IAI WORKING PAPERS 16 | 22 - SEPTEMBER 2016 ISSN 2280-4331 | ISBN 978-88-9368-002-8 © 2016 IAI/FEPS missions |European Union |United States China’s foreign policy |Sub-Saharan Africa |Economic aid |Military the USon how toengageChinainSSA. formulates aseries of policy recommendations for theEUand development andsecurity relations with SSA, thepaper policy inSSA. Onthebasisof themostrecent trendsinChina’s China’s leadership changein2012has affected thecountry’s of development andsecurity. Moreover, it examines how attention toChina’s relations with SSA inthetwo policy areas contours of China’s engagement inSSA, it gives particular Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). In addition tooutlining thegeneral This paper provides anoverview of China’s relations with ABSTRACT by Anna Katharina Stahl Africa China’s Relations with Sub-Saharan keywords IAI WORKING PAPERS 16 | 22 - SEPTEMBER 2016 ISSN 2280-4331 | ISBN 978-88-9368-002-8 © 2016 IAI/FEPS 2 uploads/2013/09/ep31.pdf. Papers Egmont Order”, in Coming the and Europe “A Powers, World: the 274-292; in p. BRIC Renard, Emerging Thomas World of Development in China”, Rise of the Implications The 3 2 1 different from other rising powers. in termsof geography, population andgross domestic product –it isconsiderably Among theserisingpowers, Chinamerits particular attention. Because of its size– of theEuropean Union (EU)andUSintheworld isincreasingly being challenged. Owing totheriseof newinternational players or emergingcountries, thedominance 1. Introduction: China’s reneweddiplomatic interest inAfrica by Anna Katharina Stahl* China’s Relations with Sub-Saharan Africa China’s Relations with Sub-Saharan Africa . * Bruges. Africa: Emerging Challenges to the Geographies of Power”, Geography in Compass Geographies to the Challenges Emerging Africa: and Mawdsley, “China Non-Aligned for Emma the Movement. foundations the laid War and context Cold the in held It was colonialism. oppose and cooperation to promote states Afro-Asian African European Progressive Studies (FEPS). Studies Progressive European forand Foundation (IAI) Internazionali Affari © Istituto Copyright 2016. September Africa”, of Horn the in Development and Security Peace, Africa: of Sub-Saharan Dimension Strategic the People’s Republic of Chinainthe1950s. fact, modernSino-African relations developed shortly afterthefoundation of century, it would bewrong toconsider it asacompletely “newplayer” there.In Although China’s presence inAfrica hasincreasedconsiderably inthe21st Africa hasattracted particular attention. to play amore prominent international role, China’s increasingengagement in is startingtoadopt amore active global posture.In thecontext of its ambitions middle-income country (MIC). As aconsequence of its rapid economic growth it economic expansion, makingthetransition from alow-income economy toa actively supported national independent movements inAfrica. in 1955(theso-called Bandung Conference), theChineseleader, MaoZedong, by ideological motives. Following theAsian-African Conference heldinBandung policy inAfrica wasinfluenced bytheCold War environment andmostly driven Paper produced in the framework of a project entitled “The EU, the US and the International International the and US EU, the entitled “The of aproject framework the in produced Paper Anna Katharina Stahl is Research Fellow at the EU-China Research Centre, College of Europe, of Europe, College Centre, Research Fellow EU-China at the Research is Stahl Katharina Anna

Jing Gu, John Humphrey and Dirk Messner, “Global Governance and Developing Countries: Countries: Developing and Governance “Global Messner, Dirk and Humphrey John Jing Gu, The Bandung Conference was the first large-scale conference bringing together Asian and Asian together bringing conference large-scale first the was Conference Bandung The The Star Raft. China’s Encounter Africa Raft. with Snow, Star Philip The , No. 31 (October 2009), http://www.egmontinstitute.be/wp-content/ 2009), (October 31 No. , 1 In recent decades,Chinahaswitnessed arapid 2 Duringthisperiod, China’s foreign , London, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1988. Weidenfeld &Nicolson, , London, , Vol. 36, No. 2 (February 2008), 2008), , Vol. No. 2(February 36, 3 TheTanzania- , Vol. 1, No., Vol. 3 1, IAI WORKING PAPERS 16 | 22 - SEPTEMBER 2016 ISSN 2280-4331 | ISBN 978-88-9368-002-8 © 2016 IAI/FEPS 3 Reuters finance ministersevery three years. ministerial conferences that bringtogetherChineseandAfrican foreign affairsand cooperation between ChinaandAfrica. It isprimarily basedon themechanismof an institutional framework for promoting bothpolitical dialogue andeconomic China-Africa Cooperation (FOCAC). TheFOCAC wasestablishedin2000toprovide cooperation with theother51African states iscoordinated through theForum on resume diplomatic relations with Chinaat theexpenseof Taiwan. official diplomatic relations with Taiwan. InMarch 2016,Gambiadecidedto Taiwan. In Africa, only Burkina Faso, SãoTomé Príncipe andSwaziland maintain China does notengageindiplomatic relations with countries that have recognised the African continent. In fact,on thebasisof its so-called “One-China policy,” of threestates, it maintains diplomatic relations with all 54 recognised states on and does notmake any distinction betweenparticular regions. With theexception China’s foreign policy currently covers almost thewhole of theAfrican continent include diplomatic, cultural andsecurity cooperation. opportunities, its engagement inAfrica hasbroadened over thepastyears to natural resources, trade andinvestments. Despite theinitial focus on economic the world, it wasprimarily interested inAfrica’s economic prospects intermsof economic activities abroad, particularly inAfrica. As Chinastartedopening up to open door policy, theChineseleadership also increasedthescale of thecountry’s market-oriented system (the so-called “open door policy”). In the context of China’s China startedshiftingaway from acentrally plannedeconomy towards amore development at thebeginningof the1970s.Under theleadership of DengXioaping, current engagement inAfrica hastobesituated inthecontext of its own economic Notwithstanding theimportance of thehistory of Sino-African relations, China’s Africa andRhodesia (now Zimbabwe). eliminating Zambia’s economic dependenceon theapartheid regimesof South movements. It connected Zambia to the port of Dar es Salaam in Tanzania, thereby of China’s support of African governments emergingfrom national liberation Zambia Railway, constructed in the 1970s, is considered tobean important symbol China’s Relations with Sub-Saharan Africa 6 5 4 (May 2007), p. 405-421, http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-8198.2007.00019.x. the Chinese government issued its first white paper on China’s Africa Policy. policy documents. Following theinitial FOCAC summit heldinBeijing in2006, government hasformulated aspecific African policy agenda, laid down inseveral In addition toestablishingstructured diplomatic relations with Africa, theChinese December 2015inSouth Africa. basis, alternating betweenChinaandAfrica. Themostrecent summit took placein FOCAC summits with African headsof state andgovernment areheldon aregular

