl.) Pfitz. Specimen cited: Pine View Nursery – Kalimpong 1000-1200 m, Rajendra Yonzone, D. Lama and R. B. Bhujel 1546, dt. 24. 02. 2011. Status: Cultivated. Local distribution: National Research Centre for Orchids, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, Darjeeling; General distribution: India (Assam, Meghalaya); Burma.

35. Pelatanthera insectifera (Rchb. f.) Ridl., Journ. Linn. Soc. Bot. 32:376. 1896; Seidenf. 152, fig. 36. 1969; Kataki et al . 5:27. 1984. Specimen cited: Sevoke 300 m, Rajendra Yonzone, D. Lama and R. B. Bhujel 1484, dt. 05. 10. 2010. Status: Endangered. Local distribution: Sevoke, Golma forest, Gorubathan, 150 – 900 m. General distribution: North West Himalayas, the Deccan Plateau and Northeast India, Nepal, Myanmar and China.

36. Peristylus fallax Lindl., Gen. Sp. Orchid. Pl.: 298. 1835. Specimen cited: Kalpokhari 3300 m, Rajendra Yonzone, D. Lama and R. B. Bhujel 1401, dt. 05. 08. 2010. Status: Threatened. Local distribution: Bikhaybhanjang, Sandakphu forest,

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Jaunbari, 2200 – 3800 m. General distribution: India (North West and North East India, Sikkim); Bhutan, China and Nepal.

37. Peristylus superanthes J.J. Wood, Kew Bull. 41(4): 811. 1986. Specimen cited: Megma 2700 m, Rajendra Yonzone, D. Lama and R. B. Bhujel 1372, dt. 30. 07. 2010. Status: Sparse. Local distribution: Tonglu, Gairibas forest, 2500 – 3300 m. General distribution: India (Sikkim, West Bengal); Nepal.

38. Platanthera cumminsiana (King & Pantl.) Renz., Edinb. J. Bot. 58(1): 117. 2001. Specimen cited: Sandakphu 3550 m, Rajendra Yonzone, D. Lama and R. B. Bhujel 1375, dt. 30. 07. 2010. Status: Frequent. Local distribution: Megma, Kalpokhari, Tonglu, Gairibas, Jaunbari, 2800 – 3600 m. General distribution: North East India (Arunachal Pradesh).

39. Saccolabiopsis pusilla (Lindl.) Seidenf. & Garay, Bot. Tidsskr. 67: 118, t.33. 1972. Specimen cited: Sevoke 300 m, Rajendra Yonzone, D. Lama and R. B. Bhujel 1090, dt. 22. 03. 2010. Status: Rare. Local distribution: Gorubathan, Kumai, Jaldhaka, Sepkhola, Kambal, 200 – 500 m. General distribution: India (North East India, Sikkim, West Bengal); Bhutan, Myanmar, Thailand.

40. Sunipia intermedia (King & Pantl.) P.F. Hunt, Kew Bull. 26(1): 184. 1971. Specimen cited: Dow Hill 1600 m, Rajendra Yonzone, D. Lama and R. B. Bhujel 0341, dt. 28. 04. 2008. Status: Rare. Local distribution: Lava, Lungshel, Kafer, Lava, Chimney-Kurseong, 1300 – 2000 m. General distribution: India (Sikkim).

41. Vanda alpina (Lindl.) Lindl., Fol. Orchid. Vanda 4:10, no.25. 1853. Specimen cited: Kumsi 1900 m, Rajendra Yonzone, D. Lama and R. B. Bhujel 1211, dt. 04. 06. 2010. Status: Threatened. Local distribution: Algarah, Munsong, 800 – 2000 m. General distribution: India (North East India, Sikkim); Bhutan.

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5.15. Flowering Calendar

Flowering is regulated by natural factors like temperature, day lengths and dry spells. Orchids in Darjeeling bloom at different times throughout the year; difference in blooming time is a natural phenomenon. In the onset of March month, there is a rise in day temperature and increase in the day length and many Orchid species flowering with the onset of spring. Altitude and topography play vital role in case of flowering. Lower the altitude higher the temperature. Therefore, same species of low altitude flower 15-20 days earlier than the high altitude. It is because of high temperature in low altitude.

In Darjeeling, majority of the epiphytic Orchids begin to flower during March to May and continued till October to December. Very few epiphytic species flower in November to January. Similarly more terrestrial species begin to flower during onset of rainy season i.e ., June to September and very few terrestrial species flower in October – February. Terrestrial species like Paphiopedilum species, Tainia penangiana , Cheirostylis griffithii, Herpysma longicaulis, Liparis cordifolia and Zeuxine affinis are flower in the months of October – February. Terestrial species Arundina graminifolia flower almost throughout the year.

