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Physeter Macrocephalus – Sperm Whale

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Physeter macrocephalus – Sperm Whale Assessment Rationale Although the population is recovering, commercial whaling in the Antarctic within the last three generations (82 years) reduced the global abundance of species significantly. As commercial whaling has ceased, the species is evaluated under the A1 criterion. Model results revealed a 6% probability for Endangered, a 54% probability of Vulnerable, and a 40% probability of Near Threatened. Thus, the species is listed as Vulnerable A1d based on historical decline in line with the global assessment. Circumpolar surveys estimate around 8,300 mature males, which is extrapolated to around 40,000 Peter Allinson individuals in total. Within the assessment region, the historical depletion may have created a skewed sex ratio, which may make this species more vulnerable to minor Regional Red List status (2016) Vulnerable A1d* threats. For example, systematic surveys from the National Red List status (2004) Vulnerable A2bd Antarctic showed no significant population increase between 1978 and 1992. Recent modelling results Reasons for change No change corroborate the Sperm Whale’s slow recovery rate, where Global Red List status (2008) Vulnerable A1d a small decrease in adult female survivorship could lead to a declining population. Ongoing loss of mature individuals TOPS listing (NEMBA) (2007) None from entanglement in fishing nets and plastic ingestion CITES listing (1981) Appendix I could be hindering population recovery in certain areas. Furthermore, marine noise pollution may be an emerging Endemic No threat that could suppress population recovery, but results *Watch-list Data are ambiguous. The effects should continue to be monitored. Overall, the overexploitation of Sperm Whales There is an unexpected similarity between the has ceased and they usually remain fairly far from social composition of Sperm Whales and African anthropogenic effects due to their deep sea distribution, Elephants (Loxodonta africana), where the basic and the large-scale commercial fishing industry does not social unit consists of mixed adult females and their target major Sperm Whale food sources. However, given young, with mature males joining the group during their historical depletion, their slow growth rate (possibly the breeding season (which, in the southern only 1% per year) and their modelled sensitivity to hemisphere, peaks between October and disturbance, current abundance and population trend December) (Whitehead 2003). estimates are urgently needed and this species should be reassessed once such data are available. Regional population effects: Sperm Whales are highly migratory and wide-ranging. There are no barriers to Taxonomy dispersal, thus rescue effects are possible. Physeter macrocephalus (Linnaeus 1758) ANIMALIA - CHORDATA - MAMMALIA - Distribution CETARTIODACTYLA - PHYSETERIDAE - Physeter - Sperm Whales have a broad geographic range (Rice macrocephalus 1989), and may be present in nearly every marine region from the tropics to high latitudes. Typically they are Synonyms: Physeter catodon (Linnaeus 1758) located in deeper waters or along the continental slope, Common names: Sperm Whale, Cachelot, Pot Whale, avoiding waters shallower than 300 m. Their geographic Spermacet Whale (English), Potvis (Afrikaans) range also includes a number of enclosed or partially- enclosed areas, including both the Mediterranean and Taxonomic status: Species Baltic Seas, the Sea of Okhotsk and the Gulf of Mexico. Taxonomic notes: Although Physeter catodon is still Their distributions vary according to sex and size, where occasionally used in the literature, P. macrocephalus is males have been observed closer to inshore areas than recommended (Rice 1989). Both names are listed on the females (Best 1999). Additionally, females and their young same page of the original description by Linnaeus (1758), are often restricted in their range to regions between 40°N and priority is unclear. However, P. macrocephalus is and 40°S, while males may migrate as far as 70°N and 70°S preferable because it is used much more frequently, and in summer, and larger males appear to extend further this will support nomenclatural stability. north or south than smaller individuals. Sperm Whales are known to travel substantial distances, with one individual reported to have covered a straight-line distance of Recommended citation: Elwen S, Findlay K, Meÿer M, Oosthuizen H, Plön S. 2016. A conservation assessment of Physeter macrocephalus. In Child MF, Roxburgh L, Do Linh San E, Raimondo D, Davies-Mostert HT, editors. The Red List of Mammals of South Africa, Swaziland and Lesotho. South African National Biodiversity Institute and Endangered Wildlife Trust, South Africa. The Red List of Mammals