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Altered States of Consciousness and Ritual in Late Bronze Age Cyprus

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Altered States of Consciousness and Ritual in Late Bronze Age Cyprus Altered States of Consciousness and Ritual in Late Bronze Age Cyprus DAVID COLLARD B.Eng, Grad.Dip (Arts), Pgrad.Dip (Arts), MA (Archaeology). Thesis submitted to the University of Nottingham for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Abstract This thesis combines an anthropological approach to the study of Altered States of Consciousness (ASCs) with a detailed analysis of previously published evidence for the consumption of psychoactives from Late Bronze Age Cypriote (Late Cypriote) contexts to investigate the possibility that such mental phenomena may have been utilised within religious rituals of this period. This evidence primarily consists of ceramic vessels associated with the consumption of opium and alcohol (often supported by organic residue analysis), but also includes iconography, ethnographic and historical sources and neuro-psychological studies of the effects of the relevant psychoactive substances. This range of evidence is analysed using a ‘contextual analysis’ designed to interpret the meanings (symbolic and socio-political) associated with the ASCs these substances can induce, particularly in relation to ritual practice. Within Late Cypriote mortuary ritual, extreme drunkenness and opium-induced ASCs are interpreted to have been symbolically linked to ritualised interaction with the underworld, suggesting that these mental phenomena possessed significant symbolic meaning. In the context of mortuary feasting, however, alcohol induced ASCs also appears to have possessed significant socio-political meaning relating to their ability to promote the development of group identity and the negotiation of individual rights and status. In non-mortuary contexts opium consumption was identified in a limited number of cases, exclusively linked with religious ritual, suggesting a continued association between the supernatural and opium induced ASCs, most likely within the context of divination ritual. In these cases opium consumption appears to have been restricted, suggesting that this activity had been incorporated into strategies involved with the ritualised legitimisation and maintenance of status and hierarchy. Alcohol induced ASCs, however, are primarily associated with feasting within non-mortuary ritual, suggesting that the socio-political meanings associated with such convivial activity were most prominent in these contexts. 1 2 Acknowledgements Throughout the completion of this thesis, there are numerous people whose support and advice has proven invaluable. I would firstly like to thank my supervisor, Professor William Cavanagh, whose encyclopaedic knowledge and guidance ensured that the focus of my research never drifted off course. Special thanks also to Dr Louise Hitchcock for valuable advice and inspiration during the early stages of the project. I wish to thank the following scholars for their assistance with this research project, Dr Thomas Brogan, Dr Betsy Bryan, Dr Lindy Crewe, Dr Tom Davis, Dr Mara Horowitz, Dr Arianne Jacobs, Dr Thomas Kiely, Dr Christopher Loveluck, Dr Andrew McCarthy, Professor Edgar Peltenburg, Dr Ulf Schoop, Dr Katy Soar, Dr Jeffery Soles, Dr Alison South, Dr Joanna Smith, Dr Soultana Valamoti, Dr Lloyd Weeks, Dr Gisela Whalburg, Dr Alsihan Yenner, Jerolyn Morrison, Vathoulla Moustoukki and Dean Smith. Extra special thanks to Dr Peter Licence and Dr Mick Cooper from the School of Chemical and Environmental Engineering at the University of Nottingham for their amazing assistance with the organic residue analysis. Special thanks also to Dr Maria Hadjicosti and the Department of Antiquities, Cyprus for so readily permitting access to material for analysis. My research was funded by a Ray and Edith Bennett Travelling Scholarship from the University of Melbourne, a University of Nottingham Scholarship for the Arts, Universitas 21, the Near Eastern Archaeological Foundation and the Department of Archaeology at the University of Nottingham. Big thanks to these funding bodies. To my friends and family, particularly my parents John and Monica, thanks for the support, especially for donating time for proof reading. Last but not least, an extra special thank you to my wife, Anna, for the love, encouragement (and proof reading) I needed to persevere with my work. Thanks also to Peanut, for not arriving too soon. 3 4 Table of Contents List of Figures..................................................................................................................... 9 List of Tables .................................................................................................................... 17 List of Abbreviations ........................................................................................................ 19 Chronology of Prehistoric Cyprus .................................................................................... 21 Introduction....................................................................................................................... 23 The Late Cypriote Context............................................................................................ 27 End of the Bronze Age.............................................................................................. 32 Chapter 1. Altered States of Consciousness ..................................................................... 37 1.1 Defining Altered States of Consciousness.............................................................. 37 1.2 Inducing Altered States of Consciousness.............................................................. 38 1.3 Experiential Characteristics of Altered States of Consciousness ........................... 40 1.4 Historical and Ethnographic Examples of Altered States of Consciousness.......... 44 1.4.1 Shamanism....................................................................................................... 44 1.4.2 !Kung Trance Performances ............................................................................ 50 1.4.3 Voodoo Spirit-Possession in Haiti................................................................... 54 1.5 The Social and Cultural Roles of Altered States of Consciousness........................ 56 1.5.1 Altered States of Consciousness and Religious Ritual .................................... 58 1.5.2 The Significance of the Ritual Experience ...................................................... 62 1.6 Altered States of Consciousness in Archaeology ................................................... 63 1.6.1 Altered States of Consciousness in the East Mediterranean Bronze Age........ 67 1.6.2 Psychoactive Substances in the East Mediterranean Bronze Age ................... 71 1.7 Investigating Altered States of Consciousness ....................................................... 80 Chapter 2. Theory and Approach...................................................................................... 83 2.1 Post-processual Approaches ................................................................................... 84 2.1.1 Contextual Analysis......................................................................................... 86 2.2 Religion and Ritual ................................................................................................. 88 2.2.1 Archaeologically Identifying Ritual ................................................................ 95 2.3 Ethnographic and Historical Analogy..................................................................... 96 2.4 Methodological Approach ...................................................................................... 98 5 Chapter 3. Evidence for Altered States of Consciousness.............................................. 103 3.1 Textual Evidence .................................................................................................. 104 3.1.1 The Marzihu/Marz ēah at Ugarit .................................................................... 104 3.1.2 Ritual Alcohol Consumption in Egyptian and Hittite Texts.......................... 112 3.2 Iconographic Evidence.......................................................................................... 114 3.2.1 Alcohol Consumption and ‘Banquet Scenes’ ................................................ 115 3.2.2 Opium Poppy Representations....................................................................... 126 3.3 Evidence for Consumption of Psychoactives ....................................................... 132 3.3.1 Opium Consumption Evidence...................................................................... 132 3.3.2 Evidence for Alcohol Consumption............................................................... 148 3.3.3 Evidence for Other Psychoactives ................................................................. 155 3.4 The Psychoactives................................................................................................. 159 3.4.1 Opium ............................................................................................................ 159 3.4.2 Alcohol........................................................................................................... 162 3.5 Organic Residue Analysis..................................................................................... 163 Sample Selection and Results ................................................................................. 164 Chapter 4. Cypriote Mortuary Ritual.............................................................................. 167 4.0.1 Tomb Assemblage Preservation ...................................................................
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