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  • CAKING
  • CAPILLARITY

Changing of a powder into a solid mass by heat, pressure, The tendency of a liquid to enter into the narrow pores within a porous body, due to the combination of the cohesive forces within the liquid (expressed in its surface tension) and the adhesive forces between the liquid and the solid (expressed in their contact angle). or water.

CALICHE (LIME-PAN)
Bibliography

Introduction to Environmental Soil Physics. (First Edition). 2003.
Elsevier Inc. Daniel Hillel (ed.) http://www.sciencedirect.com/ science/book/9780123486554

(I)A zone near the surface, more or less cemented by secondary carbonates of Ca or Mg precipitated from the soil solution. It may occur as a soft thin soil horizon, as a hard thick bad, or as a surface layer exposed by erosion. (II) Alluvium cemented with NaNO3, NaCl and/or other soluble salts in the nitrate deposits of Chile and Peru.

Cross-references

Sorptivity of Soils

Bibliography

Glossary of Soil Science Terms. Soil Science Society of America.
2010. https://www.soils.org/publications/soils-glossary

CAPILLARY FRINGE

The thin zone just above the water table that is still saturated, though under sub-atmospheric pressure (tension). The thickness of this zone (typically a few centimeters or decimeters) represents the suction of air entry for the particular soil.

CANOPY STRUCTURE

Plant canopy structure is the spatial arrangement of the above-ground organs of plants in a plant community.

Bibliography

Introduction to Environmental Soil Physics. (First Edition). 2003.
Elsevier Inc. Daniel Hillel (ed.) http://www.sciencedirect.com/ science/book/9780123486554

Bibliography

Russel, G., Marshall, B., and Gordon Jarvis, P. 1990. Plant Canopies: Their Growth, Form and Function. Cambridge University Press.

Cross-references

Sorptivity of Soils

Jan Gliński, Józef Horabik & Jerzy Lipiec (eds.), Encyclopedia of Agrophysics, DOI 10.1007/978-90-481-3585-1,

#

Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2011

108

CARBON LOSSES UNDER DRYLAND CONDITIONS, TILLAGE EFFECTS

substantially. Studies under different conditions are required to assess the broader of the greenhouse gas impacts of CT (Ventera et al., 2006). Tillage often increases short-term CO2 flux from the soil due to a rapid physical release of CO2 trapped in the soil air spaces (Bauer et al., 2006; Álvaro-Fuentes et al., 2008; Reicosky and Archer, 2007; López-Garrido et al., 2009). This rapid flux of CO2 is influenced by the tillage system and the amount of soil disturbance (Reicosky and Archer, 2007).
Root and microbial activity together constitute soil respiration. Root and rhizosphere respiration can account for as little as 10% to greater than 90% of total “in situ” soil respiration depending on vegetation type and season of the year (Hanson et al., 2000). Nevertheless, only soil organic matter (SOM)-derived CO2 contributes to changes in atmospheric CO2 concentration. Long residence time of soil organic matter (SOM) results in very slow turnover rates relative to other less-recalcitrant respiratory substrates. This implies that SOM is the only C pool that can be a real, long-term sink for C in soils. Despite long residence times in steady state, if decomposition exceeds humification, the pool of C in SOM becomes a very large potential source of CO2 (Kuzyakov, 2006).

CARBON LOSSES UNDER DRYLAND CONDITIONS, TILLAGE EFFECTS

Félix Moreno, José M. Murillo, Engracia Madejón Instituto de Recursos Naturales y Agrobiología de Sevilla (IRNAS-CSIC), Sevilla, Spain

Definition

CO2 emissions are mainly produced by inadequate soil tillage combined with intensive cropping systems and climatic conditions.

Introduction

Losses of soil organic carbon (SOC) are associated with reductions in soil productivity and with increases in CO2 emissions from soil to the atmosphere (Lal et al., 1989; Bauer et al., 2006; Ventera et al., 2006; Conant et al., 2007). Gas exchange between soils and the atmosphere may be an important contributing factor to global change due to release of greenhouse gases (Ball et al., 1999). Intensive agriculture frequently causes important losses of soil carbon. Conservation tillage (CT) agriculture (reduced tillage) has been promoted since approximately 1960 as a means to counteract all these constraints (Gajri et al., 2002). Moreover, CT improves soil quality and crop performance, especially under semiarid conditions (Moreno et al., 1997; Franzluebbers, 2004; Muñoz et al., 2007).
Long-term adoption of conservation tillage (reduced and no tillage) in Mediterranean Spanish areas has proven to be an effective way to increase soil organic matter and, especially, to improve biochemical quality at the soil surface (Madejón et al., 2009). However, as the climatic conditions of the semiarid areas are an important limiting factor for the accumulation of organic carbon in the top

