ADAMA SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF HUMANITIES AND LAW
DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY AND ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES
DETERMINANTS OF THE SUCCESS OF RECENT VILLAGIZATION PROGRAM
IN GODERE WOREDA, MAJANG ZONE, GAMBELLA REGIONAL STATE
By
Belay Gebremichael Gawo
August, 2018
Adama, Ethiopia
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DETERMINANTS OF THE SUCCESS OF RECENT VILLAGIZATION PROGRAM IN GODERE WOREDA, MAJANG ZONE, GAMBELLA REGIONAL STATE
MA Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Award of Master of Arts Degree in Geography and Environmental Studies
Advisor: Tesfaye Ganamo (PhD)
August, 2018
Adama, Ethiopia
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Declaration
I, the undersigned, declare that this study entitled ―Determinants of success of the Recent Villagization program in Godere Woreda, Majang Zone of Gambella Regional State‖ is my own work. I have undertaken the research work independently with the guidance and support of my research advisor Dr. Tesfaye Genamo. I confidently declare that this study has not been submitted for the award of any diploma or degree program in this or any other institutions. Thus, all sources of materials used for the thesis have been duly acknowledged.
Name: Belay Gebremichael Gawo
Signature: ______
Place: Adama Science and Technology University
Date of Submission: ______
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Acknowledgments
First of all I would like to thanks my almighty God for his mercy. Secondly, my gratitude goes to my advisor Dr. Tesfaye Ganamo for his appreciated support and continuous guidance while conducting this research. Without his constructive comment, encouragement and invaluable advice it would have been impossible for me to accomplish this work. Next I like to thank my all respondents who provided the necessary information for this study and really they contributed much for its success. Moreover, I would like to acknowledge my lovely wife Genet Kidane and my twin kids Nati and Nardos who supported me during data coding and editing process. My gratitude also goes to my friend Ato Mihretu Assefa who helped me in translating the local language (Majang) during the data collection period.
Lastly, not the least, I would like to appreciate all of my classmates who attended their MA thesis for five consecutive summer at ASTU and staff members who encouraged and helped me in material as well as moral.
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Table of Contents
Declaration……………………………………………………………………………………i Acknowledgments…………………………………………………………………………….ii Table of contents……………………………………………………………………………...iii Acronyms ...... x Abstract ...... xi Chapter One ...... 1 Introduction ...... 1 1.1 Background of the Study ...... 1 1.2 Statement of the Problem ...... 2 1.3. Objectives of the Study ...... 5 1.3.1 General Objective...... 5
1.3.2 Specific Objectives...... 5
1.4 Research Questions ...... 5 1.5 Significance of the Study ...... 6 1.6 Scope of the Study ...... 6 1.7 Limitation of the Study ...... 7
1.8 Operational Definitions of Terms ...... 7 1.9 Organization of the Paper...... 7
Chapter Two ...... 8 Review of the related literature ...... 8 2.1 Theoretical and Conceptual Literature ...... 8 2.1.1 The Concept of Villagization ...... 8
2.1.2 Major theories about Displacement ……………………………………………………10
2.2 Reviews of Empirical Studies ...... 15
2.2.1 Villagization Experience in Ethiopia ...... 15
2.2.1.1 Villagization during the Derg Regime ...... 15
2.2.1.2 The Current Villagization Program in Ethiopia: Overview ...... 17
2.2.1.3 Villagization in Gambella Region ...... 18
2.3 Conceptual Framework of the study ...... 21 Chapter Three ...... 24 Brief description of the study area and research methods and materials ...... 24 3.1 Brief Description of the Study Area...... 24 3.1.1 Location ...... 24
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3.1.2 Topography and Climate ...... 26
3.1.3 Demography and Socioeconomic Characteristics ...... 26
3.2 Research Methods and Materials ...... 27 3.2.1 Research Design and Approach ...... 27
3.2.2 Study Population ...... 27
3.2.3 Data Types and Sources ...... 28
3.2.4 Sampling Techniques and Sample Size Determination ...... 28
3.2.5 Methods of Data Collection ...... 30
3.2.6 Methods of Data Analysis ...... 31
3.2.6.1 Model Specification ...... 32
3.2.6.2 Definition of Variables ...... 33
3.2.7 Reliability and Validity ...... 33
3.2.8 Ethical Considerations ...... 34
Chapter Four ...... 35 4. Data Presentation and Analysis ...... 35 4.1 Demographic Profiles of Respondents ...... 35 4.1.1 Head of Households ...... 35
4.1.2 Age of Respondents ...... 36
4.1.3 Marital Status of the Household ...... 37
4.1.4 Family Size of the Respondents...... 38
4.1.5 Educational Background of the Respondents ...... 39
4.2 Socioeconomic Factors of the Household ...... 40 4.2.1 Income and Expense of the Respondents ...... 40
4.2.2 Farmland Size and Agricultural Productivity of the Household ...... 42
4.3 Psychological and Institutional Variables of the Households ...... 43 4.3.1 Perception of the Respondents about Villagization Program ...... 43
4.3.2 Access and Distance Clean water ...... 46
4.3.3 Causes of Villagization program in Godere Woreda ...... 47
4.4 Results of analysis of Binary Logistic Regression ...... 48
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4.5 Determinants of Villagization Program In Godere Woreda ...... 54 4.6 Presentation of Findings From Qualitative Data ...... 54 4.6.1 Access to Basic Services ...... 55
4.7 Benefits and Impacts of Villagazation Program in Godere woreda ...... 60
Chapter Five ...... 64 Summary, Conclusion and Recommendations ...... 64 5.1 Summary………………………………………………………………………...………..64
5.2 Conclusion ...... 64 5.3 Recommendations ...... 66 References………………………………………………………………………...…………..68 Appendix A: Traditional house, collected crop, and farmer on farming ...... 70
Appendix B: Researcher on field work……………………………………………………….72
Appendix C: Parametric and non-parametric tests……………………………………...……73
Appendix D: Normality test plot …………………………………………………..…………74
Appendix E: Summary of correlation ………………………………………………………..75
Appendix F: Summary of Multiple Regression analysis result for all independent variables ...... 75 Appedix G: Questionnaire for the respondents ...... 76
Appendix H: Guideline for Interviewee ...... 83
Appendix I: Focus Group Discussion guidline ...... 84
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List of Figures
Figure 2.1 : Conceptual Framework of the study………………………. 23 Figure 3.1: Map of the Study area……………………………………... 25 Figure 4.1: One of the primary School in the Woreda…………………. 56 Figure 4.2 : Water schemes in sample kebeles…………………………. 58 Figure 4.3: Flourmill and electric power in sample kebeles…………… 59 Figure 4.4: Model for Rehabilitation in villagization program………... 63
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List of Tables
Table 3.1: Distribution of Household heads and Sample size distribution in each selected kebeles ...... 29 Table 3.2: Description of independent variables ...... 34 Table 4.1: Head of Households ...... 36
Table 4.2: Age of the respondents ...... 36 Table 4.3: Marital status of the respondents ...... 37 Table 4.4: Family size of the Respondents ...... 38 Table 4.6: Annual Income, expense and occupation of the Respondents ...... 40 Table 4.7: Farmland size of the respondents ...... 42 Table 4.8: Their interest to leave their previous site ...... 43 Table 4.9: Their awareness about villagization program ...... 44 Table 4.10: How they assess villagization program ...... 45 Table 4.11: Beneficiaries of villagization program ...... 45 Table 4.12: The effect of villagization program ...... 46 Table 4.13: Vicinity of pure water at new village ...... 47 Table 4.14: Causes of villagization program ...... 47 Table 4.15: Block 0: Beginning Block ...... 48 Table 4.16: Omnibus test of model coefficients ...... 49 Table 4.17: Model summary of Binary logistic regression ...... 50 Table 4.19: Classification Table ...... 51 Table 4.20: Variables in the equation ...... 52
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Acronyms
ADLI - Agricultural Development-Led Industrialization
CSA - Central Statistics Agency
DIDR – Development-Induced Displacement and Reconstruction
FHHs - Female Households
FDG - Focus Group Discussion
GRS - Gambella Regional State
GWHO - Godere Woreda Health office
GWRDO - Godere Woreda Rural Development Office
HRW - Human Rights Watch
IRR - Impoverishment Risk and Reconstruction
KII - Key Informant Interview
MHHs - Male Households
NCFSE - New Coalition for Food Security in Ethiopia
UNESCO - United Nation Educational Science and Cultural Organization
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Abstract
Villagization program has a paramount contribution to the reduction of poverty by improving the livelihood of settlers through gathering them in nucleated sites. This research is aimed at assessing the determinants of success of the recent villagization program in Godere woreda, southwest Ethiopia, where the program undertaken in 2010 in five selected kebeles for the betterment of the Majang communities. The isolated nature of settlement pattern impeded the delivery of services for several decades in Godere woreda. The study focused on five major objectives - causes, perception and attitudes of the villagers, access to basic services, the merits and demerits of the scheme and the key determinant factors for the program were investigated. The necessary data were collected from 331 samples via questionnaire, FGD and KII with observation. Both primary and secondary data were obtained and analyzed through descriptive and inferential statistics (Binary logistic regression model) with mixed approach. The findings of this research show villagization have no hidden agenda rather than enhancing settlers` livelihood, the villagers were volunteering to villagized at new villages, deficient and unbalanced service delivery, resultant effects (negative and positive) of the program. Moreover, the model result noticed that the existence of significant association with nine predictors out of twelve that determines the success of villagization. Therefore, the concerned governmental bodies, NGOs and different institutions are expected to address the major challenges that encountered the settlers in the new village via different mechanisms.
Key words: Recent Villagization, Success, Determinants, Godere Woreda
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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study
Resettlement aims at re-distributing the population from degraded, populous and resource deficit regions to potentially rich areas with the natural resources where the fertile soil is available (Terefe and Ignatius; 2012). Similarly, villagization program aims relocating the scattered societies to the selected nucleated villages in order to improve their life. According to Ofcansky (2002), about 4.6 million peoples were moved from Shewa, Arsi and Hararge and 13 million peoples were relocated throughout the country, excluding the then two kifle- Hagers of Tigray and Eritrea in 1986 and 1989, respectively. The motive of the Ethiopian governments for the past half century was to rehabilitate citizens who were frequently affected by drought by moving them in wettest areas of the country where they could sustain. Resettlement program in Ethiopia was started by the Emperor Haile Silassie I in 1958 and both resettlement and Villagization were attempted by the Derg regime in 1984 during the time of famine, even though it was unfortunately unsuccessful due to its forceful nature. Besides, villagization taken by the Derg regime was implicitly focused on political agendas rather than economic and humanitarian issues that were manifested by its poorly planned, badly organized and violently enforced upon villagers (Zinabu, 2014).
According to Holm (2016), the current Ethiopian government that took power after the downfall of Derg Regime was totally against the resettlement and villagization program that has been implemented all over the country at the beginning. By criticizing Derg`s resettlement and villagization policies the Ethiopian People‘s Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF) able to gain dominant support from the opposition parties by stating the negative and inhumane nature of the program. But after a decade the EPRDF launched the first resettlement program that relocated about 627,000 populations from drought prone areas from year 2003 to 2007. Moreover, the current Ethiopian government also has been implementing a villagization program since 2010 in four coastal regions (Afar, Benshangule Gumuz, Gambella and Somali) to improve the economic and social-cultural status of the communities.
