Soppangheid for Kaaps: Power, Creolisation and Kaaps Afrikaans

Multilingual Margins 2016, 3(2): 73-85 73 Soppangheid for Kaaps: Power, creolisation and Kaaps Afrikaans

Abstract In this contribution, the dignity of speakers of Cape Afrikaans (Kaaps) is discussed with reference to the need for bi-dialectic tuition at school and Afrikaans poetry written in the Cape eye dialect. It is argued here that, besides Standard Afrikaans, a greater awareness of language varieties must be cultivated in education and the media so that learners develop the ability to control a variety of language registers. Further the manifestation of Kaaps, as eye dialect, is discussed at the hand of poetry examples. Here it is found that poets often stereotypically affirm topics in their poetry written in dialect format. The hope is expressed that the dignity of Kaaps Afrikaans in poetry can be attained with multiple rhetorical strategies. The soppangheid, dignity, of Kaaps is not only a linguistic issue, but can also serve as a confirmation of the dignity of all Afrikaans speakers.

Introduction extensively discussed at those events. The same applies to my previously The 2012 symposium on Kaaps closely published contributions on the topic, for matches a few other events where similar example issues such as the development matters were discussed. I am thinking of of a creolised society and linguistic the Roots Symposium of 2009, as well hybridity, the establishment of Standard as the symposium of Prof. Kwesi Kwaa Afrikaans as a conscious ethnic construct Prah’s Centre for Advanced Studies of and my call for a “more multi-faceted African Society (CASAS) which took Afrikaans”.1 Yet, these matters are place in January 2011 and of which applicable as background to the matters the proceedings were published in to be discussed here. Initially, I discuss Afrikaans as well as English. I shall the need for dignity for Kaaps Afrikaans thus not repeat the aspects which were and the necessity for bi-dialectic methods

1 Compare among others my unpublished contributions “Verandering en toekoms: om ’n kreoolse Afrikaans te bedink” (2009) and “Om kreools te wees: Achmat Davids en die geskiedenis van Afrikaans” (2012), as well as the published article “Om ’n veelkantiger Afrikaans te bedink” (2012).

© Willemse and CMDR. 2016 74 WILLEMSE of tuition at school. In the second part of system and formal spheres of usage my presentation I will broadly discuss the attained over the past century, are manifestation of Kaaps in the Afrikaans indeed impressive. While I make this literature. In closing I argue that the statement without irony, I must add a promotion of the dignity of spoken Kaaps qualification. These standardisation Afrikaans does not necessarily require processes were not always guided by the informal orthographies which we see linguistic considerations. Think of the in dialect poetry. active dutchification and germanisation of Afrikaans and the language family metaphor which reveal an underlying Introductory remarks: eurocentrism, an ideology which Standard Afrikaans considered non-white speakers to be inferior. Later an ethnically chauvinistic I would like to first make a few state advantaged and supported the introductory remarks about Standard language (and some of its speakers) in Afrikaans before I expand on my all manner of ways. The choice of the perspectives on Kaaps Afrikaans. It is varieties in which (theoretically putative not unusual at intervals to hear sharp supra-dialect) Standard Afrikaans was public comment on the continued status established, the selection processes for of Standard Afrikaans. From formal and in- and exclusion were not value free. informal comments one often gains the It was sometimes aimed in such a way impression that on the one hand Standard that significant sections of the Afrikaans- language is elevated to an untouchable speaking community, mostly non-white gem that, by way of speaking, should speakers were continuously excluded. be defended until death. On the other Both our discussion, today, as well as this hand, one hears a demand that the ongoing debate, are enough proof that standard language must be expanded so important questions are being raised that socially and politically marginalised about the future and general acceptance varieties can be sensibly standardised. By of Standard Afrikaans. the way, in the midst of all these views, I do not hear a single opinion promoting the total rejection of Standard Afrikaans. Kaaps Afrikaans This 2012 symposium, I presume, therefore wants to promote firstly an Kaaps Afrikaans is the result of the awareness of a specific regional variety earliest language adaptations which (and language varieties in general) and took place in South Africa since the secondly, determine the processes of 17th century. It is also this form of Cape re-standardisation. Dutch, then called Hottentot Dutch, I would like to repeat my view that which took shape in South African I have stated elsewhere, namely that literature since the first decades of the Standard Afrikaans is an exceptional 19th century. Even though this language achievement (cf. Willemse 2012:66). form in the early years was subject The codification of Afrikaans grammar, to ridicule, there were observers like the compilation of several general Hubertus Elffers who considered it in and technical dictionaries, as well as his little textbook The Englishman’s guide the expression of Standard Afrikaans to the speedy and easy acquirement of Cape in the media, education, the justice Dutch (1908) as “a speech unalloyed with