The Forum on China-Africa Cooperation (FOCAC) Cooperation on China-Africa Forum The Taylor, Ian China’s African Policy African China’s Council, State Chinese Ben Blanchard and J.R. Wu, “With Gambia Move, China Ends Diplomatic Truce with Taiwan”, in with Truce Diplomatic Ends China Move, Gambia “With Wu, J.R. and Blanchard Ben , 17 March 2016, http://reut.rs/1ppR4Vn. 2016, , 17 March 5 In addition totheseministerial conferences, , January 2006, http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/zflt/eng/ 2006, , January , London/New York,, London/New Routledge, 2011. 4 China’s bilateral 6 This IAI WORKING PAPERS 16 | 22 - SEPTEMBER 2016 ISSN 2280-4331 | ISBN 978-88-9368-002-8 © 2016 IAI/FEPS 4 Export-Import (Exim)BankandtheChinaDevelopment Bank(CDB). involvement inAfrica. Thetwo mostimportant Chinesepolicy banksaretheChina Apart from China’s ministries, policy banksconstitute key players inChina’s the former Ministryof Foreign Trade andEconomic Co-operation. with Africa. MOFCOM wasestablished in2003astheresult of areorganisation of Commerce (MOFCOM) managesChina’s foreign trade,investment andaidrelations http://journals.sub.uni-hamburg.de/giga/jcca/article/view/480. Affairs Chinese of Current Journal in Bank”, Exim MOFCOM China and Commentaries from stockholders as private companies do, they arebetter suited specifically to (SOEs) rather thanprivate-sector firms. Since SOEs do nothave tofacepressures Africa. Most of the Chinesefirms operating in Africa arestate-owned enterprises rising powers, theprivate sector plays akey role inChina’s engagement with banks support theactivities of Chinesecompanies inAfrica. Similar toother 9 8 7 zxxx/t230479.htm. exclusively dedicated toAfrican affairs. Special Envoy for Africa in2007,who isasenior Chinesediplomat from theMFA China’s Africa policy isalso mirrored inthecreation of theposition of Chinese Affairs (MFA), theMFA hasacoordination role. The leading role of theMFA in the factthat theFOCAC secretariat islocated intheChineseMinistryof Foreign ministries areinvolved intheimplementation of China’s Africa policy. Owingto pluralisation inrecent years. Under theleadership of theState Council, different involvement of different actors, China’s engagement in Africa haswitnessed a foreign policy inAfrica isnotasmonolithic asit might seem.With thegrowing ruling Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and the State Council. However, China’s Overall, theformulation of China’s Africa policy falls undertheleadership of the framework outlined bythe2006policy document. 2015, Beijing released asecond Africa policy paper that confirms the overall policy towards Africa. At theoccasion of thesecond FOCAC summit inSouth Africa in introduces thegeneral principles andobjectives guidingChineseforeign policy China’s Relations with Sub-Saharan Africa 10 brettonwoodsproject.org/2016/04/20508/. Briefings Project Woods Bretton in Banks”, Development with Global Goes PGallagher, “China Kevin and Kamal Rohini activities. industrial and investment trade, to promote China’s policies implement state They functions. spending government-directed oriented ‘development financing’ role” in Africa. loans according to diplomatic andbusinessobjectives, andit plays a“policy- foreign tradeandeconomic cooperation with Africa. It administersconcessional abroad, it isChina’s EximBankthat plays apredominant role insupporting China’s CDB plays animportant role infundinglargeinfrastructure projects inChinaand org.cn/world/2015-12/05/content_37241677.htm.

China’s Second Africa Policy Paper Policy Africa China’s Second Council, State Chinese China has three institutional or so-called “policy” banks that were established in 1994 with with 1994 in established were that banks “policy” or so-called institutional three has China CCS CCS in ‘Mr. New Africa’”, China’s is Jianhua “Job -Zhong Beijing in Change Grimm, Sven Lucy Corkin, “Redefining Foreign Policy Impulses toward Africa: The Roles of the MFA, the MFA, the The of Roles Africa: toward Impulses Policy Foreign “Redefining Corkin, Lucy , 23 February 2012, http://www.ccs.org.za/?p=5102. 2012, February , 23 8 In addition totheMFA, theMinistryof , 4 December 2015, http://www.china. 2015, , 4December 10 7 In this context, China’s policy , April 2016, http://www. 2016, , April , Vol. 40, No. 4 (2011), p. 71, 71, p. , Vol. No. 4(2011), 40, 9 Whereasthe IAI WORKING PAPERS 16 | 22 - SEPTEMBER 2016 ISSN 2280-4331 | ISBN 978-88-9368-002-8 © 2016 IAI/FEPS 5 report/working/pdf/wp27_e.pdf. http://jica-ri.jica.go.jp/IFIC_and_JBICI-Studies/jica-ri/english/publication/archives/jbic/ 2008), 11 arrangements. not make aclear distinction betweendevelopment aidandeconomic/commercial including development cooperation. In fact,unlike theUSandEU, Chinadoes China’s growing engagement inAfrica hasbeenmostvisible intheeconomic area, 2. China’s role asadevelopment actor inSSA list of policy recommendation for theEUandUS. opportunities andchallenges of China’s engagement inSSA, andit formulates a provided bysections 2and3,Section 4draws conclusions about themain areas –namely, development, andpeacesecurity. Onthebasisof theanalysis scope of thispaper, thefollowing sections concentrate on two specific policy (SSA). As ananalysis of China’s overall engagement in SSA would go beyond the issues. Thispaper focuses primarily on China’s relations with Sub-Saharan Africa complex, involving avariety of different actors andcovering agrowing range of In sum,over recent years, China’s relations with Africa have become ever more players ininternational development cooperation with Africa. have setup extensive overseas programmes andhave therebybecome important actors inAfrica. Over theyears, Chineseprovincial andmunicipal governments Alongside thenational institutions, Chinesesubnational governments arealso key advancing thegovernment’s broader geopolitical objectives. China’s Relations with Sub-Saharan Africa 12 (July 752-764. p. 2011), Development of OECD-DAC International the Journal Regime”, in Meet Aid Finance Africa over thelast10years, asindicated byFigure 2. African traderelations, therehasbeenanimportant increaseinChineseaidto trading partner,having surpassedtheUSin2009.In parallel with growing Sino-

JBICI Working JBICI in Papers Policy”, Aid of China’s “Evolution Kobayashi, Takaaki Deborah Bräutigam, “Aid ‘with Chinese Characteristics’: Chinese Foreign Aid and Development Development and Aid Foreign Chinese Characteristics’: Chinese “Aid ‘with Bräutigam, Deborah 12 Figure 1shows that Chinahasbecome Africa’s second largest 11 , No. 27 (April , No. 27(April , Vol. No. 5 23, IAI WORKING PAPERS 16 | 22 - SEPTEMBER 2016 ISSN 2280-4331 | ISBN 978-88-9368-002-8 © 2016 IAI/FEPS 6 dollars in2013and3.4 billion dollars in2014. (OECD), China’s total concessional finance for development amounted to3billion estimates bytheOrganisation for Economic Co-operation andDevelopment Africa in Focus Blog in Focus Africa Ties”, in Commercial 13 progressing from anetrecipient toanetdonor. has become one of theworld’s largestsuppliers of financetodeveloping countries, As aconsequence of China’s own economic progress andits status asaMIC, it Source: Brookings 2014. Figure 1|Sub-Saharan Africa’s tradingpartners,2000-2013 China’s Relations with Sub-Saharan Africa 15 14 International Affairs International Chinese aidtoAfrica isstill rather marginal. of theOECD’s Development Assistance Committee (DAC), i.e.theEUandUS– assistance. Yet Figure 3 shows that in comparison to traditional donors – members donors, Chinaistherefore one of themostimportant providersof development www.oecd.org/dac/dac-global-relations/chinas-development-co-operation.htm.

See the OECD DAC OECD of the the People’s Republic Co-operation website: Development See of China Zenia Lewis and Witney Schneidman, “The U.S.-Africa Leaders Summit: Deepening Trade and and Trade Deepening Summit: Leaders U.S.-Africa “The Witney Schneidman, and Lewis Zenia Cambridge Review of Review Cambridge in Sense”, and Dollars Donor’: Tracking a‘Net as “China T. Chin, Gregory , Vol. 25, No. 4 (December 2012), p. 599. p. 2012), No., Vol. 4(December 25, 13 , 24 July, 24 http://brook.gs/2a3nOQi. 2014, 15 Among thegroup of emerging 14 According tothemostrecent , http:// , IAI WORKING PAPERS 16 | 22 - SEPTEMBER 2016 ISSN 2280-4331 | ISBN 978-88-9368-002-8 © 2016 IAI/FEPS 7 Rising China. Global Challenges and Opportunities Challenges Global Rising China. (eds.), Song Ligang and Golley Jane in Source: Author’s compilation basedon Bräutigam 2011 Figure 3|ODA of major donors toAfrica, 2000-2011 Source: Author’s compilation basedon Bräutigam 2011,Appendix 6. Figure 2|ChineseaidtoAfrica, 2001-2009 China’s Relations with Sub-Saharan Africa 17 16 Oxford University Press, 2011. Press, University Oxford