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Both resettlement and villagization seem similar in meaning and they may overlap at the same time within a country. The basic notion of villagization is relocating scattered households into centralized places with insignificant distance from their former villages. The layout of the village might be straight, linear and nucleated or grid in shape, even though this is not always the case. Whereas, resettlement involves large scale movement of population from affected areas to new areas with significant distance (Guyu, 2012).
Villagization is amongst the national policies of the present Ethiopian government that was formulated for collecting the dispersed population in the pastoral and semi pastoral regions of the country (HRW, 2012). The recent ―voluntary villagization program‖ is a rural based strategy of Ethiopian government whose purpose focuses on collecting the scattered communities in economically remote regions – Afar, Somali, Gambella and Benshangule- Gumuzi. The program was launched in 2010 with the aim of relocating about one and half million Ethiopians who are living in these four regions by 2013 (HRW, 2011). Providing infrastructure, social and economic services as well as supporting the communities to lead a sedentary and permanent way of life were amongst the aims of villagization (NCFSE, 2003).
The testimony of Ethiopian government indicates that the overall process and results obtained from villagization program is significant and has positive outcomes for the villagized communities for thousands of the participants delivered basic infrastructural services in common at new settlement. On the other hand, different international humanitarian organizations and institutions have been visiting the four selected regions for the program to make assessment whether it benefits or harms the villagized societies. Based on their report, the program is against human rights and has its own hidden agenda that merely realized on the consent of the government without settlers consensus (HRW, 2012).
1.2 Statement of the Problem It is believed that, the overall living condition and socioeconomic interaction of the scattered societies will be improved by the villagization program that ultimately benefits them. It becomes the best and durable solution for the pastoralists who lead their life by moving several kilometers in search of better condition. These societies are mostly found in arid and semi-arid parts of the country following Ethiopian border with Republic of Somalia, Kenya and Sudan. According to the Ethiopian government development program, villagization is part of the Growth and Transformation Plan I of 2010 to 2015 that aims to achieve becoming a middle income country by 2025 to 2030.
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Even though the implementation of villagization has been criticized by several agents (diverse interested groups, political activists and professionals), the government reports the successfulness, motive, smoothness and good implementation of the program. According to their argument the program is named as ‹‹Villagization››, but it is a scheme that clutches the land of indigenous people and lease to investors as (Moti, 2014) cited from (OI, 2011) and (HRW, 2012). These parties (the political activists, interested groups and professionals) have criticized not only the program but also its implementation process by notifying the abuse of Human rights and involuntary movement of villagers. Moreover, lack of promised infrastructural services around new sites aggravated the situation that indicates negligible commitment of the government for the scheme (HRW, 2012).
Thus, the current villagization program in Ethiopia in general and in Gambella region in particular is not without controversy among various organizations and individuals. The Human Rights Watch which is one of the most known global human rights advocacy organizations, contests that the program is taking place through the eviction of indigenous peoples from their ancestral land with no meaningful consultation or compensation. The organization also argues that the measures taken by the Ethiopian government are inconsistent with international law in general and the Ethiopian constitution in particular (Zinabu, 2014).
Contrary to the above argument, as cited in the works of Human Rights Watch (2012), Institute of Oakland (2011), and Motti (2014), the Ethiopian government affirms that the program aimed to improve the livelihood of pastoralist societies with the framework of the national development plan. As stated by the government, provision of effective and efficient economic, social services and improved access to infrastructure is amongst the purposes of the scheme. As expressed above, different researchers forwarded the causes and effects of villagization program based on push and pull factors at origin and destination, respectively. According to (Genanaw, 2011), the scheme is an instrument for realizing food security of households in rural parts of Ethiopia and enables them to be self-sufficient. Furthermore, Genanaw focused on five determinants (capital or assets) that has a direct impact on the livelihood of the settlers at destination, including assessment of human asset (like literacy rate), social assets like social bonding such as intermarriage, physical assets (like water supply, communication), financial assets (including salary and remittance) and natural assets such as land, forests etc. However, the finding of this study was analyzed only using descriptive statistics. He didn‘t use
3 advanced statistical analysis to show the strength and direction of the association between the dependent and independent variables.
Moreover, the work by Mandefror (2016) on the voluntary villagization program in Gambella region revealed that the reduction of poverty and increment of consumption expenditure in each household as a consequence of the program. He used twelve variables that helped him to measure the impacts of the voluntary villagization program on household consumption expenditure and the multiple linear regression models was functional to analyze it. Accordingly, the obtained research result indicates boost of household consumption expenditure and reduction of poverty due to voluntary villagization program in the study area.
In general, the program is essential to ensure and assist settlers to develop their social and economic potential in order to improve their incomes and living standards by getting access to basic infrastructural and administrative services. If attention is not given to find out such determining factors for the success of the recent villagization program, the expected opportunities for the dwellers would not be realized as projected. Moreover, studies that have dealt with determinants of success of villagization program in Gambella particularly in the study area were limited. Hence, in this study effort is made to assess and identify the determinants of success of the recent villagization program in Godere Woreda from the participants by differentiating their opinion from the above two contrary ideas of government and other different groups in order to fill the gap made by the previous works.
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1.3. Objectives of the Study
1.3.1 General Objective
The general objective of this study is to assess the determinants of the success of the recent villagization program in Godere woreda of Majang Zone in Gambella Regional State.
1.3.2 Specific Objectives
More specifically, this study intends to:
1. Identify the causes of villagization program that has been implemented by the Gambella Regional State in the study area. 2. Assess the perception of the villagized households about the villagization program at the study area. 3. Examine whether the villagers are provided with the basic facilities as promised by the government or not. 4. Assess the positive and negative impacts of villagization program in Gambella Regional State, especially in Godere woreda. 5. Identify the determining factors for the success of the villagization program in the study area.
1.4 Research Questions about the Study
Based on the above specific objectives, the study has answered the following research questions:
1. What are the causes of villagization program that has been implemented by the regional government of Gambella especially in Godere Woreda? 2. What is the perception of the newcomers about villagization scheme in the study area? 3. Are there adequate infrastructural services and facilities for the dwellers at new settlement? 4. How the villagers describe the merits and demerits of the program within the study area? 5. What are the determining factors for the effectiveness or failure of villagization program?
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1.5 Significance of the Study
Since the success and failure of the villagization program were assessed under this study, the settlers of the area have an opportunity to capture the attention of the concerned bodies that could provide solutions for the constraints. These hindrances may include - lack of sufficient pure water supply, lack of electric light supply, transportation problem, and lack of good governance that has a significant role in the development of the study area in particular and the region in general. Besides, the result of this paper may show a direction for the concerned governmental bodies (Regional, zonal and Woreda) and policy makers or planners in order to analyze the requirement of adequate pre-villagization survey including the planning and evaluation of land situation in the destination areas. And also the project is expected to reveal the fundamental causes and determinant factors for the success of the villagization program that undertaken in the study area.
Lastly, the findings of the study could initiate other researchers to generate and add information on existing knowledge of the recent villagization scheme and its impacts on improving rural communities especially for the scattered households.
1.6 Scope of the Study
Determinants of success of the recent villagization program in Godere woreda Southwest part of Ethiopia are the theme of this research which is part of a national villagization program launched in all regions where the dwellers lead uncomfortable living. Because of time and financial constraints the geographical focus of this study was only confined to Gambella regional, state, Godere woreda of Majang zone with special emphasis on five sample kebeles where the program undertaken in 2010.
Methodologically, the study employed both qualitative and quantitative research approaches in order to address the causes, impacts and determinants of the success of the recent villagization program and the attained improvements of the settlers with the provision of facilities by the government as promised before. Lastly, this study was highly relied on primary data that was gathered through different techniques between the months of January and March 2018.
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1.7 Limitation of the Study
The quality and accuracy of data gathered through a structured questionnaire may have its own limitation due to respondents‘ difference in truthfulness, understanding and interpretation. Moreover, the data analysis was limited to descriptive and inferential statistics (logistic regressions).
1.8 Operational Definitions of Terms Highlanders: A term related to all Ethiopians not indigenous to Gambella Region. Thus the word recognizes any people from the highland part of the country (Dereje, 2009).
Indigenous Communities: Peoples and nations who are native for the Gambella regional state of western Ethiopia including five nations – Agnawa, Nuer, Majang, Oppo and Komo (Martinez-Cobo, 1983).
Kebele: Kebele is one of the governmental administrative units below woreda whose population size extends average of less than 1500 (Afera, 2014).
Majang: The former name of Majang was Majenger before ten years who lives in the Gambella regional state in Southwest part of Ethiopia and speaks Nilo-Saharan language of Surmic cluster (Afera, 2014).
Woreda: It is an administrative unit between Kebele and Zone.
Villagization: The movement of people due to push or pull factors with insignificant distance (Guyu, 2012).
Zone: Administrative unit lying between the Region and Woreda.
1.9 Organization of the Paper
The thesis is organized into five chapters. The first chapter deals with introduction. Chapter two is concerned with the review of related literature, including theoretical and empirical literature. Chapter three contains the methodology followed by a description of the study area, research design, sample size and sampling procedure, data sources and method of data collection, methods of data analysis, and econometric model specification. Chapter four presents the results and discussion and the last chapter contains the summary, conclusion and recommendations of the study.
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CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE
2.1 Theoretical and Conceptual Literature 2.1.1 The Concept of Villagization
Globally, over 250 million peoples have been displaced due to developmental projects from their original land for the past two decades and among this figure over ten million peoples were the share of a single year. Villagization programs/resettlement programs have been implemented in various parts of the world during the last century, particularly common and widespread in Africa. Apart from Ethiopia, there is an evidence of programs taking place in several countries, including Tanzania, Rwanda, Zimbabwe, South Africa, Cameroon, and others.
Regarding the concept of villagization, the New Oxford American Dictionary suggests the following definition ―the concentration of the population in villages as opposed to scattered settlements, typically to ensure more efficient control and distribution of services such as health care and education‖. Villagization is referring to a state program or campaign under which farmers are relocated from scattered settlements into ‗nucleated‘ villages. And in other word, villagazation is technically about changes or interventions in rural settlement patterns (Teketel, 1998) and (Grunditz, 2015).
Villagization refers to a planned or/and spontaneous phenomenon of population redistribution. Here, planned one is the more appropriate to the Ethiopian case, as it suggests to deliberate moving of people in their own localities nearby them (Dessalegn, 2003). According to Chambers (1969), Villagization is characterized by two main features - A movement of households or population and an element of planning and control that may be practiced involuntary or forced manner. When people resettle in a new place under their initiative, this may be called ‗spontaneous villagization‘. If the program is imposed on people by an external agent in a planned and controlled manner, it may be called ‗planned villagazation‘ (Gebre, 2002). The case discussed in this study will be described as ‗planned and controlled population movement under state control‘.
Besides, particularly the planned resettlement cannot be just an event, rather it is a process. The initiatives, the negotiation process, the construction of various basic infrastructures
8 around and in the site, the social interactions among the villagers are some of the processes of the scheme. The newcomers may not be comfortable at the new site because of various socioeconomic, healthy, environmental, climatic, and other factors. Moreover, the new villagers might be back to the original places to visit relatives back home Shumete, 2013.