Tillage effects on carbon losses

Degradative effects of tillage on soil include rapid decline soil layers, the simple determination of total organic carof soil organic carbon due to mineralization rate increase bon (TOC) is not always the best indicator of the improve(Lal, 1993). This is particularly important under semiarid ment caused by conservation tillage. Under these conditions using conventional tillage in which moldboard conditions, it may be more interesting to study the stratifiplowing with soil inversion is the main operation (López- cation ratio of TOC calculated by the division of TOC Garrido et al., 2009). Moldboard plowing is one of the content at surface between TOC content at deeper layers most important factors increasing CO2 emissions by soil (Franzluebbers, 2002). This approach could also be microbial activity stimulation due to greater soil aeration applied to other variables related to soil biology, such as and breakdown of soil macroaggregates that conduces to MBC (microbial biomass carbon) and enzymatic activities a greater release of labile organic matter previously micro- (Madejón et al., 2009), which are normally significantly bial protected. There are studies that suggest that the correlated with TOC. Changes in soil biochemical propergreenhouse gases contribution of agriculture, such as ties with conservation tillage and in their stratification CO2, can be mitigated by widespread adoption of conser- ratios should provide practical tools to complement phys-

  • vation tillage (Lal, 1997; Lal, 2000).
  • ical and chemical test and, thus, evaluate the effect of con-

Conservation tillage (CT) is any tillage and planting servation tillage in dryland conditions. Despite some system that maintains at least 30% of the soil surface studies have reported similar or even greater TOC accucovered by residue after planting to reduce soil erosion mulation in the total profile (1 m and more) under convenby water. Where soil erosion by wind is a primary concern, tional tillage than under CT (Baker et al., 2007), the the system must maintain at least 1.1 Mg haÀ1 flat small improvements made by CT surface are very important grain residue equivalent on the surface during the critical for the soil functions.

  • wind erosion period (Gajri et al., 2002). This system
  • These processes are very influenced by the local condi-

reduces the number of operations and trips across the field, tions and management. Franzluebbers (2004) reported that and of course, avoids the soil inversion that buries most low benefit of no tillage on TOC storage could be

  • crop residues into the soil.
  • expected in dry, cold regions, in which low precipitation

The effectiveness of CT in mitigating the greenhouse would limit C fixation by plants and decomposition, even gas impact of individual agroecosystems could vary when crop residues are mixed with soil by tillage.

CARBON LOSSES UNDER DRYLAND CONDITIONS, TILLAGE EFFECTS

109

Bauer, P. J., Frederick, J. R., Novak, J. M., and Hunt, P. G., 2006.
Soil CO2 flux from a Norfolk loamy sand after 25 years of conventional and conservation tillage. Soil and Tillage Research, 90, 205–211.
Conant, R. T., Easter, M., Paustian, K., Swan, A., and Williams, S.,
2007. Impacts of periodic tillage on soil C stocks: a synthesis.

Soil and Tillage Research, 95, 1–10.

Franzluebbers, A. J., 2002. Soil organic matter stratification ratio as an indicator of soil quality. Soil and Tillage Research, 66, 95–106.
Franzluebbers, A. J., 2004. Tillage and residue management effects on soil organic matter. In Magdoff, F., and Weil, R. R. (eds.), Soil

Organic Matter in Sustainable Agriculture. Boca Raton: CRC

Press, pp. 227–268.

However, for most soils, the potential of carbon (C) sequestration upon conversion of plow tillage to no-tillage farming with the use of crop residue mulch and other recommended practices is 0.6–1.2 Pg C yearÀ1 (Lal, 2004). The important ecological and agronomic benefits that can derive from these practices could be limited not only by plowing but also by using crop residues for other purposes. Numerous competing uses of crop residues under arid and semiarid conditions (Bationo et al., 2007) can be a constraint for CT establishment (e.g., grazing and feed livestock). Biofuel production may be another destination (Lal and Pimentel, 2007). There is at present an imperious necessity of using cellulosic biomass instead Gajri, P. R., Arora, V. K., and Prihar, S. S., 2002. Tillage for Sustain-

able Cropping. Lucknow: International Book Distributing.
Hanson, P. J., Edwards, N. T., Garten, C. T., and Andrews, J. A.,

of crop grain for producing biofuel (mainly ethanol) and, currently, few sources are supposed to be available in suf-

2000. Separating root and soil microbial contributions to soil res-

ficient quantity and quality to support development of an

piration: a review of methods and observations. Biogeochemis-

economically sized processing facility, except crop residues (Wilhelm et al., 2004).

try, 48, 115–146.
Kuzyakov, Y., 2006. Sources of CO2 efflux from soil and review of

partitioning methods. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 38,

425–448.