Deborah Bräutigam, “Chinese Development Aid in Africa. What, Where, Why and How Much?”, and Why Where, What, Africa. in Aid Development “Chinese Bräutigam, Deborah The Dragon’s Gift. The Real Story of China in of China Africa Story Real The Dragon’s Gift. The Bräutigam, Deborah 17 andOECD statistics. 16 , Paperback ed., Oxford, Oxford, ed., , Paperback , IAI WORKING PAPERS 16 | 22 - SEPTEMBER 2016 ISSN 2280-4331 | ISBN 978-88-9368-002-8 © 2016 IAI/FEPS 8 official/2011-04/21/content_1849913.htm. Development Finance to Africa: A Media-Based Approach to Data Collection”, to Center for Data in Global Approach AMedia-Based to Africa: Finance Development “China’s al., et Strange Austin also See website: http://china.aiddata.org/content/about_the_project. AidData the See methods. data-collection source open through Africa to development finance measures-for-the-administration-of-foreign-aid-.html. http://www.cn.undp.org/content/china/en/home/library/south-south-cooperation/ 2014, Studies (CCS) & Publish What You Fund, August 2011, http://www.ccs.org.za/?p=4199. 2011, You August What Fund, &Publish (CCS) Studies Flows Financial External on Chinese Information the Published of An Aid. Analysis of Chinese Transparency al., et Grimm http://fride.org/publication/1111/; Sven t1176383.htm. foreign aid. legal document with thecharacterof alaw toregulate theChinesegovernment’s important sources regardingthefigures of Chinesedevelopment assistance. 22 21 20 19 18 node/395/download. https://press.anu.edu.au/ 203-222, p. 2011, Press, University National Australian Canberra, The research byDeborah Bräutigam it istherefore important tocross-check theChinesedata with othersources. sectors anddevelopment principles of China’s development assistancetoSSA, comprehensive understandingof theinstruments, geographic distribution, aid anddoubts regardingthereliability of thedata remain.In order togain a development assistance,controversy over thelackof transparencyof Chinese Although thetwo white papers provide important information on Chinese period 2010-2012. July 2014,which provides anupdate on Chinesedevelopment assistancefor the draft measures,theState Council released asecond white paper on foreign aidin principles guidingChinesedevelopment cooperation. Onthebasisof MOFCOM’s foreign aid. specific policy papers. In April 2011,Chinapublished its first white paper on its China’s role asanemergingdonor has also beenreflected inthepublication of China’s Relations with Sub-Saharan Africa 24 23 for theAdministration of Foreign Aid.” document related to China’s development assistance, theso-called draft “Measures Three years later, inApril 2014,MOFCOM draftedanotherimportant policy MOFCOM andrefers toChina’s foreign aidpolicy more broadly. drafted by the MFA, the 2011 white paper on China’s foreign aid was prepared by China Aid China Blog in draft-measures-for-the-administration-of-foreign-aid. to Africa. assistance to Africa andtosend a signal of increasedtransparencyof Chineseaid to thecriticism of theinternational community regardingChinesedevelopment

Marina Rudyak, “MOFCOM issues the draft ‘Measures for the Administration of Foreign Aid’”, Aid’”, of Foreign Administration for the ‘Measures draft the “MOFCOM issues Rudyak, Marina FRIDE Policy Briefs Policy FRIDE in on Development”, China “Engaging Castillejo, Clare Chinese State Council, China’s Aid Foreign Council, State Chinese The Dragon’s Gift The Bräutigam, Deborah Chinese State Council, China’s Aid Foreign Council, State Chinese China Aid Dataset is a collaborative online platform that tracks project-level Chinese project-level Chinese tracks that platform online acollaborative is Dataset Aid China Chinese of Ministry Commerce, for the Aid Administration of Foreign Measures 19 Unlike China’s white paper on Africa from 2006, which was primarily 18 21 Thedocument waspublished bytheState Council inorder torespond Thepolicy document provides alistof 51articles highlighting the , 9 November 2014, http://china-aid-blog.weebly.com/blog/mofcom-issues-the- 2014, , 9November 22 , cit. , 23 , April 2011, http://english1.english.gov.cn/ 2011, , April 20 , July http://www.chinaembassy.se/eng/mtfw/ 2014, andtheChinaAid Dataset constitute two Thesemeasuresarethefirstcomprehensive , Stellenbosch, Centre for Chinese for Chinese Centre , Stellenbosch, , No. 151 (March 2013), 2013), (March , No. 151 , 15 November November , 15 24 IAI WORKING PAPERS 16 | 22 - SEPTEMBER 2016 ISSN 2280-4331 | ISBN 978-88-9368-002-8 © 2016 IAI/FEPS 9 Opportunities and Risks for Development and Risks Opportunities Schüller, China’s Margot Engagement and in Africa: Helmut Asche cit.; Characteristics’”, Reports to Congress Reports CRS Asia”, in Southeast and America, Latin Africa, in Activities Aid Foreign “China’s al., et Lum Thomas characterization-and-position-regarding-the-global-governance-of-development-aid; No. 03/2008 (March 2008), http://www.iddri.org/Publications/Chinese-assistance-to-Africa- Working IDDRI Aid”, Papers of in Development Governance Global the Regarding Position and Characterization to Africa: Assistance “Chinese Guérin, ContentPages/19176160.pdf; Emmanuel (GTZ), September 2008, http://s3.amazonaws.com/zanran_storage/www2.gtz.de/ Côte d’Ivoire, Equatorial Guinea,Mali, Togo, Sudan, Tanzania andZambia)have to the2014white paper on Chineseforeign aid,ninecountries (Benin,Cameroon, the total. ChineseaidtoAfrica mostly concentrates on countries in SSA. According accounted for over half of Chineseaid,while Asia accounted for nearly one-third of well asin-kindaid. also takes theform of debtrelief, humanitarian assistanceanddisasterrelief, as 26 25 WorkingDevelopment Papers Oceania andEurope. assistance to 121countries inAsia, Africa, Latin America andtheCaribbean, According toofficial Chinesesources, intheperiod 2010-2012, China provided Source: ChineseState Council, China’s Foreign Aid , July 2014,cit. Figure 4|China’s foreign aidbyregion, 2010-2012 concessional loans. types of financial support todeveloping countries: grants, interest-free loans, According tothe white paper on foreign aid,Chinaoffers the following three China’s aidsystemisinflux, andinrecent years newinstruments have emerged. 2.1 Instruments and geographical coverage China’s Relations with Sub-Saharan Africa 27 government on terms substantially more generous than those for market loans. for market those than more generous substantially on terms government

Chinese State Council, China’s Aid Foreign Council, State Chinese These loans, also referred to as “preferential” or “soft” loans, are granted by the Chinese Chinese the by granted are loans, or “soft” “preferential” to as referred also loans, These The Dragon’s Gift The Bräutigam, Deborah , No. R40361 (25 February 2009), http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/R40361.pdf. 2009), , No. February R40361 (25 26 25 Othersources confirm that Chinese foreign assistancetoSSA 27 As Figure 4shows, intheperiod 2010-2012, aidtoAfrica , No. 323 (April 2013), http://www.cgdev.org/node/3120257. 2013), , No. (April 323 , cit.; Deborah Bräutigam, “Aid ‘with Chinese Chinese “Aid ‘with Bräutigam, Deborah , cit.; , Eschborn, Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit , July cit. 2014, , 10 IAI WORKING PAPERS 16 | 22 - SEPTEMBER 2016 ISSN 2280-4331 | ISBN 978-88-9368-002-8 © 2016 IAI/FEPS Thomas Lum et al., “China’s Foreign Aid Activities in Africa, Latin America, and Southeast Asia”, cit. Southeast and America, Latin Africa, in Activities Aid Foreign “China’s al., et Lum Thomas Essays System”, Development Center for in Global Aid Chinese “The Lancaster, Carol workingpaper/estimating_chinas_foreign_aid_2001-2013.html; 2011-2013”, JICA-RI Working in Papers Aid Foreign China’s “Estimating Harada, Yukinori and Kitano 134-168; p. Naohiro 2012, Books, or old Patterns? Partners New Powers. and Emerging Cooperation Development (eds.), Sidiropulos Elizabeth and Fues Thomas Chaturvedi, Stones”, Sachin in the Feeling by River the Crossing Landscape: Aid Evolving Hong, Zhou “China’s cit.; Africa”, in of transparencyof theCADF sincenolistof theprojects that it fundsisavailable. net/10986/2614. and World Options Policy in Africa”, Trends Bank Sub-Saharan Chinese government-funded projects inSub-Saharan Africa areultimately aimed the CDB, which waslater increasedto5billion dollars. The fundwasestablishedinJune 2007with 1billion dollars of initial fundingby in Africa byproviding equity fundsthat assistChinese companies investing there. 32 31 30 29 28 of infrastructure, natural resources, industry, health andagricultural sectors. areas. Different sources confirm that Chinesefinanceto Africa covers theareas China’s intervention asadevelopment actor inSSA isreflected inavariety of 2.2 Sectoral priorities was established. former President Hu Jintao, aspecific China-Africa Development Fund (CADF) of an instrument specifically targeted at the continent’s development. Under The importance attributed byChinatoAfrica isalso reflected intheestablishment been theprimarybeneficiaries of China’s debtrelief. China’s Relations with Sub-Saharan Africa 33 jsf?pid=diva2%3A538478. Papers Discussion NAI in Forward”, Sudan, beingthebiggest recipients. 30 African countries, some of thoseinSSA, such asAngola, Ethiopia, Nigeria and World Bank,Chinahassigned infrastructure financeagreements with more than a major funderof infrastructure projects inAfrica. According toastudy bythe for thebulk of Chinese aidinvolume. Thisexplainswhy Chinaisemergingas Figure 5shows that Chinesesupport for infrastructure development accounts human resources development (education); (4)industry; (5)agriculture. main sectors of Chineseintervention: (1)infrastructure; (2)goods andmaterial; (3) outlined inFigure 5,China’s 2014white paper on foreign aidliststhefollowing five sovereign-wealth-fund.html. Blog Story Real The