© Willemse and CMDR. 2016 Soppangheid vir Kaaps 75 foreign elements, which provides easy Kaaps, and its antecedent Cape- vent for all sentiments and every feeling, Dutch, is probably the most stigmatised though confined to the narrow limits of a Afrikaans variety. It is associated with, for patois” (quoted in Davids 2011:87). The example, the so-called ‘typical humour of point Elffers makes, that this language the coloured person’. Think of the many form encompasses people’s whole lives, Gatiepie jokes where the protagonist is is relevant to me. often given the inherent ability to utter Adam Small would formulate a witticisms, sometimes indicating insight similar insight nearly seventy years later and commentary. Our Gatiepie is often, in his foreword to a revised edition of his like the Blackface figure of American collection Kitaar my kruis (1973). Even pop culture, portrayed as the socially though his verdict is poetic hyperbole inferior Other. In the dominant imaging, (can the first human cry be in any the Kaaps speaker is considered naïve, language?), it makes sense to quote it shufflingly submissive, and half-skilled here in full: with an inability to understand or Kaaps is ’n taal in die sin dat dit die appreciate complexity. volle lot en noodlot van die mense The version of colloquial language wat dit praat, dra: die volle lot, hulle in informal orthographies in the South volle lewe ‘met alles wat daarin is’; African literature extends back to the ’n taal in die sin dat die mense wat beginning of the 19th century when dit praat, hul eerste skreeu in die Charles Boniface performed his De lewe skreeu in hierdie taal, al die nieuwe ridderorde of De temperantisten transaksies van hul lewens beklink (1832) and Andrew Geddes Bain in hierdie taal, en hul doodsroggel his Kaatje Kekkelbek, or Life among the roggel in hierdie taal. Kaaps is nie Hottentots (1838). Already in De nieuwe ’n grappigheid of snaaksigheid nie, ridderorde the Khoi characters, Manus maar ’n taal (Small 1973: 9). Kalfachter and Grietje Drilbouten, were portrayed as comical and saucy. These Kaaps is a language in the sense that stereotypical linkages would not really it carries the whole fate and destiny of change over the years. the people who speak it: the whole fate, This attitude originates in the their whole life ‘with everything therein’; political and social imbalances of our a language in the sense that the people society. Kaaps and its predecessors were who speak it, give their first cry in this spoken by people who were not in the life in this language, all the transactions dominant stratum of society. What the of their lives are concluded in this norm is, and whose language form is language, their death rattle is rattled in considered polished and acceptable, this language. Kaaps is not a joke or a is determined by social power and comedy, but a language (Small 1973: economic interest. This stigmatisation 9). thus initially takes place from outside. When Boniface and Bain wrote their Our discussion today can, in the texts, they founded a discourse where light of Elffers and Small, not be about non-Cape-Dutch speakers were linked to language form as language form only, a low social order, comicality, stupidity because the recognition of people in our and the despised language variety. social dispensation is in the final instance Fortunately, there is another side a matter of underlying importance. to this. The speakers do not themselves

