THE PROCESS OF WORDS USED IN MARTIN’S NOVEL

A GAME OF THRONES

A THESIS

BY

BONIFASIA BR KARO

REG. NO. 150721022

DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH

FACULTY OF CULTURAL STUDIES

UNIVERSITY OF SUMATERA UTARA

MEDAN 2019

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA THE PROCESS OF COMPOUND WORDS USED IN MARTIN’S NOVEL

A GAME OF THRONES

A THESIS

BY BONIFASIA BR KARO

REG. NO. 150721022

SUPERVISOR CO-SUPERVISOR

Dr. Deliana, M.Hum. Liza Amalia Putri, S.S., MA NIP. 19571117 198303 2 002 NIP. 198406262017042001

Submitted to Faculty of Cultural Studies University of Sumatera Utara Medan in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Sarjana Sastra from Department of English

DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH FACULTY OF CULTURAL STUDIES UNIVERSITY OF SUMATERA UTARA MEDAN 2019

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA Approved by the Department of English, Faculty of Cultural Studies University of Sumatera Utara (USU) Medan as thesis for The Sarjana Sastra Examination.

Head, Secretary,

Prof. T. Silvana Sinar, M.A., Ph.D Rahmadsyah Rangkuti, M.A., Ph.D

NIP. 1954091619803 2 003 NIP. 19750209 200812 1 002

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA Accepted by the Board of Examiners in partial fulfillment of requirements for the degree of Sarjana Sastra from the Department of English, Faculty of Cultural Studies University of Sumatera Utara, Medan.

The examination is held in Department of English Faculty of Cultural Studies University of Sumatera Utara on Augt 16th, 2019.

Dean of Faculty of Cultural Studies University of Sumatera Utara

Dr. Budi Agustono, M.S. NIP.19600805 198703 1 001

Board of Examiners

Rahmadsyah Rangkuti, M.A. Ph.D

Dr. Deliana, M.Hum

Dr. Muhizar Muchtar, M.S

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA

AUTHOR’S DECLARATION

I, BONIFASIA BR KARO, DECLARE THAT I AM THE SOLE AUTHOR

OF THIS THESIS EXCEPT WHERE REFERENCE IS MADE IN THE

TEXT OF THIS THESIS. THIS THESIS CONTAINS NO MATERIAL

PUBLISHED ELSEWHERE OR EXTRACTED IN WHOLE OR IN PART

FROM A THESIS BY WHICH I HAVE QUALIFIED FOR OR AWARDED

ANOTHER DEGREE. NO OTHER PERSON’S WORK HAS BEEN USED

WITHOUT DUE ACKNOWLEDGMENTS IN THE MAIN TEXT OF THIS

THESIS. THIS THESIS HAS NOT BEEN SUBMITTED FOR THE

AWARD OF ANOTHER DEGREE IN ANY TERTIARY EDUCATION.

Signed :

Date : 16th August 2019

i

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA COPYRIGHT DECLARATION

NAME : BONIFASIA BR KARO

TITLE OF THESIS : THE PROCESS OF COMPOUND

WORDS USED IN MARTIN’S NOVEL A

GAME OF THRONES

QUALIFICATION : S-1/SARJANA SASTRA

DEPARTMENT : ENGLISH

I AM WILLING THAT MY THESIS SHOULD BE AVAILABLE FOR

REPRODUCTION AT THE DISCRETION OF THE LIBRARIAN OF

DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH, FACULTY OF CULTURAL STUDIES,

UNIVERSITY OF SUMATERA UTARA ON THE UNDERSTANDING

THAT USERS ARE MADE AWARE OF THEIR OBLIGATION UNDER

THE LAW OF THE REPUBLIC OF INDONESIA.

Signed :

Date : 16th August 2019

ii UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Praised the Lord, Jesus Christ, for what I have today.

My best gratitude is o my Supervisor Dr. Deliana M. Hum and my co- supervisor Liza A. Putri, S.S., M.A who have helped and guided me patiently in accomplishing this thesis.

I would like to thank to Prof. Silvana Sinar, M.A., Ph.d. as the Head of

Department of English, Rahmadsyah Rangkuti, M.A., Ph.D as the Secretary of

Department of English, Dr. Drs. Budi Agustono, M.S as the Dean of Faculty of

Cultural Studies, University of Sumatera Utara, and all the lecturers of

Department of English. Best regard is also given to Drs. Ponisan (Pak Pon) and

Mr. Sukirno (Bang KiBot). Stay healthy Pak, Bang to help other thesis fighters.

I thank myself for staying strong. I thank my deepest love and the love of my life, Dad and Mom. Thank you for always remembering me in your prayers.

My beloved siblings, Kak Meta, July, and Medi. My dearest niece and nephew

Gisel and Gabrie. For my beloved Grandma in Heaven I am going to miss you soon.

I thank all of my best friends. My roommates Eli, Muti, Ciak. My bougenville-medan toke team Oly, Debbie, Marlina, Ira. My best staying-up- late friends Kak Ave, Opit. Thank you for always reminding me to keep staying on my path. My long-distance prayers Celik and Yoland. Thank you for always wishing me good things. My good reminder Retha and Erydha. My Parang III team Kak Oca, Pika, Pretty and my mood booster Azam and Audi. I do love you all.

iii UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA Finally, the writer welcomes the constructive criticisms and suggestions for this thesis is still far from being perfect. Hopefully, hopefully this thesis can be useful to everyone.

Medan, September

2019

The Writer,

Bonifasia Br Karo Reg. No: 150721022

iv UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA ABSTRACT

The thesis entitled “THE PROCESS OF COMPOUND WORDS USED IN MARTIN‟S NOVEL A GAME OF THRONES” is a morphological study which analyzes the process of compound words and the most dominant compound words used in Martin‟s novel A Game of Thrones. Descriptive and qualitative method is applied in this research. McCarthy (2002) theory is used in analyzing the process and kinds of compound words. Plag (2002) defines compounding (sometimes also called composition) rather loosely as the combination of two words to form a new word.The Findings show that there are three kinds of compound words used in this novel. Those are nominal compound, verbal compound, and adjectival compound. The processes of nominal compounds are formed of 3 formula. Those are „noun + noun‟, „noun + adjective‟, and „adjective + noun‟ formula. The processes of adjectival compounds are formed of „noun + adjective‟, „adjective + noun‟, „adjective + adjective‟, „adjective + present participle‟, adjective + past participle, and „noun + past participle‟, while the process of verbal compound is formed of „adjective + adjective‟. The most compound word used in Martin‟s novel A Game of Thrones is the nominal compound. It is about 60, 7% or 177 of 292 compound words in the novel. Adjectival compound is the second most used in the novel which is about 39% or 144 of 292 compound words. Verbal compound is the least used compound in the novel which is about 0, 3% or 1 0f 292 compound words in the novel.

Key words: Kinds of compound words, nominal compound, verbal compound, adjectival compound.

v UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA

ABSTRAK

Skripsi yang berjudul “THE PROCESS OF COMPOUND WORDS USED IN MARTIN‟S NOVEL A GAME OF THRONES” merupakan suatu kajian Morphology yang menganalisa proses pembentukan kata majemuk dan menentukan jenis kata majemuk yang paling dominan dalam novel A Game of Thrones. Penelitian ini menggunakan metode deskriptif kualitatif. Teori yang digunakan untuk menganalisa proses dan jenis-jenis kata majemuk adalah adalah teory McCarthy (2002). Plag (2002) menyatakan bahwa kata majemuk (terkadang disebut komposisi) adalah gabungan dua kata yang membentuk satu kata baru. Dalam penelitian ini ditemukan 3 jenis kata majemuk. Diantaranya adalah: Nomina, Verba, dan Adjectiva. Proses pembentukan kata majemuk Nomina adalah „noun + noun‟, „noun + adjective‟, and „adjective + noun‟. Proses pembentukan kata majemuk Adjectiva adalah „noun + adjective‟, „adjective + noun‟, „adjective + adjective‟, „adjective + present participle‟, adjective + past participle, and „noun + past participle‟, sedangkan pembentukan kata majemuk Verba hanya dibentuk oleh 1 proses, yaitu „adjective + adjective‟. Kata majemuk yang paling dominan di dalam penelitian ini adalah kata majemuk Nomina yaitu 60, 7% atau 177 dari 292 kata majemuk di dalam data. Kata majemuk Ajectiva adalah 39% atau 144 dari 292 kata. Kata majemuk Verba terdapat hanya 0, 3% atau 1 dari 292 kata majemuk didalam novel tersebut.