Ibid. China in Africa. in Fund”, China Africa. in Development Africa China of the “Mysteries Bräutigam, Deborah Vivien Foster et al., “Building Bridges. China’s Growing Role as Infrastructure Financier for Financier Infrastructure Role as Growing China’s Bridges. “Building al., et Foster Vivien The Dragon’s Gift The Bräutigam, Deborah See the CAD Fund website: http://www.cadfund.com/en/index.aspx. Fund CAD the See Li Anshan et al., “FOCAC Twelve Years Later. Achievements, Challenges and the Way the Twelve and “FOCAC Challenges al., et Years Later. Achievements, Anshan Li , 24 March 2015, http://www.chinaafricarealstory.com/2015/03/is-cad-fund- 2015, March , 24 29 Theobjective of thisistopromote Chinesebusinessactivities , No. 74 http://nai.diva-portal.org/smash/record. (June 2012), , No. 78 (June http://jica-ri.jica.go.jp/publication/ No. 2014), 78 , , cit.; Deborah Bräutigam, “Chinese Development Aid Aid Development “Chinese Bräutigam, Deborah , cit.; 33 Moreover, thestudy highlights that “most , June 2007, http://www.cgdev.org/node/13953; , No. 5 (2009), http://hdl.handle. , No. 5(2009), 28 , London and New York, New and , London Zed 30 Expertshave notedalack 32 As As 31 11 IAI WORKING PAPERS 16 | 22 - SEPTEMBER 2016 ISSN 2280-4331 | ISBN 978-88-9368-002-8 © 2016 IAI/FEPS p. 207-226, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10220461.2013.811337. Affairs of International Journal South African in for-Resources Africa”, in Deals Phandulwazi nge China Research Reports Research nge China Phandulwazi 34 (ATDCs) inSSA, including inMozambique, theRepublic of Congo and Rwanda. has establishedmore thanten Agricultural Technology Demonstration Centers recipient countries’ productive capacities. Since 2006,theChinesegovernment China isactive intheareaof agricultural development with theaimof enhancing particularly visible intheareaof agriculture. Onthebasisof its own experience, (e.g. Ethiopia). China’s contribution tohuman resources development inAfrica is African countries with close political relations totheChinese Communist Party is holdingtrainingsessions for public officials and technical personnel from offered scholarships for students from SSA tostudy inChina. Moreover, China and vocational training projects. Since the1950s,Chinesegovernment has development cooperation” refers tocapacity-building measures,education In the2014white paper on China’s foreign aid,theterm“human resources concerns thesectors of human resources development, agriculture andindustry. In addition toinfrastructure, anotherimportant shareof China’s aidprojects Source: ChineseState Council, China’s Foreign Aid , July 2014,cit. Figure 5|China’s foreign aidbysector, 2010-2012 at securingaflow of Sub-Saharan Africa’s natural resources for export toChina.” China’s Relations with Sub-Saharan Africa 36 35 the 1970s,ATDCs areanewtoolof Chineseagricultural aidtoAfrica tofoster Building on China’s history of promoting agricultural development inAfrica in resources deals.” Experts have referred tothisChinesepractice asso-called “infrastructure-for-

Ana Cristina Alves, “China’s ‘Win-Win’ Cooperation: Unpacking the Impact of Infrastructure- Impact the ‘Win-Win’ Unpacking “China’s Cooperation: Alves, Cristina Ana Rex Ukaejiofo, “China-Africa Agricultural Co-operation. Mutual Benefits or Self-Interest?”, or Benefits Mutual in Co-operation. Agricultural “China-Africa Ukaejiofo, Rex Ibid., p. 84. p. Ibid., 35 , No. 12 (2014),, No. 22. 12 p. , Vol. No. 20, 2(2013), 34 36

12 IAI WORKING PAPERS 16 | 22 - SEPTEMBER 2016 ISSN 2280-4331 | ISBN 978-88-9368-002-8 © 2016 IAI/FEPS 1964. then Premier Zhou Enlai during hisvisit to several Asian andAfrican countries in Principles for Economic Aid and Technical Assistance. These were put forward by guidelines togovern its assistancetodeveloping countries, known astheEight relations with all countries, theChineseleadership also formulated asetof specific Whereas theFive Principles of Peaceful CoexistenceguideChina’s foreign of sovereignty and of non-interference. Among thesefive, Chinese leaders have put particular emphasis on theprinciple countries and are enshrined in the constitution of the People’s Republic of China. 2016), 82-91, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2016.01.003. p. World Development in Africa”, in Centers Demonstration Technology Agricultural american.edu/sis/faculty/upload/brautigam_tang_jmas-2011.pdf. Studies African of Modern Journal in Africa”, in 37 Conference. were formulated bytheChinesePremier ZhouEnlai inlight of theBandung Principles of Foreign Aid from 1963.TheFive Principles of Peaceful Coexistence distinguished: the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistencefrom 1954andtheEight that wereformulated during the1950s.Overall, two setsof principles canbe aid donor, its current role asadevelopment actor inAfrica isbasedon principles guiding its development engagement inSSA. Considering China’s history asan China’s recent policy documents provide anoverview of thecore principles 2.3 Guiding principles groups.” experienced small andmedium-sized Chineseenterprises toventure overseas “in to create economies of scale for Chineseoverseas investment, andtoassistless coastal cities. Following thismodel,China’s overseas SEZsinSSA areintended technological development zones for aspecific industry indifferent Chinese investment inthe1970sand1980s,Chineseleadership setup industrial and These arebased on China’s own development model.To attract foreign direct role inAfrica’s industrialisation byestablishingSpecial Economic Zones (SEZs). development of theindustrial sector of countries inSSA. Chinaisplaying akey Alongside infrastructure andagriculture, Chinesefinance also contributes tothe technology transfer. China’s Relations with Sub-Saharan Africa 39 38 Mauritius, Nigeria andZambia.

Xiuli Xu et al., “Science, Technology, and the Politics of Knowledge: The Case of China’s of China’s Case The of Knowledge: Politics the Technology, and “Science, Xu al., Xiuli et See footnote 3. Deborah Bräutigam and Tang Xiaoyang, “African Shenzhen: China’s Special Economic Zones Zones Economic Special China’s Shenzhen: “African Xiaoyang, Tang and Bräutigam Deborah 38 Sofar,ChineseSEZshave beenestablishedinAlgeria, Egypt, Ethiopia, 39 Theypresent guidingprinciples for China’s relations with other 37 , Vol. 49, No. 1 (March 2011), p. 27-54, p. , Vol. 2011), http://www. 49, No. 1(March , Vol. (May 81 13 IAI WORKING PAPERS 16 | 22 - SEPTEMBER 2016 ISSN 2280-4331 | ISBN 978-88-9368-002-8 © 2016 IAI/FEPS recipient country needs to fulfil. needs country recipient the that governance) good and rights human as such norms, (e.g. political objectives cooperation Chinese aidshould insteadfocus on thereal needsof therecipient countries. interference, claimingthat interference indomestic affairsis illegitimate, andthat in its development cooperation with Africa byinvoking theprinciple of non- Cooperation betweentheEU/USanddeveloping countries. Unlike traditional countries. Thenotion of SSCstandsinopposition tothetraditional North-South African countries as“South-South Cooperation” (SSC)between two developing EU andtheUS.Most importantly, Chinarefers toits development relations with China’s role asadevelopment actor inSSA differs significantly from that ofthe 2.4 China’s South-South cooperation with Africa the common practice aidconditionality. regarding SSA. They serve asajustification for theChinese leadership to oppose The two setsof principles have important implications for China’s policy China’s Relations with Sub-Saharan Africa 40