The concept of villagization may seem to overlap with resettlement as many researchers used in literatures and it is frequently confused with 'resettlement' (Chamber 1969:11 cited in Christy, 1999, Guyu, 2012). Of course, there are points where they overlap and where they differ (Guyu, 2012). Though villagization is an aspect of resettlement, it involves the relocation of scattered dwellings and settling in mostly similar geographic and administrative units, the capacity of villagers to readjust new environment is less complex than that in resettlement.
‗Villagization‘, is termed as re-grouping, which may involve moving insignificant distances; and aims to settle moveable household, usually herders, a process which need not involve moving them away from the area in which they are living. It can be considered as a resettlement policy, just like resettlement due to infrastructure projects, conflicts, drought, and others (Moti, 2014). As a resettlement program, villagization can be classified under more cited phenomena like development-induced displacement and resettlement (DIDR). The core of villagization program is usually to change people‘s ability to improve their current livelihoods by modern means. Hence, it has a close relationship with modernization theory (Holm, 2016).
Establishment of community infrastructure like health centers, veterinary posts, water supply, warehouses, and availability of transportation, access to improved agricultural inputs, drugs, equipment, and as well as facilitation of settlement for households such as construction of shelter, provision of oxen and seed, awareness on HIV/AIDS, gender and epidemic and communicable diseases, preparation of agricultural land for production, and capacity building at different levels is envisaged to ensure the success of the resettlement program (Web, 2004).
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The debate on villagization schemes could broadly fall into two categories. There are some who argue that these schemes can serve to promote the welfare of societies, including peasants, pastoralists, refugees- who could be victims of natural calamities like famines, floods, earthquakes and/or relocated due to large-scale development projects like dams. In situations like this, it may facilitate the provision of emergency relief and basic social services such as health, water, education and veterinary services. Others regard the schemes as disruptive social experiences that uproot people from their place of origin or residence only to leave them vulnerable both in economic and social terms. Furthermore, nation-states carry out such massive programs for reasons of political control, regimentation and/or resource extraction. It is also interesting to note that those who are optimistic about resettlement schemes are policy planners and practitioners in government and international donor circles. And the septic, as usual, is the academics that are trained to render everything to meticulous critical appraisal. Thus, villagization program has been used by the government as a means to an end up poverty and bring development of social, political, economic, and cultural progress by gathering pastoral and semi-pastoral communities together and providing them with basic infrastructural services.
2.1.2 Major theories about Displacement
Basically, there are five major theories that were formulated by different scholars in different perspectives at different time concerning the causes and resulting effects as well as other related issues of displacement. Accordingly, they will describe in detail one by one as follows:
A. Chamber’s Three Stage Model This model was formulated by Chamber and Nelson in 1970 and 1973 respectively that focused on settlements of Africa and South America in which Chamber identified a three- stage general model in the evolution of land settlement schemes in the African continent, namely recruitment, transition and development. Whereas, Nelson based on his studies of development-induced displacement issues in tropical lands confirmed this pattern in a synthesis of many experiences with new land settlements in Latin America. The models developed by both Chamber and Nelson generalized the experience of voluntary settlers and conceptualized the institutional or organizational dimensions of managed land settlement programs.
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B. John Rawls’s “General Conception” of Justice The ethics of development-induced displacement explained by John Rawls has been called his ―general conception‖ of justice. It requires that all social values – liberty and opportunity, income and wealth, and the bases of self-respect – are to be distributed equally unless an unequal distribution of any, or all, of these values is to everyone‘s advantage (Rawls 1971). With respect to development-induced displacement, Rawls's general conception enables us to recognize some of the problems encountered by the ―evacuee‖ as injustices. An unsuccessful resettlement scheme can not only fail to benefit displaced persons and their families, but studies show that it can impoverish them. According to Rawls`s view, relocation creates inequality among peoples` income, wealth and social goods such as liberty and opportunity of social basis of respect. Rawls also indicated not only the impoverishment of the displacement, but also the injustice between the relocated societies in which justice forbids any inequality. Creating different impoverishing effects of poorly planned resettlement and supporting and strengthening standards for best practices of treating the displaced people by development projects are the major contribution of Rawls general conception of justice. Accordingly, compensation and mitigation are expected mechanisms that satisfy the idea of conception of justice around displaced areas by allowing them access to land, productive resources, social basis for respect and other subsistence resources like forests, liberty and opportunities for entailing consultation and self-determination for affected communities. This would suggest an alternative set of principles for justice in resettlement: The community and its members are not to be made worse off in assets or resources (broadly conceived); on the contrary, the outcome is to be advantageous to them. Displacement and resettlement are to be freely negotiated with the community, in a process in which all members are fairly represented. Generally, Rawls emphasized on impartiality and distributive justice by favoring the right to own private property as one of the basic liberties of the people. These concepts have their relevance to the concepts of involuntary resettlement particularly when we argue for distributive justice, land for land and evaluation of pre- and post- project conditions under involuntary resettlement.
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C. "Unbalanced Growth Strategy"
Most of the problems connected with displacement, resettlement and rehabilitation can be traced to the "Unbalanced Growth Strategy," currently being followed widely for achieving rapid economic development. Unfortunately, this strategy does not sufficiently take into account the enormous suffering of the poor. Development, which has entailed many large- scale forced evictions of vulnerable populations, without the countervailing presence of policies to assist them to rebuild their lives, has only accentuated the negative aspects of displacement, such as lack of information, failure to prepare in advance a comprehensive plan for rehabilitation, the undervaluation of compensation and its payment in cash, failure to restore lost assets or livelihoods, traumatic and delayed relocation, problems at relocation sites, multiple displacement, and neglect of the special vulnerabilities of the most disadvantaged groups.
D. Scudder-Colson Theory
Building upon the earlier concepts, Scudder and Colson formulated in 1982 a theoretical model of settlement processes distinguishing four stages, by adding one concept upon the Chamber`s three stage model i.e. recruitment, transition, development, and incorporation or handing over. Firstly, the model was formulated to apply to voluntary settlement processes, but later, the model extended to some involuntary resettlement processes as well, though only the involuntary relocations are successful and move through all four stages. The Scudder- Colson model is not intended to apply to resettlement operations that fail and do not complete the last two stages.
The authors argue that relocation, whether voluntary or compulsory, is a stressful experience. People undergoing relocation react in predictable and broadly similar ways ―partly because the stress of relocation limits the range of coping responses of those involved‖ (Scudder 1985). The most stressful period is the early phases – the period leading up to the relocation, the transfer itself and the first few years of adjustment. After this, during the final stage the people behave in a more innovative, risk-avoiding way. Their attitudes become increasingly flexible, individualized and open-ended compared to communities which have not undergone the process of resettlement. This phenomenon is the result of the breakdown of the existing sociocultural organizational system of the community which makes way for new patterns and
12 individual initiatives in the re-established communities. A community is considered to be successfully resettled when it no longer depends on outside management and is integrated into the widest regional setting. Then it attains economic and administrative self-sufficiency and ability. Historically, the majority of involuntary resettlement operations have been unsuccessful. The cumulative impacts of failed resettlements were not ―modeled‘‘ in the Scudder- Colson framework of stages. The criticism by scholars like Dewet (1993) is that the Scudder-Colson relocation theory is formulated to explain the similarities, rather than differences in people‘s reaction to involuntary relocation. According to Thangaraj (1996), Scudder‘s model, built on Robert Chamber‘s three-stage framework, is restricted to the success or failure of resettlement; in other words, to the limits of the project itself. Hence it is a project-centered model.
E. The Impoverishment Risk Reconstruction Model
The shift from ‗stress centered‘ model to the impoverishment – reestablishment model is the result of methodological evolution in the study of the displacement/ resettlement issue. Now there is a growing concern over the fate of the people who are forced to relocate for the sake of projects for development. Studies across the world over the years have revealed that involuntary relocation has marginalized and impoverished more people than they have enriched. This is because they have been evicted from their homes or habitat, disrupting their lives and livelihood. They are forced to face the qualms of resettling in unfamiliar and uncongenial locations. Most of academic researches that have been conducted throughout the world on displacement have a negative consequence upon on human rights and livelihood. For instance, relocation caused by different programs (due to dam construction, reservoirs, highways, and natural catastrophes like flooding, earthquake, drought or famine, etc.) has their own immediate destructive and painful risk results that made the communities poorer than before displacement economically and socially disintegrated at new settlement. Theoretical models have been serving the policy makers for construction of suitable development strategies all over the world. Since these theories and models help us the foundation for the selection of significant development strategies, analyzing, and differentiating them in different directions will be essential.
The first theoretical model for displacement and resettlement termed as the Impoverishment Risk and Reconstruction Model (IRR model) was formulated by Michael Cernea, Senior
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Advisor for Sociology and Social Policy of the Department of Environment of the World Bank in 1990s. He has tried to complement the two situations whereby both the failures and successes of resettlement are taken into consideration in order to provide a theoretical model for successful resettlement. And he provided eight risk and impoverishment processes and how to rehabilitate the harmed societies due to the displacement problem. The major aim of the model is to explain what happens during entire forced relocation and secondly, to create a theoretical and safeguarding tool that is able to guide policy, planning and actual development programs to counteract these adverse effects as Holm (2014) cited from Cernea (2000).
As Cernea & Guggenhein (1993) stated displacement is a situation in which a person has been forced to leave his/her proper or usual place/country due to war, revolution, natural calamity or various developmental projects. According to the Anthropologists there are two factors termed as ‗push‘ and ‗pull‘ factors influencing voluntary out-migration and the Push factors force people out of their traditional localities. Those Pull factors are factors attracting people to move to new ones by leaving their original sites. The difference between voluntary and involuntary population movements is that the latter are caused by ‗push‘ factors only. Levels of anxiety and insecurity are, therefore, much higher among involuntary resettles. According to Cernea‘s IRR model impoverishment from displacement is not inevitable, but it is preventable in which he attempted to indicate not only the risks manifested after displacement but also he forwarded measures to handle any impoverishment risks. Due to this fact the foundation of this research is the Impoverishment Risk Reconstruction Model (IRR) than others in which all of them have their own drawbacks. Thus, the IRR model encompasses eight risks caused by inadequate provision of necessary resources around the new village - landlessness, homelessness, joblessness, marginalization, food insecurity, increased morbidity and mortality, social disarticulation and loss of access to common property (Cernea, 2000).
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2.2 Reviews of Empirical Studies
2.2.1 Villagization Experience in Ethiopia
2.2.1.1 Villagization during the Derg Regime
It was in 1985 that the Ethiopian government initiated a new relocation program termed as villagization. Government guidelines stipulated that villages were to house 200 to 300 households, with 1000 meter square or a with compounds length of 50 meters and width of 20 meters for each family head (Shumete, 2013).
The objectives of the program, which grouped scattered farming communities throughout the country into small village clusters, were to promote the rational land use, conserve resources, provide access to clean water and to health and education services and strengthen security. The government reaction to the drought and famine was the relocation of affected people living in the drought prone areas in the southwestern parts of the country. Accordingly, this relocation of famine stricken people labeled in two distinct but faintly related programs of resettlement and villagization under the government ten-year development plan. The government conducted most of these relocation programs under the support of the Relief and Rehabilitation Commission (RRC) and the Ministry of Agriculture. Particularly, the villagization program was organized by the National Villagization Coordinating Committee of the Ministry of Agriculture in collaboration with the Workers Party of Ethiopia (WPE). When the villagization program began, it was in a limited scope, but a year later became a nationwide campaign, which came up with a plan of moving some 33 million rural residents into villages, approximately two-thirds of the nation‘s population (Zinabu, 2014).