Kata Kunci: Jenis kata majemuk, kata majemuk nomina, kata majemuk verba, kata majemuk ajektiva.

vi UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA

TABLE OF CONTENTS

AUTHOR’S DECLARATION ...... i

COPYRIGHT DECLARATION ...... ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ...... iii

ABSTRACT ...... iv

ABSTRAK ...... v

TABLE OF CONTENTS ...... vi

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION ...... 1

1.1 Background of the Study ...... 1

1.2 Problems of the Study ...... 3

1.3 Objectives of the Study ...... 3

1.4 Scope of the Study ...... 4

1.5 Significances of the Study ...... 4

CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE ...... 5

2.1 Linguistics ...... 5

2.2 Morphology ...... 6

2.2.1 Word Formation ...... 7

2.2.1.1 Derivation ...... 9

2.2.1.2 Compounding ...... 13

2.3 Kinds of Compound word ...... 18

2.3.1 Nominal Compound ...... 18

2.3.2 Adjectival Compound ...... 19

2.3.3 Verbal Compound ...... 20

vii UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA 2.4 Previous of Related Studies ...... 20

CHAPTER III METHOD OF THE STUDY ...... 24

3.1 Research Design ...... 24

3.2 Data and Source of Data ...... 24

3.3 Method of Data Collection ...... 25

3.4 Method of Data Analysis ...... 25

CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS & FINDINGS ...... 28

4.1 Analysis ...... 28

4.2 Findings ...... 45

CHAPTER V CONCLUSION & SUGGESTION ...... 48

5.1 Conclusion...... 48

5.2 suggestion ...... 49

REFERENCES ...... ` 50

viii UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

Yule (2006) says that the study of the origin and history of a word is known as its etymology, a term which, like many of our technical words, comes to us through , but has its origins in Greek (e´tymon "original form" + logia "study of"), and is not to be confused with entomology, also from Greek (e´ntomon

"insect"). McCarthy (2002) says that the term „word' is part of everyone's vocabulary. Looking closely at the etymologies of less technical words, it is soon discovered that there are many different ways in which new words can enter the language. It should be kept in mind that these processes have been at work in the language for some time and a lot of words in daily use today were, at one time, considered barbaric misuses of the language. It is difficult now to understand the views expressed in the early nineteenth century over the "tasteless innovation" of a word like a handbook. Yet many new words can cause similar outcries as they come into use today. Rather than act as if the language is being debased, it might be preferred to view the constant evolution of new words and new uses of old words as a reassuring sign of vitality and creativeness in the way a language is shaped by the needs of its users.

Linguists usually assume that language consists of elements of form that people employ to "mean," "express," "represent," and "refer to" other things. For example, a word is a Linguistic form. In and of itself it is just a noise made by someone's vocal apparatus. What makes it a word rather than just a random noise

1 UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA is that it is produced intentionally to express some ideas. When used by a skilled speaker, words can combine into larger structures to express very complex ideas.

While Linguistic forms help people formulate ideas, and may constrain the concepts that can be entertained, the Linguistic forms themselves are logically distinct from the ideas that might be expressed, in the same way, that the form of a hammer is distinct from the job of pounding nails.

The existence of words is usually taken for granted by the speaker of a language. To speak and understand a language means – among many other things

– knowing the words of that language (Plag 2002). He adds that it has been estimated that average speakers of a language know from 45,000 to 60,000 words which must have stored somewhere in heads, so-called mental . The writer is interested in analysing Morphology, specifically the compound words because most English learners find some problems in studying English not only because of the rules but also because of the words which are composed of more than one meaningful element, besides Plag (2002) says that compounding word is the most productive type of word formation process in English, and it is perhaps also the most controversial one in terms of its Linguistic analysis. He adds that there are compounds with four, five, or even more members. The writer does this research to know the internal structure of compound words. One possible way of establishing compound patterns is to classify compounds according to the nature of their heads. Classifications based on syntactic category are of course somewhat problematic because many words of English belong to more than one category

(Booij 2005).

2 UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA The reason of choosing this study is the writer finds there are some difficulties to determine the process of compound words and how they are combined to form new classes of words because according to Plag (2002), in

English, like many other languages, some different compounding patterns are attested. He says that not all word classes can be combined freely with other words to form a compound. A Game of Thrones was chosen as the source of the data because it is one of the best selling movies and novels of the year, besides the writer finds there are many compound words in every chapter of the novel.

Furthermore, the writer is going to make sure that talking about the novel is not only about literature but also about Linguistic, that is about its word forms. There are compounds involving nominal heads, verbal heads, and adjectival heads found in this novel. Some of them use two even three hyphens at once. It is complicated to decide whether a compound word is combined using a hyphen or not. Due to this reason, the writer composes the problems of the study as below.

1.2 Problems of the Study

The problems of the study in this research are:

1) How is the process of compound words found in Martin‟s novel A Game of

Thrones?

2) What is the most compound word found in Martin‟s novel A Game of

Thrones?

1.3 Objectives of the Study

The objectives of the study in this research are:

3 UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA 1) To analyse the process of compound words found in Martin‟s novel A Game

of Thrones.

2) To find out the most compound word in Martin‟s novel A Game of Thrones.

1.4 Scope of the Study

To analyze this study specifically, the writer sets two limitations. First, the analysis of the research is only focused on the process of compound words found in Martin's novel A Game of Thrones. There are 1 prologue and 72 chapters of

759 pages in the novel, but the writer only analyses the prologue, the first, the second, the eleventh, the thirtieth, the thirty-seventh, the forty-sixth, the fifty- second, the sixty-first, and the sixty-fourth chapter of the seventy chapters in the novel. The data were taken randomly to see how the compound words are used in a different chapter.

1.5 Significance of the Study

In doing research, it is hoped it can give benefits to the educational fields.

The significances of the study in this research are:

1) Theoretically, this research can be used as a reference for the English students

to understand the process of compound words for a further similar writing

project or a similar subject of study.

2) Practically, this research can be used as a reference for the English student to

use compound words in daily life for example in conversation and writing.

4 UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 Linguistics

Varga (2010) says that Linguistics is something which users of language must deal with if they want to obtain explicit knowledge about language. He adds that Linguistics seeks explicit knowledge about language, by submitting it to systematic and objective study. A study that is systematic, objective, and seeks explicit knowledge is scientific. While Linguistics is the study of human language, a linguist is a person who is professionally engaged in the scientific study of some aspect of language (i.e. of one particular language or several languages or human language in general). To make this explanation clearer he says that Linguistics, or its product, a grammar, has branches corresponding to the central components of language. Phonology is the study of the phonemes and their combinations in words and morphemes, and also of the discrete suprasegmental elements in words and sentences. Morphology is the study of word derivation and word inflection in terms of constituent morphemes. The syntax is the study of sentence formation. Semantics is the study of the meaning of words and sentences. Lexicology is the study of the lexicon, i.e the phonological, morphological, syntactic, and semantic properties of vocabulary items.

Yule (2006) says that Linguistics is the of the language (s). It is generally a descriptive discipline rather than a prescriptive one, which means that linguists do not lay down hard and fast rules about how to use certain language, but rather concentrate on describing the rules which (especially native) speakers

5 UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA seem to have internalized. In this research, hypnotically the writer will focus on

Morphology, a study which concerns about words, which is discussed in the morphological process.

2.2 Morphology

Yule (2006) says that „Morphology' is the study of investigating basic forms in the language. This term, which means "the study of forms," was originally used in . The same idea is also given by Booij (2005) who says that the term „Morphology' has been taken over from Biology where it is used to denote the study of the forms of plants and animals. But, since the middle of the nineteenth century, it has also been used to describe the type of investigation that analyses all those basic "elements" used in a language. In present-day Linguistics, the term „Morphology' refers to the study of the internal structure of words, and of the systematic form-meaning correspondences between words or simply it can be said that Linguistic Morphology deals with the internal constituent structure of words. What has been describing as "elements" in the form of a Linguistic message are technically known as "morphemes", the building block of

Morphology?

Booij (2005) says that the two basic functions of morphological operations are (i) the creation of new words (i.e. new lexemes), and (ii) spelling out the appropriate form of a lexeme in a particular syntactic context. Morphology thus provides a means for extending the set of words of a language systematically. The reason for creating new words in that language users need new expressions for new objects or new concepts. Thus, word-formation has a labeling function.

6 UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA Creating a word label for a new kind of entity, event, or property may have the additional Pragmatic advantage that it draws attention to the new concept involved.