© Willemse and CMDR. 2016 76 WILLEMSE make this link. In fact, we have a good first cases of language disempowerment example of how speakers of this language take place in the classroom. This variety consider their language form. We language disempowerment in the face see this when the form of Kaaps which of the reigning standard language is not today is known as Arabic Afrikaans, is a matter limited only to South Africa or used. Achmat Davids in his important Afrikaans. Just think of the continual study, The Afrikaans of the Cape Muslims debates about the acceptance of language (2011), convincingly indicates how this varieties reigning in the USA or the creolised form of European, Southeast Caribbean islands (cf. Alexander (1980); Asian and indigenous languages was Hairston (1992); Hollie (2001); Kynard used with soppangheid, dignity, in (2007); Molloy (2007); Smitherman everyday interaction in the madrassah (1991); Toohey (1986); and Wilson and the mosque. Here we thus have (2012)). one language form viewed from two Here, just as in countries like Jamaica diverging perspectives depending on the or many American cities, teachers know social position from which it is judged. that their students’ non-standardised But this is the history.2 What should language varieties are stigmatised we do today, or put differently: how does economically, culturally and even Kaaps achieve dignity? politically. They also know that, if they do not promote the standard language, the students who speak the variety, in The destigmatisation of the current case, Kaaps will be exposed Kaaps in the classroom to mockery and low performance expectations. Their pragmatic choice The different processes of standardisation is thus the small, accumulative actions or the expansion of the standard which disempower students from early language takes place simultaneously on on (“Speak correctly!” etc.). These are different levels: the print media and actions which give rise to students (and other media shape established specific also adults) often losing the confidence language behaviour while rule-writing to speak their mother tongue. How often institutions write rules and the education do Kaaps speakers not prefer to use system offer training.3 But for the English in formal situations rather than purposes of this contribution I would Afrikaans? Often the cause is a deficient like to focus on one aspect. Although the self-esteem: that they do not feel media must play a role to make people themselves competent to speak Standard conscious of the destigmatising of Kaaps Afrikaans. The real reason, we must and other language varieties, education realize, is the total disempowerment of in my view is the most important sphere first language speakers and along with it, for the deployment of a more broadly the disempowerment of people to reach constituted Standard Afrikaans. Often the

2 That does not mean this matter is hereby dealt with. There is work to be done. For an enterprising student, Michel Foucault and the linkages he makes between discourse and power/knowledge would clearly be relevant in an extensive study about the nature of Cape Dutch or Kaaps and how its language form is reflected in (South)African literature. 3 Besides the aspects mentioned here, Ana Deumert reports inter alia that persons that speak different varieties, move closer to a standard language by mutual concession.

© Willemse and CMDR. 2016 Soppangheid vir Kaaps 77 their full potential. We must thus ask extended standard language stabilises ourselves if our curricula, our teaching this recognition at formal levels. We practices accept and legitimise students’ must remember that the vibrant future language identity. of Afrikaans does not lie in boardrooms, This view does not imply that we but that it is already taking shape on our must stop teaching Standard Afrikaans multilingual urban streets like those of at school. Not at all. But it does mean Cape Town and its townships. that a greater awareness of the legitimacy of language varieties must be cultivated in education and the media. How do we Eye dialect in Afrikaans create a positive attitude? poetry Teachers must be equipped with The rest of my presentation will deal skills to value and promote an awareness with Cape dialect in Afrikaans literature. of the place and dignity of non-standard The use of dialect in literature has always Afrikaans. Once again it is about the been a controversial issue. A general empowerment of people and therefore characterisation of this rhetorical strategy the social and cultural experiences that is that the spoken language is presented these varieties reflect which must also be through an informal orthography. This meaningfully integrated in the classroom. so-called ‘eye dialect strategy’ is not an Further, the tuition of a comprehensive exact phonetic transcription, but an history of Afrikaans and all its speakers is idiosyncratic creation of the writer to indispensable. (Even today, after nearly place the emphasis on the deviating two decades of democracy, the history language pronunciation of his character of Afrikaans is not really taught multi- speaker.5 Eye dialect thus really needs dimensionally.4) This means that over the standard language, because it is a school career, all learners should be always created in contrast to the standard equipped bi-dialectically (or even multi- language, and often along with that dialectically). While the existence and carries meanings of inferiority and social validity of different language varieties exclusion (cf. Bowdre 1964:7). are acknowledged, the importance of I think that Kaaps, as it occurs suitable language registers for different in Afrikaans literature, often does speech activities and circumstances not overcome the hazards of dialectic should be also taught. language usage. The versions of The result of a bi-dialectic approach Afrikaans oral narrative forms in in which the dignity of language varieties informal orthographies extend far back is emphasised, is that the dignity of as indicated above until at least Boniface their speakers is increased, while an