The Derg‘s villagization policy seems to follow from the constitutional provision which reads as: the state shall encourage the scattered rural population to aggregate in order to change their backward living conditions and enable them to lead a better social life. Accordingly, the government justified the objective of Mandar Mesereta (villagization) program; to regroup scattered farming communities throughout the country into small village clusters, so as to improve agricultural production, to introduce social and economic change, rational land use as well as to make the distribution of people compatible with that of the natural resources. This program was implemented in the regions (the former Kifile Hagers) of Ethiopia that have the
15 biggest farming populations such as the Shoa, Arsi, Hararge, and to a limited extent Gojjam, Sidamo, Wellega, Keffa and Illubabor. The way the villagization program had been implemented, especially the level of force, for instance, in Hararghe, was believed to be substantial, indeed, including executions of uncooperative farmers as well as the burning of houses and crops. These were also true, in the remaining target areas of the program. Thus, the program execution was definitely involuntary and in 1989 the government had villagized 13 million people. Later on international condemnation and deteriorating insecurity conditions as well as scarce resource on the government‘s side caused the program to vividly slow down (Lorgen, 1999).
As cited in HRW report, Mulatu summarized the villagization experience of the Derg regime, as follows: The general judgment on villagization was not favorable and thousands of people fled to avoid villagization; others died or lived in deplorable conditions after being forcibly resettled. There were indications that in the short term, villagization may have further impoverished an already poor peasantry. The services that were supposed to be delivered in new villages, such as water, electricity, health care( clinics), schools, transportation, and agricultural extension services, were not being provided because the government lacked the necessary resources (HRW, 2012).
According to Grunditz (2014) villagization program is implemented in Ethiopia since the Derg regime that serves the governors as an instrument of upholding various national agendas, including conflict resolution tool among different ethnic groups and maintaining the internal security. For instance, in Wollega and Illubabor, the government mainly applied the program to cut the relation and supports of Oromo residents to the Oromo Liberation Force. Accordingly, anyone who does not want to move into the new village considered as he/she has a desire to feed and helps the rebels. To have control over the resettles, the houses of the new villages were constructed close together on either side of a road with all the doors racing the same direction.
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2.2.1.2 The Current Villagization Program in Ethiopia: Overview
The present villagization program and the former Derg`s seem similar with its hidden agendas, including security measures and control over the populations were larger objectives than life improvements of the affected populations. The recent villagization relays on the either in the sense of coercion of citizens rather than their full voluntarily participation and decision. Through the provision of socioeconomic services changed gradually, not equivalent with the number of population as promised (Holm, 2016). The recent villagization program rests on four major pillars: voluntarism, availability of under-utilized land, consultation with the host community and, assurance of minimum infrastructure (Kidist, 2013). The main official objectives of the current villagization program includes improving livelihoods in a sustainable way, social services, infrastructure and building local institutions with people that historically have been disadvantaged in regards to development as the main target group. It further seeks to improve the resettled population's productivity and sustainable income generating activities in the villages. The program is not the sole strategy in place to achieve these objectives, but as a part of a larger strategy to improve agriculture and rural development. The direct actions to achieve these development goals by villagization or provision of - water points, health centers, schools, grinding mills, animal health centers and training centers for both farmers and pastoralists (Government of Ethiopia, 2014). Furthermore, the objectives of the new villagization programs differ from region to region, according to Shiferaw Teklemariam, Minister of Federal Affairs. Accordingly, in the pastoralist regions of Somalia and Afar, the objectives are ―primarily to resettle people in less arid areas near the Wabe Shebelle and Awash Rivers‖, while in the Benshangul-Gumuz and the Gambella regions, the objectives are to ―improve social service delivery‖. In his letter to Human Rights Watch‘s inquiry about the villagization program, the Minister replied that the aims of the villagization program in Gambella are: To provide efficient and effective economic and social services (safe drinking water, optimum Health care, Education, improved agronomy practices, market access, etc.), create an access to infrastructure (road, power, telecommunication etc.) and ensure the citizens’ full engagement in good governance and democratic exercise (Shiferaw, 2011, p.100).
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2.2.1.3 Villagization in Gambella Region
Although the Gambella region is endowed with natural resources suitable to expand agricultural production, it is one of the food unsecured area of the country. Traditional or cut & burn farming practices, scattered settlement, and riverside settlement are the causes for the vulnerability of the region, among others. To alleviate such problem the regional government has developed strategy for a villagization program on voluntarily, participatory and upon thorough investigation based on the national policy. This program has got support from the beneficiaries and is meant to provide access to socioeconomic infrastructures, exercise good governance and the program would have been done before to find out a durable solution to this paradox. The program was launched in all woredas of the region in selected kebeles where the indigenous societies unreached to basic service facilities. It has a three year life span and it is targeted to resettle 45,000 households and the program was started in 2010 having 15,000 households target beneficiaries in each year (GPNRS: 2010).
As Omod (2014) cited, from Abela, 2003, and Kurimoto, 1993: Gambella regional state has a long history of receiving settlers from the highland parts of Ethiopia, whether through voluntary movement or compulsory government programs. The first official villagization program in the Gambella region, state was in 1979 when the indigenous people of Gambella were evicted from the bank of the Baro River in order to make way for irrigated commercial agriculture. Then the government brought in settlers from the highland parts of Ethiopia to farms those irrigation schemes. After five years the most prominent villagization program took applied by the Derg regime when about 60,000 settlers were moved from the drought- affected highland areas of Amhara, Tigray and Southern regions.
In line with the national objectives, the Gambella regional state‘s ‗Villagization Program Plan‘ planned to deliver the under mentioned infrastructures and services in the new villages - 25 health centers, 19 primary schools, 51 water schemes, 18 veterinary clinics, 41 grinding mills, 49 storage facilities, and 195 kilometers of rural roads. Moreover, according to the plan, at the end of the program all the rural communities of Gambella will be grouped into towns of 500 to 600 households, every household will have three to four hectares of farmland (GPNRS, 2010). However, the plan failed to mention critical issues such as access to water, fishing sites and cultural and environmental safeguards for local communities (Omod, 2014).
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According to the HRW report about the Gambella`s villagization program, the government officials had violated widespread human rights during the implementation of the recent villagization program, including: forced displacement, arbitrary arrests, beatings, rapes, and so on. Furthermore, Gambella settlers have been denied food aid, education and proper housing (HRW 2012). Moreover, the above idea was supported by Motti (2014) concluded, the villagization program undertaken in Ethiopia in general and in Gambella in particular, since 2010 reveals explicitly depends on provision of infrastructural and social services and indirectly making land free for investors by settling the communities at nucleated village. On the other hand, the recent villagization has its drawback on the communities being involuntarily and lack of awareness rising from the concerned government bodies.
Human Right Watch (2012) letter written for Ethiopian Government revealed that: …….. The villagization process is not voluntary, and is accompanied by various human rights abuses. Government soldiers frequently beat or arrested individuals who questioned the motives of the program or refuse to move to the new villages. Community leaders and young men were targeted. There have also been credible allegations of rape and sexual assault by government soldiers. Fear and intimidation were widespread.
The Ethiopian Government response to this letter indicated that the report is an allegation and described the reality in the following way: The villagization programs as well as other development interventions were implemented in accordance with FDRE constitution and relevant democratic principles. It was fully conducted on a voluntary basis and with the full consent and participation of the beneficiaries. The sites for commune program were selected with full study into the availability of surface and ground water and adequate arable and grazing land. At most care taken to make sure the critical social and economic services i.e. water; health service, education and improved agronomy practice are put in place before the beneficiaries were relocated to the new areas. (Moti, 2014: 46)
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As far as the present villagization program is concerned, the people had less chance to participate in the process of the program, though the government officials confirmed the conduct of several meetings at different levels. For instance, one of the settlers in the Gambella regional, state replied the process of meeting held in their district:
... They arranged a meeting and said to us, it is already approved by the government to resettle you in a new place where you can find everything. And, on that meeting they said; “if you deny going there, first no service would be provided for you in this village (previous)… second you will be affected by Murulee, so… it is up you and no one will look after you.
From the testimony it is possible to recognize that, the officials were called in a meeting which has the intention of ―externalization‖ by saying ―the government has decided, the government has planned ‖ and ―transferring order ― from the above rather than giving them the chance to reflect on with the sense of ― Participation‖ (Motti, 2014:46).
The indigenous societies of the region who are found in Agnawa and Nuwer zone are mainly lead their life depending on rivers like Baro, Akobo, Gillo, Alwaro, and lake Tata. Whereas, the Majang people who are the third largest indigenous ethnic group in the Gambella region next to Anywa and Nuwer, whose language is classified under the Nilo-Saharan Surmic African language cluster live in scattered settlements in the hills and forests between the lowland Gambella region and highland Ethiopia. According to the administrative structure of the Gambella region, the Majang zone comprises two woredas, namely the Godere and Mengeshi as Omod cited from Stauder, 1971. Thus, the indigenous societies of Majang depend on the existing jungle forest as a source of basic needs and income. By having the aim of settling about 500 to 600 rural households at the end of the project, it was launched in 2010/2011 in which every house-hold will have access to arable land up to three to four hectares.
Most of the previous researches done by several authors were descriptive that focused on the implementation, practices, challenges and opportunities of the program in line with its contribution to poverty reduction, food security, consumption expenditure and on the perspectives of human right with its role in transforming the pastoral communities - Meseret (2011), Guyu, (2012) Grunditz (2015) and Mandefror (2016).
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Moreover, researchers like Moti (2014), Afera (2015), and Omod (2014) presented their work by emphasizing the realized recent villagization program in Gambella regional, state parallel with the issues of investment activities and development chances for the communities. The HRW, one of the prominent international human rights advocacy, argues the scheme is highly aimed to implement the hidden political agenda of the government whose ultimate goal is to land leasing for foreign investors. Accordingly, the action is against human rights that the organization has been opposing the Ethiopian government at global stage strongly since the time of its implementation (HRW, 2012 and 2014).
The previous empirical researches done by different research works had indicated that the success or failure of any villagization program depends upon determinant factors such as access and the provision of basic infrastructural services, proper planning of the program, construction of promised services for villagers, and sufficient support and aids for the dwellers till the time of rehabilitation are major factors. Other researchers like Moti (2014) and Holem (2016), stated that successful settlement/villagization could be measured in terms of addressing the eight documented impoverishment risks consisting of landlessness, joblessness, homelessness, marginalization, food insecurity, increased morbidity and mortality, loss of access to common property and services; and social disarticulation.
2.3 Conceptual Framework of the study
Usually, villagization and large resettlement schemes have been promoted as national policies and has been implemented by a top-down approach by the government of Ethiopia since the Imperial period. This implies that officials at the bottom level accept the strategies formulated at the top political leaders and many decisions making power to the target group of the program was neglected. Besides, the program often taken place with the full agreement of the top official in the absence of adequate and effective decision with the leaders found at the woreda and kebele levels including the participants of the scheme (Holm 2016). According to Cernea (2000) the influence of the target group upon the planning of the program seems lost in which they obey and accept what has been decided by the top government officials. And He also sets out some standards for the scheme that must be taken at a top political level including adequate house reconstruction, provision of income generating activities, social services other necessary services at new settlement. Further, he
21 rejected the concept of top to bottom application of the program for the fact that it excludes the role of local officials.