Plag (2002) schematizes the sub-section of the conceptual of the realm of

Morphology as follows:

Morphology

Inflectional Word-formation

Derivation Compounding

McCarthy (2002) says that derivational Morphology is concerned with one kind of relationship between lexemes involving affixation and non-affixation. In this research, the writer focuses on word formation especially compounding or compound words which are the most frequently used way of making new lexemes.

2. 2. 1 Word Formation

Finegan (2008) states that words are the centerpiece of language, so thinking about language typically thinking about words. Words are the focal point in examining language. He states that there are several perspectives in investigating a language structure, those are: 1) the meaningful parts of words, (2) the sound and syllables that makeup words into phrases and sentences, and (3) the semantic relationship that link words in sets.

7 UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA Plag (2002) states that words are usually considered to be syntactic atoms, the smallest elements in a sentence which belong to certain syntactic classes such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, prepositions, etc called part of speech, word classes, or syntactic categories. He also summarizes the properties of words, those are (1) words are entities having a part of speech specification, (2) words are syntactic atoms, (3) words (usually) have one main stress, (4) words (usually) are indivisible units (no intervening material possible). He adds that the study of word-formation can thus be defined as the study of how new complex words are built based on other words or morphemes.

Booij (2005) says that word-formation is traditionally divided into two kinds: derivation and compounding. Having the same idea, Plag (2002) also differentiates word-formation processes of English into two types those are the derivational process (both affixation and non-affixation) and the compounding word process. Morphological knowledge may thus lead to rule-governed creativity in the use of language. If we want to be understood, our new Linguistic expressions must comply with the rules of the language. It is these rules that enable every language user to produce and understand Linguistic expression that she has never come across before. The basic function of the derivational process is to enable language users to make new lexemes. Lexemes belong to lexical categories such as Noun, Verb, and Adjective and the derived lexeme may belong to a different category than their bases. Whereas in many languages compounding

(also called composition) is the most productive way of making new lexemes.

8 UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA 2.2.1.1 Derivation

McCarthy (2002) says that derivational Morphology is concerned with one kind of relationship between lexemes involving affixation.

1. Derivation with Affixation

Plag (2002) says that there are different ways of classifying affixes. The most obvious way is according to their position concerning the base, they are , suffixes, and infixes.

1) Suffixes

Plag (2002) differentiates suffixes into nominal suffixes, adjective suffixes, adjectival suffixes, and adverbial suffixes. Nominal affixes are often employed to derive abstract nouns from verbs, adjectives, and nouns. Such abstract nouns can denote actions, results of actions, or other related concepts, but also properties, qualities and the like. Nominal suffixes in English end with –age, -al, -ant, -cy/- ce, -dom, -ee, -eer, -er, -e(e)ry,-ess, -ful, -hood,-an, -ing, -ion, -ism, -ist, -ity, - ment, -ness, -ship. Verbal suffixes include four suffixes which derive verbs from other categories (mostly adjectives and nouns) those are –ate, -en, -ify, -ize. The adjectival suffixes of English can be subdivided into two major groups. The adjectival suffixes end with –able, al, -ary, -ed, -esque, -ful, -ic, -ing, -ish, ive, - less, -ly, -ous. And the adverbial suffixes end with –ly, and –wise.

2) Prefixes

Plag (2002) says that the prefixes of English can be classified semantically into several groups. Those are a large group that quantifies over their base words meaning, locative prefixes, temporal prefixes, and prefixes expressing negation.

9 UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA The vast majority of prefixes do not change the syntactic category of their base words, they merely act as modifiers. Furthermore, it can be observed that they generally attach to more than one kind of syntactic category (verb, adjective, or noun) and do not influence the stress pattern of their bases.

3) Infixation

Plag (2002) says that morphologists usually agree that English has no infixes.

However, there is the possibility of inserting expletives in the middle of words to create new words expressing the strongly negative attitude of the speaker (e.g kanga-bloody-roo. Abso-blooming-lutely). Thus it could be said that English has a process of infixation of (certain) words, but there are no bound morphemes that qualify for infix status.

2 Derivation without Affixation

Plag (2002) differentiates the process derivation without affixation into conversion, truncation , -y diminutives and clipping, blends, abbreviations, and .

1) Conversion

Plag (2002) says that conversion can be defined as the derivation of a new word without any overt marking. Here, the word class of the word changes but there are no changes in the form. Here are the examples:

(1) Conversion Noun to Verb the bottle to bottle

the water to water

(2) Conversion Verb to Noun to call a call

to guess a guess

10 UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA (3) Conversion Adjective to Verb better to better

empty to empty

(4) Conversion Adjective to Noun poor the poor

blind the blind

2) Truncations: Truncated names, -y diminutives and Clipping

Plag (2002) says that truncation is a process in which the relationship between a derived word and its base is expressed by the lack of phonetic material in the derived word. Truncations in English are highly systematic, and their systematicity shows that the knowledge about the structural properties of these categories must be part of the morphological competence of the speakers.

Truncated names can be distinguished from –y diminutives both semantically and formally. truncated names (and clippings like a lab) are used to express familiarity. Thus, truncations are normally used by people who feel familiar with the person referred to and who want to express this familiarity overtly.

Plag (2002) says that clipping is a sub-class of truncations. It is a term in other publications which is often used as an equivalent to „truncations'. Clipping appears as a rather mixed bag of forms abbreviated from larger words, which, however, share a common function, namely to express familiarity with the denotation of the derivative. Examples are:

(1) lab (laboratory)

(2) demo (demonstration)

3) Blends

Another large class of complex words whose formation is best described in terms of prosodic categories are blends (Plag 2002). Definition of blends in the

11 UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA morphological literature differ a great deal, but most treatments converge on a definition of blends as words that combine two (rarely three or more) words into one, deleting material from one or both of the source words. Examples of blends can be assigned to two different classes, illustrated in:

Blends, type 1

(1) motor + hotel : motel

(2) science + fiction : sci-fi

Blends, type 2

(1) breakfast + lunch : brunch

(2) modulator + demodulator : modem

Plag (2002) explains that those examples are dealing with existing compounds that are shortened to form a new word. The meaning of these forms is one where the first element modifies the second element.

In contrast with blends type 1, the base words of the blends in type 2 are typically not attested as compounds in their full form. Furthermore, the semantics of the proper blends differ systematically from the abbreviated compounds in type

1. The blends in type 2 denote entities that share properties of the referents of both elements. For example, a boatel is both a boat and a hotel, a brunch is both breakfast and lunch, and so on.

4) Abbreviation and Acronyms

Plag (2002) says that one other popular way of forming words is an abbreviation. It is similar to blends because both blends and abbreviations are an amalgamation of parts of different words. He added that abbreviation is most

12 UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA commonly formed by taking initial letters of multi-word sequence to make up a new word. The examples can be seen below.

(1) BA: Bachelor of Art

(2) FAQ: Frequently Asked Question

Apart from words composed of initial letters, one can also find abbreviation that incorporate non-initial letter. The examples are:

(3) BSc: Bachelor of Science

(4) Inc: Incorporated

Abbreviation can be grouped according to two orthographic and phonological properties. They can be either pronounced by naming each letter (so-called initialism as in the USA or by applying regular reading rules as in NATO).

In the latter case, the abbreviation is called an . The spelling of acronyms may differ concerning the use of capital letters. Usually, capital letters are used, which can be interpreted as a formal device that links the acronym to its base word. Some words that historically originated as acronyms are nowadays no longer spelled with capital letters, and for the majority of speakers, these forms are no longer related to the words they originally abbreviated (e.g radar).

2.2.1.2 Compounding

Plag (2002) defines compounding (sometimes also called composition) rather loosely as the combination of two words to form a new word. This definition contains two crucial assumptions, the first being that compounds consist of two (and not more) elements. The second being that these elements are words.

13 UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA Booij (2005) says that compounding (also called composition) is the most frequently used way of making new lexemes. Its defining property is that it consists of the combination of lexemes into larger words, in which one word modifies the meaning of the other, the head. This means that compounds have a binary structure. The productivity of compounding in many languages is largely due to its semantic transparency and versatility. When a compound is formed, the meaning is already known of its constituents, and the only task which is faced to find out is about the semantic relation between the two parts. The general semantic pattern of a compound of the form XY is that it denotes a Y that has something to do with X, or vice versa, depending on the language. The exact nature of the semantic relation between the two constituent receives no formal expression and is a matter of interpretation by the language user. As language users, one has to interpret that relationship based on the meanings of the compound constituents, our knowledge of the world, and sometimes the context in which the compound is used. The role of context can be illustrated by a situation in which telling a guest who enters the room and looks for a seat: You may take the apple-juice chair. This means that this person should take the seat at the table in front of which a glass of apple juice is standing (Downing 1997). The recently coined butt call denotes a call on a mobile phone from someone who is calling unintentionally by sitting on her/his mobile phone and thus pressing a button. This is by nature a contextual compound, but even these can get lexicalized.