Despite the suitability of CT to avoid C losses, this system may also has some drawbacks, such as the greater dependence of herbicides, higher level of residue management than conventional tillage, and it could not be adequate to all soils, climates, or crops. Moreover, the no-till system may lead to soil compaction. All these issues require experimentation in each particular scenario. However as a rule, CT does not cause yield losses when adequately established. Particularly, under arid and semiarid conditions in dry years, yields may be greater than under traditional tillage due to water savings resulting from conservation tillage.

Lal, R., 1993. Tillage effects on soil degradation, soil resilience, soil quality and sustainability. Soil and Tillage research, 27, 1–8.
Lal, R., 1997. Residue management, conservation tillage and soil restoration for mitigating the greenhouse effect. Soil and Tillage Research, 43, 81–107.
Lal, R., 2000. Soil conservation and restoration to sequester carbon and mitigate the greenhouse effect. Third International Congress of the European Society for Soil Conservation (ESSC). Valencia (Spain): Key Notes, pp. 5–20.
Lal, R., 2004. Soil carbon sequestration to mitigate climate change.
Geoderma, 123, 1–22.
Lal, R., and Pimentel, D., 2007. Biofuels from crop residues. Soil

and Tillage Research, 93, 237–238.

Conclusions

Lal, R., Hall, G. F., and Miller, F. P., 1989. Soil degradation. I. basic

principles. Land Degradation and Rehabilitation, 1, 51–69.

López-Garrido, R., Díaz-Espejo, A., Madejón, E., Murillo, J. M., and Moreno, F., 2009. Carbon losses by tillage under semi-arid mediterranean rainfed agriculture (SW Spain). Spanish Journal

of Agricultural Research, 7, 706–716.

Madejón, E., Murillo, J. M., Moreno, F., López, M. V., Arrúe, J. L.,
Álvaro-Fuentes, J., and Cantero-Martínez, C., 2009. Effect of long-term conservation tillage on soil biochemical properties in Mediterranean Spanish areas. Soil and Tillage Research, 105, 55–62.
Moreno, F., Pelegrín, F., Fernández, J. E., and Murillo, J. M., 1997.
Soil physical properties, water depletion and crop development under traditional and conservation tillage in southern Spain. Soil

and Tillage Research, 41, 25–42.

Muñoz, A., López-Piñeiro, A., and Ramírez, M., 2007. Soil quality attributes of conservation management regimes in a semi-arid region of south western Spain. Soil and Tillage Research, 95, 255–265.

Several studies have shown that the potential reduction for CO2 emission from the adoption of conservation tillage under dryland conditions could be substantial. However, further investigation should be necessary to validate, under different scenarios, the potential effect of soil to sequester carbon in these conditions.
In any case, the adoption of conservation tillage, if adequately established, has a potential effect to increase organic carbon, and thus, soil quality especially at soil surface, essential for the soil functions.

Bibliography

Álvaro-Fuentes, J., López, M. V., Arrúe, J. L., and Cantero-
Martínez, C., 2008. Management effects on soil carbon dioxide fluxes under semiarid Mediterranean conditions. Soil Science

Society of America Journal, 72, 194–200.

Baker, J. M., Ochsner, T., Venterea, R. T., and Griffis, T. J., 2007.
Tillage and soil carbon sequestration – what do really know?

Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 118, 1–5.

Ball, B. C., Scott, A., and Parker, J. P., 1999. Field N2O, CO2 and
CH4 fluxes in relation to tillage, compaction and soil quality in

Scotland. Soil and Tillage Research, 53, 29–39.

Reicosky, D. C., and Archer, D. W., 2007. Moldboard plow tillage depth and short-term carbon dioxide release. Soil and Tillage Research, 94, 109–121.
Ventera, R. T., Baker, J. M., Dolan, M. S., and Spokas, K. A., 2006.
Carbon and nitrogen storage are greater under biennial tillage in a Minnesota corn-soybean rotation. Soil Science Society of

America Journal, 70, 1752–1762.

