DOCSLIB.ORG

Use of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) to Develop a Waste Management System for Makkah, Saudi Arabia

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Use of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) to Develop a Waste Management System for Makkah, Saudi Arabia Use of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) to Develop a Waste Management System for Makkah, Saudi Arabia Khalid Abdullah Alkhuzai Submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy The University of Leeds School of Civil Engineering March, 2014 - i - Declaration The candidate confirms that the work submitted is his own and that appropriate credit has been given where reference has been made to the work of others. This copy has been supplied on the understanding that it is copyright material and that no quotation from the thesis may be published without proper acknowledgement. © <2014> The University of Leeds <Khalid Abdullah Alkhuzai> - ii - Acknowledgements Firstly, many thanks are due to God for his bounties and blessings. Secondly, my thanks and appreciation extend to Professor Edward Stentiford for his inspiration, guidance, support, encouragement, and constructive criticism throughout this PhD and during the writing of this thesis leading to its successful completion. Thirdly, I wish to express my gratitude to my co-supervisor, Dr John Barton, Dr Louise Fletcher and Dr Costas Velis for their guidance and support. In addition, thanks and appreciations are due to my sponsor (Al-Baha University) for giving me the chance to undertake my postgraduate studies and for their unlimited support and encouragement. I would like to extend my deepest gratitude and dedicate this work to my parents for their love and prayers; to my brothers and my sister for their encouragement; my wife and my children for their efforts in preparing an appropriate study environment for me during my study period here in the United Kingdom. Finally, I would like to thank all of my relatives and friends who supported me in my studies, without whom I could not have reached this point. - iii - Abstract Solid waste management has received increasing attention from researchers and decision makers, who are concerned about establishing sustainable waste management systems. The aim of the research was to improve a waste management system in Makkah, which has experienced significant variations in the amount of waste generated. The research was based on simulations of the consequences of different waste management treatment options and technologies, i.e. incineration, MRF, AD, composting and MBT. The methodology used to analyse and evaluate the data was based on life cycle assessment (LCA) and specialist packages such as the EASEWASTE tool. Makkah was selected as a case study for this research because it is the holiest city in the Islamic world. In 2012, for example, more than 13 million pilgrims travelled to Makkah during religious periods to perform Hajj or Umrah. Therefore, substantial changes in the population of Makkah throughout the year lead to a highly unstable rate of waste generation and characterisation. Furthermore, the only disposal method used in Makkah is landfill, without gas collection or leachate treatment systems. To the best of the author’s knowledge, no LCA studies have been conducted on any aspect of waste management in relation to Saudi Arabia, or Makkah in particular. The research has provided an understanding of the existing system of Makkah’s waste management during pilgrimage (Hajj and Umrah) and non-pilgrimage time periods. It has also provided a comprehensive approach to evaluate the current strategy of waste management used in Makkah, as well as the alternatives, by applying LCA methodology during different periods of pilgrimage. - iv - Table of Contents Declaration ........................................................................................................................... i Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................... ii Abstract ............................................................................................................................... iii Table of Contents .............................................................................................................. iv List of Figures ................................................................................................................. viii List of Tables ..................................................................................................................... xii Abbreviations .................................................................................................................. xiv CHAPTER 1 .......................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Background for the Study ................................................................................................. 1 1.2 The Research’s Aim and Objectives .............................................................................. 5 1.3 Scope of this Research ....................................................................................................... 5 1.4 Original Contributions of this Research ...................................................................... 6 1.5 Structure of this Thesis ..................................................................................................... 6 CHAPTER 2 .......................................................................................................................... 9 2.1 Historical Development In Waste Management ...................................................... 9 2.2 Definition Of Waste .......................................................................................................... 10 2.3 Integrated Solid Waste Management (ISWM) ....................................................... 