The process of compounding can be applied recursively, and thus it might get pretty long compounds. This is another cause of its productivity. An English example is the White House travel office, staff.

14 UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA Plag (2002) says that compounding is perhaps the most controversial one in terms of its Linguistic analysis and a field of study where intricate problems abound, numerous issues remain unresolved and convincing solution which is generally not easy to find.

This is the illustration which is discussed by Plag of that crucial assumption, the data are taken from a user's manual for a computer printer:

(1) power source requirement

engine communication error

communication technology equipment

The data in (1) seem to suggest that a definition saying that compounding involves always two (and not more) words is overly restrictive. This impression is further enhanced by the fact that there are compounds with four, five or even more members, e.g. university teaching award committee members. However, as it has been seen with multiple affixed words, it seems generally possible to analyze polymorphemic words as hierarchical structures involving binary (i.e. two-member) sub-elements. The above-mentioned five-member compound university teaching award committee member could thus be analyzed as in (2), using the bracketing as merely notational variants (alternative analyses are also conceivable):

(3) [[[university [teaching award]] committee] member]

Plag (2002) stated that the compound can be divided into strictly binary compounds as its constituents. The innermost constituent [teaching award] „an award for teaching' is made up of [teaching] and [award], the next larger constituent [university teaching award] „the teaching award of the university' is

15 UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA made up of [university] and [teaching award], the constituent [university teaching award committee] „the committee responsible for the university teaching award' is made up of [university teaching award] and [committee], and so on. Under the assumption that such an analysis is possible for all compounds, our definition can be formulated in such a way that compounds are binary structures.

What is also important to note is that – at least with noun-noun compounds – new words can be repeatedly stacked on an existing compound to form a new compound. Thus if there was special training for members of the university teaching award committee, we could refer to that training as the university teaching award committee member training. Thus the rules of compound formation can repeatedly create the same kind of structure. This property is called recursivity, and it is a property that is chiefly known from the analysis of sentence structure.

For example, the grammar of English allows us to use subordinate clauses recursively by putting a new clause inside each new clause, as in e.g. John said that Betty knew that Harry thought that Janet believed ... and so on. Recursivity seems to be absent from derivation, but some marginal cases such as great-great- great-grandfather are attested in prefixation. There is no structural limitation on the recursivity of compounding, but the longer a compound becomes the more difficult it is for the speakers/listeners to process, i.e. produce and understand correctly. Extremely long compounds are therefore disfavored not for structural but for processing reasons. Having clarified that even longer compounds can be analyzed as essentially binary structures, we can turn to the question of what kinds

16 UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA of the element can be used to form compounds. The following forms determine what kinds of elements can occur as elements in compounds:

(3) astrophysics

biochemistry

photoionize

parks commissioner

teeth marks

systems analyst

pipe-and-slipper husband

off-the-rack dress

over-the-fence gossip

In (3) it is found that compounds involving elements (astro-, bio-, photo), which are not attested as independent words (note that photo- in photoionize means „light' and is not the same lexeme as photo „picture taken with a camera').

From the discussion of neoclassical formations, it is found that bound elements like astro-, bio-, photo- etc. Behave like words (and not like affixes), except that they are bound. Hence they are best classified as (bound) roots. It could thus be redefined that compounding as the combination of roots, and not of words. Such a move has, however, the unfortunate consequence that it would have to be ruled out formations such as those in (3b), where a first element is a plural form, hence not a root but a (grammatical) word. To make matters worse for the definition, the data in (3c) show that even larger units, i.e. syntactic phrases, can occur in compounds (even if only as left elements). Given the empirical data, it is well- advised to slightly modify the above definition and say that a compound is a word

17 UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA that consists of two elements, the first of which is either a root, a word or a phrase, the second of which is either a root or a word.

2.2 Kinds of Compound Word

Delaunthy and Garvey (2010) say that there are several ways of approaching the study and classification of compound words, the most accessible of which is to classify them according to the part of speech of the compound and then sub- classify them according to the parts of speech of its constituent. But Plag (2002) says that in English, like many other languages, some different compounding patterns are attested. Not all word classes can combine freely with other words to form a compound.

McCarty (2002) separates compound words into three, those are compound verbs, compound adjectives, and compound nouns while Plag (2002) separates them into four, those are nominal compounds, adjectival compounds, verbal compounds, and Neo-classical compound. In this analysis, the writer focuses on

McCarty's theory in classifying the kinds of compound words.

2.3.1 Nominal Compound

Plag (2002) says that in terms part of speech, nominal compounds fall into the three sub-classes, involving nouns, verbs, and adjectives as non-heads. He adds that noun-noun compounds are the most common type of compound in English.

The vast majority of noun-noun compounds are right-headed, i.e they have a head and this head is the right member of the compound. McCarthy (2002) says that compounding comes into its own as a word-forming process in English. He argues

18 UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA that it is not surprising because cultural and technical produces more novel artifacts than novel activities or novel properties.

Here are some examples of nominal compound presented by McCarthy

(2002):

1) Verb-noun (VN): swearword, drop hammer, playtime

2) Noun-noun (NN): hairnet, mosquito net, butterfly net, hair restorer.

3) Adjective-noun (AN):blackboard, greenstone, fainthearted

4) Preposition-noun (PN): in-group, outpost, overcoat

2.3.2 Adjectival Compound

Plag (2002) says that adjectival compounds can have nouns or other adjectives as non-heads. The interpretation of noun-adjective compounds follows the same principles as those of noun-noun compounds. The non-head element can serve either as a modifier or, given the appropriate adjectival head, as an argument of the head.

McCarthy (2002) divides compound adjectives into three, those are:

1) Noun-adjective (NA): sky-high, coal-black, oil-rich

2) Adjective-adjective (AA): grey-green, squeaky-clean, red-hot

3) Preposition-adjective (PA): underfull, overactive

He adds that as with verbs, it is the type with the preposition over as its first element that seems most productive, in that new adjectives of this type, with the meaning „too X”, are readily acceptable.

19 UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA 2.3.3 Verbal Compound

Plag (2002) says that compounds with a verbal head may have nouns, adjectives, and verbs as their non-head. While McCarthy (2002) states that verbs formed by compounding are much less usual than verbs derived by affixation.

Nevertheless, a variety of types exist which may be distinguished according to their structure. He adds that most of the compound verbs have the rightmost element and the activity denoted by that rightmost element.

These are the examples of common structure of building compound verb according to McCarthy (2002).

1) Verb-Verb (VV): stir-fry, freeze-dry

2) Noun-Verb (NV): hand-wash, air-condition, steam-clean

3) Adjective-Verb (AV): dry-clean, whitewash

4) Preposition-Verb (PV): underestimate, outrun, overcool

2.4 Previous Related Studies

In analyzing the problems of the study, the writer reads some related studies as the references to understand the compound words. The data of related studies below are various. Those are words of the novel, words of English Translation of

Al-Qur'an, words of articles of BBC, and words of corpus book.

A Morphological Analysis of Compound Words Used in Novel "The Single

Girl's to-do List" by Lindsey Kelk is written by Arum Rumiyanti in 2015. The research is aimed at describing the types and the meaning of compound words in the novel. The analysis is done by using the theory of Katamba (1993) which says that types of compound words are divided into three, those are endocentric

20 UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA compound, exocentric compound, and copulative compound. In achieving the objectives, the researcher uses descriptive qualitative as the type of research. The techniques and steps which are done in finishing this analysis are reading the novel, selecting and collecting the data systematically following the types and meaning of compound words. The first finding shows 636 as an endocentric compound, 37 as a copulative compound, and 125 as the exocentric compound of

798 compound words in the novel. The second finding shows that there are 673 or

84,34 % data which show transparent meaning and 125 or 15,6% data which show opaque meaning. From this research, the writer learns how to use the descriptive qualitative method in analyzing the data and to separate the compound words into each type based on the theory.