Based on the above mentioned literatures the determinant factors for the successes of villagization program are demographic, administrative (institutional), economic, psychological and other related factors that have direct and indirect relation to participants at new villages. In this study, the researcher attempted to assess the determinant factors that affect the success of the recent villagization program in the study area (Godere Woreda). Accordingly, there are four basic factors that were proposed to affect the success and failure of the villagization scheme in the study area – Demographic factors (Sex, age, marital status, head of the household, educational background), economic factors (farmland size, productivity, income, expense, occupation, living conditions), institutional factor like access to basic services and psychological factors (perception and willingness to move).
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Conceptual Framework of the study
Risk Factors after the Program
Homelessness Landlessness Joblessness IRR Model Social Marginalization Mortality and Morbidity
Loss of common property Food Insecurity Social Disarticulation
Villagization
Determinants factors Reconstruction Components
House Reconstruction Demographic Socio-Economic Land ownership
Psychological Adequate Employment Institutional Social Inclusion Better Health care
Restoring Community asset Adequate Nutrition Social Inclusion
Source: Modified from IRR Model of 1990s (2018)
Figure 2.1: Conceptual Framework of the study
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CHAPTER THREE
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY AREA
AND RESEARCH METHODS AND MATERIALS
3.1 Brief Description of the Study Area.
3.1.1 Location
Godere woreda is located in southwestern part of Ethiopia with a distance of about 629 kilometers from the capital, Addis Ababa and 305 kilometers from the regional capital Gambella. Godere woreda is bordered with two zones of SNNPR - Sheka zone in the South, Northeast and East directions and Bench Maji zone in the Southwest direction and Illubabor Zone of Oromia region in its northern direction. Mengeshi woreda of Majang zone of the Gambella region borders it in the Northwest. Astronomically, the woreda is situated between 07o04` to 07o28` North and 35o01` to 35o23` East. The five kebeles that were selected for villagization program are found in Southwestern part of the woreda town, Metti (Pact Ethiopia, 2012).
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Mengeshi
Godere
Source: Computed from Ethio-Data Base,2015
Figure 3.1: Map of the study area and Majang Zone
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3.1.2 Topography and Climate
The terrain of Godere woreda is predominantly hilly unlike the rest parts of Gambella with an elevation of 1,266 meters above sea level that permitted the area as a source of major rivers like Gilo. There are several small streams that drain from the woreda in different directions and collectively form a big river called `Fachassa` which is found in Gelesha kebele that passes through the natural bridge known as `Egizer Dildiy`. This natural bridge has a height of about 50meters and a width of 23 meters having different species of natural vegetation including huge trees on its top and around. It is the only woreda in Gambella region that is known by its cool temperature, fertile soil, which is comfortable for coffee plantation, and jungle forest (Zonal report, 2015). The woreda has an annual average temperature of 24 and receives 1,600 to 1,800mm of rainfall for more than 8 months, though it has been fluctuating recently due to man-made factors, especially deforestation. The area receives its highest rainfall during the Kiremt season from May to October and its dry season (Bega) appears between December and February. The vegetation is uniformly broad-leafed tropical rainforest characterized by large trees and moderately luxuriant undergrowth lianas, creepers, mosses and ferns. The word is part of the southwestern tropical rain forest belt in which the soil appears to be very fertile (Siyoum, 2015). The woreda has Subtropical (one Dega) type of agro-climatic zone with 60% of the land is covered by forest that has recently been selected by UNESCO as Majang Zone Forest Biosphere.
3.1.3 Demography and Socioeconomic Characteristics
The Majang societies are the first settlers of Godere Woreda who are one of the five indigenous ethnic groups in the Gambella Regional State. The woreda has a total population of 55,056 of which 51% are males and 49% are females and it has a total area of 599.75 square kilometers with population density of 92 persons per square kilometer (CSA, 2007 and GWHO, 2017). The majority of the population depends on agricultural economy in which the woreda is rich in cash crop products like coffee, fruits, cereals, and spices. Thus, the main source of income for the population is coffee plantation covering vast part of the woreda. Almost all of the Highlander communities are engaged in coffee plantation including the huge investors like Afro Tsiyon construction PLC (Siyoum, 2015).
Godere is one of the woredas of Gambella region and part of Majang zone, which is endowed with natural resources with cultural diversity. The woreda has 14 administrative kebeles and a town administration center, Metti. The ethnic groups of the woreda include Amhara,
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Majang, Kafficho, Oromo, Sheka, and Tigre with 24.48%, 23.63%, 20.78%, 12.57%, 9.57% and 3.18%, respectively. All other ethnic groups like Wolayita, Kambata, Gurage, Silte, and others make up 5.8% of the total population (CSA, 2007). The overall infrastructure of the woreda is too poor even roads connecting kebeles are seasonal and telecommunication, electricity, water supply is rarely distributed in some selected kebeles. But, recently, there is an improvement in some social services like education, health care and security (Afera, 2015).
The forest in the woreda harbors a number of wild animals, such as colobus monkey, Green monkey, Bush pig, Bushbuck, Leopard, Buffalo and many bird species. The forest of Majang zone constitutes more than 70% of the total area of the zone, which is a major source of livelihood for the local community. Some of the non-timber forest products from the forest include honey, coffee, spices, wild fruit, bush meats and wood products (Siyoum, 2015).
3.2 Research Methods and Materials 3.2.1 Research Design and Approach
A cross-sectional survey, which is part of non-experimental research design, was functional to collect valuable information from the respondents. Cross-sectional survey helps to collect data from large sample size within a short period of time. Due to its economic and time effectiveness and efficiency, the researcher has employed cross sectional survey.
On the other hand, using mixed approach is vital in order to triangulate data from different corners that fills the missing gap caused by single approach. Thus, this research employed mixed approach in order to triangulate the appropriate information about the given problem by applying both quantitative and qualitative approaches. Accordingly, the author of this research adapted questionnaire for the quantitative data and FDG, KII and observation to generate well-structured data that answers the intended objectives of this research.
3.2.2 Study Population
The Woreda covers about 858,588 hectares of land with cool temperature and ample amount of rainfall that supports farming. According to Woreda administration and rural development office, the woreda has targeted to relocate about 1,228 and 437 male and female-headed households in five rural kebeles, respectively. Of these, about 961 male and 391 female household heads were settled until 2013 in five selected kebeles. The researcher was purposively selected three rural kebeles (Dunchay, Gelesha and Semuy) with total settlers
27 of 1,086 households (774 male and 312 female households heads) based on their nearness to touch any time.
Almost all Majang societies in these kebele are dependent on mainly subsistence farming and beekeeping in the nearby jungle forest and a small number of the community rears animals like goat, cattle, and poultry.
3.2.3 Data Types and Sources
In order to obtain the required data (primary and secondary) based on the objectives of the research, samples (male and female) households, local elders and administrators, the famous and respected individuals from the sample kebeles, selected woreda officials (heads) were addressed. Pictures that indicate the settlement pattern of the villages and basic services were supported the researcher by providing the necessary information about the program through discussion, face to face interview and digital camera. On the other hand, kebele, woreda, zonal and regional reports, documents, online services (internet), and the previous researches about the program were crucial for the study.
Thus, the researcher used sample households, local elders, administrators and discussants groups at kebele level, official heads, observation and captured pictures as primary sources of information and the published and unpublished materials about the program including websites were used as a secondary source of data.
3.2.4 Sampling Techniques and Sample Size Determination
This paper employed both probability and non-probability sampling methods. The researcher used purposive sampling method for the selection of woreda for the fact that the researcher lived there for several years. Among the 14 kebeles of the woreda, the researcher purposely selected five kebeles where the villagization program has been implemented. From five of them, three were also selected purposively. Systematic random sampling was used to select the representatives (samples) from the total settlers for the fact that it is advantageous to draw the required amount of individuals from a larger population. From the sample frame every fourth individual interval were taken till the required sample size achieved. Out of the five kebeles, three of them (Dunchay, Gelesha and Semuy) were picked conveniently based on three criteria– the implementation of the program is more practical and successful in the two kebeles (Dunchay and Semuy) and the rest one kebele (Gelesha) has achieved only 43.87% its aim. Secondly, of totally villagized settlers, the large portions are found in these three
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Kebeles. Thirdly, these sample kebeles are relatively known with their public services that were promised by the government, especially road, health centres and schools. Therefore, both good achievers and failed kebeles in terms of implementing the scheme were selected by the researcher.
From the total settlers (1086) of the three Kebeles, with 95 per cent of confidence level, the sample size was decided to use the next formula adapted from Israel (1992).
Accordingly, the sample size was determined by using the following formula:
Where: n = sample size ( )
N = total population ( )
e = the precision level
293
Table 3.1: Distribution of Household heads and Sample size distribution in each selected kebeles Resettled Sample size Kebeles MHHs FHHs Total MHHs FHHs Total
Dunchay 322 116 438 87 31 118
Gelesha 124 55 179 33 15 48
Semuy 328 141 469 89 38 127
Total 774 312 1086 209 84 293 Source: GWRDAO (2012) and own survey, October, 2017
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3.2.5 Methods of Data Collection
In this research, various instruments of data collection were used to obtain the required data. To collect the primary information, the researcher used household survey questionnaire, Focus Group Discussion, key informant interview and field observation were employed. The interview and FDG were conducted with community leaders and kebele administrators as well as different government officials to generate both quantitative and qualitative data about the problem.
A. Survey Questionnaire Questionnaire consists of both open and closed ended questions were distributed to gather necessary information that answers the basic questions of the research problem. The questionnaire was prepared in English and translated into Amharic to avoid the language barrier. In order to assess the validity and reliability of the questionnaire, the researcher conducted a pilot survey with staff members who have academic experience about the issues of educational researches that supported the researcher to make the amendment up on the questionnaire before the actual work. The household survey was taken place with the help of translators (Amharic to Majang) who thought to have adequate knowledge about the sociocultural elements of the Majang communities. Moreover, the assistant enumerators were given training for a day about the overall data collection techniques and the preconditions that should be taken into consideration while the actual work. The enumerators are above grade ten who have well informed about the study area and stayed twenty days to gather the required information.
B. Focus Group Discussion Focus group discussion (FGD) was carried out at kebele level for two hours with the selected representatives‘ of village dwellers in-order to generate information about the program purposefully. So, there were a total of three FGDs groups within the selected sample kebeles/sites that represent the settled community members. Each group consisted of eight individuals whose participants were deeply well-informed about the social, cultural, environmental, economic as well as other aspects of the study area for overtime. Therefore, the three FGDs contained a total number of 24 individuals who discussed on similar issues of the program. The researcher, guided and facilitated the discussion based on the preparation guidelines in which the merit and demerit of the villagization program was mentioned by the discussants.
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C. Key Informant Interview Six community leaders and respective kebele administrators (Semuy, Gelesha and Dunchay) were taken purposefully for the key informant interview. Additionally, the heads of five offices from the selected governmental offices (woreda council, agricultural and rural development, food security, and education and Metti town municipality) were included in KII for the fact that they participated directly or indirectly during the implementation of the program. Therefore, totally fourteen individuals (9 males and 5 females) at both kebele and woreda levels were included in KII. The aim of KII was to know the perception and attitudes of the villagers and other concerned bodies (governmental officials) about the villagization program. In this case it was possible to understand the perception of settlers about the program prior its implementation and the techniques used by different governmental officials to raise the awareness of the community concerning the program.
