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Zamzam water: Concentration of trace elements and other characteristics
Article in Chemosphere · December 2011 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2011.10.025 · Source: PubMed
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Zamzam water: Concentration of trace elements and other characteristics ⇑ Basem Shomar
Institute of Earth Sciences, University of Heidelberg, Im Neuenheimer Feld 236, D-69120 Heidelberg, Germany article info abstract
Article history: Many Muslims drink Zamzam water for use either medicinally or religiously. Millions of pilgrims drink it Received 5 August 2011 and take bottles of it to their home countries. Heated scientific and political debates appeared after BBC Received in revised form 14 October 2011 reported in May 2011 that Zamzam water is poisonous, because of the high levels of arsenic. The World Accepted 14 October 2011 Health Organizations classifies arsenic as a human carcinogen, but some types of arsenic are also used as Available online 3 December 2011 medicines. Adequate scientific studies on the Zamzam water are absent. This paper will provide, for the first time, basic and comprehensive information regarding the geochemical properties of Zamzam water Keywords: for more than 30 indicators and using the state-of-the-art laboratory facilities. The data will help us to Zamzam water understand the sources of pollution under discussion, reactions at both local and international levels; Contamination by nitrates and arsenic Alkaline water and will highlight the potential healing capacity of Zamzam water. Thirty Zamzam water samples were Healing collected by three distinct methods; from 10 pilgrims living in different locations in Germany in 2007, 10 samples from shops in Frankfurt and Berlin in 2011, and 10 samples directly from Makkah in 2011. The
samples were analyzed 2 weeks after collection for more than 30 indicators: pH, EC, Eh, Cl, F, Br, NO3,PO4,
SO4, HCO3, Ag, Al, As, Ba, Ca, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, K, Mg, Mn, Na, Ni, Pb, Sr, and Zn beside others. Four major instruments were used; the IC, the ICPOES, the ICPMS and the HGAAS. The quality of the water did not change for 2 years and there was an excellent agreement among the results of the 30 water samples as well as between the results of the 2 years for the same samples analyzed in 2007 and 2008. The water is alkaline (average pH is 8) with an average Li concentration of 15 lgLÀ1. The average concentrations of À1 À1 As and NO3 showed values three times higher than the WHO standards (27 lgL and 150 mg L , respectively). The averages of Ca and K were 95 and 50 mg LÀ1, respectively. Very urgent steps are
required to scientifically screen for the elevated parameters As, NO3, Ca, and K in all Zamzam water sources and locations with full transparency. The resultant information should be made available to the public, and the relationship between pollution and human health should be addressed. The alkalinity of Zamzam water and the presence of trace amounts of As and Li may cause the healing power. However, a scientific strategy should be developed and adopted to enable further research and studies on toxicol- ogy and treatment technologies could be applied if needed. Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction Muslims believe that the well of Zamzam was revealed to Hagar, the mother of Ibrahim-Abraham in English-son Ismail. As Since ancient times, many religions and beliefs have used ‘‘holy she desperately sought water for her infant son, Muslim tradition water’’ for healing and other spiritual practices. The first use of says that Hagar ran seven times back and forth in the scorching holy water for baptism and spiritual cleansing is still common heat between the two hills of Safa and Marwah. God then sent among a variety of religions, from Christianity to Sikhism and the angel Gabriel, who scraped the ground, causing the spring to Hinduism (Altman, 2002; Heinrich, 2009; Clarke, 2010). It is used appear. On finding the spring, Hagar confined the pool of water by the followers of many religions (Shafique, 2007; Foley, 2011). with sand and stones. Other versions of the story say Ismail Many Muslims believe that the water of the Zamzam well is di- scraped the ground with his heel and the Zamzam appeared. The vinely blessed, able to satisfy both hunger and thirst, as well as grandfather of the Islamic Prophet Mohammad, Abdul Muttalib, cure illness. Pilgrims make efforts to drink this water during their is said to have rediscovered the well after it had been neglected pilgrimage and those living nearby might drink the water more and had filled with sand. He became the guardian of the well, regularly (Careem, 2005). charged with maintaining it and serving the Arabs who came to Makkah-Mecca in English-on pilgrimage (Hawting, 1980). Today, the water is available to the public through coolers sta-