of therecipient country. 8. ensurethat Chineseexpertshave thesamestandardof living astheexperts being transferred; 7. ensurethat thepersonnel of therecipient country fully master the technology at international market prices; 6. provide thebest-quality equipment andmaterials manufactured byChina but yield quick results; 5. help recipient countries tocomplete projects which requireless investment independent economic development; 4. help recipient countries embark stepbyon the road of self-relianceand extend thetimelimit for therepayment when necessary; 3. provide economic aidintheform of interest-free or low-interest loans and conditions or askfor any privileges; 2. respectthesovereignty of recipient countries andnever attach any 1. respecttheprinciple of equality andmutual benefits; China’s Eight Principles for Economic Aid and Technical Assistance (1963) 5. peaceful co-existence. 4. equality andcooperation for mutual benefit; 3. mutual non-interference ineachother’s internal affairs; 2. mutual non-aggression; 1. mutual respectfor eachother’s territorial integrity andsovereignty; China’s Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence(1954) Aid conditionality refers to the practice of traditional/DAC donors of setting development donors of setting of traditional/DAC practice to the refers conditionality Aid Box 1|Guidingprinciples of China’s foreign policy 40 Chinadefends thelackof conditionality 14 IAI WORKING PAPERS 16 | 22 - SEPTEMBER 2016 ISSN 2280-4331 | ISBN 978-88-9368-002-8 © 2016 IAI/FEPS approach isless paternalistic thanthat of theEUandUS. of awin-winpartnership, Chineseleaders argue that theChinesedevelopment countries; and (3) if they have a concessional character. aconcessional have they (3) if and countries; developing of welfare and development economic aimpromoting of the with agencies; (2) official African domestic affairsandconflicts as itseconomic involvement deepens.” interference indomestic affairs,“Beijing hasbecome increasingly entangled in China’s engagement inAfrica isdriven bytheprinciples of sovereignty andnon- China’s foreign aid to SSA. through thedisbursement of grants, grant-based aidrepresents only asmall partof development approach of theEUandUS,which isaimedat poverty reduction regularly attacked, andChineseworkers kidnapped byrebelsandmilitia groups. to security challenges inAfrica. In Nigeria andSudan, Chineseoil facilities are recent years therehasbeen agrowing number of examples of China’s exposure files/China-in-Africa-European-Perceptions-and-Responses-to-the-Chinese-Challenge.pdf. Studies Working in Africa Papers SAIS in 44 43 42 41 the region with thegreatest number of armedconflicts inthe world. area of security. Thiscomes asnosurpriseconsidering that Africa represents Besides development, China’s growing presenceinAfrica isalso reflected inthe 3. China’s growing contribution toAfrican peaceandsecurity of Official Development Assistance (ODA), asdefinedbythe OECD’s DAC. development cooperation, China’s SSCwith Africa isnotbasedon thenotion China’s Relations with Sub-Saharan Africa 48 47 46 45 Dragon’s Gift Dragon’s journals.sub.uni-hamburg.de/giga/jcca/article/view/483. Affairs Chinese of Current Journal in Africa”, in China Union and The New Sinosphere. China in China Africa Sinosphere. New The (eds.), Mepham David Wild and Leni in mutually beneficial business-oriented cooperation. by private actors, theChineseapproach todevelopment ischaracterisedbya contrast to the DAC definition of ODA, which excludes commercial arrangements business-and-politics-south-sudan. Blog Africa exacerbates theproliferation of arms. involved inAfrican conflicts. Concerns have beenraisedthat China’s presencein As aconsequence of its growing presence inAfrica, Chinahasalso beenincreasingly as Angola andEasternCongo. Chinese SOEs have also beenexposedtosecurity risksinotherpartsof Africa, such

SIPRI, SIPRI,

According to the OECD DAC, financial flows qualify as ODA (1) if they are undertaken by undertaken are they as if (1) ODA qualify flows DAC, OECD to financial the According Alice Su, “China’s Business and Politics in South Sudan. Letter from Juba”, from Affairs Foreign Letter in Sudan. South in Politics and Business “China’s Su, Alice Helmut Asche and Margot Schüller, China’s Margot Engagement and in Africa Helmut Asche Deborah Bräutigam, “Chinese Development Aid in Africa”, cit. Africa”, in Aid Development “Chinese Bräutigam, Deborah Anna Katharina Stahl, “Contrasting Rhetoric and Converging Security Interests of the European European of the Interests Security Converging and Rhetoric “Contrasting Stahl, Katharina Anna Mark Curtis and Claire Hickson, “Arming and Alarming? Arms Exports, Peace and Security”, Security”, and Peace Exports, Arms Alarming? and “Arming Hickson, Claire and Curtis Mark Denis M. Tull, “China in Africa: European Perceptions and Responses to the Chinese Challenge”, Chinese to the Responses and Perceptions European Africa: Tull, in M. “China Denis , 6 June 2016, https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/south-sudan/2016-06-06/chinas- SIPRI Yearbook 2015 SIPRI , cit. , , Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2015. Press, University Oxford , Oxford, 43 Because China’s SSC with Africa is driven by the idea , No. 02-08 (2008), http://www.sais-jhu.edu/sites/default/, No. (2008), 02-08 48 Because theChinesearmsindustry 42 Hence, unlike thetraditional , Vol. 40, No. 4 (2011), p. 159, http:// 159, p. , Vol. No. 4(2011), 40, The The Bräutigam, Deborah , cit.; 44 , London, Institute for Institute , London, 45 Although 41 46 In In In In 47

15 IAI WORKING PAPERS 16 | 22 - SEPTEMBER 2016 ISSN 2280-4331 | ISBN 978-88-9368-002-8 © 2016 IAI/FEPS Clingendael Reports Mali”, Clingendael in in Force Protection for UN Troops of Chinese Deployment sent aninfantry unit in2013. and aContinent Embrace ARising Power to Africa. Returns China (eds.), deOliveira Soares Ricardo and Large Daniel Alden, Affairs Foreign in Pariahs?”, with Parting grounds, such asSudan or Zimbabwe. supporting so-called pariahstates that areboycotted bytheWest on human rights 55 54 53 52 51 50 49 china-in-africa. http://www.ippr.org/publications/the-new-sinosphere- 37-46, p. 2006, Research, Policy Public selective engagement or so-called “constructive involvement” in African security. learning process, Chinahasgradually shiftedfrom apolicy of non-interference to threats, such asterrorism, piracyandinternational organised crime.As partof its that Africa’s intrastate and regional armed conflicts have produced wider security security situation. It hasstartedtogo through alearning process, acknowledging and protect China’s economic interests, it needstodeal with Africa’s precarious that in order to have the capacity to develop a long-term relationship with Africa Initially beingrather unprepared, the Chinese leadership hasstartedtorealise equipment, often inexchange for natural resources. such asAngola, Botswana,Eritrea, Namibia andSierra Leone, tosupply military is expanding, the Chinese government has made deals with African states, China’s Relations with Sub-Saharan Africa As partof China’s involvement inthepeacekeeping mission of the UNinMali, examples where thePeople’s Liberation Army (PLA)wasdeployed on African soil. China has limited its contribution to non-combat forces. However, there area few Nations (UN)armsembargos. tend tobecharacterisedbypoor transparency and theyfrequently bypassUnited Force%20to%20UN%20Peacekeeping%20Operation%20in%20Mali_0.pdf. www.uscc.gov/sites/default/files/Research/Backgrounder_China%20to%20Deply%20Security%20 http:// 9 July2013, Backgrounder, Research Staff Commission Review Security and Economic UN PKOs, which ismore than15timesasmany asabout 10years ago. UN Security Council. It currently has around 1,500 peacekeepers participating in and hasbecome thelargestcontributor totheseof all permanent membersof the First, Chinaincreasedits contribution toUNpeacekeeping operations (PKOs) security approach inAfrica. Three important developments canserve asanindication of China’s changing 2006), p. 365, https://www.cairn.info/revue-politique-etrangere-2006-2-page-361.htm. 365, p. 2006), China Returns to Africa. ARising Power and aContinent Embrace to Africa. Returns China (eds.), deOliveira Soares Ricardo and Large Daniel Alden, Sudan”, Chris in with Relations Evolving Engagement? China’s Non-Interference “From to Constructive Large, Daniel resource/612; http://www.saferworld.org.uk/smartweb/resources/view- 2012, January Saferworld, London,