D. Observation Observation is a purposeful, systematic and selective way of watching and listening to an interaction or phenomenon as it takes place (Kumar, 1990). Therefore, the researcher used observation to observe the settlement pattern of villagized areas/sites, the size of farmland for each villager, farming activities, family size of villagers, natural resources, particularly - forest management and its coverage in the area as well as access to basic services (the provision of pure water, health, education and different infrastructural facilities like flour mill). During the observation the researcher gathered data which enable him to make proportional valuation between secondary source about the issue and the real facts going there. Besides, photo data has been taken to be used as an evidence for analysis and generate graphic information.
3.2.6 Methods of Data Analysis
In this study, the data analyses were done by using quantitative and qualitative procedures and methods. To analyze quantitative data, descriptive and inferential statistics were used. The basic descriptive statistics such as frequencies, percentage, mean and standard deviation were used to summarize and categorize the data. Moreover, Pearson‘s correlation coefficient was used to analyze the relationship among variables as well as to identify the factors influencing the success of the villagization program in the study area. Pearson‘s correlation measures both direction and extent of association between the variables. The coefficient of correlation
31 measure was, therefore, used to examine the relationship between the success of villagization program and demographic, socioeconomic, psychological and institutional variables. Both Binary logistic model was used to assess the dichotomous dependent variable (Success of villagization) and the direct cumulative effects of independent variables on success of the program in-line with determining the highest influential factors among the predictors. Chi- square, t-test, Multicollinearity test, linearity test, normality, correlation tests were conducted before the regression analysis by using Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) version 20 (see, Appendix C, D and E page 74 - 76).
3.2.6.1 Model Specification Since our dependent variable is dichotomous with several independent variables, logistic regression is preferred from multiple regression and discriminant analysis. Logistic regression apart from being mathematically flexible and easy to use, it results in purely a meaningful interpretation. The preconditions/assumptions for logistic regression like sample size test, multicollinearity, and outliers were conducted before the analysis. The purpose of logistic regression is to correctly predict the outcome category for special occasions using logistic regression models. To achieve this goal, it has been created a model that includes all predictor variables that are useful to predict the outcome.
The logistic model can be generalized directly to the situation where we have several predictor variables. The probability n- is modeled as: ( | )
( )
The equation in (1) calls the logistic regression function. It is nonlinear in the parameters . However, it can be linearized by the logit transformation.' Instead of working directly with - we work with a transformed value of . If - is the probability of an event happening, the ratio / (l - ) is called the odds ratio for the event.
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The logistic regression model given by
Ln =
In terms of p, the logistic regression model can be written as: p =
Where: = The probability of an event happening = The parameters
Xq = Predictors (independent variables)
3.2.6.2 Definition of Variables I. Dependent Variable The dependent variable for this study is a success of villagization program that can be evaluated in terms of the independent variables. Provision and access of these variables (predictors) indicate the success of the program and vice versa in which the dependent variable quantified by coding 0 for success and 1 for not success.
II. Independent Variables
The independent variables of the study were categorized into four – demographic (age, family size, head of the household and marital status), the socioeconomic (Educational status, income, expense, farmland size, occupation, productivity, reduction of forest products and living condition), psychological factors include perception and willingness to be villagized and institutional factors (access to basic services).
3.2.7 Reliability and Validity
The researcher used careful understanding of what the villagers responded about the given problem and endeavours the real situations going there for the better validity and reliability. The captured data was also written in the form of draft as report afresh to avoid missing caused by time delay. Moreover, the researcher undertaken a pilot survey prior to the actual implementation of the questionnaire to prove legibility, formatting/typesetting and logical sequences of the questions for actual survey to measure the validity of the data. In addition to this, validity was assessed via data triangulation (examining valuable information from different sources) and spending prolonged time in the field to gain sufficient data about the topic.
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3.2.8 Ethical Considerations
The research was conducted by depending on the principles of research ethics. Accordingly, at the beginning a letter was written to the concerned bodies from the university to become legal. Then, the researcher submitted it to the Woreda Administrative Council to have another letter to Kebele Administrators of the sample Kebeles that allows the researcher to conduct the study by explaining the purpose of the project in detail. Secondly, respondents were informed about the objectives of the study and their responses will be kept confidential in which the data they provide is not used for other purposes.
The researcher asked their willingness to take over and informed the respondents to describe what they feel about the program freely and appreciated them for their priceless opinion. By familiarizing himself friendly and good interpersonal relation with research subjects the researcher attempted to gather reliable qualitative data through Focus Group Discussion and Key Informant Interviews.
Table 3.2: Description of independent variables Code of Type Variable measurement Expected Variables of variables Sign Age Continuous Age of household heads in years +/- Head of households Dummy 1, if male 0, otherwise + Educational status Dummy 1, if educated 0, otherwise + Marital status Dummy 1, if married 0, otherwise +/- Family size Continuous Family size of HHs +/- Income Continuous Income of HH per month in ETB + Expense Continuous Expense of HH per month in ETB - Farmland size Continuous The size of farmland per HHs in hectare +/- Productivity Continuous The amount of yield in quintal per year + Living conditions Dummy 1, if better 0, otherwise + Perception Dummy 1, if positive 0, otherwise +/- Willingness to be villagized Dummy 1, if willing to be villagized 0, otherwise +/- Access to basic services Dummy 1, if accessible, 0, otherwise + Reduction of forest products Dummy 1, if reduced 0, otherwise +/-
Source: Genanaw (2011), Meseret (2012) and Mandefofor (2016)
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CHAPTER FOUR
DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS
This chapter reveals the data analysis part of the study based on the collected data. The quantitative results were analyzed and presented using descriptive and inferential statistical tools to compare and contrast different characteristics of the sample households, and to measure the difference, strength, direction and relationships between dependent and independent variables. This research presents also the influence of independent variables on dependent variable using binary logistic regression models. Moreover, the determinant variables are grouped into four - demographic, socioeconomic, psychological and institutional. Predictor variables such as gender, age, marital status, family size, productivity, educational status, size of farmland, income and expense of the households were presented in detail by using tables whereas, merits and demerits of the program, perception, willingness to move, access to basic services, were described in detail verbally. The data obtained from Focus Group discussion, Key Informant interview and researcher‘s observation with captured pictures during the time of data gathering to enrich the thesis were analyzed using qualitative techniques.
4.1 Demographic Profiles of Respondents
4.1.1 Sex of Households
Household heads are individuals in one family setting who provides actual support and maintenance to one or more individuals who are related to him/her through adoption, blood, or marriage. As family head, the individual is expected to be active (independent) that has responsibilities and authorities to exercise family control and support the dependent members. Anyone who manages the affairs of the family living in a household may be the husband/father or wife/mother and other family members (grandparents, uncle, aunt, son or daughter).
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Table 4.1: Sexof Households (N = 293) Head of household Count Percentage Male 209 71.3 Female 84 28.7 Total 293 100 Source: Own survey, January, 2018
When we examine the head of the households across sex, most of the villagers (71.3%) in the study area are headed by male. Whereas, small proportions of them (28.7%) are headed by females. It is possible to conclude from table 4.1 that the largest segment of resettled households is managed by male heads at the study area and almost all female heads were replaced by their former husbands after their death and/or divorce that became responsible for the entire family.
4.1.2 Age of Respondents
Age is simply defined as the length of human life measured by years from birth, usually marked by a certain stage or degree of mental/physical development and involving legal responsibility and capacity. In terms of age, it is possible to categorize human beings as active (independent) and passive (dependent) groups based on their ability to generate adequate income for themselves and engulf other segments of the population. In most cases adult (active) age is considered as a productive part of the population who have a capacity to support the dependent groups (children and old aged). Thus, dependence ratio of any country can be assessed by determining the age structure of the whole population of a give state/country.
Table 4.2: Age of the respondents (N = 293)
Age categories Count Percentage Less than 15 years - - 16 – 30 years 127 43.3 31 – 65 years 101 34.5 Above 65 years 65 22.2 Total 293 100 Mean = 38.97 Standard Deviation = 12.87 Source: Own survey, January, 2018
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As shown in Table 4.2, 43.3% of the respondents have an age category between 16 to 30 years and 34.5% of them are classified under the age between 31 and 65 years. The remaining 22.2% of the respondents are dependents who have age above 65 years. From the table anyone can conclude that, the majority of the populations in the study area are active part of the society who has a power to carry economically unproductive segments of the population who have an age between 16 and 65. Besides, the mean age of the community around villagized kebeles is 38.97 and with a standard deviation of 12.87. The result of SD indicates the normal distribution of SD around the mean age.
4.1.3 Marital Status of the Household
The term marital status can be termed as the state of being married or not married — used on official forms to ask if a person is married, single, divorced, widowed or polygamy. Married settlers are more effective to stay in new villages than the single (unmarried) individuals.
Table 4.3: Marital status of the respondents (N = 293)
Marital status Count Percentage Single 18 6 Married 191 65 Divorced 25 9 Widowed 37 12 Polygamy 22 8 Total 293 100 Source: Own survey, January, 2018
The marital status of the respondents is categorized as single, married, divorced, widowed and polygamy. The data in table 4.3 indicate that 65% of the total respondents are married, 12% and 9% of them are widowed and divorced respectively. The rest 8% and 6% of the samples are reported as polygamy and unmarried/single. From the above data, it is possible to infer that the largest proportions of the sample households who participated in villagization program were married. It seems often the married households have high probability to stay in the new village (selected kebeles in the program) than single individuals who travels across the different villages rather than leading permanent life at one site.
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4.1.4 Family Size of the Respondents
The term family size is sometimes used to represent the total number of individuals comprising a family unit, including numbers of children and adults within the household. This indicates us family size is not solely adults rather all individuals who are living under a single roof that can be headed by respective heads.
Table 4.4: Family size of the Respondents (N = 293)
Family size Count Percentage 2 3 1 3 6 2 4 33 11.3 5 93 31.7 Above 5 158 54 Total 293 100 Mean = 3.87 Standard Deviation = 1.488 Source: Own survey January, 2018
Table 4.4 indicates that the highest portion of the respondent (54%) has family members above five per households. And 31.7%, 11.3% and 2% of the respondents have a family size of five, four and two individuals respectively. With a mean of 3.87 and standard deviation of 1.488 the family size, the study reveals us the communities are known by large family size. The fundamental reason for having high family size (large number of children) per family is associated with cultural practices - considering children as treature and means of respect within the community.
Remarkably, as the report of FDG and interview indicated that selected kebeles are well- known by their high fertility rate as most parts of our country. Having a large family brings several merits and/or demerits for the given society and the situation is much worsens where poverty is deep rooted. According to the discussants Majang societies consider children as a treasure and want to maximize them as much as possible in order to be respected by other groups of people. They believe that having many children enables them to defend themselves from their enemies easily and increase their numbers in the community. This condition helps them to be honored by their respective societies as adventure and pave the way to have higher
38 class in their society. Therefore, culture is a crucial factor for the possessing high family size of the study area and lack awareness about the drawbacks of the population pressure aggravated situation.