A Morphological Study on Compound Words in English Translation of Al-

Qur'an is written by Kristin Oktaviana in 2013. This research is aimed at answering two problems, namely the various forms of compound words and the meanings of the compound found in the data. In collecting the data, the writer also uses descriptive qualitative research and applied documentation method, those are analyzing the data such as reading and collecting the data. The step is also analyzed by employing the tree diagram. The research is done by using the theory of Palmer and O'Grady and Dobrovolsky. The findings for the various forms are

14 or 19,4% noun compound, 38 or 52,8% ver compound, 8 or 11,1% adjective compound, and 12 or 16,7% preposition compound of 72 or 100% compound words in the data. The findings for the meaning of compound words are 43 or

63,8% transparent meaning and 26 or 36,2% opaque meaning of 72 or 100% compound words in the data. From this research, the writer learns how to analyze

21 UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA compound words by using a documentation method and to group the compound words based on their forms.

Compound Words Used in Twilight Novel Written by Stephenie Meyer is written by Ririn Cahyanti in 2015. This study focused on the compound words that were found in Twilight Novel. this study aimed to describe the types of compound words; to describe the function of the compound words and to describe the meaning of the compound words used in the novel. the type of study was a content analysis method and used a qualitative approach in finding out the answer to the problem of the study. The object of this study was compound words.

Collecting the data such as data collection, data reduction, data display, and the conclusion was used in data collecting procedures. This study was validated by using theory triangulation. The results of this study showed 253 of compound words. According to Delaunthy, Garvey, JD, Murty and Katamba's theory on the type of compound words, there are 5 of the open form of compound words, 56 of the hyphenated form of compound words and 183 of closed-form of compound words. In the function of compound words in O'Grady and Dobrovolsky theory, there are173 of compound nouns, 13 of compound verbs and 67 of compound adjectives. Based on the meaning of compound words that found from the contextual meaning, according to Nigel Fabb theory, there are 140 of the exocentric compound and 113 of the endocentric compound that found in the

Twilight novel written by Stephenie Mayer. From the analysis, the writer learns how to differentiate the compound words based on its types, forms, and meanings and to analyze them based on the experts' theory by using the qualitative approach.

22 UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA A Morphological Analysis on Words in Five Articles of

BBC is written by Kurinta Septi Dwi Rahayu and two of her friends in 2016. This study aimed to analyze English Compound words based on morphological aspects. The morphological aspects are the types, the orthographic features, and the meaning of compounds. The data of this research are taken from five selected articles of BBC news on its website. This study uses qualitative research with the descriptive method to analyze the data because the data are in the form of words.

This research uses Bauer's theory of the types of compounds, Plag et al's theory of the orthographic features of compounds, and McCarthy's theory of the meanings of compounds as the main theories. The result of the study shows that there are five types of compounds in the selected articles, they are compound nouns, compound verbs, compound adjectives, neo-classical compounds, and other form classes. Compound nouns become the most dominant types of compounds. When the compounds are complex and longer, they tend to be written separately rather than as a one-word or hyphenated. Compounds which are written as a one-word, tend to be classified as exocentric compounds. Whereas compounds that are written separately, tend to be classified as endocentric compounds. From this analysis, the writer learns how to analyze the compound words by using the descriptive method.

23 UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA CHAPTER III

METHOD OF THE STUDY

3.1 Research Design

The method which is used in this study is library research. The writer reads some books about Morphology and some related studies about compound words analysis. The descriptive and qualitative method is used to analyze the process, kinds, and the most compound words used in the novel.

3.2 Data and Source of Data

The data of this research are compound words in Martin's novel which is entitled A Game of Thrones: Book One of a Song of Ice and Fire. The novel is in

PDF (Portable Document Format) form. It was scanned on the 2nd of March 2002 and proofed by Nadie. This novel is written by George R.R Martin, an American novelist and short-story writer in the fantasy, horror and science fiction genre, a screenwriter, and television producer. There are 72 chapters, 1 prologue, and 7 parts of appendixes of 759 pages in the novel. The prologue, the first, the tenth, the twenty-second, the twenty-ninth, the thirty-ninth, the fifty-fifth, the sixty- sixth, and the sixty-ninth chapter of the seventy chapters were chosen as the data in this analysis because those chapters have the most compound words than others. Furthermore, those chapters have a different subtitle.

24 UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA 3. 3 Method of Data Collection

The data are collected by using the documentation method. Bungin (2001) says that the documentation method is one of collecting data used in social research methodology. The writer takes some examples of compound words as material for analysis. The type of observation used is unstructured observation.

The unstructured observation is an observation without using observation guide.

Bungin (2007) says that in this observation, researchers or observers must be able to develop the power of observation in observing something.

The steps of methods of data collection which are used in this research are:

1) Printing and separating the ten selected chapters, those are the prologue, the

first, the second, the eleventh, the thirtieth, the thirty-seventh, the forty-sixth,

the fifty-second, the sixty-first, and the sixty-fourth chapter.

2) Reading the selected chapters for several times to make the compound words

easier to be found.

3) Marking all the compound words found in each chapter and retyping some

examples to be analysed

4) Analysing the process of compound words in each selected chapter.

5) Determining kinds of compound words found in the novel.

3.4 Method of Data Analysis

The writer chooses the analysis concept introduced by Miles et al (2014).

This is chosen because the step of analysis is appropriate with the research design.

In this research, the data are chosen according to the problem of study. The data are grouped to the research need based on the theory used.

25 UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA Here are the analysis step given by Miles

The steps are:

The collected data are shown as the initial referral before they are condensed.

Data collection Data display

Data condensation Conclusions

3.4.1 Data Condensation a) Selecting

The first step is selecting the data. 10 chapters of 75 chapters are chosen as the data in this research. b) Focusing

The second step is focusing the data. After chosing the 10 selected chapters, the writer focuses on the compound words found in the chosen c) Simplifying

The third step is simplifying the data. After marking all the data, the writer simplifies the data to be analised. d) Transforming

The last step is transforming the data. After listing all the process of compound words in tables, the writers describes the data in discussion part.

26 UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA In analysing the process of compound words in this study, the writer uses the theory of McCarty (2002) while in determining the most compound words, the writer uses Bungin‟s theory, who gives the formula:

N = fx / N x 100%

N = percentage of kinds of compound words

Fx = total number of kinds of compound words.

The steps of data analysis which is used in this research are:

1) Reading several books about Morphology from some experts specifically the

definition, characteristics, and kinds of compound words.

2) Selecting compound words in the selected chapters of the novel. After

marking all compound words in the ten different chapter, the writer lists all of

them in a separate paper.

3) Analysing some examples of compound words based on McCarty's theory. In

the ten different chapters, the writer took some examples randomly.

4) Classifying the compound words into its kind based on McCarthy's theory.

5) Determining the most Compound Words found in the novel by using the

formula which is given by Bungin (2006). The total of the compound word of

each kind is divided by the percentage of kinds of compound words and

multiplied by 100%. The formula is used three times because there are three

kinds of compound words based on McCarty's theory.

6) Drawing conclusion by answering the problems of the study. Finally, the

writer concludes the findings and answers the three problems of the study in

this research.

27 UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA CHAPTER IV

ANALYSIS & FINDINGS

4.1 Analysis

In this section, the writer shows the list of compound words separately based on each chosen chapter. Every compound is analyzed based on the class category of the words forming it. Each table is separated into four columns which consist of a number, lists of compound words found in the novel, the process of compound words, and kinds of the compound words to which the compound words belong to.

Data 1. Compound Words Found in Prologue

No Compound Word The Process Kinds of Compound Word 1. Hellbent Hell + bent Adj. N Adj 2. Grey-eyed Grey + eyed Adj. Adj Adj. (Past Part.) 3. Half-bored Half + bored Adj. Adj. Adj (Past Part.) 4. Half-distracted Half + distracted Adj. Adj. Adj. (Past Part.) 5. Freeriders Free + rider + s Adj. Adj. N 6. Red-handed Red + handed Adj. Adj. Adj. (Past Part.) 7. Firepit Fire + pit N N N 8. Heavy-looking Heavy + looking Adj. Adj Adj. (Pres. Part) 9. Double-bladed Double + Bladed Adj. Adj Adj. (Past Part.) 10. Ironwood Iron + wood Adj. N N 11. Half-hid Half + hid Adj. Adj. Adj. (Past Part.) 12. Frostfallen Frost + fallen Adj. N Adj. (Past Part.)