Stephanie Kleine-Ahlbrandt and Andrew Small, “China’s New Dictatorship Diplomacy. Is Beijing Diplomacy. Beijing Is Dictatorship New “China’s Small, Andrew and Kleine-Ahlbrandt Stephanie China to Deploy “Security Force” to UN Peacekeeping Operation in Mali Operation Force” Peacekeeping to UN Murray,Craig to “Security China Deploy Frans Paul van der Putten, “China’s Evolving Role in Peacekeeping and African Security. The The Security. African and Peacekeeping Role in Evolving “China’s Putten, der Paul van Frans China and Conflict-Affected States. Between Principles and Pragmatism Principles and andBetween China Conflict-Affected al., States. et Campbell Ivan United Nations Multidimensional Integrated Stabilisation Mission in Mali (MINUSMA). Mali in Mission Stabilisation Integrated United Multidimensional Nations Mark Curtis and Claire Hickson, “Arming and Alarming?”, cit., p. 37. p. cit., Alarming?”, and “Arming Hickson, Claire and Curtis Mark Valérie Niquet, “La stratégie africaine de la Chine”, in Politique étrangère Chine”, in dela africaine stratégie Valérie “La Niquet, , London, Hurst, 2008. Hurst, , London, 55 50 According toofficial Chinesesources, theChinese Some expertshave argued that Chinaisexplicitly , Vol. 87, No. 3 (January/February 2008), p. 38-56; Chris 38-56; p. Chris , Vol. 2008), 87, No. 3(January/February 51 49 , London, Hurst, 2008, p. 295-317. p. 2008, Hurst, , London, TheseChinesearmstrades , Vol. 71, No. 2 (Summer No. 2(Summer , Vol. 71, 53 Typically, , September , September , US-China , US-China , 54 it it 52

16 IAI WORKING PAPERS 16 | 22 - SEPTEMBER 2016 ISSN 2280-4331 | ISBN 978-88-9368-002-8 © 2016 IAI/FEPS 59 58 57 56 https://www.clingendael.nl/node/7234. 2015, off the coast of Somalia is considered to be alandmark in this process. maritime presence.China’s contribution tointernational efforts tocombat piracy more outward-looking military strategy. In particular, it wants toincreaseits global Second, Chinaisstartingtojoin multilateral security initiatives andtoformulate a the MINUSMAheadquartersandliving areasof peacekeeping forces.” troops inMali area“guard teamthat will mainly beresponsible for thesecurity of China’s Relations with Sub-Saharan Africa 60 Peacekeeping Force”, Reuters in Peacekeeping European Union in Africa. Partners or Competitors? Partners UnionEuropean in Africa. and China the (eds.), Barton Benjamin and Somalia”,in of Men Jing Coast the off Piracy against African-Peace-and-Security-Architecture. Emerging-powers/Publications/Seeking-security-in-Africa-China-s-evolving-approach-to-the- Reports NOREF in Architecture”, Security article/view/482. Affairs Chinese of Aden”, of Current Gulf the Journal Counter-piracy in in China’s Operation Bases: Overseas and Security. Hu Jintao officially launched theChina-Africa Cooperative Partnership for Peace status of full member of theFOCAC. DuringtheFOCAC meetingin2012,President the Chinesegovernment decidedinOctober2011togive totheAU Commission the 2011, representing thelargestChineseforeign aidproject inAfrica. Furthermore, symbolised bythebuilding of thenewAU headquartersinAddis Ababa inDecember and Security Architecture (APSA). China’s growing support for theAU hasbeen leadership iscollaborating with theAfrican Union (AU) tofoster theAfrican Peace Finally, Chinaissupporting African security initiatives. In particular, theChinese in otherpartsof theworld. there suggest that theChineseleadership ismore open toadeployment of thePLA http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/china/2013-06/28/c_132492919.htm. the firstexpeditionary deployment of thePLA’s navy. China startedtodeploy acounterpiracy mission intheGulf of Aden, which was an African standbyforce andtoboostits capacity for crisisresponse. military assistance to theAU inthenextfive years tosupport theestablishment of at theUNGeneral Assembly that Chinawould provide 100million dollars in on peaceandsecurity matters. Lastyear, ChinesePresident XiJinping announced of peaceandsecurity, aswell asto institutionalise astrategic dialogue with theAU started providing financial and technical support to the AU’s activities in the field

Joris Larik and Quentin Weiler, “Going Naval in Troubled Waters: The EU, China and the Fight the and Waters: EU, Weiler, China Troubled Naval The in Quentin and “Going Larik Joris Chris Alden, “Seeking Security in Africa: China’s Evolving Approach to the African Peace and and Peace African to the Approach Evolving China’s Africa: in Security “Seeking Alden, Chris Xinhua News Mali”, Xinhua in in Mission Force for Peacekeeping Security to Send “China Susanne Kamerling and Frans-Paul van der Putten, “An Overseas Naval Presence without without Naval Presence “An Overseas Putten, der van Frans-Paul and Kamerling Susanne Michael Martina and David Brunnstrom, “China’s Xi Says to Commit 8,000 Troops for UN for UN Troops 8,000 to Commit Says Xi “China’s Brunnstrom, David and Martina Michael , Vol. 40, No. 4 (2011), p. 119-146, http://journals.sub.uni-hamburg.de/giga/jcca/ p. , Vol. No. 4(2011), 40, 59 As partof thisnewpolicy initiative, theChinesegovernment has , 28 September 2015, http://reut.rs/1MCkUgh. 2015, September , 28 , March 2014, http://www.peacebuilding.no/Themes/ 2014, , March , Farnham/Burlington, Ashgate, 2011, p. 81-103. p. 2011, Ashgate, , Farnham/Burlington, 58 China’s anti-piracy efforts 60 , 28 June 2013, June 2013, , 28 57 56 In 2009, 17 IAI WORKING PAPERS 16 | 22 - SEPTEMBER 2016 ISSN 2280-4331 | ISBN 978-88-9368-002-8 © 2016 IAI/FEPS United States Mission to theAfrican Union in2006, has therebyfollowed theexample of theEUandUS.While theUSopened the 61 establishment of aChinesediplomatic mission totheAU inAddis Ababa. important role in African security. This trend has been confirmed by the recent efforts of thecurrent Chinese leadership tomodernise its military andplay amore Africa. China’s 13thFYPforesees an organisational reform of thePLAandreflects Several reforms outlined inthe13thFYPimplicitly relate toChina’s engagement in first official visit in 2016to four African countries. the factthat theChineseministerof foreign affairs, Wang Yi, decided topay his the country’s diplomatic relations with Africa. This has also been symbolised by 13th FYPindicate that China’s newleadership remainscommitted tosupporting not explicitly refer toissues of Chinese foreign policy. Yet several elements of the blueprints for China’s domestic socioeconomic development, theygenerally do the new Chinese leadership for the period 2016-2020. As China’s FYPs constitute 13th Five-Year Plan (FYP) was adopted. The 13th FYP presents the roadmap for Under thenewleadership of President XiJinping andPremier LiKeqiang, China’s a changeinleadership. In 2012,on theoccasion of the18thNational Congress of theCCP, Chinawitnessed structures. It iscommonly described asa“one-party system”, centred on theCCP. China’s engagement inSSA islargely influenced bythecountry’s specific political 4.1 China’s domestic priorities priorities andtheimplications of China’s riseinSSA for theEUandUS. SSA inamore general context, focusing specifically on China’s domestic policy of theEUandUS.Thus thislastsection will situate China’s engagement in this more evident thaninAfrica, acontinent regardedastheso-called “backyard” countries increasingly challenge thedominance of Western powers. Nowhere is At thesametime,expansion of Sino-Africa relations shows that emerging background of China’s own economic development andits domestic policies. broader trendof theriseof MICs andtherefore needstobeanalysed againstthe substantially over the past decade. China’s engagement in Africa reflects the In sum,thispaper hashighlighted that China’s relations with SSA have expanded SSA 4. Conclusion: Thebroader context of China’s engagement in China’s Relations with Sub-Saharan Africa 63 62 www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2015-02/06/content_19503781.htm. http://www.usau.usmission.gov/seton-hall-university.html. and the Role of USAURelations for Seton Hall Students University