⇑ Tel.: +49 6221 546 009; fax: +49 6221 545 228. tioned throughout the Masjid Al Haram in Makkah and the Masjid E-mail address: [email protected] Al Nabawi in Madina. Pilgrims can also fill water canisters from
0045-6535/$ - see front matter Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2011.10.025 B. Shomar / Chemosphere 86 (2012) 600–605 601 special taps to take home for future use and as gifts for relatives and friends. Some pilgrims dip their pilgrimage clothes, ihram, in the water. The ihram are then preserved to serve as burial clothes when the pilgrim dies; thus he or she will go to the grave touched by the Zamzam water. As the Muslim population has grown and air travel has made the Hajj more accessible, there can be up to four million pilgrims visiting Makkah and Madina during the week-long Hajj each year. There is increasing concern that the Zamzam well may not be able to provide enough water to satisfy all demands. The Saudi Geological Survey has set up a Zamzam Studies and Research Cen- tre (ZSRC), which is charged with keeping the Zamzam water both clean and plentiful. There have been some attempts to scientifically validate Muslim beliefs regarding the special nature of Zamzam water. The water is said to contain high levels of some minerals: calcium, magnesium, and fluoride (ZSRC, 2011). Fig. 1. General view of Haram Mosque in the heart of Makkah (REUTERS/ The Saudi government has prohibited the commercial export of Mohammed Salem). Zamzam water. However, there is large commercial demand for the water and it is sold in many countries. There is some evidence dispensing containers were provided for drinking purposes (ZSRC, that most, if not all, of this water is not authentic. The UK environ- 2011). Recently, the Al-Haram Tawaf area has been extended to mental agencies (e.g., Leicester City Council) have tested purported cover the entrance to this area and it is no more accessible to pil- Zamzam water on sale in the UK, and found arsenic levels three grims. Instead, cold Zamzam water fountains and dispensing con- times the permitted level in much of it (LCC, 2005). In addition, ni- tainers are now placed at the periphery of Tawaf area. trate was found at twice the permitted level. The upper 13.5 m of the well is excavated in the sandy alluvium We recognize that the quality of the Zamzam water is a sensi- of the Wadi Ibrahim and the lower 17.0 m in the underlying diorite tive subject for Muslims worldwide, as well as for the Saudi bedrock. Between the alluvium and bedrock lies a 0.5 m thick authorities. We have been assessing the quality of the water since highly permeable weathered rock. Most of the alluvial section of 2007, but have not previously published results due to this sensi- the well is lined with stone masonry except for the uppermost tivity. There has been heated discussion of this topic since May 1 m, which has a reinforced concrete collar. The weathered rock 2011 following a BBC report of their findings. Thus, in the interest section is lined with stone and it is this section that provides the of protecting health if needed, I am publishing our findings to pro- main water entry into the well. vide a scientific basis for a discussion of what actions, if any, might At approximately 13 m below surface, springs contribute to the be considered. well water. A pumping test at 8000 L sÀ1 for more than a 24 h per- The main objectives of this study are: (1) measure concentra- iod showed a drop in water level from 3.23 m below surface to tions of metals, cations and anions, and several other water quality 12.72 m and then to 13.39 m, after which the water level stopped parameters in Zamzam water using state-of-the-art methods and receding. Water level recovered to 3.9 m below surface just 11 min laboratory facilities to ensure accuracy, (2) suggest potential after pumping had stopped. The aquifer feeding the well seems to sources of unusually high levels of substances measured, and (3) recharge from rock fractures in neighboring mountains around suggest future areas of study. Makkah (ZSRC, 2011). Thus, the well taps groundwater primarily from the spring-fed alluvium and to a lesser extent from water per- colating up through the permeable, weathered fresh bedrock. 