Wilhelm, W. W., Johnson, J. M. F., Hatfield, J. L., Voorhees, W. B., and Linden, D. R., 2004. Crop and soil productivity response to corn residue removal: a literature review. Agronomy Journal, 96, 1–17.
Bationo, A., Kihara, J., Vanlauwe, B., Wasawa, B., and Kimetu, J.,
2007. Soil organic carbon dynamics, functions and management in West African agro-ecosystems. Agricultural Systems, 94, 13–25.

110

CARBON NANOTUBE

specific utilization. In the most cases, the utility value of cereals concerns using of grains to food production.

Cross-references

Biochemical Responses to Soil Management Practices Greenhouse Gases Sink in Soils Hydrophobicity of Soil

Introduction

Organic Matter, Effects on Soil Physical Properties and Processes Physical Protection of Organic Carbon in Soil Aggregates Stratification of Soil Porosity and Organic Matter Tillage, Impacts on Soil and Environment

The assessment of cereal utility value is made from the beginning of the food processing. The utility value of cereal grain depends mainly on species and cultivar properties, climatic conditions, and agricultural treatments. Moreover, the storage conditions of the cereals, the preparing conditions for processing, and the manufacturing process, all have an influence on the utility values of cereals.

CARBON NANOTUBE

The utility values of cereal is widely more significant than the technological value. The cereal utility value does not indicate only the utility of cereal grain to foodstuff production, but also takes into consideration other uses of cereals (e.g., seed production, and utilization in pharmaceutical or chemical industry) However, the technological value of the cereal grains for food production is the most often determined.

See Nanomaterials in Soil and Food Analysis

CATCHMENT (CATCHMENT BASIN)

See Water Reservoirs, Effects on Soil and Groundwater

Methods of evaluation of cereal grains utility values
CATION EXCHANGE CAPACITY

The methods of evaluation of the utility values of cereals can be divided into two groups: indirect and direct methods. The most commonly used indirect methods are selected physical and chemical properties of grain, specialist technological indices (such as falling number or sedimentation value), and rheological properties of dough. The results obtained from these tests indirectly provide information about the utility value of cereal grains.
Direct methods, on the other hand, are more suitable for examining the full characteristic of utility values of cereals; however, they are often time consuming and require more expensive equipment. These methods depend on processing grain or flour and imitated industry conditions. Subsequently, the quality of the product is evaluated. Examples of the direct methods are laboratory milling tests and laboratory baking tests.

See Surface Properties and Related Phenomena in Soils and Plants

CEMENTATION

The process by which calcareous, siliceous, or ferruginous compounds tend to dissolve and then re-precipitate in certain horizons within the soil profile, thus binding the particles into a hardened mass.

Bibliography

Introduction to Environmental Soil Physics. (First Edition). 2003.
Elsevier Inc. Daniel Hillel (ed.) http://www.sciencedirect.com/ science/book/9780123486554

Indirect methods

The basic assessment of the cereal grain includes such properties as appearance, smell, color, amount and the kind of impurities, the broken grains, and the presence of pests. A more detailed assessment includes the following physical properties of grains: density, test weight, 1,000 kernel weight, shape and size of grain, vitreousness (especially for wheat, rice, barley, and corn), mechanical properties (hardness, shear strength, rapture force and rapture energy, crushing strength, etc.) The research conducted on the endosperm structure (electron microscopy and X-ray methods) can also be used for the evaluation of the quality of cereals. Test weight (grain weight in a given volume) is the oldest and the most commonly used quality index of cereal grain. As a general rule, the higher

Cross-references

Ortstein, Physical Properties

CEREALS, EVALUATION OF UTILITY VALUES

Dariusz Dziki, Janusz Laskowski Department of Equipment Operation and Maintenance in the Food Industry, University of Life Sciences, Lublin, Poland

Definition

Utility values of cereals – feature or features of grains that the test weight, the better grain quality. Test weight is characterize the properties of kernels in the aspect of influenced by various factors, including fungal infection,

CEREALS, EVALUATION OF UTILITY VALUES

111

insect damage, kernel shape and density, foreign mate- the utility value of wheat. The hardest wheat varieties are rials, broken and shriveled kernels, agronomic practice, commonly used for semolina, cuscus, or bulgur producand the climatic and weather conditions (Czarnecki and tion. Varieties having medium hardness are used as Evans, 1986). Tkachuk et al. (1990) have shown a main source for bread flour production, while soft wheat a positive correlation between wheat test weight and varieties are the good raw material for cookies or cakes wheat flour yield and bread-baking usefulness. The test flour production (Seibel, 1996).

