Rolling Resistance in Road Infrastructure Asset Management Systems
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2 MIRIAM _____________________________________________ Models for rolling resistance In Road Infrastructure Asset Management systems Rolling Resistance – Basic Information and State-of- the-Art on Measurement methods Editor: Ulf Sandberg, Swedish National Road and Transport Research Institute (VTI) List of contributors inside Deliverable # 1 in MIRIAM SP 1 Final version, updated 2011-06-01 Document type and No. Report MIRIAM_SP1_01 Sub-project SP 1 Measurement methods and source models Author(s) Editor: Ulf Sandberg (a). List of contributors inside Authors' affiliations (acronyms) (a) VTI Contact data for main author [email protected] Document status and date Version 110401, rev. 110412, rev. 110512, rev 110601 Dissemination level Public File Name MIRIAM_SP1_SoA_Report List of contributors: The order below is by alphabetical order of the authoring institutes (except in the case of the editor), and has nothing to do with the extent or importance of the contributions. Ulf Sandberg Swedish Road and Transport Research Institute (VTI), Linköping, Sweden Editor and main author Manfred Haider and Marco Conter Austrian Institute of Technology (AIT), Vienna, Austria Co-authors, contributors regarding definitions and models Luc Goubert and Anneleen Bergiers Belgian Road Research Centre (BRRC), Brussels, Belgium Co-authors, contributors regarding the trailer method Klaus-Peter Glaeser, Gernot Schwalbe and Marek Zöller Federal Highway Research Institute (BASt), Bergisch-Gladbach, Germany Co-authors, major contributors regarding laboratory drum and trailer methods Olivier Boujard Institut français des sciences et technologies des transports, de l'aménagement et des réseaux (IFSTTAR), Nantes, France Co-author, contributor with a French report about definitions, models and measurements Ulf Hammarström Swedish Road and Transport Research Institute (VTI), Linköping, Sweden Co-author, major contributor regarding experience collected in the ECRPD project Rune Karlsson Swedish Road and Transport Research Institute (VTI), Linköping, Sweden Co-author, major contributor regarding the coastdown method Jerzy A. Ejsmont Technical University of Gdansk (TUG), Gdansk. Poland Co-author, major contributor regarding trailer methods T. Wang and J.T. Harvey University of California, Pavement Research Center, UC Davis and Berkeley, Davis, California, USA Co-authors, major contributors with a North American literature review Foreword MIRIAM, an acronym for "Models for rolling resistance In Road Infrastructure Asset Manage- ment systems", is a project started by twelve partners from Europe and USA. They have collectively risen internal and external funding for this project. The managing partner is the Danish Road Institute. The overall purpose of MIRIAM is to provide information useful for achieving a sustainable and environmentally friendly road infrastructure. In this project, the focus is on reducing the energy consumption due to the tyre/road interaction, by selection of pavements with lower rolling resistance – and hence lowering CO2 emissions and increasing energy efficiency. A first phase of the project will contribute with investigation of pavement characteristics, energy efficiency, modelling, and raising awareness of the project in order to secure econo- mical and political support for a second phase. The second phase will focus on development and implementation of CO2 controlling models into the road infrastructure asset management systems. The website of MIRIAM is http://www.miriam-co2.net/ where extensive project information can be found. MIRIAM has been divided into five sub-projects (SP), of which SP 1 is "Measurement methods and surface properties model". This report is the first Deliverable in SP 1. Rolling Resistance – Basic Information and State-of-the-Art on Measurement methods I Editor: Ulf Sandberg (VTI) Acknowledgements and disclaimer It is gratefully acknowledged that the production of this report has been funded by the following organizations (in alphabetical order): Austrian Institute of Technology (AIT) Belgian Road Research Centre (BRRC) California Department of Transportation (Caltrans) Danish Road Institute (DRI) Federal Highway Research Institute (BASt) Institut français des sciences et technologies des transports, de l'aménagement et des réseaux (IFSTTAR) Swedish Road and Transport Research Institute (VTI) Swedish Transport Administration (STA) Technical University of Gdansk (TUG) The funding organizations have no responsibility for the contents of this report. Only the authors are responsible for the contents. Any views expressed are views of the authors only. Rolling Resistance – Basic Information and State-of-the-Art on Measurement methods II Editor: Ulf Sandberg (VTI) TABLE OF CONTENTS SUMMARY VII 1 INTRODUCTION 1 2 PURPOSE, LIMITATIONS AND CONCEPT 2 3 TERMINOLOGY AND DEFINITIONS 3 3.1 Energy consumption of vehicles in operation and its sources 3 3.2 Discussion of the concept of rolling resistance 5 3.3 Physical measures representing rolling resistance 6 3.4 The various contributors to rolling resistance and related mechanisms 7 3.4.1 Sources and mechanisms – general 7 3.4.2 Energy losses in tyres 7 3.4.3 Pavement-influencing tyre losses 9 3.4.4 Energy losses in pavements 11 3.4.5 Bearings 11 3.4.6 Tyre rotation aerodynamic losses 11 3.4.7 Tyre aerodynamic drag 11 3.4.8 Suspension 12 3.5 Problems with the present rolling resistance concept and measure 12 3.6 Discussion regarding measured contributions to energy losses and resistances with the methods employed in MIRIAM 12 3.7 Suggested terminology and definitions 13 4 VARIABLES AND PARAMETERS AFFECTING ROLLING RESISTANCE 17 4.1 Tyre properties 17 4.1.1 Tyre internal properties 17 4.1.2 Tyre external properties (dimensions) 17 4.1.3 Tyre speed category 19 4.1.4 Tyre rubber compound and rubber hardness 19 4.1.5 Tyre condition 20 4.1.6 Tyre rolling speed 21 4.1.7 Tyre load and inflation pressure 22 4.1.8 Tyre slip angle 22 4.2 Road properties 23 4.2.1 Texture and unevenness – old data 23 4.2.2 Texture and unevenness – new data 25 4.2.3 Microtexture 26 4.2.4 Stiffness and internal pavement losses 27 4.2.5 Road rutting, crosslope, curves and gradient 28 4.2.6 Road condition 28 4.2.7 Survey of rolling resistance of 40 Dutch test track surfaces 28 4.3 Bearing properties and condition 29 4.4 Suspension properties and condition 29 4.5 Temperature influence 31 5 ROLLING RESISTANCE CONTRIBUTION TO VEHICLE ENERGY CONSUMPTION 33 5.1 Introduction 33 Rolling Resistance – Basic Information and State-of-the-Art on Measurement methods III Editor: Ulf Sandberg (VTI) 5.2 Example of various contributions to the driving resistance 33 5.3 Example of Return Factors 35 6 REFLECTIONS AND OBSERVATIONS ON ROLLING RESISTANCE MEASUREMENT AND MODELLING FROM THE ECRPD PROJECT 37 6.1 Introduction and objective 37 6.2 Problems to address 38 6.3 What to include and not include in a tyre/road rolling resistance model 42 7 MEASUREMENT METHODS - GENERAL 44 7.1 Rolling resistance 44 7.2 Test objects: tyres or pavements? 44 7.3 Measurement of pavement-related parameters 44 8 MEASUREMENT METHODS – STANDARDS 47 8.1 Introduction 47 8.2 SAE 49 8.2.1 SAE J1269: Rolling resistance measurement procedure for passenger car, light truck, and highway truck and bus tires 49 8.2.2 SAE J2452: Stepwise coastdown methodology for measuring tire rolling resistance 49 8.3 ISO 49 8.3.1 Past and present ISO standards 49 8.3.2 ISO 18164:2005: Passenger car, truck, bus and motorcycle tyres — Methods of measuring rolling resistance 50 8.3.3 ISO 28580:2009: Passenger car, truck and bus tyres — Methods of measuring rolling resistance — Single point test and correlation of measurement results 50 8.4 Other standards 50 9 MEASUREMENT METHODS AND EQUIPMENT – LABORATORY DRUM 51 9.1 Measurements at BASt, Germany 51 9.1.1 General 51 9.1.2 Description of the test procedure for rolling resistance measurements of truck tyres (procedure used at the PFF with the coastdown method) 51 9.1.3 Description of the test procedure for rolling resistance measurements of passenger car tyres (procedure at the PFF with the direct force measurement) 53 9.2 Measurements at TÜV, Germany 55 9.3 Measurements at TUG, Poland 55 9.3.1 General 55 9.3.2 Measurement procedure 57 9.4 Drum surfaces 57 9.5 Effect of drum curvature 59 9.6 Measurements at ika / RWTH Aachen University, Germany 59 9.7 Laboratory facilities at other places 60 10 MEASUREMENT METHODS AND EQUIPMENT – TRAILER METHOD 61 10.1 General about the trailer method 61 10.2 The TUG trailer 62 10.3 The TUG measurement method 64 Rolling Resistance – Basic Information and State-of-the-Art on Measurement methods IV Editor: Ulf Sandberg (VTI) 10.4 The BRRC trailer 65 10.5 The BRRC measurement method 67 10.6 The BASt trailer 67 10.7 The BASt measurement method 69 10.7 The IPW truck trailer 69 10.8 The IPW truck trailer measurement method 70 10.9 The Mobile Tyre Test Rig at ika / RWTH Aachen University 71 11 MEASUREMENT METHODS – COASTDOWN METHOD 73 11.1 Historical remarks 73 11.2 Basic idea 73 11.3 Characteristic features of the method 74 11.4 Mathematical models 75 11.4.1 Model assumptions 75 11.4.2 Equations 76 11.4.3 A variety of possibilities 76 11.5 Measurement setup in MIRIAM 76 11.5.1 Selection of test roads 76 11.5.2 Road data measurements 77 11.5.3 Measurement equipment for coastdowns 77 11.5.4 Coastdown measurements 78 11.5.5 Data analyses 79 11.6 Difficulties and problems 79 11.7 Other coastdown equipment 80 12 MEASUREMENT METHODS – FUEL CONSUMPTION METHOD 81 13 MEASUREMENT METHODS – REFERENCE