Malawi, Mauritania, Mozambique and Namibia. and Mozambique Mauritania, Malawi, Ambassador Michael A. Battle Presentation on U.S.-AU Presentation Battle A. Michael Ambassador Union, African to the Mission US Mo Jingxi, “China Sets Up Mission to the African Union”, Daily China in African to the Up Mission Sets “China Mo Jingxi, 61 , Addis Ababa, 28 March 2013, 2013, March 28 Ababa, , Addis 63 theEUestablishedan , 6 February 2015, http:// 2015, , 6February 62 China 18 IAI WORKING PAPERS 16 | 22 - SEPTEMBER 2016 ISSN 2280-4331 | ISBN 978-88-9368-002-8 © 2016 IAI/FEPS model based on domestic consumption. on domestic based model to a growth export-driven economy from Chinese of the for arebalancing need the to express coleurope.eu/system/files_force/research-paper/eu-china_observer115.pdf. Observer EU-China in Africa”, and Europe with has attempted toadapt theChineseeconomy toaso-called “New Normal” to changeinChina’s current economic model.In thiscontext, thegovernment has recognisedthat, inorder tomaintain arapidly growing economy, it needs Alongside thesecurity reforms, the13thFYPshows that thenewChineseleadership in theHorn of Africa byfostering its security engagement on thecontinent. shows that thecurrent Chineseleadership isready toprotect its economic interests year leasing agreement with Djibouti to set up its first military base in Africa. This 65 64 instrument tofoster Sino-African development relations ispresented. are inShanghai, andit will also open aregional office inSouth Africa, an important likely toplay animportant role. As theheadquartersof theNew Development Bank also known astheBRICS (Brazil, Russia, India andChina)Development Bank–is terms of China’s development relations with Africa, theNew Development Bank– World Bankinproviding infrastructure financeto Asian developing countries. In example istheAsian Infrastructure Investment Bank(AIIB),which could rival the leadership issupporting thecreation of newfinancial institutions. Themostnotable In addition to the formulation of new development strategies, the current Chinese delegation to the AU in 2008. China’s Relations with Sub-Saharan Africa 66 benefit from Chinesefinancing for major infrastructure projects. the Silk Road Fund, African countries belonging totheMaritime Silk Road could Fund of 40billion dollars wasestablishedbytheChinesegovernment. Through to foster investments incountries along China’s New Silk Road, aspecific Silk Road to improve China’s connectivity with countries inAfrica, Asia and Europe. In order redirect China’s domestic overcapacity andcapital for infrastructure development components: theEconomic LandBelt andtheMaritime Silk Road. OBOR aimsto was announced by President Jinping in September 2013 and consists of two main (OBOR). Thisnewdevelopment strategy, also known astheNew Silk Road Initiative, forward aseries of measurestoimplement China’s newOneBelt, OneRoad Initiative Yet, in order to proactively respond to China’s “New Normal,” the 13th FYP puts natural resources exporting states inAfrica. resources, theprice of commodities isdeclining,which negatively impacts on consequence of its economic slowdown. Moreover, asChinaneedsfewer natural signs showing that China’s tradeandinvestments inAfrica aredecliningasa slower growth will have repercussions on its relations with Africa. There are initial FYP, Chinawill have anannual growth rate of 6.5-7 percent until 2020.China’s slower, but more stable andsustainable, economic growth. According tothe13th

This expression is used by the Chinese government to anticipate a more stable growth rate and rate and growth to amore stable anticipate government Chinese the by used is expression This Anna Katharina Stahl, “China’s New Silk Road Diplomacy: Implications for China’s Relations Relations for China’s Implications Diplomacy: Road Silk New “China’s Stahl, Katharina Anna EU & the EU. Chronology of bilateral relations &the website: EU. EU Chronology EEAS the See 64 Moreover, the Chinese government signed a 10- , No. 1/15 (March 2015), p. 16-19, p. 2015), https://www. (March , No. 1/15 , http://europa.eu/!QC88cW., 66 65 of of 19 IAI WORKING PAPERS 16 | 22 - SEPTEMBER 2016 ISSN 2280-4331 | ISBN 978-88-9368-002-8 © 2016 IAI/FEPS US tosupport theAU andits role infostering African peaceandsecurity. Moreover, Ababa represents anopportunity for collaboration betweenChina, theEUand APSA. Therecent establishment of China’s diplomatic mission totheAU inAddis The EUandtheUSshould collaborate with ChinatofostertheAU andthe forward: Against thebackground, thefollowing policy recommendations canbeput cooperation have beenidentified. China exchanges on Africa arestill at anearly stage,several areasfor potential adopted asecond policy paper on theEUin2014, partnership-diplomacy-engaging-with-a-changing-world. Papers World”, Working ESPO aChanging in with Engage Diplomacy: Partnership Strategic Jing, “China’s Journal Wall Street The in an international partner. policy paper, therebyformalising for thefirsttime its diplomatic relations with strategic partner.In thesameyear, theChinesegovernment issued aspecific EU among theemergingcountries –theBRICS –tobeliftedthestatus of abilateral June 2016, http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/en/TXT/?uri=celex:52016JC0030. 2016, June strategy toguideits relations with Chinafor thenextfive years. be/eng/zywj/zywd/t1227623.htm. 71 70 69 68 67 framework of theirbilateral relations with China. the US.Thus EUandUSpolicy-makers have startedtoaddress Africa within the China’s growing presenceinSSA represents amajor challenge for theEUand adopted theStrategic Agenda 2020tofoster theircollaboration. country. objective of building acooperative andcomprehensive relationship with the “Strategic andEconomic Dialogue” with China,which contributes tothewider institutionalised theirdiplomatic relations with China.TheUSestablisheda To respond toChina’s growing international role, boththeUSandEUhave 4.2 Implications for theEU and the US China’s Relations with Sub-Saharan Africa 72 en.pdf. Summit China-EU at 16th released for Agenda Cooperation EU, China-EU of the Strategic Council 2020 policy-makers. Focus Blog Focus in Africa in Africa”, in Cooperation of U.S.-China Limits “The Yun Sun, pressData/en/er/90951.pdf; http://www.consilium.europa.eu/ueDocs/cms_Data/docs/ 2006, September 11 (12642/06), gov.cn/mfa_eng/wjdt_665385/wjzcs/t1143406.shtml. and Win-win Benefit for Mutual Cooperation Partnership Strategic