  • weight shows positive correlation with the grain density.
  • Grain hardness has the greatest influence on the milling

The research of wheat grain density has revealed that the process. Particularly for wheat, this parameter should be type of grain significantly affects the mean density; taken into consideration both during wheat cleaning and healthy kernels averaged 1,280 kg mÀ3, sprout-damaged conditioning and during flour milling. The denser struckernels averaged 1,190 kg mÀ3, and scab-damaged ture of hard wheat endosperm does not allow tempering

  • kernels averaged 1,080 kg mÀ3 (Martin et al., 1998).
  • water to be absorbed by hard wheat at a rate faster than that

Thousand kernel weight (TKW) is used by wheat for soft wheat, and therefore, the time of tempering is lonbreeders and flour millers as a complement to test weight ger for hard wheat. In general, hard wheat cultivars are to better describe cereal kernel composition and potential tempered to about 16–16.5% moisture whereas soft wheat flour extraction. Generally, grain with a higher TKW can cultivars are tempered to 15–15.5% (wet basis) (Fang and be expected to have a greater potential flour yield.
The parameter that is commonly used for the evaluation
Campbell, 2003).
The endosperm of hard wheat during grinding tends to of utility values of wheat, barley, rice, and corn is grind down to the coarser particles referred to as semolina vitreousness. Vitreousness indicates natural kernel trans- whereas soft varieties give more flour particles directly. lucence, which is a means of description of kernel appear- The bran layer of hard wheat is usually more susceptible ance. Vitreous kernels have a translucent, glassy to grinding than the bran layer of soft wheat. It is found appearance, as opposed to mealy kernels, which have that hard wheat kernels grind better during the reduction a light, opaque appearance. Vitreous grains are usually stage than soft kernels, and bran includes little endosperm harder and denser, and have higher protein content than (Gąsiorowski et al., 1999).

  • mealy grains. Vitreousness is usually described by
  • The flour particle size distribution also depends on the

a visual assessment of grain cross section. This parameter wheat grain hardness. Testing of the total percentage of has a significant influence on the milling process (grain flour with particle size of less than 50 mm shows considercleaning and tempering, passage and total flour extraction, able differences between soft wheat and hard wheat.

  • and semolina yield).
  • Approximately 50% of total flour produced from soft

The size and shape of grains are often useful parame- wheat is smaller than 50 mm whereas it is only 25% in hard ters to evaluate the cereal utility value. The larger and wheat. In fact, hard wheat cultivars display single-mode more spherical grains are characterized by higher yield particle size distribution whereas soft wheat cultivars have and endosperm. Small grain screenings are often sepa- bimodal distribution with the first mode at about 25 mm rated to form sound grains and can be used as a feed com- (Haddad et al., 1999). Moreover, the flour obtained from ponent. Also, small grains have a higher level of hard wheat is easy to sieve whereas soft wheat flour microbiological contamination. Gaines et al. (1997) eval- particles tend to stick to other surfaces and to other uated the influence of kernel size on soft wheat quality. It flour particles, causing sifting problems.

  • was found that besides kernel size, kernel shriveling
  • Several tests are available for the determination of

should also be taken into consideration. Shriveling cereal grain hardness. These methods often rely on the greatly reduced the test weight and decreased the amount classic method commonly used for constructional mateof flour produced during milling. Compared to sound ker- rials (e.g., the Vickers or Brinnel hardness test). However, nels, shriveled kernels had greater flour protein content, the most practical application for the evaluation of the utiland increased flour ash and kernel softness. Small, non- ity value of cereals includes tests that indirectly express shriveled kernels had slightly better baking quality than grain hardness. Especially for wheat, several methods of large non-shriveled kernels. In addition to the above men- grain hardness determination have been proposed, such tioned parameters, the kernel size uniformity is very as wheat hardness index (WHI), particle size index important to the wheat milling industry, especially in such (PSI), pearling resistance index (PRI), and a modern processing as cleaning, conditioning, debranning, or method called single kernel characterization system grinding. Kernel size and shape can be precisely (SKCS). This system is especially useful for a rapid analdescribed using Digital Image Analysis (DIA). This ysis of cereal grain physical properties (Grundas, 2004). method can be used for the evaluation of milling proper- The SKCS instrument analyzes 300 kernels individually ties of cereals (flour or semolina yield) (Berman et al., and determines kernel weight by load cell, kernel diameter

  • 1996; Novaro et al., 2001).
  • and moisture content by electrical current, and kernel