4 This statement depends on the central place that practitioners of the Afrikaans philology played in the historiography of Afrikaans and Afrikaner nationalism and the effect their views had on school and university textbooks. The influential research of Hans den Besten, Paul Roberge and Ana Deumert about the origin of Afrikaans have not really been disseminated through local historiography of language or popular views. Especially Den Besten’s work on the importance of Khoi influence should be mentioned here, and the importance that Roberge and Deumert attach to Kaaps Afrikaans, ought to receive greater emphasis. 5 The concept ‘eye dialect’ is a creation of the American linguist George P. Krapp and is differentiated from regional varieties. Eye dialect refers to the pseudo-phonetic spelling of standard lexical items to indicate social differences (see Bowdre 1964:2-3).

© Willemse and CMDR. 2016 78 WILLEMSE and his farce De nieuwe ridderorde of Abdurahman and Petersen were De temperantisten (The new Knights’ classified as Coloured, it is only Adam Templar, 1832) and his Khoi characters Small who realized that the connection Manus Kalfachter and Grietje Drilbouten between Coloured people and the Kaaps who were represented comically. Already, language variety had become practically in this farce, alcohol abuse, sauciness, inextricable (see Willemse 2007:168-69). stupidity and low social order portrayal play a prominent role. At this stage, I would like to point to a Afrikaans writers like G.R. von few outstanding aspects of the use of Wielligh, I.D. du Plessis, Uys Krige, Van Kaaps as eye dialect, as found in a few Wyk Louw, Boerneef, Peter Blum and poems. Firstly, I take Adam Small’s poem André P. Brink all created some or other “Oppie Parara” (On the Parade) from the written form of colloquial language. “Dice” section of Kitaar my kruis (Guitar Others who dared to write the Kaaps my Cross) The poem is well-known dialect form of Afrikaans were columnist and I shall only quote relevant verses. Abdullah Abdurahman (under the The narrator is unnamed and reports pseudonym of Piet Uithalder in the in the standard variety a sale between A.P.O. mouthpiece) and prose writer two figures, the green hawker and his S.V. Petersen respectively. Although potential client:6

Die witvrou kannie The white woman lag doesn’t laugh en sy beveel: and she orders: ek wil niks hê nie, I want nothing die koelie (to) the coolie — streng-formeel strictly formal

These figures share one space, manual labourer and implies a history namely the historic Cape military parade of bondage, contrasting it to the (white) ground, the ‘Parade’ which has since “madam” with all the implied South become a public market, among other African meanings of social advantage. At things. They come from two different first glance it is an interaction about the South African backgrounds: the one sale of the fruit, but it becomes a clear is a “coolie”, the other a white woman. play on words challenging the apartheid The term “coolie” recalls a person of prohibition on black-white sexual Southeast Asiatic background with the liaisons. The tension in the poem is attendant meanings that indicate his borne out by the differences between the social place as a (non-white) lower class Kaaps variety and Standard Afrikaans.