13 2.4 The Waste Management Hierarchy ........................................................................... 17 2.5 Sustainability And Sustainable Development ........................................................ 21 2.6 Methods For Assessment Of Waste Management ................................................ 25 2.7 Overview of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) ............................................................... 29 2.7.1 LCA methodology .................................................................................................... 30 2.7.2 LCA in integrated waste management ............................................................ 33 2.7.3 Pros and Cons of LCA ............................................................................................. 34 2.7.4 Studies in LCA for Waste Management ........................................................... 36 2.7.5 Tools for LCA of Waste Management ............................................................... 39 - v - 2.7.6 EASEWASTE .............................................................................................................. 42 2.8 Summary .............................................................................................................................. 50 CHAPTER 3 ........................................................................................................................ 52 3.1 Research Area Profile– Makkah (Mecca) ................................................................. 53 3.2 Resident Population ........................................................................................................ 54 3.3 Climate .................................................................................................................................. 57 3.4 Religious Periods In Makkah ........................................................................................ 60 3.4.1 The Islamic or Hijri Calendar .............................................................................. 60 3.4.2 Hajj Period .................................................................................................................. 62 3.4.3 Umrah Period ............................................................................................................ 65 3.5 Environmental Management In Saudi Arabia........................................................ 67 3.6 The Environmental Situation In Makkah ................................................................ 68 3.6.1 Air Quality .................................................................................................................. 68 3.6.2 Water Resources ...................................................................................................... 69 3.6.3 Zamzam Water ......................................................................................................... 70 3.7 Solid Waste Management .............................................................................................. 73 3.7.1 Current Situation of SWM in Makkah .............................................................. 74 3.7.2 Waste Quantities and Characterisation .......................................................... 74 3.7.3 Waste Collection and Transfer ........................................................................... 78 3.7.4 Materials Recovery and Recycling .................................................................... 82 3.7.5 Waste Disposal ......................................................................................................... 83 3.8 Slaughterhouse Waste .................................................................................................... 86 3.9 Hazardous Waste .............................................................................................................. 87 3.10 Trends
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Pre-Islamic Arabia
    Pre-Islamic Arabia The Nomadic Tribes of Arabia The nomadic pastoralist Bedouin tribes inhabited the Arabian Peninsula before the rise of Islam around 700 CE. LEARNING OBJECTIVES Describe the societal structure of tribes in Arabia KEY TAKEAWAYS Key Points Nomadic Bedouin tribes dominated the Arabian Peninsula before the rise of Islam. Family groups called clans formed larger tribal units, which reinforced family cooperation in the difficult living conditions on the Arabian peninsula and protected its members against other tribes. The Bedouin tribes were nomadic pastoralists who relied on their herds of goats, sheep, and camels for meat, milk, cheese, blood, fur/wool, and other sustenance. The pre-Islamic Bedouins also hunted, served as bodyguards, escorted caravans, worked as mercenaries, and traded or raided to gain animals, women, gold, fabric, and other luxury items. Arab tribes begin to appear in the south Syrian deserts and southern Jordan around 200 CE, but spread from the central Arabian Peninsula after the rise of Islam in the 630s CE. Key Terms Nabatean: an ancient Semitic people who inhabited northern Arabia and Southern Levant, ca. 37–100 CE. Bedouin: a predominantly desert-dwelling Arabian ethnic group traditionally divided into tribes or clans. Pre-Islamic Arabia Pre-Islamic Arabia refers to the Arabian Peninsula prior to the rise of Islam in the 630s. Some of the settled communities in the Arabian Peninsula developed into distinctive civilizations. Sources for these civilizations are not extensive, and are limited to archaeological evidence, accounts written outside of Arabia, and Arab oral traditions later recorded by Islamic scholars. Among the most prominent civilizations were Thamud, which arose around 3000 BCE and lasted to about 300 CE, and Dilmun, which arose around the end of the fourth millennium and lasted to about 600 CE.