The mechanical properties of cereals play a significant hardness (HI) by pressure force. A number of researchers role in the evaluation of quality of cereals, especially the have shown the usefulness of SKCS for the evaluation of grain hardness, which is often evaluated. This parameter wheat utility value, especially milling value. This instruis one of the most important indices in the evaluation of ment can be used to evaluate the time of tempering wheat

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  • Growing Plants in Caliche Soils

    Growing Plants in Caliche Soils

    Growing Plants in Caliche Soils Guide A-151 John Idowu and Robert Flynn1 Cooperative Extension Service • College of Agricultural, Consumer and Environmental Sciences INTRODUCTION Caliche is a whitish-gray or cream-colored soil layer that has been cemented by carbonates of calcium and magnesium. Caliche may occur as a soft, thin soil horizon (layer); a hard, thick bed; or a layer exposed to the surface by erosion (SSSA, 2001). Many soils of arid and semiarid regions, including New Mexico, have caliche layers (Figure 1) under the surface, and these layers may vary in thickness. Previous studies conducted in New Mexico show that caliche can have different physical properties, and different types of caliche layers can be found in the same field (Gile, 1961). For example, some caliche materials are very hard to break (strongly in- durated or hardened; Figure 2) while some are rela- tively easy to break (slightly indurated; Figure 3). Figure 1. Caliche rock fragment from Tularosa, NM The very hard caliche layers normally pose more (photo by Robert Flynn). problems for agricultural uses than those that are easy to break. Non-indurated caliche (sometimes referred to as “soft” caliche; Figure 4) does not pose a problem for root growth and development, but can impose some nutrient-related issues for crop growth because of pH and the presence of bicarbonates. Caliche layers are formed when carbonates in the soil are dissolved and leached by rainwater. The water then rapidly evaporates or is removed by plants, leaving the carbonates behind. The carbon- ates bind with other soil particles (such as sand, clay, or silt) and become hardened caliche deposits (Hennessy et al., 1983).
  • Field Test Design Simulations of Pore-Water Extraction for the SX Tank Farm

    Field Test Design Simulations of Pore-Water Extraction for the SX Tank Farm

    PNNL-22662 Prepared for the U.S. Department of Energy under Contract DE-AC05-76RL01830 Field Test Design Simulations of Pore-Water Extraction for the SX Tank Farm MJ Truex M Oostrom September 2013 PNNL-22662 Field Test Design Simulations of Pore-Water Extraction for the SX Tank Farm MJ Truex M Oostrom September 2013 Prepared for the U.S. Department of Energy under Contract DE-AC05-76RL01830 Pacific Northwest National Laboratory Richland, Washington 99352 Summary A proof-of-principle test of pore-water extraction is being performed by Washington River Protection Solutions for the U.S. Department of Energy, Office of River Protection. The test is being conducted to meet the requirements of Hanford Federal Facility Agreement and Consent Order (Ecology et al. 1989) Milestone M-045-20, and is described in the 200 West Area Tank Farms Interim Measures Investigation Work Plan (RPP-PLAN-53808 2013). To support the design of the test, numerical simulations were conducted to help define equipment and operational parameters. The modeling effort builds from information collected in laboratory studies and from field characterization information collected at the test site near the Hanford Site 241-SX Tank Farm. Numerical simulations were used to evaluate pore-water extraction performance as a function of the test site properties and for the type of extraction well configuration that can be constructed using the direct-push installation technique. Output of simulations included rates of water and soil-gas extraction as a function of operational conditions for use in supporting field equipment design. The simulations also investigated the impact of subsurface heterogeneities in sediment properties and moisture distribution on pore-water extraction performance.
  • Caliche and Clay Mineral Zonation of Ogallala Formation, Central-Eastern New Mexico

    Caliche and Clay Mineral Zonation of Ogallala Formation, Central-Eastern New Mexico