2. Study area, materials and methods 2.3. Sample collection 2.1. Location of the study area Thirty Zamzam water samples were collected from different Unlike other geologic surveys worldwide, the Saudi Geological places and in different periods. At the end of December 2007, Survey faces a number of unique responsibilities that arise from one sample from each of 10 pilgrims was collected directly after its being the major national earth science body of the Kingdom their return from Makkah. The persons are from different locations (ZSRC, 2011). Foremost of these special responsibilities are the in Germany and they do not know each other. The same samples of obligations it has towards the well-being and prosperity of the 2007 were stored at room temperature and analyzed again after two holiest cities of Islam, Makkah and Madinah. The Zamzam well 1 year (in 2008). The second 10 samples were collected from sev- is located within the precinct of the Holy Mosque in Makkah at eral shops in Frankfurt and Berlin in May 2011. The last 10 samples about 20 m east of the Ka’ba (Fig. 1). were collected in 2011 by known pilgrims directly from taps which were linked to the Zamzam well in Makkah. All samples were col- 2.2. Structure and hydrogeology of the well lected in laboratory certified clean bottles and labeled with the name of the person who collected the sample and the method of The Zamzam well is hand-excavated and is about 30.5 m deep, collection, date and time of sample collection. with an internal diameter ranging from 1.08 to 2.66 m. The well lies within Wadi Ibrahim, which runs through the Holy City of 2.4. Laboratory work and water analysis Makkah. The well is now housed in a basement room, protected by glass panels that formerly allowed a clear view of the well. Elec- Following APHA protocols (APHA, 2005), each sample was di- tric pumps draw water from the well, replacing the ropes and vided into two subsamples: the first (15 mL) was filtered in an buckets of former times. Visitors are not allowed to enter the Zam- acid-washed filter holder and through 0.45 lm pore size mem- zam well room or its surroundings. Outside this room, there had brane filters, the first few milliliters were used for rinsing, and then been a service area, where cold Zamzam water fountains and discarded. The filtrate was then transferred to clean acid-washed 602 B. Shomar / Chemosphere 86 (2012) 600–605 polyethylene tubes and acidified with concentrated nitric acid There was good agreement between the results of the same (Ultrapure, Merck, v/v) to pH < 2 and analyzed by two instruments; samples for 2007 and 2008 (Table 1). A difference maximum factor the Inductively Coupled Plasma-Optical Emission Spectrometer, of ±5% was found for all parameters with exceptions of HCO3,As ICPOES (VISTA-MPX, VARIAN) and an Element 2 ICPMS (Thermo and Ca with a factor of ±10%. Fisher Scientific, Bremen, Germany) equipped with a guard elec- The results of the ICPMS show very low concentrations of sev- trode to eliminate secondary discharge in the plasma and to en- eral parameters (last column of Table 1). These parameters (Be, hance overall sensitivity. To go below the normal detection limit Bi, Te, Tl, U and V) are not environmentally relevant; they are given of the instrument the Ultrasonic Nebulizer unit was connected to as a baseline for any future investigation. the instrument. The total concentration of trace elements (Ag, Al, The Arsenic limit in drinking water advised by European Union As, Ba, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb, Sr, and Zn) was determined and World Health Organization and quoted in drinking water stan- in addition to the major cations (Ca, K, Mg and Na). dards is 10 lgLÀ1. The total As in all samples was determined using the three The detection limit of the ICPOES for Li (25 lgLÀ1) is higher instruments (ICPOES, ICPMS and Hydride Generation Atomic than the WHO standards (10 lgLÀ1) and that was the reason to Absorption Spectroscopy-HGAAS); however for determination of analyze the same samples using the ICPMS where it is limit of As(III) and As(V), the samples were acidified using concentrated detection is very low and could go to less than 0.5 lgLÀ1. HCl to pH <2 and the GAAS was used. Using the ICPMS, Al concentrations in 10 samples were slightly The other part of water sample was filtered through 0.45 lm higher than the WHO standards (200 lgLÀ1), keeping in mind that pore size membrane filters with no additives and the anions ClÀ, the same samples analyzed by the ICPOES showed very low con- À À À À3 À2 À À1 F ,Br,NO3 ,PO4 ,SO4 , and HCO3 were analyzed by Ion centrations and they were below the detection limit of 15 lgL . Chromatography (IC DIONEX DX-120). The total organic carbon A very good agreement was found for the results of total As be- (TOC) was determined using the total organic carbon analyzer- tween ICPMS and HGAAS. Additionally, the results of Ca and Sr
Schimadzu (TOC–VCPH). were also very good between the ICPOES and the ICPMS. However, The major parameters of pH, EC and Eh were determined in the the results of the Al and Fe obtained from the ICPMS were higher laboratories of Heidelberg University directly after arrival. than the results of the ICPOES (Table 1).