Duration of Flowering

The flowering duration of Orchid species varies from species to species. Some species flowers remain in bloom for a very long period extending 2-4 months, like in Cymbidium devonianum , Eria spicata, Goodyera procera, Herpysma longicaulis, Liparis deflexa , Monomeria barbata, Papilionanthe teres, Phalaenopsis deliciosa, Pholidota articulata, Tainia penangiana etc. there are few species which have a very short flowering period (1-4 days), like Dendrobium cathcartii, Didymoplexis pallens, Flickingeria fugax, etc. Following flowering calendar showing the month wise flowering period of the Orchids species of Darjeeling Himalaya (Table 5.13).

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Table 5.13: Flowering Calendar of Orchid Species of Darjeeling Himalaya

[Abbreviation used : E – Epiphytic; T – Terrestrial; S – Saprophytic]

Monthwise Flowering of Species Habitat

JANUARY – APRIL

Pinalia stricta E Paphiopedilum venustum T

JANUARY – JUNE

Tylostylis discolor E

JANUARY – AUGUST

Crepidium acuminatum T

JANUARY – NOVEMBER

Arundina graminifolia T

FEBRUARY – MARCH

Bulbophyllum triste E Saccolabiopsis pusilla E Tainia penangiana T

FEBRUARY – APRIL

Cheirostylis yunnanensis T Coelogyne cristata E Coelogyne prolifera E Coelogyne stricta E Coelogyne viscosa E Dendrobium heterocarpum E Dendrobium lindleyi E Eria vittata E Goodyera procera T Paphiopedilum hirsutissimum T Pleione humilis E

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FEBRUARY – MAY

Coelogyne nitida E Eria clausa E Eria paniculata E Luisia zeylanica E

FEBRUARY – AUGUST

Eria spicata E

MARCH – APRIL Bulbophyllum polyrhizum E Bulbophyllum tortuosum E Chiloschista parishii E Coelogyne flaccida E Cymbidium lancifolium T Dendrobium pendulum E Dendrobium primulinum E Tainia megalantha T Phaius flavus T

MARCH – MAY

Agrostophyllum callosum E Ascocentrum ampullaceum E Bulbophyllum umbellatum E Coelogyne pempahesiana E Cymbidium eburneum E Cymbidium hookerianum E Cymbidium lowianum E Dendrobium anceps E Dendrobium farmeri E Dendrobium fimbriatum var. oculatum E Gastrichilus distichus E Luisia trichorrhiza E Phalaenopsis lobbii E Zeuxine flava T

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Zeuxine reflexa T

MARCH – JUNE

Aerides multiflora E Cryptochilus lutea E Dendrobium aphyllum E Pinalia amica E Pinalia excavata E Esmeralda cathcartii E Otochilus albus E Panisea uniflora E

MARCH – JULY

Eria lasiopetala E

MARCH – SEPTEMBER

Dendrobium cathcartii E

APRIL – MAY

Bulbophyllum scabratum E Coelogyne corymbosa E Cremastra appendiculata T Dendrobium crepidatum E Dendrobium devonianum E Dendrobium fimbriatum E Dendrobium jenkinsii E Dendrobium ochreatum E Dendrobium sulcatum E Eulophia spectabilis T Luisia brachystachys E Nervilia aragoana T Phaius tankervilleae T Phalaenopsis taenialis E Vanda pumila E Vandopsis undulata E

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APRIL – JUNE

Bulbophyllum roxburghii E Calanthe yuksomnensis T Ceratostylis himalaica E Coelogyne occultata E Coelogyne raizadae E Cymbidium bicolor E Dendrobium falconeri E Dendrobium nobile E Gastrochilus calceolaris E Luisia filiformis E Nervilia gammieana T Phalaenopsis mannii E Smitinandia micrantha E Sunipia intermedia E Trichotosia dasyphylla E Vanda cristata E

APRIL – JULY

Biermannia bimaculata E Bulbophyllum cauliflorum E Cymbidium aloifolium E Cymbidium devonianum E Dendrobium densiflorum E Liparis cathcartii T Liparis nervosa T Pholidota articulata E

APRIL – AUGUST

Pholidota articulata var. griffithii E Pholidota imbricata E

MAY – JUNE

Acampe rigida E

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Agrostophyllum brevipes E Bulbophyllum affine E Bulbophyllum hymenanthum E Bulbophyllum stenobulbon E Crepidium josephianum T Dendrobium amoenum E Dendrobium candidum E Dendrobium chrysotoxum E Dendrobium transparens E Didymoplexis pallens S Nervilia macroglossa T Nervilia plicata T Stereochilus hirtus E Sunipia scariosa E Tainia minor T