4.1.5 Educational Background of the Respondents
There is extensive evidence of the importance of education for the achievement of any program that implemented for social welfare and reduction of poverty. Education is a breakthrough for the growth and development of a society in all aspects of life. It inspires a behavioral change on individuals by promoting them to develop improved thinking and equipped with the required skill for life. Now a day it is a basic human need and a must of necessity to all citizens to learn and upgrade him in all aspects of life. Hence, the educational status of any citizen can be determined by the spatial distribution of schools with the necessary inputs and their accessibility to the communities.
Table 4.5: Educational status of respondents (N = 293)
Sex Male Percent Female Percent Total Educational status Total Percent Can`t read and write 61 29.2 43 51.2 104 35.5 Can read and write 45 21.5 18 21.4 63 21.5 Grade 1 – 8 48 23.2 17 20.2 65 22.2 Grade 9 – 10 35 16.6 6 7.2 41 14 Grade 11 – 12 13 6.2 - - 13 4.4 Above grade 12 7 3.3 - - 7 2.4 Total 209 100 84 100 293 100 Source: Own survey, January, 2018
As shown in table 4.5, about 35.5% of the total respondents cannot read and write and 22.2% of them attended primary school. Moreover, only the lower portions of the representatives are (21.5%, 14%, 4.4% and 2.4) can only read and write and also completed beyond grade nine with an insignificant number of female households. The study also publicized that there is significant disparity in education status across sex. The higher proportion of male respondents is literate (can read and write) while a higher proportion of female respondents cannot read and write whose figure declines as their grade level increases from bottom to upward.
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Even if the educational status of the community (Majang) had been improved since the imperial period, it is not as expected in order to achieve the overall socioeconomic, democratic and political status of the woreda. As the discussants confirmed to the researcher, their current generations are attending schools (primary to higher levels) than ever before. Especially, this fact was realized after the implementation of the recent villagization program that marked the collection of scattered indigenous communities around nucleated and accessible areas for schooling.
Above all, mother tongue education is one of the most visible changes in the educational and cultural landscape of the study area. Accordingly, the Majang language is used as a medium of instruction and offered as a subject of study throughout the two cycles of primary education (grades 1-8). Currently, the language (Majang) is used as a medium of instruction in all primary schools of five kebeles by indigenous-Majang (owner of the language) teachers. The development of the Majang language as a medium of instruction could be seen as one key result of the empowerment of ethnic communities as the interviewees confirmed to the researcher.
4.2 Socioeconomic Factors of the Household 4.2.1 Income and Expense of the Respondents
Table 4.6: AverageAnnual Income, and expense of the Respondents (N = 293)
Count and Percentage Category Below 5,000 5,001 – 8,000 8,001 – 11,000 11,001 – 15,000 Above 15,000 Income 16 (5.5%) 39(13.2%) 162(55.3%) 57(19.5%) 19(6.5%) Expense 54(18.4%) 49(16.7%) 112(38.3%) 61(20.8%) 17(5.8%) Income - Mean = 6167.36 SD = 3039.35 Per month Income = 514 ETB Expense - Mean = 5385.42 SD = 2972.88 Expense = 449 ETB
Source: Own survey, January, 2018
Table 4.7 reports that 55.3% of the total respondents earn an average income of 8,001 to 11,000 ETB per annum and 19.5% of them obtain between 11,001 to 15,000 ETB. About 13.2% and 6.5% of the respondents received 5,001 – 8,000 and above 15,000 ETB (highest income levels) respectively. It is possible to conclude that the highest percentage (55.3%) of the respondents earned average income of 6167.36 per households per year which is
40 equivalent to 514 ETB per month from different sources. In fact, the researcher observed the extensive income variation between the non-indigenous (Highlanders) and the Majang society, even if some sort of improvement has been recorded after villagization program. The disparity concerning income is extensively related with absence of creating job that brings income and lack of saving culture among the society. As the obtained data from the interview session indicates poor saving culture is not only manifested in terms of cash but also in kind. For instance, they exhaust crop yields (like maize) in the group within a short period of time instead of saving it until the next production period.
Almost all of the indigenous communities in the study area are agrarians who produce different cereals for home consumption. Sorghum, maize, and edible fruits and roots from forest are the major agricultural products that are consumed by Majang societies. Moreover, the researcher observed the presence of domestic animals like chicken, goat, sheep, cattle and donkey (in Dunchay Kebele) that supports their income. Pottery and beekeeping are also practiced since ancient time around the study area. They carry honey and pottery products for long distant (average of 7km) to the market (Metti) for selling. Males are responsible to collect honey from jungle forest by staying several days there (minimum of one week) and females are accountable for care of children and pottery production at home. Hunting, gathering and fishing are ancient activities that are considered as integral part of their economy, though rarely practiced by the youngsters recently.
Table 4.6 also reveals that the highest proportion (38.3%) of the respondents have an annual expenditure of 8,001 to 11,000 ETB and 20.8% of the total respondents reported that their cost per year is between 11,001 to 15,000 ETB. 18.4%, 16.4% and 5.8% of the respondents replied that their annual expense costs usually lie below 5000, 5001 to 11,000 above 15,000 ETB respectively for their family.
In general, most of the respondents in the study area expend an insignificant amount of money, which is a direct reflection of obtaining different materials nearby forest without fee or with less cost. For instance, as the researcher`s observation, in most cases the edible materials can be acquired easily with no cost from the existing forests. The cost of cloth, building materials and fee for basic services are amongst the least considered costs for Majang societies.
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4.2.2 Farmland Size and Agricultural Productivity of the Household
The farmland size can be described as holding of all the land being utilized in full or in part for agricultural purposes which is located in a single parish. The farmland may consist of one or several parcels of land that may serve for various agricultural and house/residential purposes. The owner of land usually farmer or tenants and investors whose deed highly associated with commercial farming. Locally, our land holding system has been changing with the ideologies of different governments since the imperial era.
Productivity is defined as the efficient use of resources, labor, capital, land, materials, energy, information, in the production of various goods and services. Higher productivity means accomplishing more with the same amount of resources or achieving higher output in terms of volume and quality from the same input. Very broadly productivity captures our ability to transform our physical and human resources to generate the desired outputs. It is important to note that productivity improvement or the effective use of available resources is the only way for future development in the society. Productivity enhancement results in direct increases in the standard of living under conditions of distribution of productivity gains according to contribution.
The notion in this research focuses on agricultural productivity that can be influenced by several factors, including landowner ship system (land tenure), the size and quality of soil, technology used, the work culture of the population, etc.
Table 4.7: Farmland size (in hectare) of the respondents (N = 293)
Category Count and Percentage Farmland size Below 1 1.1 – 2 2.1 – 3 3.1 – 4 4.1 – 5 Above 5 (Hectare) Count 201(68.6%) 59(20.2) 13(4.4%) 8(2.7%) 7(2.4%) 5(1.7%) Min = 2 Max = 5 Mean = 2.46 SD= 0.733 Productivity of Respondents Productivity Less than 3 3.1 – 5 5.1 – 8 Above 8 Total (Quintal) 91 (31 %) 128(43.7%) 46(15.7%) 28(9.6%) 293(100%) Min = 1 Max = 4 Mean =1.57 SD= 0.856
Source: Own survey, January, 2018
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The finding in table 4.7 indicates that 68.6% of the samples responded that they have a farmland size of less than one hectare, 20.2% of them have land size of 1.1 to 2 hectares per household. Additionally, 4.4%, 2.7%, and 2.4% of the representatives of the villagized community holds 2.1 to 5 hectares. Thus, the above data denotes us the villagers have shrunk land size at the new villages than what they had before at their previous settlement. Regardless of extensive/vastness of land around the study area, each household was given an equal plot of land for house construction at current villages with average land size of 1,000 square meters. According to the interview and FDG results, the communities were disappointed due to reduction of their pre-existing farmland after the realization of the program. This fact indicates that the reduction of land size at new villages which forced them to move back towards their pre-occupied land by travelling long distance to work on it and some of them are still living there. This situation is not caused by the absence of cultivable land at selected sites rather lack of proper planning and poor implementation of the program that resulted landlessness among settlers.
As shown in the table 4.7, 43.7% of the respondents have an annual yield of 3.1 to 5 quintals, 31% and 15.7% of the total sample households able to collect below three quintals and 5.1 to 8 quintals within a year; whereas, 9.6% of them gotten more than eight quintals per hectare in one year. Thus, given the above outcome one can infer that the presence of insignificant yield that gained from new settlement due to various constraints. Key informants have also reported the major causes for low agricultural productivity around the new villages are reduction of farm land (at new villages), absence of technological inputs that maximize productivity, the work culture of the community (Majang), traditional farming system in line with soil erosion and degradation.
4.3 Psychological and Institutional Variables of the Households 4.3.1 Perception of the Respondents about Villagization Program
Table 4.8: Their interest to leave their previous site (N = 293)
Alternatives Frequency Percentage Yes 257 87.7 Were you voluntary to leave your former No 36 12.3 village? Total 293 100 Source: Own survey, January, 2018
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Respondents were asked about their willingness whether to depart their original settlement due to villagization program or not. As indicated in table 4.8, nearly all of the respondents (87.7%) reported that they were happy to move towards a new village and only 12.3% of them were not volunteered to move. This shows us the communities were eager to have all the promised facilities of the government at a new settlement and planned to change their livelihood thereby changing their previous village. This indicates us the societies have willing to ensure all better conditions at new settlement that enhances their livelihood.
Unfortunately, as the interviewee reported to the researcher that what they expected were not satisfied at all that changed the situation later when they arrived and collected together at a new site which made them hopeless. In the case of settlers‘ perception and attitude towards villagization program, almost all of the participants of this research indicated that they lack awareness prior the realization of the program at their kebeles. It was through meeting that they were informed about the aims, reasons, benefits and better opportunities of the program. Although they lack awareness about it, they have positive attitude which was directly manifested by the absence of resistance during the time of implementation. This shows us there is accustomed tradition in accepting every policy and strategies that drops from higher governmental bodies.
Table 4.9: Their awareness about villagization program (N = 293)
Alternatives Frequency Percentage Do you have ample information Yes 51 17.4 about the villagization program No 242 82.6 before? Total 293 100 Source: Own survey, January, 2018
Awareness about villagization scheme has its own impact on its success. Hence, table 4.9 shows about 82.6% of the respondents replied that they have no adequate information about the program prior its implementation and the remaining 17.4% of them reported as they had awareness about the program. Indeed, this fact reveals that the majority of the population lacks information about the above mentioned program in the study area due to its poorly planned nature that caused due to improper management by the concerned government officials.
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Besides, it is possible to conclude that the issue of discussion among villagers about the recent villagization scheme has never taken with expected rate in which the settlers agreed to leave their former settlement simply by accepting what the concerned officials said. Though the villagers are voluntary to change their old settlements to acquire the promised services, they were not given a chance to discuss about the overall process, implementation as well as the merits and demerits of the program.
Table 4.10: How they assess villagization program (N = 293)
Alternatives Frequency Percentage It is very significant 40 13.7 How could you evaluate It is significant 175 59.7 the villagization programming that It is useful, but less constructive 41 14 undertaken in your kebele? It is useless and negative 37 12.6
Total 293 100 Source: Own survey, January, 2018
In the above table 4.10, the respondents asked how they evaluate the villagization program at their respective kebeles and 59.7% of them confirmed that the program is significant, 14% of them reported the program as useful, but less constructive, 13.7% and 12.6% replied that it is very significant and useless as well as negative respectively. This fact reflects the communities considered the program as a vital tool to enhance their overall living conditions at new settlement.