28 UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA 13. Warhorse War + horse N N N 14. Half-moon Half + moon N Adj. N 15. Half-alive Half +alive Adj. Adj. Adj. 16. Low-hanging Low + hanging Adj. Adj. Adj. (Pres. Part.) 17. Longsword Long + sword N Adj. N 18. Moonlight Moon + light N N N 19. Castle-forged Castle + forged Adj. N Adj. (Past Part.) 20. New-made New + made Adj. Adj. Adj. (Past Part.) 21. Ringmail Ring + mail N N N 22. Snow-covered Snow + covered Adj. N Adj. (Past Part.) 23. Half-frozen Half + frozen Adj. Adj. Adj. (Past Part.) 24. Battle-axe Battle + axe N N N 25. Grey-green Grey + green Adj. Adj. Adj. 26. New-fallen New + fallen Adj. Adj. Adj. (Past Part.) 27. Ghost-like Ghost + like Adj. N Adj. (Past Part.) 28. Heartbeat Heart + beat N N N There are 28 compound words found in data 1. 21 are adjectival compounds and 7 are nominal compounds. The formula of adjectival compounds found in this chapter are „noun + adjective‟, „noun + past participle‟, „adjective + noun‟,

„adjective + past participle‟, „adjective + present participle‟, and „adjective + adjective‟ while nominal compounds are formed of „noun + noun‟.

29 UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA Data 2. Compound Words Found in Chapter 1

No. Compound words The Process Kinds of Compound Word 1. Daybreak Day + break N N N 2. Holdfast Hold + fast N N N 3. Half-human Half + human Adj. Adj. N 4. Frostbite Frost + bite N N N 5. Ice-white Ice + white Adj. N Adj. 6. Thirty-five Thirty + five Adj. Adj. Adj. 7. Guardsmen Guards + man N N N 8. Ironwood Iron + wood N N N 9. Spell-forged Spell + forged Adj. N Adj. (Past Part) 10. Household House + hold N N N 11. Greatsword Great + sword N Adj. N 12. Nineteen Nine + teen Adj. Adj. Adj. 13. Fourteen Four + teen Adj. Adj. Adj. 14. Red-brown Red + brown Adj. Adj. Adj. 15. Warhorse War + horse N N N 16. Oathbreaker Oath + breaker N N N 17. Headsmen Heads + man N N N 18. Bannerman Banner + man N N N 19. Riverbank River + bank N N N 20. Moonturn Moon + turn N N N 21. Knee-deep Knee + deep Adj. N Adj. 22. Waist-high Waist + high Adj.

30 UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA N Adj. 23. Half-buried Half + buried Adj. Adj. Adj. (past part.) 24. Bloodstained Blood + stained Adj. Adj. Adj. (past part.) 25. Grey-black Grey + black Adj. Adj. Adj. 26. Sturbbornly Sturb + bornly Adj. Adj. Adj. 27. Trueborn True + born Adj. Adj. Adj. (past part.) 28. Kennelmaster Kennel + master N N N 29. Halfway Half + way Adj. Adj. N There are 29 compound words found in data 2. 15 are adjectival compounds and 14 are nominal compounds. The Adjectival compounds are formed of

„adjective + noun‟, „noun + adjective‟, „noun + past participle‟, „adjective + past participle‟, and „adjective + adjective‟ while nominal compounds are formed of

„noun + noun‟ and „adjective + noun‟ formula. It is found that „adjective + noun‟ formula may create both adjectival and nominal compound. It can be seen in data

2 number 5 and 11. The compound words „half-human‟ and „greatsword‟ are both formed of „adjective + noun‟ but have different class of compound words.

Data 3. Compound Words Found in chapter 2

No Compound Word The Process Kinds of Compound Word 1. Godswood God+s + wood N N N 2. Redwoods Red + wood +s N Adj. N pl 3. Stubborn Stub + born Adj. Adj. Adj. (past part) 4. Ironwoods Iron + wood + s N Adj. N pl 5. Rainbow Rain + bow N N N

31 UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA 6. Grandfather Grand + father N Adj. N 7. Seven-sided Seven + sided Adj. Adj. Adj. (past part) 8. Greenwood Green + wood N Adj. N 9. Weirwood Weir + wood N N N 10. bloodstained Blood + stained Adj. N Adj. (past part) 11. Deep-cut Deep + Cut N Adj. N 12. Most-covered Most + covered Adj. Adj. Adj. (past part) 13. Greatsword Great + sword N Adj. N 14. Touchstones Touch + stone + s N N N pl 15. Ironsmiths Iron + smith + s N N N pl 16. Half-mad Half + mad Adj. Adj. Adj. 17. Freeriders Free + rider + s N Adj. N pl 18. Kingsroad King + s + road N N pl N There are 18 compound words found in data 3. 5 are adjectival compound and

13 are nominal compounds. Adjectival compounds are formed of „adjective + noun‟, „adjective + past perfect‟, „and noun + past participle‟ while nominal compounds are formed of „noun + noun‟ and „adjective + noun‟ formula. 7 of 8 of

„adjective + noun‟ formula in this chapter belong to nominal compounds and 1 belongs to adjectival compounds.

Data 4. Compound Words Found in Chapter 11

No Compound Word The Process Kinds of Compound Word 1. Sellsswords Sell + sword N N N 2. Horselords Horse + lord + s N

32 UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA N N pl 3. Horsehair Horse + hair N N N 4. Horseflesh Horse + flesh N N N 5. Bloodriders Blood + rider + s N N N pl 6. Sweetgrass Sweet + grass N N N 7. Razor-sharp Razor + sharp Adj N Adj 8. Backbone Back + bone N Adj. N 9. Handmaids Hand + maid + s N N N pl 10. Copper-skinned Copper + skinned Adj. N Adj. (past part.) 11. Almond-shaped Almond + shaped Adj. N Adj. (past part.) 12. Fair-haired Fair + haired Adj Adj. Adj. (past part.) 13. Blue-eyed Blue + eyed N Adj. Adj. (past part.) 14. Midnight Mid + night Adj. Adj. Adj. 15. Double-curved Double + curved Adj. Adj. Adj. (past part.) 16. Dragonbone Dragon + bone N N N 17. Sandsilk Sand + silk N N N 18. Gift-givers Gift + giver + s Adj. N N pl 19. Horseback Horse + back N N N 20. Silver-grey Silver + grey Adj. Adj. Adj. 21. Firepit Fire +fit N N N 22. Thirteen Three + teen Adj. Adj. Adj 23. Silver-blond Silver + blond Adj. Adj. Adj 24. Gooshflesh Goosh + flesh N N N 25. Forefinger Fore + finger N Adj. N

33 UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA There are 25 compound words found in data 4. 10 are adjectival compounds while 15 are nominal compounds. Adjectival compounds are formed of „noun + adjectives‟, noun + past participle‟, adjective + past paticiple‟, and „adjective + adjective‟ while nominal compounds are formed of „noun + noun‟ and „adjective

+ noun‟ formula. In this chapter there is not found adjectival compound formed of

„ adjective + noun‟.

Data 5. Compounds Words Found in chapter 30

No Compound Word The Process Kinds of Compound Word 1. Rough-hewn Rough + hewn Adj. Adj. Adj. (Past part.) 2. Bannerman Banner + man N N N 3. Bloodstained Blood + stained Adj. N Adj. (Past part.) 4. Blackadder Black + adder N Adj. N 5. Warhammer War + hammer N N N 6. Wine-soaked Wine + soaker N N N 7. Breastplate Breast + plate N N N 8. Sandy-haired Sandy + haired Adj. N Adj. (Past part.) 9. Emerald-green Emerald + green Adj. Adj. Adj 10. Sellsword Sell + sword N N N 11. Pock-faced Pock + faced Adj. N Adj. (Past part.) 12. Olive-green Olive + green Adj. N Adj. 13. Hound‟s-head Hound + „s +head N N App. N 14. Littlefinger Little + finger N Adj. N 15. Ringmail Ring + mail N

34 UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA N N 16. Moist-eyed Moist + eyed Adj. Adj. Adj. (Past part.) 17. Blacksmith Black + smith N Adj. N 18. Simpleminded Simple + minded Adj. Adj. Adj. (Past part.) 19. Stableboy Stable + boy N N N 20. New-made New + made Adj. Adj. Adj. (Past part.) 21. Heartbeat Heart + beat N N N 22. Highgarden High + garden N Adj. N 23. Two-handed Two + handed Adj. Adj. Adj. (Past part.) 24. Steel-clad Steel + clad Adj. N Adj 25. Battlefield Battle + field N N N 26. Guardsmen Guard + man N N N 27. Ill-tempered Ill + tempered Adj. Adj. Adj. (Past part.) 28. Bowmen Bow + man N N N 29. Freeriders Free + rider + s N Adj. N pl 30. New-made New + made Adj. Adj Adj. (Past part.) 31. Madman Mad + man N Adj. N 32. Collarbone Collar + bone N N N 33. Interwoven Inter + woven V Adj. V 34. Blindfolds Blind + fold + s N Adj. N pl 35. charwheels Char + wheel + s N N N pl 36. Stubborn Stub + born Adj. Adj Adj. (Past part.) 37. Candlelight Candle + light N N N 38. Whorehouses Whore + house + s N N N pl