    [Show full text]
  • Zamzam Waters Virtues
    Zamzam Water’s Virtues | 0 ﺷﺒﻜﺔ www.alu kah.n e t Zamzam Water’s Virtues | 1 ZAMZAM WATER’S VIRTUES Maḥmūd Ibn Aḥmad al Dosary (PhD). ﺷﺒﻜﺔ www.alu kah.n e t Zamzam Water’s Virtues | 2 INDEX Introduction Part I: Description of Zamzam water. Part II: The best water on the face of the Earth. Part III: Zamzam water is complete nourishment. Part IV: Zamzam water is healing from sickness. Part V: Zamzam water is for whatever it is drunk for. ﺷﺒﻜﺔ www.alu kah.n e t Zamzam Water’s Virtues | 3 INTRODUCTION Verily all praise is for Allah, we praise Him, seek His help and forgiveness, and we seek refuge in Allah from the evil of ourselves and from the sinfulness of our actions. Whosoever Allah guides, then none can misguide him, and whosoever Allah misguides, there can be no guide for him. I testify that there is no deity except Allah alone and I testify that Muḥammad is His servant and messenger. “O you who have believed, fear Allah as He should be feared and do not die except as Muslims (in submission to Him)” Surat „Āli ʿImrān (Family of ʿImrān), verse 102. ۚ ۦ ۚ “O mankind, fear your Lord, who created you from one soul and created from it its mate and dispersed from both of them many men and women. And fear Allah, through whom you ask one another, and the wombs. Indeed Allah is ever, over you, an Observer.” Surat An-Nisā' (The Women), verse 1. ۚ ﺷﺒﻜﺔ www.alu kah.n e t Zamzam Water’s Virtues | 4 “O you who have believed, fear Allah and speak words of appropriate justice.
    [Show full text]
  • Exhibition of Two Holy Mosques Architecture
    Exhibition of Two Holy Mosques Architecture النسخة اإلنجليزية Special IssueMakky In the Name of Allah, the Most Gracious, the Most Merciful This issue has been released in cooperation with the General Presidency for the Affairs of the Praise be to Allah, the Lord of all Grand Mosque and the Prophet's Mosque creation, and peace and blessings on the Messenger of Allah -Prophet Mohammad- and on his companions and followers. Dear sons and daughters, With the advent of Islam and for more than 14 centuries, the Two Holy Mosques occupy a special place in the hearts of all Muslims. Serving and caring for these two sacred shrines has always been regarded as a great honor and a sincere act of devotion. History bears witness to the massive architectural achievements and the extended efforts of Muslim rulers since the early Islamic period to restore and renovate these two holy sites. Today, the steps and initiatives taken by our blessed government to maintain and enhance the standards of the facilities and services of the Two Head of the General Presidency for the Holy Mosques are gaining momentum. These endeavors are Affairs of the Grand Mosque and the embraced and fostered by the Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques, His Majesty King Salman ibn Abdulaziz, and His Royal Highness Prophet's Mosque Crown Prince, Mohammad ibn Salman. Their continuous support to Dr. Abdur-Rahman Abdulaziz As-Sudais implement major expansion and development works that combine majestic architecture with modern technology has induced a Deputy Head of Media major shift in the services provided for the visitors of the Two Holy Relations & Affairs Mosques.
    [Show full text]
  • The Symbol Cf the Centre and Its Religious Function in Islam
    The Symbol cf the Centre and its religious function in Islam By JAN HJARPE A modern catechism for English-speaking Muslim children contains a map showing Mecca as the Centre of the inhabited world1 justas the old Arab geographers, e.g. Ibn Hawkal, begin their descriptions of cities and countries with "the mother of cities" (cf. Sura 42: 7/5), Mecca'. Eliade cites the feeling of a-homogeneity in space as a basic religious experience'. Separate parts of a room, different places, regions and directions have different emotional values in the eyes of the individual. There is a ritual orientation in the world. In this context we may speak of a Centre, the Origo in the religious orientation in the world. This concept is an essential feature of Islam. To be valid the prayers must be performed facing the kibla, which is the Ka`ba in Mecca4. The animal to be slaughtered stands with its head towards the kibla5, the dead is buried with his face towards Mecca. The kibla determines the orientation of the mosques, and thus indirectly, town plans throught the Muslim world. Mecca is also the goal of the Pilgrim- age. In bygone days the Muslim traveller carried an astrolabe to find the kibla with the help of the stars6; today a special compass is used. The kibla, the direction for ritual acts, is towards the Centre of the world, the Ka`ba in Mecca, or, to be exact, towards the north-western wall of the Ka`ba building between the western corner and the gilded spout for the rainwater from the roof7.