(JOIN/2016/30), 22 22 (JOIN/2016/30), on China strategy for EU anew Elements EEAS, and Commission European Hillary Clinton and Timothy Geithner, “A New Strategic and Economic Dialogue with China”, China”, with Dialogue Economic “A and Geithner, Strategic New Timothy and Clinton Hillary Council of the EU, Joint of the Council Statement, Ninth Summit EU-China Chinese Government, China’s the on the China-EU Paper Policy EU: Comprehensive Deepen Government, Chinese The Strategic Agenda is the highest-level policy document, jointly adopted by EU and Chinese Chinese and jointly EU by adopted document, highest-level the policy is Agenda Strategic The Chinese Government, China’s on EU Paper Policy Government, Chinese , No. 8 (June 2014), http://www.egmontinstitute.be/publication_article/chinas-strategic- 67 , 6 April 2015, http://brook.gs/29Ze6hj. 2015, , 6April Along the same lines, the EU decided in 2003 that China would be the first , 23 November 2013, https://eeas.europa.eu/statements/docs/2013/131123_01_ 2013, November 23 , , 27July http://on.wsj.com/1w6NeAR; Huang 2009, and Feng Zhongping 68 Onthisbasis,European andChinesepolicy-makers , 13 October 2003, http://www.chinamission. 2003, October , 13 72 70 WhereasasEU-China andUS- theEUrecently released anew , Helsinki, 9 September 2006 2006 9September , Helsinki, , 2 April 2014, http://www.fmprc. 2014, , 2April 71 69 While China 20 IAI WORKING PAPERS 16 | 22 - SEPTEMBER 2016 ISSN 2280-4331 | ISBN 978-88-9368-002-8 © 2016 IAI/FEPS europa.eu/publications/detail/article/csdp-getting-third-states-on-board. missions. to provide alegal framework for UScontributions of civilian personnel toCSDP The EUandtheUSsigned aFramework Participation Agreement inMarch 2011 EU hasstartedwelcoming thecontribution of partnercountries inCSDP missions. which has seen its most important missions deployed inAfrica. In recent years, the field, it could learn from theEU’s Common Security andDefence Policy (CSDP), with theEUand UStosupport theAPSA. While Chinaisanewcomer inthe growing involvement inPKOs inAfrica andcould open thedoor for collaboration China’s first overseas deployment of combat forces inMali reaffirmsChina’s China’s Relations with Sub-Saharan Africa 74 73 the UShasbeeninvolved infighting terrorism intheSaheland Horn of Africa. involved incounterterrorism in Africa. Through its Camp Lemonier inDjibouti, the USembassies inKenya andTanzania in1998,theUShasbeen increasingly will have major implications for theEUandUS.Following thebombings of counterterrorism in theHornofAfrica . China’s newmilitary facility inDjibouti The EU and the US should specifically reach out to China in the area of operations intheGulf of Aden. monthly planning conference that allows for thecoordination of all counterpiracy participation intheSharedAwareness andDeconfliction mechanism, which isa collaboration should befurtherexpanded.For instance,Chinashould increaseits Aden, and hasalso provided anescort for several non-Chinese ships. Thisinitial to thedistresscalls of non-Chinese vessels underpirate attack intheGulf of place betweenChina,theEUandUS.For instance,thePLAnavy hasresponded collaboration in terms of information-sharing and the coordination of navies took which hasbeenits first long-distance naval deployment. In thiscontext, initial Moreover, China launched a counter-piracy mission in the Gulf of Aden in 2009, Task Force 151 of the Combined Maritime Force and the EU Naval Force Atalanta. efforts tocombat piracyintheGulf of Aden, namely through theUS-led Combined of themostimportant maritime routes. BoththeEUandUShave engagedin maritime routes. Piracyoff thecoast of Somalia hasunderminedthesafety of one As mostof theirtradeistransported bysea,theyshareacommon interest insecure security in the Horn of Africa. China, the EU and the US are major trading partners. The EU and the US should specifically reach out to China in the area of maritime Africa. could provide astartingpoint for overall China-EU-US security cooperation in etudes/IDAN/2015/549031/EXPO_IDA(2015)549031_EN.pdf. Continent While EU-US cooperation on counterterrorism hasexpandedsignificantly since for amore proactive European response tocounterterrorism intheSahelregion. At thesametime,Djibouti hostsamilitary camp for France that hasbeenpushing

Something New Out of Africa? Chinese, US and EU Strategies for the and Strategies US EU Chinese, Something of Africa? Out New Gil, Manrique Manuel EUISS Briefs EUISS in on Board”, State Third Tardy, Getting “CSDP: Thierry , Brussels, European Parliament, April 2015, http://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/ 2015, April Parliament, European , Brussels, 73 Asimilar typeof collaboration could beenvisaged with China.This , No. 6(2014), http://www.iss. 74

21 IAI WORKING PAPERS 16 | 22 - SEPTEMBER 2016 ISSN 2280-4331 | ISBN 978-88-9368-002-8 © 2016 IAI/FEPS counter-terrorism-cooperation. Alerts http://www.ccs.org.za/?p=6180. Papers Discussion CCS in Africa?”, for South Prospects What Africa: and 76 75 the 9/11terrorist attacks andmore recent attacks inEurope, China’s Relations with Sub-Saharan Africa 77 officially features ontheagenda ofthe bilateral EU-China Strategic Partnership. implementation of theSDGsin SSA. triangular development cooperation theEU, theUSandChinacould support the to the2030Agenda for Sustainable Development andits 17SDGs.Through Goals (SDGs).As membersof theUN, all threepartnershave contributed African countries in theimplementation oftheSustainable Development The EU, theUSandChinashould contribute toAfrica’s developmentandsupport become founding membersof theNew Development Bank. creation of the AIIB, several EU member states have followed the Chinese lead and shows therisksof adivided transatlantic partnership. While theUSopposed the institutions such astheNew Development BankandtheAIIB.Thecaseof theAIIB China’s efforts to play amore prominent role in global governance through same time, the EUand the USshould engage inacoordinated approach regarding support South Africa’s leadership of theG-20 Development Working Group. At the efforts in opening theG-20 to African developing countries. Together theycould G-20 in global economic governance. In particular, the EU could support China’s opportunity for collaboration betweentheEUandChinatofoster therole of the presidency of theG-20 andwill befollowed byGermany in2017.Thispresents an namely through theGroup of20(G-20)andtheAIIB.Chinacurrently holdsthe The EUandtheUSshould enhanceChina’s contribution toglobal governance, the Horn of Africa. opportunity for joint efforts between China, the EU and the US to fight terrorism in land facility in Djibouti close to that of the US and France, it could represent an Thus, although therehave beensome concerns about Chinaestablishinga article/countering-terrorism-an-area-for-eu-china-cooperation. Briefs EUISS in Cooperation?”, traditional bilateral frameworks. might bebettersuited totackle regional and global challenges, as compared with development andgood governance. Second, triangular development cooperation cooperation of theEU/USputs particular emphasis on aspectsof sustainable China’s SSCencompasses mostly infrastructure projects, traditional development traditional donor-recipient relationship betweentheEU/USandSSA. While as the combination of the comparative advantages of China’s model of SSCwith the present several advantages. First, triangular development cooperation would allow cooperation have emergedsofar, thisnewtypeof development cooperation could

Marco Funk and Florian Trauner, “Transatlantic Counter-Terrorism Cooperation”, EUISS “Transatlantic in Trauner, Florian and Funk Marco Anna Katharina Stahl, “Trilateral Development Cooperation between the European Union, China China Union, European the between Cooperation Development “Trilateral Stahl, Katharina Anna Mathieu Duchâtel and Alice Ekman, “Countering Terrorism: An Area for EU-China for EU-China Area An Terrorism: “Countering Ekman, Alice and Duchâtel Mathieu , No. 15 (April 2016), http://www.iss.europa.eu/publications/detail/article/transatlantic- 2016), (April No. 15 , , No.14 (May 2015), http://www.iss.europa.eu/publications/detail/ 2015), (May , No.14 77 Although only afew examples of triangular Updated 5September 2016 75 , No. 4/2012 (August 2012), 2012), , No. (August 4/2012 counterterrorism also 76

22 IAI WORKING PAPERS 16 | 22 - SEPTEMBER 2016 ISSN 2280-4331 | ISBN 978-88-9368-002-8 © 2016 IAI/FEPS tang_jmas-2011.pdf (March 2011),p.27-54,http://www.american.edu/sis/faculty/upload/brautigam_ Economic Zones inAfrica”, in Journal of Modern African Studies, Vol. 49,No. 1 Deborah Bräutigam andTang Xiaoyang, “African Shenzhen:China’s Special com/2015/03/is-cad-fund-sovereign-wealth-fund.html in Africa. TheReal Story Blog, 24March 2015,http://www.chinaafricarealstory. Deborah Bräutigam, “Mysteries of theChinaAfrica Development Fund”, inChina 222, https://press.anu.edu.au/node/395/download and Opportunities, Canberra, Australian National University Press, 2011, p. 203- How Much?”, inJane Golley andLigang Song (eds.),Rising China. Global Challenges Deborah Bräutigam, “ChineseDevelopment Aid inAfrica. 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Letterfrom Juba”, in No. 323(April 2013),http://www.cgdev.org/node/3120257 Approach toData Collection”, inCenter for Global Development Working Papers, Austin Strange et al., “China’s Development Finance to Africa: A Media-Based Papers, No. 4/2012(August 2012),http://www.ccs.org.za/?p=6180 Union, ChinaandAfrica: What Prospects for South Africa?”, inCCSDiscussion Anna Katharina Stahl, “Trilateral Development Cooperation betweentheEuropean article/view/483 China’s Relations with Sub-Saharan Africa 28 IAI WORKING PAPERS 16 | 22 - SEPTEMBER 2016 ISSN 2280-4331 | ISBN 978-88-9368-002-8 © 2016 IAI/FEPS www.feps-europe.eu [email protected] T. +32 22346900 1000 Brussels (Belgium) Rue Montoyer, 40 Foundation for European Progressive Studies Read more about FEPS: http://www.feps-europe.eu/en/about-feps democratic, socialist andlaboursceneinEurope andacross theworld. but nevertheless independent, FEPSembodies anewway of thinkingon thesocial Europe andtheworld facetoday. 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