35 UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA 39. Baseborn Base + born Adj. Adj. Adj. (Past part.) 40. Highborn High + born Adj. Adj. Adj. (Past part.) 41. By-blows By + blow + s Adj. Prep. N pl 42. Trueborn True + born Adj. Adj. Adj. (Past part.) 43. Mud-caked Mud + caked Adj. N Adj. (Past part.) 44. Summerwine Summer + wine N N N 45. Firesword Fire + sword N N N 46. Dragonknight Dragon + knight N N N 47. Household House + hold N N N 48. Half-poisoned Half + poisoned Adj. Adj. Adj. (Past part.) There are 48 compound words found in data 5. 20 are adjectival compounds, 27 are nominal compounds, and 1 is verbal compound. Adjectival compounds are formed of „adjective + past participle‟ and „noun + past participle‟ formula while nominal compounds are formed of „noun + noun‟ and „ adjective + noun‟. Verbal compound „interwoven‟ is formed of „adjective + past participle‟ formula.

Data 6. Compound Words Found in chapter 37

No Compound Word The Process Kinds of Compound Word 1. Deadwood Dead+ wood N Adj. N 2. Clansmen Clan + s + man N N pl N 3. Daybreak Day + break N N N 4. Stone-faced Stone + faced Adj. N Adj. (Past Part.) 5. Riverlands River + land + s N

36 UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA N N pl 6. Sellsword Sell + sword N N N 7. Wind-carved Wind + carved Adj. N Adj. (Past Part.) 8. Lowborn Low + born Adj. Adj. Adj. (Past Part.) 9. Cross-legged Cross + legged Adj. N Adj. (Past Part.) 10. Longsword Long + sword N Adj. N 11. Oilstone Oil + stone N N N 12. Drawstring Draw + string N N N 13. Lifetime Life + time N N N 14. Halfmoon Half + moon N Adj. N 15. Shadowskin Shadow + skin N N N 16. Woodharp Wood + harp N N N 17. Whorehouses Whore + house + s N N N pl 18. Dark-haired Dark + haired Adj. Adj. Adj. (Past Part.) 19. Half-starved Half + starved Adj. Adj. Adj. (Past Part.) 20. Maidenhead Maiden + head N N N 21. Moonlight Moon + light N N N 22. Pitchforks Pitch + fork + s N N N pl 23. Battle-axe Battle + axe Adj. N N 24. Wood-axe Wood + axe N N N 25. Halfmen Half + man N Adj. N 26. Lowland Low + land N Adj. N 27. Fire-hardened Fire + hardened Adj. N Adj. (Past Part.)

37 UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA There are 27 compound words found in data 6. 8 are adjectival compounds and 19 are nominal compounds. Adjectival compounds are formed of „noun + past participle‟ and „adjective + past participle‟ while nominal compounds are formed of „ noun + noun‟ and „adjective + noun‟ formula. There is not any verbal compound found in this chapter.

Data 7. Compound Words Found in chapter 46

No Compound Word The Process Kinds of Compound Word 1. Bloodriders Blood + rider + s N N N pl 2. Stillborn Still + born Adj. Adj. Adj. (Past Part.) 3. Handmaids Hand + maid + s N N N pl 4. Half-clotted Half + clotted Adj. Adj. Adj. (Past Part.) 5. Horseflesh Horse + flesh N N N 6. Heartsblood Heart + s + Blood N N pl N 7. Almond-shaped Almond + shaped Adj. N Adj. (Past Part.) 8. Deep-throated Deep + throated Adj. Adj. Adj. (Past Part.) 9. One-eyed One + eyed Adj. Adj. Adj. (Past Part.) 10. Godsway God + s + way N N pl N 11. Horselords Horse + lord + s N N N pl 12. Sandsilk Sand + silk N N N 13. Horsehide Horse + hide N N N 14. Lakeshore Lake + shore N N N 15. Stone-lined Stone + lined Adj. N Adj. (Past Part.)

38 UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA 16. Firepits Fire + pit + s N N N pl 17. Half-clothed Half + clothed Adj. Adj. Adj. (Past Part.) 18. Cross-legged Cross + legged Adj. N Adj. (Past Part.) 19. Sellswords Sell + sword N N N 20. Blood pie Blood + pie N N N 21. Sour-smelling Sour + smelling Adj. Adj. Adj. (Pres. Part.) 22. Travel-stained Travel + stained Adj. N Adj. (Past Part.) 23. Silver-blond Silver + blond Adj. Adj. Adj. 24. Longsword Long + sword N Adj. N 25. Dim-witted Dim + witted Adj. Adj. Adj. (Past Part.) 26. Horsehair Horse + hair N N N 27. Half-melted Half + melted Adj. Adj. Adj. (Past Part.) There are 27 compound words found in data 7. 13 are adjectival compounds and 14 are nomonal compounds. The adjectival compounds are formed of

„adjective + past participle‟, „noun + past participle‟, and „adjective + adjeective‟ while nominal compounds are formed of „ noun + noun‟ and „ adjective + noun‟ formula. In this chapter, the writer does not find any verbal compound.

Data 8. Compound Words Found in Chapter 52

No Compound Word The Process Kinds of Compound Word 1. Horsemen Horse + men N N N 2. Sunlight Sun + light N N N 3. Deep-throated Deep + throated N Adj. Adj. (Past Part.)

39 UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA 4. Far-eye Far + eye Adj. Adj. N 5. Night-black Night + black Adj. N Adj. 6. Sunburst Sun + burst N N N 7. Wolfswood Wolf + s + wood N N pl N 8. Countryside Country + side N N N 9. Kingsroad King + s + Road N N pl N 10. Crannogman Crannog + man N N N 11. Riverlands River + land + s N N N pl 12. Godswood God+ s + wood N N pl N 13. Chisel-cut Chisel + cut Adj. N Adj. 14. Handholds Hand + hold + s N N N pl 15. Firewood Fire + wood N N N 16. Legholes Leg + hole + s N N N pl 17. Drawbridge Draw + bridge N N N 18. Halfhelms Half + helm + s N Adj. N pl 19. Bedchamber Bed + chamber N N N 20. Gatehouse Gate + house N N N 21. Direwolves Dire + wolf + s N N N pl 22. Hallway Hall + way N N N 23. Ironwood Iron + wood N N N 24. Weirwood Weird + wood N N N 25. Wildcat Wild + cat N N N

40 UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA 26. Hornwoods Horn + wood + s N N N pl 27. Guardsmen Guard + men N N N 28. Wine-sodden Wine + sodden Adj. N Adj. (Past Part.) 29. Dragonstone Dragon + stone N N N 30. Headstone Head + stone N N N 31. Wolfswood Wolf + s + wood N N pl N 32. Roughspun Rough + spun N Adj. N 33. Footfalls Foot + fall + s N N N pl 34. Half bloods Half + blood + s N Adj. N pl 35. Low-hanging Low + hanging Adj. Adj. Adj. (Past Part.) 36. White walkers White + walker N Adj. N 37. Namesake + sake N N N 38. Windswept Wind + swept N N Adj. (Past Part.) 39. Chainmail Chain + mail N N N 40. Steel-tipped Steel + tipped Adj. N Adj. (Past Part.) 41. Townsfolk Town + s + folk N N pl N 42. Stableboy Stable + boy N N N There are 42 compound words found in data 8. 6 are adjectival compounds and 36 are nominal compounds. The adjectival compounds are formed of „noun + adjective‟, „adjective + noun‟, „adjective + past participle‟, and „noun + past participle formula while nominal compounds are formed of „noun + noun‟, „noun

+ adjective‟, and „adjective + noun‟. In this chapter, it is found that both „noun + adjective‟ and „adjective + noun‟ may create both nominal and adjectival compound. Example of „noun + adjective‟ formula as adjectival compound is

41 UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA „night-black‟ and as nominal compound is „windswept‟. Example of „ adjective + noun‟ formula as adjectival compound is „far-eye‟ and as nominal compound is

„whitewalker‟.