MAY – JULY

Acanthephippium striatum T Aerides odorata E Bulbophyllum apodum E Bulbophyllum secundum E Calanthe brevicornu T Ceratostylis subulata E Chrysoglossum ornatum T Dendrobium aduncum E Dendrobium moschatum E Dendrobium porphyrochilum E Dendrobium stuposum E Dienia ophrydis T Eria bractescens E Eria pannea E Papilionanthe teres E Pleione hookeriana E

561 510

MAY – AUGUST

Bulbophyllum eublepharum E Bulbophyllum gamblei E Bulbophyllum helenae E Calanthe puberula T Calanthe triplicata T Pinalia graminifolia E Eria pumila E

MAY – SEPTEMBER

Phalaenopsis deliciosa E

JUNE – JULY

Anoectochilus grandiflorus T Bulbophyllum odoratissimum var. racemosum E Coelogyne pantlingii E Crepidium khasiana T Cryptochilus sanguinea E Dendrobium cumulatum E Dendrobium praecinctum E Flickengeria fugax E Galeola lindleyana S Gastrochilus inconspicuus E Geodorum densiflorum T Geodorum densiflorum var. kalimpongense T Liparis gamblei E Nephelaphyllum pulchrum var. sikkimensis T Oberonia angustifolia E Peristylus goodyeroides T Peristylus parishii T Rhynchostylis retusa E Vanda alpina E

JUNE – AUGUST

Bulbophyllum cauliflorum var. sikkimense E

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Bulbophyllum leopardinum E Calanthe trulliformis T Cleisostoma aspersum E Crepidium maximowiczianum T Diplomeris hirsuta T Herminium macrophyllum T Liparis bootanensis E Liparis duthiei T Nephelaphyllum cordifolium T Oberonia caulescens E Peristylus affinis T Peristylus constrictus T Pinalia acervata E Platanthera exelliana T Pteroceras teres E Thunia alba var. alba E

JUNE – SEPTEMBER

Anoectochilus brevilabris T Bulbophyllum rigidum E Bulbophyllum sarcophyllum E Dendrobium terminale E Gymnadenia orchidis T Liparis cespitosa E Liparis dongchenii T Oberonia emarginata E Ornithochilus difformis E

JUNE – OCTOBER

Pholidota pallida E

JULY – AUGUST

Agrostophyllum myrianthum E Agrostophyllum planicaule E Bulbophyllum odoratissimum var. odoratissimum E

563 512

Cleisostoma filiforme E Cleisostoma subulatum E Dendrobium bicameratum E Goodyera hemsleyana T Habenaria arietina T Herminium jaffreyanum T Herminium mackinnonii T Herminium quinquelobum T Liparis deflexa T Malaxis purpurea T Peristylus superanthus T Platanthera bakeriana T Platanthera biermanniana T Platanthera cumminsiana T Platanthera edgeworthii T Platanthera leptocaulon T

JULY – SEPTEMBER

Bulbophyllum guttulatum E Cleisocentron pallens E Cleisostoma racemiferum E Goodyera hispida T Goodyera biflora T Goodyera vittata T Habenaria furcifera T Habenaria stenopetala T Liparis odorata T Liparis plantaginea T Malaxis muscifera T Micropera obtusa E Peristylus fallax T Peristylus tipuliferus T Platanthera clavigera T Platanthera stenantha T

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Podochilus khasianus E Spirenthes sinensis T Thelasis longifolia E Tipularia josephi T Trichotosia pulvinata E

JULY – OCTOBER

Calanthe sylvatica T Dendrobium chrysanthum E Herminium lanceum T Oberonia falcata E Peristylus nematocaulon T

AUGUST- SEPTEMBER

Appendicula cornuta E Bulbophyllum rolfei E Goodyera foliosa T Goodyera schlechtendaliana T Habenaria pectinata T Odontochilus elwesii T Pholidota recurva E Phreatia elegans E Podochilus cultratus E Pomatocalpa armigerum E Rhomboda lanceolata T Thelasis pygmaea E Thunia alba var. bracteata E Uncifera obtusifolia E

AUGUST- OCTOBER

Anthogonium gracile T Cymbidium erythraeum E Liparis somai E Odontochilus crispus T Pelatantheria insectifera E

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Satyrium nepalense var. ciliatum T Satyrium nepalense var. nepalense T