    Circular 144 New Mexico Bureau of Mines & Mineral Resources A DIVISION OF NEW MEXICO INSTITUTE OF MINING & TECHNOLOGY Caliche and Clay Mineral Zonation of Ogallala Formation, Central-Eastern New Mexico by John D. Frye H. D. Glass A. Byron Leonard and Dennis D. Coleman SOCORRO 1974 CONTENTS INTRODUCTION 5 ZONATION OF OGALLALA FORMATION 5 CLAY MINERALS OF PLEISTOCENE DEPOSITS 9 CLIMATIC HISTORY OF OGALLALA FORMATION 10 CALICHE 11 Validity of radiocarbon dates on caliche 12 Pleistocene caliche 12 The Ogallala capping caliche 14 CONCLUSIONS 15 REFERENCES 15 APPENDIX 16 TABLES 1 — X-ray analyses 6, 7 2 — Radiocarbon dates 9 FIGURES 1 — Index map of sample localities iv 2 — Ogallala clay mineral compositions KBIM Tower Section 5 3 — Ogallala clay mineral compositions Quay-Curry Co. Line Section 8 4 — Ogallala clay mineral compositions Santa Rosa East Section 8 5 — Composite of Ogallala clay mineral compositions central-eastern New Mexico 9 6 — Kansan clay mineral compositions Hagerman East Section 10 7 — Caliches in central-eastern New Mexico (photographs) 10 ABSTRACT Clay mineral compositions permit the zonation of the Ogallala Formation (Plio- cene) in central-eastern New Mexico. The clay mineral assemblage of the lowest part is dominated by montmorillonite (Zone I); above is a zone of progressive upward in- crease of attapulgite (Zone 2); and above this, a thin zone dominated by sepiolite and attapulgite (Zone 3). Zones 1 through 3 are interpreted as representing progressive desiccation through Pliocene time. At the top of the formation, above Zone 3, are two thin zones characterized by abundant carbonate. Zone 4 is again dominated by montmorillonite with lesser amounts of illite and kaolinite, but no attapulgite or sepiolite.
  • Onset of the African Humid Period by 13.9 Kyr BP at Kabua Gorge

    Onset of the African Humid Period by 13.9 Kyr BP at Kabua Gorge

    HOL0010.1177/0959683619831415The HoloceneBeck et al. 831415research-article2019 Research paper The Holocene 1 –9 Onset of the African Humid Period © The Author(s) 2019 Article reuse guidelines: sagepub.com/journals-permissions by 13.9 kyr BP at Kabua Gorge, DOI:https://doi.org/10.1177/0959683619831415 10.1177/0959683619831415 Turkana Basin, Kenya journals.sagepub.com/home/hol Catherine C Beck,1 Craig S Feibel,2,3 James D Wright2 and Richard A Mortlock2 Abstract The shift toward wetter climatic conditions during the African Humid Period (AHP) transformed previously marginal habitats into environments conducive to human exploitation. The Turkana Basin provides critical evidence for a dynamic climate throughout the AHP (~15–5 kyr BP), as Lake Turkana rose ~100 m multiple times to overflow through an outlet to the Nile drainage system. New data from West Turkana outcrops of the late-Pleistocene to early- Holocene Galana Boi Formation complement and extend previously established lake-level curves. Three lacustrine highstand sequences, characterized by laminated silty clays with ostracods and molluscs, were identified and dated using AMS radiocarbon on molluscs and charcoal. This study records the earliest evidence from the Turkana Basin for the onset of AHP by at least 13.9 kyr BP. In addition, a depositional hiatus corresponds to the Younger Dryas (YD), reflecting the Turkana Basin’s response to global climatic forcing. The record from Kabua Gorge holds additional significance as it characterized the time period leading up to Holocene climatic stability. This study contributes to the paleoclimatic context of the AHP and YD during which significant human adaptation and cultural change occurred.
  • A Partial Glossary of Spanish Geological Terms Exclusive of Most Cognates

    A Partial Glossary of Spanish Geological Terms Exclusive of Most Cognates

    U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY A Partial Glossary of Spanish Geological Terms Exclusive of Most Cognates by Keith R. Long Open-File Report 91-0579 This report is preliminary and has not been reviewed for conformity with U.S. Geological Survey editorial standards or with the North American Stratigraphic Code. Any use of trade, firm, or product names is for descriptive purposes only and does not imply endorsement by the U.S. Government. 1991 Preface In recent years, almost all countries in Latin America have adopted democratic political systems and liberal economic policies. The resulting favorable investment climate has spurred a new wave of North American investment in Latin American mineral resources and has improved cooperation between geoscience organizations on both continents. The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) has responded to the new situation through cooperative mineral resource investigations with a number of countries in Latin America. These activities are now being coordinated by the USGS's Center for Inter-American Mineral Resource Investigations (CIMRI), recently established in Tucson, Arizona. In the course of CIMRI's work, we have found a need for a compilation of Spanish geological and mining terminology that goes beyond the few Spanish-English geological dictionaries available. Even geologists who are fluent in Spanish often encounter local terminology oijerga that is unfamiliar. These terms, which have grown out of five centuries of mining tradition in Latin America, and frequently draw on native languages, usually cannot be found in standard dictionaries. There are, of course, many geological terms which can be recognized even by geologists who speak little or no Spanish.
  • Geological Environment and Engineering Properties of Caliche in the Tucson Area, Tucson, Arizona