of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland Physeter macrocephalus | 1 Figure 1. Distribution range for Sperm Whale (Physeter macrocephalus) within the assessment region (IUCN 2012) 7,400 km (Ivashin 1967). Although some overlap in estimate the population decline between 1700 and 1999 geographic distribution is known to occur between (Whitehead 2002). This model includes only the threat of northern and southern hemisphere stocks, populations legal commercial whaling and does not consider any are thought to be genetically isolated because seasonal other anthropogenic threats to this species, such as ship breeding periods occur six months apart. strikes, illegal whaling in the North Pacific and Antarctica, climate change, pollution, entanglement in fishing gear, or The International Whaling Commission (IWC) recognises the persistent effects of social disruption and sexually- nine Sperm Whale divisions for the southern hemisphere, skewed population structure. These factors may limit which have been based more specifically on data population recovery in many areas. This model postulates available from commercial whaling, rather than actual that Sperm Whale populations have shown a substantial biological factors (Donovan 1991). Although Sperm recovery since commercial whaling of this species was Whales migrate long distances, and exhibit low genetic largely prohibited, but may, in fact, be an overestimation differentiation between ocean basins (Lyrholm et al. 1999; of current Sperm Whale recovery trends. On the other Mesnick et al. 1999; Drouot et al. 2004a), some studies hand, some factors (such as the use of a relatively low infer a high degree of geographic structure among rate of population increase) suggest that this model may populations across many regions (Bannister & Mitchell result in an underestimation of population abundance. 1980; Kasuya & Miyashita 1988; Rendell & Whitehead However, despite these uncertainties, this model remains 2003; Whitehead 2003). This is corroborated by recent the most accurate means of estimating recent population molecular analyses that suggest females show site fidelity trends. The estimated global pre-exploitation population of to coastal basins while males disperse widely for breeding 1.1 million Sperm Whales is thought to have declined by (Engelhaupt et al. 2009). Within South African waters, 29% by 1880 due to “open-boat” whaling operations, and Sperm Whales are present across the majority of the then by 67% of the original population (to around 361,000) Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), frequently in deep by the 1990s as a direct result of modern whaling waters off the west coast, and excluding shallow regions (Whitehead 2002). Their global population in 1999 (10 along the continental shelf. Records from Durban (30°S) years after the end of commercial whaling) was estimated and Donkergat (33°S) found that males and females reveal at 32% (95% CI: 19–62%) of its original abundance, thus at varied seasonality where large males were often caught in approximately 352,000 individuals. Following the trajectory this region in spring, while juvenile males and females (used in Whitehead 2002), the model was modified slightly were more frequently caught earlier in winter. to extend the endpoint to 2003 (Taylor et al. 2008). This produced a population estimate in 2003 of 44% of the Population 1921 population. Indeed, of 1,000 model runs, 6% gave populations in 2003 of < 30% of that in 1922, 54% gave a Using historical trajectories, an abundance model for 2003 population between 30–50% of that in 1992, and global Sperm Whale populations was developed to Physeter macrocephalus | 2 The Red List of Mammals of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland 40% suggested depletion levels of less than 50% over this recovery rate, a recent population model revealed that time (Taylor et al. 2008). Thus, the species remains Sperm Whale populations grow slowly and are potentially Vulnerable under the A1 criterion. sensitive to survivorship rates of adult females, where a slight decline in survivorship could lead to a declining Two major global Sperm whaling operations were driven population (Chiquet et al. 2013). by the high commercial value attached to this species: the primitive “open-boat” hunt from 1712–1920 (Best 1983), Current population trend: Stable and the modern whaling expeditions from 1910–1988 Continuing decline in mature individuals: No (Tønnessen & Johnsen 1982). Modern whaling operations did not, however, impact all Sperm Whale populations. Number of mature individuals in population: c. 8,300 For example, populations in the western North Atlantic from circumpolar surveys. remain at reasonably high densities, and show evidence of successful reproduction (Gordon et al. 1998). After the Number of mature individuals in largest
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