AUGUST- NOVEMBER

Cymbidium dayanum E

AUGUST- DECEMBER

Dendrobium longicornu E

SEPTEMBER - OCTOBER

Bulbophyllum bisetum E Bulbophyllum crassipes E Bulbophyllum yoksunense E Dendrobium denudans E Eria biflora E Habenaria dentata T Odontochilus lanceolatus T Phaius mishmensis T Zeuxine goodyeroides T

SEPTEMBER - NOVEMBER

Coelogyne fimbriata E Dendrobium eriiflorum E Epigeneium amplum E Epigeneium rotundatum* E Oberonia acaulis E

* February – March also SEPTEMBER - DECEMBER

Acampe carinata E Calanthe biloba T Coelogyne barbata E Esmeralda clarkei E Liparis viridiflora E Paphiopedilum spicerianum T Pleione praecox E

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OCTOBER - NOVEMBER

Acrochaene punctata E Bulbophyllum careyanum var. sikkimense E Bulbophyllum striatum E Coelogyne ovalis E Cymbidium iridioides E Gastrochilus dasypogon E Sunipia cirrhata E Liparis cordifolia T Liparis platyrachis E Oberonia ensiformis E Oberobia mucronata E Pleione maculata E

OCTOBER - DECEMBER

Bulbophyllum appendiculatum E Bulbophyllum gracilipes E Bulbophyllum hirtum E Bulbophyllum khasyanum E Bulbophyllum reptans E Bulbophyllum thomsonii E Bulbophyllum wallichii E Coelogyne fuscescens E Coelogyne punctulata E Cymbidium cochleare E Cymbidium longifolium E Cymbidium mastersii E Eria bambusifolia E Eria coronaria E Gastrochilus acutifolius E Sunipia bicolor E Oberonia pachyrachis E Panisea demissa E

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Pholidota rubra E Porpax elwesii E

OCTOBER - JANUARY

Bulbophyllum careyanum E

Herpysma longicaulis T Zeuxine affinis T

OCTOBER - FEBRUARY Liparis resupinata E

OCTOBER - MARCH

Oberonia recurva E

Paphiopedilum fairrieanum T

NOVEMBER - DECEMBER

Cheirostylis griffithii T

Gastrochilus sonamii E

NOVEMBER - JANUARY

Otochilus lancilabius E

Paphiopedilum insigne T

NOVEMBER - FEBRUARY

Monomeria barbata E

DECEMBER - JANUARY Liparis resupinata var. ridleyi E

DECEMBER - FEBRUARY

Paphiopedilum villosum T

DECEMBER - MARCH

Otochilus fuscus E

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Based on flowering seasons of all the studied Orchid species, it was found that maximum of them bloom during July to September and October to December with 21 spp. each (6.54%). During June to July and July to August as high as 19 spp. (5.91%) were found in flowering condition. Similarly 17 spp. (5.29%) were found in flowering condition during June to August. Altogether 16 spp. (4.98%) showed wide range covering April to May, April to June, May to June and May to July. 15 spp. (4.67%) bloom in March to May. In August to September and October to November 14 spp. (4.36%) and 12 spp. (3.73%) respectively, were found in full bloom. Likewise during February to April and September to October 11 spp. (3.42%) and 10 spp. (3.11%) each were recorded in flowering stage. However March to April and June to September, altogether 9 spp. (2.80%) each were recorded in blooming condition. As high as 8 spp. (2.49%) were recorded during March to June and April to July. However, 7 spp. (2.18%) each were recorded in full bloom during May to August, August to October and September to December. Similarly, 5 spp. (1.55%) each were found in flowering condition during July to October and September to November. During February to March only 4 spp. (1.24%) were recorded in full bloom. Only 3 spp. (0.93%) each bloom found during February to March and October to January. However 2 spp. (0.62%) each were recorded during January to April, April to August, October to March, November to December and November to January. Finally flowering of 1 sp. (0.31%) was recorded during January to August, January to November, February to August, March to July, March to September, May to September, June to October, August to November, August to December, October to February, November to February, December to January, December to February and December to March. Maximum species flower during March to December and most of the terrestrial species being annual herb, they almost complete their life cycle phase after or before the beginning of cold and dry winter. During extreme cold winter less number of species can flower.

5.16. Threats and Conservation Measures

Plants and vegetation is such a thing that can be useful for man and animal directly or indirectly. Human population is less in high hills but more in plains and more disturbance of natural habitat happened in more populated regions. Developmental

518569 schemes and unplanned urbanization is uncontrolled in more populated region like plains and foothills of Darjeeling (Plate 5.1). The process is still continuing today with a much higher rate in the region.