    [Show full text]
  • Comparative Microbiological Study on Zamzam Water, Zamzam With
    African Journal of Food Science and Technology (ISSN: 2141-5455) Vol. 11(3) pp. 08-12, Sep, 2020 DOI: http:/dx.doi.org/10.14303//ajfst.2020.012 Available online @https://www.interesjournals.org/food-science-technology.html Copyright ©2020 International Research Journals Full Length Research Paper Comparative Microbiological Study on Zamzam Water, Zamzam with Ruqyah and Mineral Water Rehab Mohamed Atta El-Desoukey1* Dalal A E Elhwimal2, Khlood S M Elqahtani2, Abeer K A Elsahli2, Reem H F Elotaibi2 1Microbiology and Immunology Department, National Research Centre, Giza, Egypt 2Biology Department, Faculty of Science and humanities in Al Quwai’iyah, Shaqraa University, Saudi Arabia *Corresponding author’s Email: E-mail: [email protected] Abstract Water from heavenly Zam Zam is devoured by numerous Muslims on the planet because of its useful job for the wellbeing of people .The Prophet peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) said: “The best water on the face of the earth is the water of Zam Zam; it is a kind of food and a healing from sickness.”. The current investigation was completed to assess the near antimicrobial adequacy of Zam Zam water, Zam Zam connected with Quran (Ruqyah) and three standard mineral water against some pathogenic microorganisms notwithstanding investigation of its microbial substance. The antimicrobial action Zam Zam water, Zam Zam appended with Quran (Ruqyah) and three conventional mineral water inspected against five pathogenic microorganisms (Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas eurogenes,
    [Show full text]
  • Makkah Mukarramah Introduction
    Facts and information on places of historical importance in Makkah Mukarramah Introduction In the name of Allah, the most Compassionate, the most Merciful This ziyarah guide has been produced to provide facts and details on major landmarks in the city of Makkah and the surrounding area. It is intended to help Muslims gain more awareness on the history and significance behind these places, particularly for those embarking for Hajj or Umrah. The content has been sourced from www.islamiclandmarks.com; a website that brings together information on places of historical Islamic importance from around the world. The aims of the site are to revive interest in the Ummah about our history and the relevance of past personalities and places. Although many places have been shown in this guide, it is by no means a complete list of important landmarks in Makkah. Insha’Allah, we hope to update the guide in the future with additional content and resources. All the information in this guide has been checked and verified by several scholars in the UK, including graduates from Darul Uloom Bury. References have been provided towards the end of this guide. IslamicLandmarks.com is a non-profit making organisation and is not affiliated with any sponsorship or commercial interests. We thank Allah ( ) for giving us this opportunity to serve His deen. May He bless and abundantly reward all the people involved in putting together this guide and pardon any errors (Ameen). Readers are kindly requested to remember us and our families in your duas when visiting the holy city of Makkah.
    [Show full text]
  • Visiting Places in Madinah
    Historical Places in Madinah Name Location Image 1. Important places in Masjid a. Isthuvana Hannana [pillar cried when prophet Nabawi changed mimbar; near white marble pillar], a. 6 pillars in Ravlathul Isthuvana Aysha [or Ustuwanat al-Kurah or the Jannah Column of Lots], Isthuvana Abu lubaba [Sahabi tied b. Ustuwanat Ali here until forgiven], Isthuvana Sareer [Prophet took c. Ustuwanat Al-Tahajjud rest during I’tiqaf], Isthuvana Haras [Sahaba provide d. Makam Jibrail protection for the prophet’s house], Isthuvana e. Library Ubooth [Meeting of prophet with delegations and f. Well inside Masjid giving lectures] Nabawi b. Ustuwanat Ali notes the spot where the fourth Caliph g. Fathima Nayagi Gate used to pray and watch near h. Aysha Nayagi Gate his father-in-law at night. i. Bab-e-Jibril c. Ustuwanat al-Tahajjud now stands where j. Place where people who Mohammed, sitting upon his mat, passed the night in tried to take the prophet’s prayer body where swallowed by d. Makam Jibrail (Gabriel's place), for whose other land name, Mirbaat al-Bair. e. Adjacent to old Baab Uthman. 2. Fathima Nayagi Gate This gate is hidden with mushab racks. This is on the 3. Aysha Nayagi Gate adhaan place in Masjid Nabawi. 4. Boundary of Masjid Nabawi in This is the actual boundary of Masjid Nabawi in 17 17 A.H. A.H. 1 Approximately 10,000 sahabah are buried here, including the wives of our Prophet (Peace be upon him) and his daughters. A number of tabaeen and pious people are also buried here. 5.