6 An unknown colloquial variety may also be suggested here, cf. the use of “kannie” in the line “Die witvrou kannie lag”, an orthographic representation that is not used elsewhere in the poem

Ma’ mêrim, pô-pô, pô-pô en banana But Mêrim, paw-paw an› banana en juicy drywe yt die hartjie van die an' juicy grapes from th' heart of th' Kanaän Canaan of hoe fancy die mêrim so ’n vy or how does th› Mêrim fancy such a fig kyk net hoe uitgaswel is hy look how swollen he is van bo tot onner ytgady bulging from top to bottom moenie blush nie mêrim don’t blush Mêrim ons het die blaar daarby we've the leaf as well of miskien or maybe Ek wil niks hê nie hoor! I don’t want anything, hear! Ma’ mêrim But Mêrim

Important here is that Kaaps is not ‘Coloureds’ but of people from a working just seen as the variety of ‘Coloureds’, but class background.8 Furthermore, in this also more broadly as that of a worker of case Kaaps is the sign of the challenger, Southeast Asiatic background (“a coolie”, a self-conscious challenge to the white thus a so-called Indian or Asian).7 For social order, where all the stereotypes my perspective it is, however, pertinent of subservience, lack of intelligence and that the poem at this point breaks hedonism are turned on their heads. the stereotype: not the language of

Haai mêrim haai oh Mêrim oh sure mêrim wil nie try ons guavas sure Mêrim doesn’t wanna try our ons guarantee hulle mêrim guavas? hulle’s baie goed vi’ die nerves! we guarantee ’hem Mêrim Die vrugtevent se stem trek agterna they’re very good f ’r ‘he nerves! polisie, polisie the green hawker’s voice trails off ag nai mêrim, moet nou nie so police, police spiteful wies nie oh no Mêrim, don’t be so spiteful sê tog decently goodbye please say decently goodbye raai imagine die kaalgat perskes blow nog vi’ ’he nectarines ’re blowing kisses f ’r mêrim yeah, Mêrim

7 An alternative interpretation is also possible, namely that the white woman figure does not know the difference between ‘coolies’ and other members of the non-white workers ocmmunity and uses ‘coolies’ as a generalization which would in itself will be poignant commentary on social relationships. 8 Thus: confirmation of stereotyping or stereotype destruction with reference to the discourse established around the connection between die Kaaps colloquial language, low social order and Khoi descendants or non-white Cape Dutch speakers since Boniface.

Other Small poems like “Die Oem Tas / en ’n lekker meid en lekker Here het gaskommel” (The Lord has anner ding”) and the old stereotype of rolled the dice) also from the “Dice” acceptance of a preordained lot (a “can’t section of Kitaar my kruis do not escape worry” feeling which serves the speaker, stereotypical imaging. Here Kaaps is probably ‘an ordinary man in the street’ linked to a lower social order narrator, die “skollie-pêllie”), as protection against alcohol abuse (“’n kannetjie Oem Tas”), the onslaughts of life. hedonism (“’n sigaretjie en ’n kannetjie

Lat die wêreld ma’ praat pêllie los en vas Let ’he worl’ chat, pal loose ’nd fast ’n sigaretjie en ’n kannetjie Oem Tas a smoke an’ a jug Oem Tas en dis allright pêllie, dis allright an’ its allright pal, its allright ons kannie worry nie we can’t worry

’n sigaretjie en ’n kannetjie Oem Tas a smoke an’ a jug Oem Tas en ’n lekker meid en lekker anner dinge ’nd a good filly ‘nd nice other t’ings oe! oh! lat die wêreld ma’ praat pêllie los en vas let ‘he worl’ chat, pal, loose and fast wat daarvan so what

The additional strategies are those the doomed resignation (“en die dice of repetition, especially repetition of the het verkeerd gaval vi’ ons”) are linked to line “lat die wêreld ma’ praat pêllie los a mythical destiny (“daar›s mos kinners en vas” and the phrases “dis allright” van Gam en daar’s kinners van Kain”) and the question “wat daarvan” while over which the speaker has no control:

wat maak dit saak what does’t matter soes die Engelsman sê it cuts no ice as the Englishman says it cuts no ice die Here het gaskommel the Lord has rolled the dice en die dice het verkeerd gaval vi’ ons which has fallen wrongly for us daai’s maar al that’s all ...... Nevermind Nevermind daar's mos kinners van Gam en daar’s there are childr’n of Ham and childr’n kinners van Kain of Cain so dis allright pêllie dis allright so it’s okay, pal, it’s alright ons moenie worry nie let’s not worry