During the past few decades, the floristic wealth of Darjeeling Himalaya degraded very fast on account of various biotic pressure (Plate 5.2). Orchid species are one of those plant groups whose regeneration is critically threatened due to habitat degradation. They become easily endangered because of their highly specialized life- cycle, that is, interdependence on microrrhizal association for germination of seeds and derivation of nutrition, as also their aerial mode of living.

Maximum destruction of natural habitat occurred throughout the region except deeper inside the dense forest areas of Neora Valley and Singhalila National Parks. But in other places of the regions, if the destruction of natural habitat is not stopped, after 2- 3 years, all the rare species become threatened and the known threatened species will become extinct.

Darjeeling Himalaya holds a significant status for Orchid diversity of Eastern Himalaya. However, there is a partial indication of the depletion of species population through various means, which deserves immediate attention to ensure the conservation status of the region. The following are some of the key factors which control the depletion of Orchid species in the region.

1. Grazing by Domestic Animals

Grazing of domestic animals directly damage the microclimatic ecology of the region. The grazing of cattle and goats is a traditional practice for the local people of the region. Cattle grazing are not successfully controlled even in the Forest Corporation and wildlife sanctuaries. Cows, sheep and goatssheds are located inside the forest areas of the region like Lava, Rachela, Kafer-Lolaygoan, Manaybhanjang, Rimbik, Ramam, Sandakphu etc. Local villagers residing in vicinity of the forest own the livestock, and the awareness generation amongst the local headers is essential for the growth of annually grown terrestrial and saprophytic Orchid species including other herbs in the region.

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2. Activities of military

Some parts of the regions occupied by military forces i.e ., Indian Army, S.S.B. and B.S.F. Jawans and they have established many bunkers, natural training fields, jeepable roads and other activities are taking place time to time inside the regions viz ., Baggora of Kurseong, near 18th Mile-Kalimpong, Durpin Hill, Manaybhanjang, near Phalut and Sandakphu. Military exercise and training takes place in the forests of Neora Valley National Park. During the course of training they make many tracts and trail which are used later by the poachers, cowheards, tourists, plant collectors, wild life staffs and thus they become the permanent trek route. So different activities of military frequently cause negative impact on the surrounding vegetation including Orchids.

3. Unauthorized visitors

Unauthorized visitors, poachers, cowboys, shepherds, timber thieves, entertainers, common public inside the forests cause gradual loss of biodiversity as seen in the forest areas of Algarah, Lava, Sukiapokhari, Takdah, Rimbik, Ramam, Kafer- Lolaygoan, Kalijhora, Sevoke, Sukuna forest etc.

4. Destruction of forest lands

Rapid destruction of forest lands for expansion of agricultural lands, construction of buildings, Hydal power projects Teesta 27 th mile, Kalijhora, extension and construction of jeepable roads cause great loss of natural habitats for many native species in the region. When forest vegetation cover of a region is substantially reduced, it leads to rise in temperature, as also fall of precipitation and humidity in the areas. At present, there are 91 forest villages in three hill Sub-Divisions of Darjeeling completely dependent on the forest produces.

5. Establishment of drinking water sources

There are many drinking water sources in the forests and wildlife areas of Darjeeling. During dry season, many terrestrial species difficult to survive, due to

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the scarcity of water in their vicinity. Such practice cause direct disturbance of the microclimate and imbalance in the ecosystem.

6. Reduction of humus layer

At present, large scale collection and removal of humus from forest floors for mulching of cultivated crops, preparation of leaf manure, direct selling to floral nurseries have destroyed the habitats of many of the humus loving terrestrial Orchids. Many species are known to have become endangered due to habitat modification.

7. Soil erosion

Intense rainfall in the region causes many land slides resulting in the soil erosion and uprooting of deep rooted trees. Ambotey, Mangzing busty, Paglajhora, Likhubhir, Bara Suruk-Dong busty, Nimbong busty, Geshok busty, Gitdabling busty, Pembling busty, Mamring-Toroyok are the massive land slides occurred areas in the region. Many treck routes in villages and tea gardens, terrace farming in sharp sloppy lands, regular ploughing for seasonal cropping, open soil surface, strong winds and high rainfall are the main causes of soil erosion in the region and is directly harmful for terrestrial Orchid species for their growth and survival.

8. Bamboo vegetation

The most dominating and quick proliferating bamboo vegetation inside the Neora Valley and Singhalila National Parks cause greater harm to terrestrial Orchid species including other grasses. Among the bamboos, Yushania maling, Himalayacalamus falconeri , H. hookeriana etc. are most invasive dominating Bamboos in the region and they inhibit the growth and development of all types of plant species.