2.5. Quality control 4. Discussion Analytical blanks and four samples with known concentrations The pH indicates that the Zamzam water is alkaline. That might of trace metals and anions were prepared and analyzed using the explain the low concentrations of Ag, Al, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, same procedures and reagents. Standard reference materials Pb and Zn in Zamzam water. The low concentrations of Al in the (SRM) from the National Institute of Standards and Technology- alkaline Zamzam water do not agree with the findings of Nguyen USA (NIST: 1643c and 1643d) were used in addition to SRM from et al. (2004) where Al was high in alkaline water. This could be the Spectra Pure-Norway (SPS: SW2 Batch 122 and NUTR Batch due to the high concentrations of humic acids in his samples, while 106) for the determination of trace elements and anions (NIST, Zamzam showed very low concentrations of the total organic car- 2010; SPS, 2010). The results of the analyses were reviewed in bon (TOC). terms of milli-equivalent balance, which compares ionic charges According to the Saudi Geological Survey, granite represents the of major anions and cations (APHA, 2005). Because water is electri- major rock of the aquifer rocks in the study area (ZSRC, 2011). The cally neutral the charges should balance; charge balance errors alkaline nature of the Zamzam water most likely stems from alka- were À6% and À10% (Freeze and Cherry, 1979). line waters being associated with granitic environments (Michard In addition to using four standard reference materials from two and Roekens, 1983; Alaux-Negrel et al., 1993; Buil et al., 2006; different companies, quality control was assured by using multiple Gimeno et al., 2007; Koh et al., 2008). analytical instruments as described above. The alkalinity of the water and the relatively low total dissolved For the ICPMS, the quality control protocol of Krachler et al. solids (TDS) (650 mg LÀ1) might explain the elevated concentra- (2005a,b) was used where riverine water reference material tions of Ca2+,K+, and HCOÀ, as this environment enhances the dis- SLRS-4 from the National Research Council Canada, Ottawa, 3 solution of silicate minerals in surrounding rocks (Koh et al., 2008). Canada was analyzed at regular intervals during sample analysis In a dry climate like Saudi Arabia, evaporation is the major way in to assess the accuracy of the trace element analyses of the investi- which originally low values of element concentrations may rise; gated water samples. Moreover, all bottled waters were diluted this also holds for subterranean waters, because even in a soil, 1 + 4 with 1% HNO3 to reduce the high concentrations of alkaline water may evaporate after it has moved upward by capillary ac- and earth alkaline elements, to avoid clogging of the cones, to tion. This agrees with the elevated Ca (60 mg LÀ1) and K add the internal standard element, i.e. Rh, and to reduce the (50 mg LÀ1) in Zamzam water for the samples of 2007. amount of dissolved CO2 in the samples, thus avoiding deteriora- The alkaline nature of the Zamzam water could explain its heal- tion of the ICPMS measurements (Shotyk et al., 2006; Shotyk and ing properties. Several studies have discussed the mechanism by Krachler, 2007a, 2007b). which alkaline water promotes healing. For example, Kellas et al. (1996) stated that alkaline drinking water plays an important part 3. Results in ridding the body of mercury and other toxins. The more acidic the body is the more it holds onto (heavy) metals. Heavy metals The average concentrations for all collection groups (the 30 in turn create a high oxidative stress that acidifies the body. Con- water samples) were within the permissible limits of the WHO sequently, alkaline water has been used for improving bone den- for all parameters except for four (Table 1). These four were high sity and healing (Wynn et al., 2009); controlling gastric functions in all samples and independent of analytic method. Across all 30 (Bertoni et al., 2002); improving capacity for aerobic activities samples, arsenic, nitrate, calcium and potassium showed averages and flushing toxins and acidic waste (Whang, 1994; Ayne, 2008). of 27 lgLÀ1, 120, 75, 45 mg LÀ1, respectively. However, it is highly Two different samples showed anomalous results for one param- recommended by several dieticians to get Ca and K (Balch and eter each: Ag in one sample of 2007 collections and Zn in one sample Balch, 1990; Denke et al., 1993). of 2011 collected directly from Zamzam water containers in B. Shomar / Chemosphere 86 (2012) 600–605 603
Table 1 Geochemical characteristics of Zamzam water for 3 years.