It is exactly this conspicuous link in my only published poem in Kaaps, between the reigning stereotype and the “fokkie dice pêllie” (from Angsland, Kaaps language variety which is opposed 1981).

fokkie dice pêllie. fuck d’ dice ol’ pal. lat die wêreld praat pêllie, los e’ vas. let da worl’ talk pal, loose a’ fast. ’n y-kei forty-seven enne hêndgrenyt a AK-47 a’ a hand grenade pêllie ol’ pal — dan’s als ólright. — than all’s all rite.

fok daai lekke dinge fuck t’em nice t’ings pêllie ol’ pal — freedom for the people — freedom for da people for the people suffer. for da people suffer.

naai pêllie it cuts ice: no pal it cuts ice: oralste val ous yt ve’sters everywhere guys fall out’a windows jump va’ stêrkyses ... jump fro’ staircases…

soe, ons sil worrie pêllie. so, we’ll worry ol’ pal.

die here het gaskommel: da gods shuffled: — hier’s djou splinterbom; — here’s you’s frag bomb;

kô lat ons march come let’s march for: freedom isn’t for: freedom isn’t

free. free.

verstaan djy pêllie? d’you understand, pal?

Here a political activist narrator it is also relevant that the capital letter speaks out against the hedonism and of “Here” (Lord) in the Small poem is resignation in “Die Here het gaskommel”. replaced by a lowercase “here” where The two poems are representative of two thus, besides the reference to the diverging world views. In “fokkie dice Divinity, it also references human social pêllie” the stereotypical associations — order (“the gods” in the sense of ‘the unbridled hedonism, cheerlessness and men’, the rulers) is implied. resignation — associated with Kaaps are Yet, in spite of a few examples rejected in favour of a rebelliousness like these, I am of the opinion that in where “freedom isn’t // free” and the general an in-depth critical tradition divine destiny is reversed with militant about the use of Kaaps in literary works action: “die here het gaskommel: / — has not arisen. In a published analysis of hier’s djou splinterbom”. In this regard Kaaps as poetic expression among black

Afrikaans poets which I wrote twenty- stereotypes. (Willemse 2007:170-71; five years ago, I found that many of the cf. 166-75) acolytes of Small in the 1980s revealed a formulaic style: In many cases of poets who turned The poems were often inhabited by to the use of Kaaps in contemporary different working class or proletariat Afrikaans poetry little has changed characters (chiefly men) who were regarding their use of this language witnesses of a recent incident and variety. Compare for example the work of related it in a comical way. For effect Loit Sôls in My straat en anne praat-poems the poem depended on colloquial (My street and othe’ oral poems, 1998) language and the oral strategies of where many of the poems contain all the repetition for emphasis. Comedy and familiar stereotypes: the poetry becomes wittiness formed an indispensable the bearer of a predictable destiny and facet of the poetry … the “cognitive the (non-white) speaker is reduced to ideological intention” … depended joker and clown. Thus the reader of the opening poem “Voowoot” (Foreword, on the portrayal of township life and Sôls 1998:7) is instructed “how to introduction to working class people understand” this poetry and thereafter: … and the acceptance of ingrained “now laugh yourself to death”.

Hoit, my naam is Loit Hoit, my name’s Loit en ek sal laik om and I’d like to avoid een ding te avoid one t’ing en dais confusion and that’s confusion

Sóés hiés vi’ jou ’n idea, So for you, here’s an idea sonne om djêm om jou mon te smee, Without unde-estimating you’s van hoe om dié poetry te vestaan: Of how to understand t’is poetrie

Broer raak bróê hiê, Brother becomes bro’ here

Goodbye vi’ nou Goodbye fo’ now en liees ma’ lekke nuh. And hav’ a goo’ read, hey. En oh yes, hiés ’n bietere idea: And oh yeah, here’s a betta idea liees ma’ liewerste hatop, Rathe’ read ‘t out loud lieesit virrie vrou Read ‘t to th’ wife en lag vi’ jille klaa. And laugh you’selves dead Ek gan nou lekke hys toe I’m gonna go hom’ now na my smoke-snoek en my katkop. To my smoked fish, ‘n d half a loafy.