9. Impact of tourism and related activities

Entire Darjeeling Himalayan region is beautiful for tourism. Many parts of the region viz ., Tiger Hill, Sandakphu, Takdah, Lamahatta, Dello Hill, Durpin Hill,

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Kafer Lolaygoan, Lava, Gumbadara, Mirik etc. are now among the places for established tourist centres. As such, the increase in movement of tourism and their multifarious activities towards these areas could certainly have negative impact on the biodiversity of its surrounding in the long run and such activities are not ecofriendly.

10. Illegal collection

The practice of illegal collection of Orchid species from the forest and wildlife sanctuaries are often being done in the area. Many Orchid species like Agrostophyllum planicaule, Anoectochilus grandiflorus, Bulbophyllum appendiculatum, B. hymenanthum, B. roxburghii, Cryptochilus sanguinea, Cymbidium hookerianum, Dendrobium praecinctum, D. terminale, Gymnadenia orchidis, Luisia brachystachys, Nephelaphyllum cordifolium, Pelatantheria insectifera, Peristylus fallax, Pomatocalpa armigerum, Rhomboda lanceolata, Vanda alpina, Zeuxine flava etc. are in the verge of extinction in the region and it is because of indiscriminate collection. Large scale commercial collection was done by the agents of floral nurseries of the region and done massive loss of Orchid resources from the region. These activities may lead to the depletion of Orchids gene pool driving them on the verge of extinction from the region.

11. Forest and grassland fires

Specially during the dry season February – April, forest and grassland fires cause greater harm to the terrestrial and saprophytic Orchids of the region. Sometimes, uncontrolled fire in the forest cause devastating loss of forest products and is directly harm the vegetation of the region.

12. Weedicide and Pesticidal pollution

Application of weedicide, pesticide and accumulation of their residuals cause greater harm to the soil microorganism and hinder the germination of seeds and survival of terrestrial Orchids. Such practice routinely followed in tea gardens, cultivated vegetables, flowers, forest, floral nurseries and agricultural farms in the region. Effect of such pollution is health hazard for men and other animals also.

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13. Introduction of plantation crops

Introduction and plantation of three major plantation crops viz ., Camellia sinensis , Cryptomeria japonica and Cinchona spp. cause drastic loss of local vegetation including Orchid species from the region. This plantation is responsible for the loss of region’s biodiversity including Orchids.

14. Climate change and its impact on flora

Himalayan glaciers in the state of general retreat since 1850 and the rate of retreat is accelerating. Jangpang & Vohra (1962), Kurien & Munshi (1972), Vohra (1981) and many others have made significant studies on the Himalayan glaciers and their fluctuations. Such retreats among glaciers are directly or indirectly responsible on the climatic condition of the region.

5.17. Conservation Status

Although Darjeeling Himalayan is a biodiversity hotspot and favourable climate supports the luxuriant growth of plant species in the region occupies a prominent position from the floristic point of view. Many sacred grooves in the region playing important role to conserve several threatened taxa. However, there is some indication of the depletion of Orchid species through various means, which deserves immediate attention for ensuring the conservation status of the region. The following are some of the key factors that control the depletion of Orchid species.

1. Indiscriminate collection /Unsustainable extraction

Indiscriminate collection of Orchid species is the secondary livelihood security for poor people. The collection of Orchid species and sold to the floral nurseries are still exist in the region. Some notable Orchid species extensively collected for such purposes are Aerides multiflora, Bulbophyllum appendiculatum, B. roxburghii, B. tortuosum, B. wallichii, Coelogyne barbata, C. corymbosa, C. cristata, C. punctata,

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C. nitida, Cryptochilus sanguinea, Cymbidium devonianum, C. erythraeum, C. hookerianum, C. mastersii , Dendrobium densiflorum , D. heterocarpum, D. farmeri, Gymnadenia orchidis, D. praecinctum, D. terminale, Liparis cordifolia, L. duthiei, Nephelaphyllum cordifolium, N. pulchrum, Pleione maculata, Pelatantheria insectifera, Pomatocalpa armigerum, Tainia megalantha, etc. and some species viz ., Coelogyne flaccida, Dendrobium nobile, Thunia bracteata var. alba, T. bracteata var. bracteata, frequently sold in the local markets of the regions by local collectors for their livelihood. This act has already reduced the natural population of Orchid species of the region to a great extent. Therefore, preservation of these species in natural habitat is utmost necessary.