Data 9. Compound Words Found in Chapter 61

No Compound Word The Process Kinds of Compound Word 1. Cottonwoods Cotton + woods + s N N N pl 2. Bloodmagic Blood + magic N N Adj. 3. Platform Plat + form N N N 4. Dragonbone Dragon + Bone N N N 5. Bloodriders Blood + rider + s N N N pl 6. Silver-handled Silver + handled Adj. N Adj. (Past part.) 7. Double-curved Double + curved Adj. Adj. Adj. (Past part.) 8. Dragon-forged Dragon + forged Adj. N Adj. (Past part.) 9. Queensguard Queen + s + guard N N pl N 10. Handmaids Hand + maid + s N N N pl 11. Spiceflower Spice + flower N N N 12. Milk-heavy Milk + heavy Adj. N Adj. 13. Horsehair Horse + hair N N N 14. Godswife God + s + wife N N pl N 15. Horselord Horse + lord N N N 16. Bloodred Blood + red N N Adj. 17. Heartbeat Heart + beat N N N 18. Horseflesh Horse + flesh N N N

42 UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA 19. Firepit Fire + pit N N N 20. Newborn New + born Adj. Adj. Adj. (Past part.) 21. Fireflies Fire + fly + s N N N pl 22. Firelions Fire + lion + s N N N pl 23. Stormborn Storm + born Adj. N Adj. (Past part.) 24. Firestorm Fire + storm N N N There are 24 compound words found in data 9. 6 are adjectival compound and

18 are nominal compound. The adjectival compounds are formed of „noun + adjective‟, „noun + present participle‟, and „adjective + past participle‟ formula while nominal compounds are formed of „noun + noun‟ and „noun + adjective‟ formula. In this chapter, it is also found that the „noun + adjective‟ formula creates both adjectival and nominal compound. The examples are „bloodmagic‟ and „milk-heavy‟.

Data 10. Compound Words Found in chapter 64

No Compound Word The Process Kinds of Compound Word 1. Bloodflies Blood + fly + s N N N pl 2. Herbwomen Herb + women N N N pl. 3. Bloodriders Blood + rider + s N N N pl 4. Godswife God + s + wife N N pl N 5. Sandsilk Sand + silk N N N 6. Handmaids Hand + maid + s N N N pl 7. Stubbornly Stub + born + ly Adj. Adj. Adj. (Past part.) 8. Open-toed Open + toed Adj.

43 UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA Adj. Adj. (Past part.) 9. Horsehair Horse + hair N N N 10. Bare-chested Bare + chested Adj. Adj. Adj. (Past part.) 11. Godswife‟s God + s + wife + „s N N pl N App 12. Iron-hard Iron + hard Adj. N Adj. 13. Longsword Long + sword N Adj. N 14. Lambskin Lamb + skin N N N 15. Bloodmage Blood + mage N N N 16. Bloodmagic Blood + magic N N Adj. 17. Sixteen Six + teen Adj. Adj. Adj. 18. Whip-thin Whip + thin Adj. N Adj. 19. Bathwaters Bath + water + s N N N pl 20. Leaf-shaped Leaf + shaped Adj. N Adj. (Past part.) 21. Footprints Foot + print + s N N N pl 22. Blood-spattered Blood + spattered Adj. N Adj. (Past part.) 23. Horselord Horse + lord N N N 24. Heartbeat Heart + beat N N N There are 24 compound words in data 10. 10 are adjectival compounds and

14 are nominal compounds. The adjectival compounds are formed of „noun + adjective‟, „noun + past participle‟, „adjective + past participle‟, and „adjective + adjective‟ formula while nominal compounds are formed of „noun + noun‟ and

„noun + adjective‟. The case in this chapter is the same with data 9. The formula

„noun + adjective‟ creates both adjectival and nominal compound. The examples are „bloodmagic‟ and „whip-thin‟.

44 UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA 4.2 Findings

In this section, the writer shows the findings found in the novel. There are 1 prologue and 72 chapters of 759 pages in the novel. The writer analyses 10 chapters, those are the prologue, the first, the second, the eleventh, the thirtieth, the thirty-seventh, the forty-sixth, the fifty-second, the sixty-first, and the sixty- fourth chapter.

Based on the research, the nominal compound is the most used while the verbal compound is the least used compound in the novel. The tables below show the process, numbers and percentages of each kind of compound.

Table 4.1 The Process of Nominal Compound

No. Process Words Nominal

1. N1oun + noun Battle + field Battlefield

2. Nounn + adjective Blood + red Bloodred

3. AdjectiveA + noun Long + sword Longsword

It is found that there is a 177 nominal compound of 292 compound words used in the 10 selected chapters. There are 7 in the prologue, 14 in the first chapter, 13 in the second chapter, 15 in the eleventh chapter, 27 in the thirtieth chapter, 19 in the thirty-seventh chapter, 14 in the forty-sixth chapter, 36 in the fifty-second chapter, 18 in the sixty-first chapter, and 14 in the sixty-fourth chapter. From all the nominal compounds, there are 3 formula used. They are

„noun + noun‟, „adjective + noun‟, and „noun + adjective‟.

45 UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA Table 4.2 The Process of Adjectival Compound

No. Process Words Adjectival

1. 1Noun + adjective Milk + heavy Milk-heavy

2. nAdjective + noun Far + eye Far-eye

3. AAdjective + adjective Silver + blond Silver-blond

4. Adjective + present participle Sour + smelling Sour-smelling

5. Adjective + past participle Half + clothed Half-clothed

6. Noun + past participle Travel + stained Travel-stained

It is found that there are 114 adjectival compounds of 292 compound words used in the 10 selected chapters. There are 21 in the prologue, 15 in the first chapter, 5 in the second chapter, 10 in the eleventh chapter, 20 in the thirtieth chapter, 8 in the thirty-seventh chapter, 13 in the forty-sixth chapter, 6 in the fifty- second chapter, 6 in the sixty-first chapter, and 10 in the sixty-fourth chapter.

There are 6 formula used in forming adjectival compounds in this 10 selected chapters. Those are „nou + adjective‟, „adjective + noun‟, „adjective + adjective‟,

„adjective + present participle‟, „adjective + past participle‟, and „noun + past participle‟ formula.

Table 4.3 The Process of Verbal Compound

No. Process Words Verbal

1. 1Adjective + verb Inter + woven interwoven

It is found that there is only 1 verbal compound of 292 compound words used in the 10 selected chapters. The verbal compound is rarely used in this novel.

The formula used is „adjective + adjective‟.

46 UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA Table 4.4 Percentage of Compound Word

No. Kinds of Compound Word Total of Compound Percentage Word 1. Nominal Compound 177 60,7%

2. Adjectival Compound 114 39%

3. Verbal Compound 1 0,3%

Total: 292 100%

This table shows the percentage of compound words found in the 10 selected chapters. The calculation shows that nominal compound is the most used compound in the novel which is about 60,7% or 177 of 292 compound words, adjectival compound is the second most used in the novel which is about 39% or

144 of 292 compound words, and verbal compound is the least used compound in the novel which is about 0,3% or 1 0f 292 compound words in the novel.

47 UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA CHAPTER V

CONCLUSION & SUGGESTION

Booij (2005) says that compounding (also called composition) is the most frequently used way of making new lexemes while McCarthy (2002) says that compounding really comes into its own as a word forming process in English. He separates compound words into three, those are: compound verbs, compound adjectives, and compound nouns.

5.1 Conclusions

It can be concluded from the analysis that:

1) The processes of compound words found in Martin‟s novel A Game of

Thrones are;

a) The processes of nominal compounds are formed of 3 formula. Those are

„noun + noun‟, „noun + adjective‟, and „adjective + noun‟ formula.

b) The process of adjectival compounds are formed of „noun + adjective‟,

„adjective + noun‟, „adjective + adjective‟, „adjective + present

participle‟, adjective + past participle, and „noun + past participle‟.

c) There is only one process of verbal compound found in Martin‟s novel A

Game of Thrones. The process is the form of „adjective + adjective‟.

2) The most compound word found in Martin‟s novel A Game of Thrones is the

nominal compound. It is about 60,7% or 177 of 292 compound words in the

novel. Adjectival compound is the second most used in the novel which is

about 39% or 144 of 292 compound words. Verbal compound is the least used

48 UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA compound in the novel which is about 0,3% or 1 0f 292 compound words in

the novel.

5.2 Suggestions

In this research, the writer has some suggestions. Those are as follows;

1) Morphology is one of the most important field of study in Linguistics. It

would be good if the English learners to further learn Morphology especially

the compound words process.

2) Compound word is the most productive type of word formation process in

English. It has some different types and forms in English. It is good for the

next researcher to analyse the compound word clearer in different source of

data.

3) It would be good if the English learner keeps using the compound words in

both speaking and reading.

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