Parameter WHO 2007a 2008b 2011c 2011d n =10 n =10 n =10 n =10 pH 6.5–8.5 8 ± 0.2 8 ± 0.3 7.83 ± 0.2 8 ± 0.2 EC (lS/cm) 2000 1252 ± 33 1133 ± 114 1289 ± 155 1280 ± 154 Eh (mV) 196 ± 17 189 ± 48 197 ± 49 199 ± 47 Cl (mg LÀ1) 250 162 ± 22 146 ± 29 120 ± 23 133 ± 23 F (mg LÀ1) 1.5 0.1 ± 0.005 <0.01 0.3 ± 0.04 0.1 ± 0.01 Br (mg LÀ1) 1 ± 0.1 1 ± 0.1 0.5 ± 0.05 0.5 ± 0.1 À1 NO3 (mg L ) 50 152 ± 19 152 ± 18 98 ± 14 105 ± 15 À1 NO2 (mg L ) <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 À1 PO4 (mg L ) <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 À1 SO4 (mg L ) 250 149 ± 31 148 ± 30 123 ± 22 135 ± 23 À1 HCO3 (mg L ) 257 ± 41 187 ± 39 178 ± 31 188 ± 32 TC (mg LÀ1)NMNM35±534±5 IC (mg LÀ1)NMNM35±534±5 TOC (mg LÀ1) NM NM <0.01 <0.01 Ag (lgLÀ1) 100 <2 <2 <2 0.03 ± 0.004 Al (lgLÀ1) 200 <15 <15 <15 22 ± 4 As (lgLÀ1) 10 27 ± 8 24 ± 7 18.7 ± 3 25.5 ± 4 As III (lgLÀ1) NM NM 1.06 ± 0.2 NM As V (lgLÀ1) NM NM 17.64 ± 2 NM Ba (lgLÀ1) 700 43 ± 11 45 ± 12 NM 44.93 ± 7 Be (lgLÀ1) NM NM NM 0.95± Bi (lgLÀ1) NM NM NM 0.00± Ca (mg LÀ1) 50 95 ± 15 68 ± 12 60 ± 7 62 ± 6 Cd (lgLÀ1) 3 <0.3 <0.3 <1 0.11 ± 0.01 Co (lgLÀ1) <2 <2 <5 0.38 ± 0.02 Cr (lgLÀ1) 50 <0.3 <0.3 2.0 ± 0.1 1.68 ± 0.2 Cu (lgLÀ1) 2000 <2 <2 <2 2.97 ± 0.3 Fe (lgLÀ1) 300 <15 <15 1.9 ± 0.1 12.0 ± 1 K (mg LÀ1)1050±948±841±5NM Li (lgLÀ1) NM NM <10 15.7 ± 2 Mg (mg LÀ1) 30 21 ± 4 20 ± 3 19.0 ± 3 NM Mn (lgLÀ1) 400 <0.3 <0.3 <1 0.69 ± 0.2 Mo (lgLÀ1) NM NM NM 32.3 ± 4 Na (mg LÀ1) 200 101 ± 17 99 ± 15 10.7 ± 2 NM Ni (lgLÀ1) 20 <3 <3 <5 9.46 ± 2 Pb (lgLÀ1) 10 <3 <3 <10 2.45 ± 0.4 Rb (lgLÀ1) NM NM NM 8.5 ± 1 Sb (lgLÀ1) NM NM NM 0.35 ± 0.06 Sr (lgLÀ1) 839 ± 89 851 ± 90 760 ± 84 796.2 ± 97 Te (lgLÀ1) NM NM NM 0.06 ± 0.01 Tl (lgLÀ1) NM NM NM 0.000 U(lgLÀ1) NM NM NM 0.93 ± 0.2 V(lgLÀ1) NM NM NM 65.4 ± 11 Zn (lgLÀ1) 3000 <2 <2 <2 1.7 ± 0.1
a Samples collected in 2007 from pilgrims in Germany. b The same samples analyzed in 2008. c Samples collected from local markets in Germany. d Samples collected directly from Makkah. NM: Not Measured.