    [Show full text]
  • Islam a Companion Book Compiled by Khaled Fahmy
    ISLAM A Companion Book Compiled by Khaled Fahmy Revised and edited Caren Knight (Kareema) In the Name of God The Most Gracious, the Most Merciful And We have sent you [O’ Muhammada ] Not but as a mercy for the ‘Alamin [Mankind, jinn and all that exists]. [Surat Al ‘Anbya’ 21: 107] The customary and most respectful salutation on the Prophet, “Peace and blessings of God be upon him” which is made after each mention of hiss name within this work has been omitted for ease of reading; however the reader is kindly requestted to observe this Muslim tradition. 2 Table of Contents 3 Table of Contents 8 Acknowledgement 9 A Foreword 12 Introduction 25 The History of The Arabs. 25 A Summary 29 Their Religion 35 The Arabs Character and Manners 39 The City of Makkah 42 The Life of Prophet Muhammad 42 Birth and Early Days 48 The Beginning of Revelation upon Muhammad 51 Muhammad’s Mission 61 The Pagan Arabs Sacred Idols 68 The Prophet at Al-Madienah 78 The Reconciliation of Hudeibiya 82 The Conquest of Makkah 96 The Person and Character of the Prophet Muhammad 96 Personal Appearance and Gait [of the Prophet]: 96 His Habits 97 Simplicity of his life 97 Courtesy and Kindness of Disposition 98 Friendship 99 Moderation and Magnanimity 100 Domestic Life 103 Conviction of Special Providence 103 Unwavering Steadfastness at Makkah 105 Earnestness and Honesty of Muhammad at Makkah 106 His disposition 106 Humility 106 Attitude at Prayers 107 The Social Changes Brought about by the prophet 109 The Political Organization Shaped by the Advent of Islam 110 The Political System of Islam 112 The Social Organisation of Islam 115 The Status of Women in Islam 120 1.
    [Show full text]
  • GCE Religious Studies
    GCE CCEA GCE AS Exemplifying Examination Performance Religious Studies AS 6: An Introduction to Islam This is an exemplification of candidates’ performance in GCE AS examinations (Summer 2017) to support the teaching and learning of the Religious Studies specification. Permission to reproduce all copyright material has been applied for. In some cases, efforts to contact copyright holders may have been unsuccessful and CCEA will be happy to rectify any omissions of acknowledgement in future if notified. EXEMPLIFYING EXAMINATION PERFORMANCE GCE Religious Studies Introduction These materials illustrate aspects of performance from the 2017 summer AS examination series of CCEA’s revised GCE Specification in 2016. Students’ grade A responses are reproduced verbatim and are accompanied by commentaries written by senior examiners. The commentaries draw attention to the strengths of the students’ responses and indicate, where appropriate, deficiencies and how improvements could be made. It is intended that the materials should provide a benchmark of candidate performance and help teachers and students to raise standards. For further details of our support package, please visit our website at www.ccea.org.uk Best wishes Education Manager, Religious Studies Email: [email protected] Telephone: 028 9026 1200 ext. 2105 GCE: AS Religious Studies SRE61: An Introduction to Islam Grade: A Exemplar 1 CCEA EXEMPLIFYING EXAMINATION PERFORMANCE Section A Answer one question from Section A Q1a “For the Muslim, Hajj signifies both an outward and an inner spiritual pilgrimage.” With reference to this quotation, explain the rituals of Hajj and their importance for Muslims. [25] Student’s response It is very easily recognised that Hajj signifies both an outward an an inner spiritual pilgrimage.