2. Trees felling

Random felling of old epiphytic host trees by Forest Corporation and villagers for timber and firewood collection are the major threat to epiphytic Orchid species was seen during the periodic field survey. It is one of the important threats identified in the region. The practice of illegal felling of old trees for timber in the region are Abies densa, Castanopsis indica, C. tribuloides, Cryptomeria japonica , Cinnamomum glaucescens, Gmelina arborea, Juglans regia, Schima wallichi, Shorea robusta Taxus baccata, Tectona grandis, Terminalia myriocarpa, Toona ciliata is quite common. However, such activities are much reduced at present.

3. Fuel-wood and charcoal collection

Local people frequently fell trees illegally for cooking and heating purposes and is directly harm the epiphytic Orchid population in the region. But at present such practices is somehow controlled.

4. Overgrazing of domestic livestock

The grazing of cattle is regular practice by rural people of the region and which is harmful for the survival of the Orchid germplasm in the nature. However, in the present stage, such practice is frequently lesser in the region.

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5. Forest and Grassland fires

Forest and grassland fires in the region cause great loss to the biodiversity and vegetation. This is due to defraud attitude of the concern people. But such practices are more controlled in the region.

6. Lack of Information and Awareness

Basically common people are ignorant about the floristic wealth and biodiversity of the region vis a vis necessity of conservation of these plants. Awareness programme in the form of seminars, workshops, trainings, distribution of small booklets, publicity etc. are necessary to educate the people in the villages. Therefore, grass roots level awareness is utmost important to save the valuable Orchid species in the regions.

5.18. Proposed Methods of Conservation

International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) has demarked only thirteen regions in the world of having biodiversity rich habitats designated as Biodiversity Hot Spots (Rai, 2001). Eastern Himalaya is so exceptionally rich in biodiversity. However, these biodiversity hotspots are equally under adverse environmental implications due to multifarious anthropogenic activities. Even various parts of Neora Valley National Park and Singhalila National Park are not seriously protected except inside dense forest. Mismanagement of forest areas, deforestation, habitat destruction are totally concerned with uncontrolled human population. Maximum number of Orchid species harvour in the forest areas. The lost of the Orchid species from Darjeeling Himalaya is also due to commercialization of forest resources by Forest Corporation Department few decades back. For earning quick revenue, Government commercialized the forest by felling all old indigenous timber yielding plant species and replanning them by planting quick, straight and tall growing Pine trees as mono plantation that has taken away the huge plant resources; the Pinus species secrete a type of acid that suppresses the growth of other plants under such plantation. No other vegetation can grow under Pine cultivation. It has destroyed the ecological balance and

525576 taken a heavy toll on genetic resources of both flora and fauna. The local species of trees like Callicarpa vestita, Castanopsis indica , Diploknema butyracea, Ficus auriculata, F. benghalensis , F. benjamina , Schima wallichii, Shorea robusta, Taxus baccata, Terminalia mariocarpa, harvour number of other plants like Orchids, Fungi, Lichens, Bryophytes, Pteridophytes that grow on the trunk branches and barks of such trees. Similarly, on the ground number of other grass, smaller plants grow which are eaten by wild animals. Birds built their nest in such trees eat their fruits, fruits of plants growing on them, suck nectar from flowers. So the bees and other insects live on them. But by large scale random felling of such trees, the entire ecosystem and biodiversity is disturbed. Birds, insects and wild animals are forced to migrate from their habitat to other places for shelter. The wild animals could not get food to eat. The entire ecosystem was disturbed. There are also visible effects of commercialization of forest resources of Darjeeling Himalaya. The unseen part is more serious and dangerous along microorganisms native to this region are killed. They cannot be regained for use of mankind again. Several food chains are destroyed and they cannot be reestablish again in the nature.

It is very difficult to renovate back, what has been lost, to its original status. Yet the following recommendations have been placed for developing conservation strategies for the region, which might be considered actively by the policy makers, administrators, foresters, wildlife officers and the people of Darjeeling Himalaya.

1. Settlement of people in the vicinity of forest and national parks should not be allowed.

2. Strict measures should be taken to check immigration in the region. Planning should be proper for the stabilization of population growth.

3. The random falling of host trees and deforestation associated with commercial plantations should be stopped immediately.

4. Construction works like buildings, jeepable roads etc. should be stopped near the forests, sanctuaries and national parks.

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5. Cattle grazing inside the forest and national parks should be stopped and implementation of modern methods in livestock rearing.

6. Checklist of the rare, threatened and endangered Orchid species has to be prepared and their correct ecological status assessed for further conservation aspects. Along with checklist of Orchid species, their distribution patterns, pollination mechanism, phenology, natural barriers, seed dispersal and germination should be studied in details.