Makkah. Silver (Ag) in general shows low concentrations and the water brines used to produce oil and natural gas, as well as other elevated value of the one sample (7 lgLÀ1) may reflect the remains sources such as its unintended release during the mining of gold of the standards. It is well documented that Ag has a memory effect and lead, combustion of coal, and effluents from other agricultural in the analytical instruments including the ICPOES and is removed and industrial activities (Smedley and Kinniburgh, 2002). It is widely only gradually from the system. The anomalous sample might have thought that naturally occurring arsenic dissolves out of certain rock been affected by its proximity to the standard. Zinc was determined formations when groundwater levels drop significantly. Surface ar- by both ICPOES and ICPMS and both instruments showed elevated senic-related pollutants enter the groundwater systems by gradu- concentrations for the same sample (129 and 144 lgLÀ1, respec- ally moving with the flow of groundwater from rains (Benner, 2010). tively). As this is the only water sample of such high and anomalous As shown in the results, the inorganic arsenic can occur in nat- result, this value could be excluded. ural waters as trivalent arsenate As(III) or pentavalent arsenate Arsenic (As) was two to three times higher than the WHO stan- As(V). The averages of the two forms were 1 and 16 lgLÀ1, respec- dard in all samples using the three different analytic instruments tively. It is also important to mention that the organic arsenic spe- (WHO, 2004). The agreement between the two instruments ICPOES cies are less harmful to health compared to the inorganic, and they and ICPMS is very good (27 and 26 lgLÀ1, respectively) while the are readily eliminated by the human body (Meliker et al., 2010). HGAAS showed an average of 18 lgLÀ1. In 2005, the Leicester City The results of the experimental work demonstrate that chemi- Council (LCC) found the same concentrations as this study (LCC, cal reactions between arsenic and oxygen or nitrate – which are 2005). high in Zamzam water – can affect the mobility of trace amounts Arsenic is found naturally in the earth’s crust-rock and soil. It can of arsenic. Arsenic availability is strongly dependent on the applied be released into groundwater from both natural and man-made pro- redox potential; under reducing conditions (Eh is-200) arsenic cesses. For example, As in groundwater has been traced to deep availability increased significantly, and arsenic is found mainly as 604 B. Shomar / Chemosphere 86 (2012) 600–605 arsenite. On the contrary under oxidizing conditions of Zamzam – Further studies on arsenic oxidation states (III and V) are water (Eh is 200) arsenic solubility decreased markedly and is gov- required to understand its chemistry as well as the toxicity erned by the presence of arsenate (Ascar et al., 2008). and speciation of organic and inorganic arsenic compounds. The heated discussion following the release of the BBC report Intensive surveys and knowledge of anthropogenic and human (May 2011) in which the BBC found that the Zamzam holy drinking activities in the past and present, studies on groundwater flow water is contaminated with arsenic and therefore is being sold ille- and element transport, identifying the hydrogeology and the gally by UK shops (BBC, 2011), added that the water held additional rock geochemistry as well as the physics and chemistry of dangerous chemicals. The president of the Association of Public Ana- weathering will help to understand the geochemical behavior lysts, Dr. Duncan Campbell, concluded that Zamzam water is poison- of arsenic, lithium and nitrate in Zamzam water. ous, particularly because of the high levels of arsenic, a carcinogen. – Presence of trace amounts of As and Li in the alkaline water of The findings of the year 2007 confirmed the findings of the BBC Zamzam may represent a powerful tool for therapy of several (2011, 2010, 2006). Pilgrims were asked by BBC to take samples diseases. This may cause the sanctity and holiness of Zamzam from taps linked to the Zamzam well and purchase bottles on sale water. in Makkah to allow comparison of the water on sale illegally with the genuine source. According to the results of the BBC, these showed high levels of nitrate, potentially harmful bacteria, and traces of arsenic at three times the permitted maximum level, just Acknowledgments like the illegal water purchased in the UK. The topic got very hot when the BBC released the findings on The author thanks all volunteers and pilgrims for water sam- the 6.30 pm news report on Friday, 6 May 2011.The Saudi embassy ples. I am grateful to Prof. Dr. RD Schuiling and Mrs. Mary Schweit- in London declined to comment on the issue of contamination at zer for their efforts to improve the quality of the manuscript. I am the source in Makkah (BBC, 2011). grateful to the technicians Stefan Rheinberger and Christian The border between the toxic and therapeutic effects of arsenic Scholz and to the students Simon Ritter and Jan Hartmann. is very fine. 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