Sôls’s poem as performance serves class norms to their (presumably white?) one purpose only: that of farce. The Afrikaans readers. Kaaps colloquial language becomes a One finds a more positive rendering further confirmation of the discourse of of Kaaps in Ronelda S. Kamfer’s poem disadvantage and exclusion linked to the ‘owners’ response’ where she reimagines underestimated, poor, happy-go-lucky, the context of Kaaps creatively, indifferent ‘coloured’ stereotype. There undertaking an interesting play with is no real difference to the language place and time over centuries. The usage and the discourse established narrator in this case is Autshumao, by Boniface and Bain in the early 19th ‘Harry’ the (Khoi) beachcomber. The century, except that these characters poem breaks totally with the formulaic now, at their own expense, exhibit style I have previously described and and proclaim their sauciness and forces the reader to consider anew the value of Kaaps as colloquial and written backwardness from the (white?) middle language.

toe ek klein was het my dêrra my ’n when I was small my dêrra retol’ me a storie oovetel van ’n groot stêk story of a big stron’ siedier wat onner die wate lewe die dier sea creature tha’ lived unde’ ‘he wate’ th’ het alles geown wat lielik animal owned everythin’ that wreed en moorerag is toe eendag besluit was nasty, cruel an’ murd’rous until on’ al die siediere die visse day all th’ sea creatures th’ fish die slange die krappe alles wat onner th’ snakes and crabs everythin’ which wate woon om die wrede lived unde’ wate’ decided to catch seemonste in ’n strik te vang siegras en th’ cruel sea monster in a trap ‘hey took bamboo is gevat en gevleg seagrass an’ bamboo an’ plaited it ennie stêk seemonste is vasgebin hy het an’ the stron’ sea monste’ was tied up he baklei om los te ko als fough’ to escape but tevergeefs toe hy vas en hulpeloos is was to no ways’ when he was caught an’ die res van die siediere helpless the rest of th’ sea creatures baie bly hul grootste vrees was nou vas wer’ happy tha’ their greatest fear had (from: ‘owners’ response’, Kamfer been trapped 2011:28).

My conclusion is that most poets without impact which usually has a who use this variety of Afrikaans in limited number of functions, chiefly to their work limit it mostly to a formulaic place emphasis on differences in accent application and thereby confirm the and pronunciation or other perceived stereotypes built up around Kaaps. This social deviations. is one of the greatest dangers of dialect I would like to suggest that the poetry or dialect writing in general. promotion of the dignity of Kaaps The poetry becomes an empty gesture Afrikaans does not need the informal