    [Show full text]
  • Zamzam Water: Concentration of Trace Elements and Other Characteristics
    See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/51850529 Zamzam water: Concentration of trace elements and other characteristics Article in Chemosphere · December 2011 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2011.10.025 · Source: PubMed CITATIONS READS 35 5,835 1 author: Basem Shomar Qatar Environment and Energy Research Institute 58 PUBLICATIONS 913 CITATIONS SEE PROFILE All content following this page was uploaded by Basem Shomar on 05 July 2019. The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file. Chemosphere 86 (2012) 600–605 Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect Chemosphere journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/chemosphere Zamzam water: Concentration of trace elements and other characteristics ⇑ Basem Shomar Institute of Earth Sciences, University of Heidelberg, Im Neuenheimer Feld 236, D-69120 Heidelberg, Germany article info abstract Article history: Many Muslims drink Zamzam water for use either medicinally or religiously. Millions of pilgrims drink it Received 5 August 2011 and take bottles of it to their home countries. Heated scientific and political debates appeared after BBC Received in revised form 14 October 2011 reported in May 2011 that Zamzam water is poisonous, because of the high levels of arsenic. The World Accepted 14 October 2011 Health Organizations classifies arsenic as a human carcinogen, but some types of arsenic are also used as Available online 3 December 2011 medicines. Adequate scientific studies on the Zamzam water are absent. This paper will provide, for the first time, basic and comprehensive information regarding the geochemical properties of Zamzam water Keywords: for more than 30 indicators and using the state-of-the-art laboratory facilities.
    [Show full text]
  • Zayed Zamzam Water Zakat
    ZAYED Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Zayed became Ruler’s Repre- of life including social services, much attention to the conserva- Nahyan, the founding father of sentative in the Eastern Region health, education, technology tion of natural environment and the UAE, died on the 19th day of Abu Dhabi and transformed and trade. Loved by the people, wildlife. Throughout his life he of Ramadan, 1425 (2004). He is and modernised Al Ain before Sheikh Zayed is fondly referred launched projects on preserving buried in the courtyard of the taking over the rule of Abu Dha- to as “Baba (Father) Zayed”. such species as the Arabian oryx Sheikh Zayed Grand Mosque in bi. Throughout his rule, Sheikh One of his philosophies was that and the Arabian gazelle. Abu Dhabi. Born in 1918, he was Zayed’s vision and philosophy the resources of the country Upon Sheikh Zayed’s passing, his the Ruler of Abu Dhabi from 1966 turned the UAE into one of the should be fully used for the ben- son, Sheikh Khalifa, was elected to 2004 and the first President of most successful nations in the efit of the people, with special to succeed him as President of the the country that became known Middle East and a powerful play- care given to women and their United Arab Emirates. as the United Arab er in regional and international rights. They benefited from Emirates on De- events. Under his leadership, education, employment and cember 2, 1971. the UAE developed suc- equality. Sheikh Zayed In 1946, Sheikh cessfully in all areas also dedicated ZAMZAM WATER ZAKAT The zamzam well is believed by in the barren land where there lost, since Allah, who has com- Zakat, or alms giving, is an act can get confusing.
    [Show full text]
  • Islam Practices
    GCSE Islam – Practices revision notes Key concepts: (A questions – you must have definition & example) Tawhid: ‘Oneness’ in reference to God. The basic Muslim belief in the oneness of God. Prophethood or ‘risalah’: The term used of the messengers of God, beginning with Adam and ending with the Prophet Muhammad. Halal (permitted): Actions or things which are permitted within Islam, such as eating permitted foods. Haram (forbidden): Any actions or things which are forbidden within Islam, such as eating forbidden foods. Jihad: Means ‘to strive’. There are two forms of jihad. The greater jihad is the daily struggle and inner spiritual striving to live as a Muslim. The lesser jihad is a physical struggle or ‘holy war’ in defence of Islam. Mosque or ‘masjid’: A ‘place of prostration’ for Muslims, it is a communal place of worship for a Muslim community. Shari’ah (straight path): A way of life; Muslims believe God has set out a clear path for how Muslims should live. Shari'ah law is the set of moral and religious rules that put the principles set out by the Qur'an and the Hadith into practice. Ummah: Means ‘community’. Refers to the worldwide community of Muslims who share a common religious identity. The Five Pillars For Muslims actions speak louder than words and therefore every action is a form of worship which they call IBADAH. Muslims are clear that worship is a complete way of life which is reflected in the obligation to follow the five pillars of Islam. Shahadah: the declaration of faith is the first pillar of Islam.
    [Show full text]