    Geological Environment and Engineering Properties of Caliche in the Tucson Area, Tucson, Arizona

    Geological environment and engineering properties of caliche in the Tucson area, Tucson, Arizona Item Type text; Thesis-Reproduction (electronic); maps Authors Cooley, Donald B., 1937- Publisher The University of Arizona. Rights Copyright © is held by the author. Digital access to this material is made possible by the University Libraries, University of Arizona. Further transmission, reproduction or presentation (such as public display or performance) of protected items is prohibited except with permission of the author. Download date 26/09/2021 19:56:34 Link to Item http://hdl.handle.net/10150/551826 GEOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT AND ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF CALICHE IN THE TUCSON AREA, TUCSON, ARIZONA by Donald B. Cooley A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of the DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE In the Graduate College THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA 19 6 6 STATEMENT BY AUTHOR This thesis has been submitted in partial fulfillment of requirements for an advanced degree at The University of Arizona and is deposited in the University Library to be made available to borrowers under rules of the Library. Brief quotations from this thesis are allowable without special permission, provided that accurate acknowledgment of source is made. Requests for per­ mission for extended quotation from or reproduction of this manuscript in whole or in part may be granted by the head of the major department or the Dean of the Graduate College when in his Judgment the proposed use of the material is in the interests of scholarship. In all other instances, however, permission must be obtained from the author.
  • Geology and Origin of the Chilean Nitrate Deposits by GEORGE E

    Geology and Origin of the Chilean Nitrate Deposits by GEORGE E

    Geology and Origin of the \i*J W > V lil^ Chilean Nitrate Deposits 0£0C0&'ICAi. SURVMV PROfESSIOHAX PAPER 1188 Prepared in cooperation with the Insiiiuto de Ihvesiigaciohes ieas de Chile, Geology and Origin of the Chilean Nitrate Deposits By GEORGE E. ERICKSEN GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1188 Prepared in cooperation with the Instituto de Investigaciones Geologicas de Chile A discussion of the characteristic features of the nitrate deposits and the sources and modes of accumulation of their saline components UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON: 1981 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR CECIL D. ANDRUS, Secretary GEOLOGICAL SURVEY H. William Menard, Director Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Ericksen, George Edward. Geology and origin of the Chilean nitrate deposits. (Geological Survey professional paper ; 1188) Bibliography: p. Supt. of Docs, no.: 119.16:1188 1. Nitrates. 2. Duricusts Chile Atacama Desert. 3. Geology Chile Atacama Desert. I. Chile. Institute de Investigaciones Geologicas. II. Title. III. Series: United States. Geological Survey. Professional paper ; 1188. QE471.E75 553.6'4'0983 80-607111 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office Washington, D.C. 20402 CONTENTS Page Abstract ____________________________________________________________________ 1 Introduction __________________________________________________________________ 1 Location _______________________________________________________ 2 Acknowledgments ___________________________________________________________
  • A PDF of Soil

    A PDF of Soil

    ! Growing Edible Arizona Forests, An Illustrated Guide Excerpt from leafnetworkaz.org Edible Tree Guide CHOOSE Planting Site and Design Network • Soil Linking Edible Arizona Forests Soil Soil conditions affect water retention, the oxygen and nutrients available to tree roots, and the health of soil microbes that aid trees. When walking your site, notice soils that look sandy, clayey or have caliche present, and notice places where leaves, twigs and animal scat collect and enrich soil. Think about what you know about the soil from holes dug in the past. Good soils are the key to vigorous and healthy trees. After the correct tree has been selected, planting in existing good soils or working to help create good soils should be the next priority. See the table Soil Types of Selected Edible Trees below for information on soil needs for specific trees. See For a quick soils test, shake soil and water in a jar. the Edible Tree Directory at leafnetworkaz.org for Heavy-grained gravels and sands will settle quickly. soils information on additional trees and understory Smaller-grained clays and silts will settle slowly. Light plants. organic material will float to the top. Most fruit and nut trees need well-drained soil around three feet deep. Generally, trees grow best in a mixture of sand, silt, clay and organic material. However, some trees prefer sandy soils with fast drainage. Others grow better in silty or clayey soils that are high in organic matter and moisture. Arizona soils have very low levels of organic matter, usually less than 1 percent due to the slow rates of organic matter production in arid environments.