© Willemse and CMDR. 2016 84 WILLEMSE orthographies, eye dialect, we see in References contemporary poetry. There are a wide Alexander, Clara Franklin. 1980. Black variety of literary and rhetorical strategies English Dialect and the Classroom which writers can use, for example Teacher. The Reading Teacher, 33(5): typical speech rhythms, idiomatic 571-77. language, specific regional lexical items Bowdre, Paul Hull Jr. 1964. A Study of Eye of semantic variance, suitable imaging, Dialect. Unpublished PhD dissertation. different language registers or stylistic University of Florida. awareness, the tension between colloquial Davids, Achmat. 2011. The Afrikaans of the and formal usage, puns, aspects such as Cape Muslims. Hein Willemse & Suleman syntactic and morphological exceptions E. Dangor (eds.). Pretoria: Protea and yes, also phonetic variation.9 Even Bookhouse. punctuation can play a role to convey the Den Besten, Hans. 1989. From Khoekhoen foreigntalk via Hottentot Dutch to regional details of a fictitious character Afrikaans: the creation of a novel or speaker. And as every writer knows: grammar. In M. Pütz and R. Dirven less is more. To fall back on the informal (eds.). Wheels within Wheels. Frankfurt am orthography of Kaaps as eye dialect in Main: Peter Lang, 207-49. search of black authenticity is, in my Deumert, Ana. 2004. Language view limiting rather than expansive. And Standardization and Language Change. The for our discussion today the question is Dynamics of Cape Dutch. Amsterdam: John simple: does it promote the dignity of Benjamins. Kaaps as spoken variety? Hairston, Maxine. 1992. Diversity, Ideology, and Teaching Writing. College Composition and Communication, 43(2): 179-93. Conclusion Hollie, Sharroky. 2001. Acknowledging the Language of African American Students: In closing: I have accepted in this Instructional Strategies. The English presentation that Kaaps as a spoken Journal, 90(4): 54-9. variety must be valorised and dignified, Kamfer, Ronelda S. 2011. Grond/Santekraam. but I could just as well begin with two Gedigte. Cape Town: Kwela. basic questions: why Kaaps and why Kynard, Carmen. 2007. ‘I Want to at this historic point in time? How we Be African’: In Search of a Black answer these questions refers to our Radical Tradition/African-American- Vernacularized Paradigm for ‘Students’ laying off of old social categories, the Right to Their Own Language,’ Critical establishment of a broader Afrikaans Literacy, and ‘Class Politics’. College language community, and our place in English, 69(4): 360-90. a developing South Africa. The dignity Molloy, Cathryn. 2007. Rhetorical of Kaaps in the last instance is not a Dexterity: A New Model for Teaching linguistic issue, but is really about the Writing. Modern Language Studies, 37(1): dignity of all Afrikaans speakers. 54-67. Roberge, P. T. 2000. Etymological opacity, hybridization, and the Afrikaans brace negation. American Journal of Germanic Linguistics and Literature, 12: 101-76.

9 These rhetorical and technical writing strategies are recommended by different writers in writing programmes, see Toohey among others.

Small, Adam. 1973. Kitaar my kruis. 2nd rev. Willemse, Hein. 2012a. Om ’n veelkantiger ed. Cape Town, Pretoria: Hollandsche Afrikaans te bedink. Kwesi Kwaa Afrikaansche Uitgevers Maatschappij. Prah (ed.). Veelkantiger Afrikaans. Smitherman, Geneva. 1991. ‘What Is Africa Streeksvariëteite in die standaardvorming. to Me?’: Language, Ideology, and Cape Town: Centre for the Advanced African American. American Speech, 66(2): Studies of Africa, 64-89. 115-32. Willemse, Hein. 2012b. Om kreools te Sôls, Loit ps. Aloysius Sauls. 1998. My straat wees: Achmat Davids en die geskiedenis en anne praat-poems. Cape Town: Kwela van Afrikaans. Unpublished Heritage Books. Day lecture delivered at the Afrikaans Toohey, Kelleen. 1986. Minority Educational Language Museum and Monument, Failure: Is Dialect a Factor? Curriculum Paarl. Inquiry, 16(2): 127-45. Wilson, Allison. 2012. Black Dialect and Willemse, Hein. 1981. Angsland. Athlone, the Freshman Writer. www.wac.colostate. Cape Town: Blac. edu/jbw/v4n1/wilson.pdf Accessed: 4 July Willemse, Hein. 2007. Aan die ander kant. 2012. Swart Afrikaanse skrywers in die Afrikaanse letterkunde. Pretoria: Protea. ______Willemse, Hein. 2009. Verandering en Hein Willemse is Professor of Literature toekoms: om ’n kreoolse Afrikaans in the Afrikaans Department, University te bedink. Unpublished presentation of Pretoria, Pretoria. delivered at the University of the Western Cape, Bellville, 2009.