7. The government should declare the establishment of more bio reserve areas in the region to regain the forest areas as approved in the national forest policy for the environmental security.

8. Illegal entry of any unauthorized person is prohibit into the forest and wildlife areas and illegal felling of trees and timber should be banned.

9. Soil erosion should be checked after consultation with soil scientists and establishment of a continuous and uninterferred forest belt at the subtropical and foothill zones to control soil erosion.

10. Providing economic supports to the poor sections who are dependent on forests, to improve their economy.

11. Orchid sanctuaries and germplasm conservation centre should be established (both in situ and ex situ conservation).

12. Hybridization programme should be emphasizing to create new fascinating hybrid Orchids.

13. Establishment of plant tissue culture laboratory to germinate seeds and multiply the threatened, medicinal important and ornamental Orchid species. Micropropagation of threatened and endangered species should emphasized to conserve and plantation in the preferable habitat in nature.

14. Unauthorised and illegal collections of species from habitat should be banned by government authorities like State Department of Forest and Wildlife, State Biodiversity Board, Ministry of Environment and Forest etc.

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15. Tourism, trekking and mountaineering expedition activities should have to be made completely in eco-friendly manner.

16. Grassroots level awareness is immediately required. Local NGOs, ex-servicemen, research scholars and students can take major initiatives to aware the people to protect the species in the regions.

17. Ploughing and digging activities should be minimizing during monsoon season. Because maximum soil erosion in the region cause by torrential rain water which harm the survival of terrestrial and saprophytic Orchid species.

18. Transfer of Orchid species from one Orchid rich host trees to other surrounding small host trees should be encouraged for massive proliferation.

19. Cultivation of species should be emphasized for sustainable utilization and conservation.

20. There is also a need to form Orchid societies to conserve, propagate, research and to educate the people about the value of Orchids.

21. A short chapter on the ecology, biology and importance of Orchids could be included in the academic syllabus of schools and college students.

22. The threatened native species must be conserved and attempts are to be made to develop in vitro storage facility at the centre for germplasm maintenance and storage.

Further, Darjeeling Himalaya is a natural home of many Orchid species and centre of diversity of many other potential plant species in regards to food, fodder, medicine, fuel, timber etc. However, the present study also reveal that some of the Orchid species once very common in the district of Darjeeling as noted by earlier botanists like Bruhl (1926), Pradhan (1976, 1979), Pradhan & Pradhan (1997), including H. Ohashi (1975) are now gradually becoming threatened. Therefore, authorities, administrators, government officials, botanists, foresters, biologists, teachers of Darjeeling district should consider the aforementioned facts with proper priority for sustainable conservation of biodiversity.

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Plate 5.1: Threats to Orchid flora in the region: 1. Frequent land slide prone zone, 2. Grazing of sheeps, 3. Falling of epiphytic host tree because of land slide, 4. Harvesting of logs by Forest Department, 5. Grazing of cattle inside Singhalila National Park, 6. Terrace farming in hills.

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3 4

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Plate 5.2: Threats to Orchid flora in the region: 1. Extension of road, 2. Harvesting of timber, 3. Collection of fire wood from forest, 4. Harvesting of fire wood, 5. Hydro Electric Power Project- Teesta 27 th Mile, 6. Extensive collection of epiphytic Orchid species from habitat.

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5.19. Further Research Scope

Ornamental Orchid species of the region can be hybridized for the production of superior hybrids. Production of showy, long lasting, disease resistant and fragrant Orchid is also an innovative task for research workers. On Orchids, pollination, fruits development, seeds dispersal and germination mechanism are the interesting and can be taken up for further study. Further investigation on medicinal Orchid species and their mass multiplication by means of micropropagation possess great scope.

Further exploration should be taken up to record the exact diversity in case of medicinal, aromatic, spices and wild edible plants. A comprehensive study on the Algae, Fungi, Lichen, Bryophyte, Pteriodophyte and fossil flora is still to be taken up in the region.

Phytochemical and nutritional analysis of known plant species has further research scope in the region. Detail investigigation on the Himalayan biodiversity including flora is a significant area of further study.

The present findings are further helpful for the following purposes:

(i) Breeders: To breed with specific aims like to import scent, increase floral size, colour addition and making more attractive flowers, increase vase life, etc.

(ii) Taxonomic work: To find more number available species which are never reported from the region.

(iii) Commercialization of Orchid growing and making it a commerce. So that more people can earn their living through Orchid related activities.

(iv) Mass multiplication of species: If possible, it can be tried to multiply the threatened species and plant their in national parks for their further multiplication.

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