Table 4.11: Beneficiaries of villagization program (N = 293)
Alternatives Frequency Percentage The elders, youngsters and children 38 13 Who benefited The adult population 53 18.1 much from the The government officials 27 9.2 Program? All the indigenous Majang societies 156 53.2
No one benefited 19 6.5 Total 293 100 Source: Own survey, January, 2018
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The respondents also asked to replay the beneficiaries of the program in the study area. Accordingly, as indicated in table 4.11 above, half (53.2%) of the respondents reported that the benefited group of the society is all the indigenous Majang communities, 18.1% of them stated that only the adult populations were benefited, while the remaining 13% and 9.2% of them indicated as the elders, youngsters and children (dependent groups) as well as the government officials were advantageous. Lastly, 6.5% of the sample groups confirmed that none of them obtained anything because of its application. From the table it is possible to understand that the targeted Majang communities were benefited in various corners in spite of their differences in opinion.
Table 4.12: The effect of villagization program (N = 293)
Alternatives Frequency Percentage Yes 259 88.4 Is the program changed your life positively? No 34 11.6 Total 293 100 Source: Own survey, January, 2018
The above table 4.12 shows us about 88.4% of the respondents reported that their whole living conditions are improved positively after the program while the remaining 11.6% of them responded as the program has an insignificant impact on their life. This statement alludes that the existence of positive association between the life of the households and the villagization program in which the community improved their livelihood after the realization of the program.
4.3.2 Access and Distance to Clean water
Water is life; it's too difficult to sustain for more than a week for humans in the absence of water. Of course, the ancient civilization centers were emerged around the major river valleys of Nile, Mesopotamia, and Tigris and other. This situation indicates us the necessity of water for any settlement sites. Accordingly, access to clean and safe drinking water is one of the crucial targets to be given full consideration in the villagization program. The data output and field observation indicated that the presence of different water sources - three water wells, two water pumps and seven springs are servicing the villagized societies in the sample kebeles excluding the streams. There are newly constructed water towers in Semuy and Dunchay kebeles but, they are not functional at the time of data collection.
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Table 4.13: Vicinity of pure water at new village (N = 293)
Alternatives Frequency Percentage Too far and less accessible 112 38.2 How could you describe Nearby but insufficient 74 25.3 the distance between your Reachable and pure 45 15.4 current village and clean No difference with the previous 62 21.1 water? village Total 293 100 Source: Own survey, January, 2018
As indicated on the table 4.13, the respondents asked to indicate the location of pure water from their current site and 38.2% of the respondents reported that its location is too far and less accessible. 25.3% of them replied that the presence of minor distance between their village and pure water though it is inadequate for the communities. While the remaining 21.1% and 15.4% of them confirmed that, similar to their former village and their proximity is better respectively. Therefore, it is easy to conclude that the settlers have encountered severe condition on a new site in reaching clean water, which is contrary to the intended goal of the program.
4.3.3 Causes of Villagization program in Godere Woreda
Table 4.14: Causes of villagization program (N = 293)
Alternatives Frequency Percentage What are Natural hazards like drought, earthquake 7 2.4 the causes of Development Induced Project like an 12 4.1 villagization investment in Godere woreda? To have accessibility of basic services 264 90.1 To be secure 6 2 Others 4 1.4 Total 293 100 Source: Own survey, January, 2018
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The study also assessed the causes of villagization program around their locality. Accordingly, 90.1% of the respondents replied that the major cause of the program was to have access to basic services in common. Others with 4.1% and 2.4% of the respondents reported that the main causes for the villagization were development induced project like investment and natural hazards like drought and earthquake. The above fact indicates us the resettles are moved from their former villages in order to have basic infrastructural services like clean water, road, health services, school, etc in common.
4.4 Results of analysis of Binary Logistic Regression
The result of the binary logistic regression model and significance as well as the impact of each explanatory variable on the dependent variable (success of villagization) was presented and discussed in detail.
Table 4.15: Block 0: Beginning Block
Classification Table a, b Predicted Observed Success of Villagazation Percentage Success Failed Correct Success 186 0 100.0 Success of Villagazation Step 0 Failed 107 0 .0 Overall Percentage 63.5 a. The constant is included in the model. b. The cut value is .500
Source: Computed for this research
The above table 4.15 is called Block 0 or beginning block that shows the output of a binary logistic regression model without including predictors that merely includes the intercept or the constant value. Among the total samples, 186 of them reported the program as successful and the remaining 107 said failed. In addition to this, the two decision options (successful and failed) can be explained as the number of villagers who reported the program as success
48 divided by the total sample size (186/293 = 0.635 or 63.5%) decided the program as successful. Besides, the remaining samples that reported as the program is not successful (failed) can be obtained by divided individuals who said failed for the total samples (107/293) that gives 0.365 or 36.5%. Using this model (Binary logistic regression), it is possible to conclude that the model is correct and able to predict the dependent variable with by focusing the value of the overall percentage i.e. 63.5%.
Table 4.16: Omnibus test of model coefficients Block 1: Method=Enter
Omnibus Tests of Model Coefficients Chi-square df Sig. Step 370.068 14 .000 Step 1 Block 370.068 14 .000 Model 370.068 14 .000
Source: Computed for this research
Table 4.16 shows the model which includes all predictors (fourteen independent variables) simultaneously by using method Enter. The overall model is significant by entering all of the explanatory variables that assumed to influence the success of the villagization program (if the sign value is less than 0.05). The Omnibus Tests of Model Coefficients for the success of villagization program has Chi-Square of 370.068 with fourteen degrees of freedom for 293 samples which is significant at 0.05. The value of chi-square is important to decide that adding the predictors to the model has not significantly increased our ability to predict success of villagization. Since our omnibus test is significant at the 5 % level of significance it can be concluded that adding the predictors to the model have significantly increased our ability to predict the dependent variable.
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Table 4.17: Model summary of Binary logistic regression
Model Summary Step -2 Log likelihood Cox & Snell R Square Nagelkerke R Square
1 36.116a .717 .956 a. Estimation terminated at iteration number 20 because maximum iterations have been reached. Final solution cannot be found.
Source: Computed for this research
The above table 4.17 shows the likelihood ratio test which is the most common assessment of overall model fit in logistic regression, that can be calculated easily by considering chi-square differences between the null model (i.e., with the constant only) and the model containing all predictors. Under Model Summary above, we see that the -2 Log Likelihood statistics is 36.116a. This statistic measures how poorly the model predicts the dependent variable in which the smaller the statistic (likelihood) the better the model.
Adding the predictors reduced the -2 Log Likelihood statistics by 370.068 – 36.116 =333.952, which is the chi-square statistic for omnibus test. The value of Cox & Snell R-square and Nagelkerke are good enough in which Cox and Snell or Nagelkerke R-square is an equivalent statistic in logistic regression to the coefficient of determination (R2) in linear regression, but not close analog. The model summary provides some approximation of R2statistic in logistic regression. Cox and Snell‘s R2 attempt to replicate multiple R2 based on likelihood. In this study Cox and Snell R2 indicate approximately 72% of the differences in the dependent variable (success of villagization) were explained by the explanatory variables and the value of Nagelkerke R2 in model summary table above is.956, which shows nearly 96% of the variability in the dependent variable (success of the program) was explained by the entire explanatory variables.
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Table 4.18: Hosmer and Lemeshow Test Hosmer and Lemeshow Test Step Chi-square df Sig.
1 .865 6 .990
Source: Computed for this research The above table 4.18 shows, as the P-value =. 990 which is greater than the level of significance α = 0.05, that tells the well fitness of the data model. If the sign value is greater than.05 it means a set of independent variables will accurately predict the actual probabilities. Therefore, our fitted logistic regression model has a good fit.
Table 4.19: Classification Table
Classification Table a Predicted Success of Villagazation Percentage Observed Successful Failed Correct Success 182 4 97.8 Success of Villagazation Step 1 Failed 6 101 94.4 Overall Percentage 96.6 a. The cut value is.500
Overall Percentage - This gives the overall percent of cases that are correctly predicted by the full model. In which all the independent variables predictions were correct to 283 which is the sum of success (182) and failed (101) out of 293 samples, for an overall success rate of 96.6%. The value has increased from 63.5% for the null model (Table 4.16) to approximately 97% for the full model (Table 4.19). Therefore, the probability of a correct prediction in model 0 is 63.5% and the overall predicted accuracy is 97% in block 1. The above classification table also reveals 97.8% of sensitivity (observed characteristics which were correctly predicted by the model) and 94.4% of specificity (that has no observed characteristics) of prediction in which its focus on error rates.
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Table 4.20: Variables in the equation
95% Ci for Exp(B) Predictors B SE Wald df Sig Exp (B) Lower Upper Sex 58.308 73.866 .047 1 .828 - .000 1.108 Age .020 .042 .214 1 .644 1.020 .938 .000 Family size -27.954 76.383 .050 1 .023* .000 .000 7.457 Marital status .911 .560 2.643 1 .104 2.487 .829 1.000 Income .000 .000 3.312 1 .019* 1.000 .999 1.000 Expense .000 .000 2.994 1 .0248* 1.000 .999 .000 FarmLand size 23.968 35.859 .050 1 .0048* 2.033 .000 .965 Productivity -2.217 1.113 3.967 1 .006* .109 .012 44.019 RF product 3.676 1.498 6.021 1 .014* 39.484 2.095 6.87 Living 1 38.726 21.313 .034 .0248* 48.000 .000 .000 conditions Perception -61.896 25.564 .049 1 .025* .000 .000 .000 Willingness -66.116 39.191 .035 1 .851 .000 .000 2.210 Basic Services 38.730 19.985 .038 1 .025* 20.000 .000 1.408 Education -.435 .396 1.202 1 .273 .648 .298 *significant (p-value < 0.05) Source: Computed for this research
The above table 4.21 shows variables in the equation used to determine the statistical significance for each of explanatory variables included in this particular study. Accordingly, the table indicates statistically significant relation or association of explanatory factors with the dependent variable that can be shown by p-value (sig.). When the value of the sign is less than 0.05 it shows the existence of meaningful association among the dependent and predictors. Thus, family size, income, expense, farmland size, productivity, reduction of forest products, living condition, perception and access to basic services have added significantly to the model while predictors such as educational status, willingness, marital status, age and sex of the respondents did not add significantly to the binary logistic model.
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The result of beta (B) often ranges between +1 and -1 which indicates the direction of relationship with the independent factors that is used to calculate the probability of a case falling into specific categories. When the value of Beta is negative it shows an increase of the explanatory variable score will result in decrease probability of the dependent factor by one unit. In the above table 4.20, for instance the value of beta for productivity is -2.2 which means as the villagers obtain maximum of agricultural productivity, they have less likely to report about the failure of villagization program. Variable in the equation also predicts the probability of an event occurring based on a unit of change in predictor variables on the dependent one. In this study the success of villagization program can be predicted by using the Exp (B) which termed as an odd ratio (OD) value of a single independent variable when others are being constant. For instance, from the above independent variables the highest odds ratio is 48.000 for living conditions that implies the change in dependent variable would be caused by 48 times greater than other factors. And the least odd ratio obtained from the software was family size, wiliness to villagized and the perception of settlers about the program with Exp (B) value.000 that has no any contribution upon the success of villagization program or they have no contribution upon the success of the program. The other issue that described in the above table is the Wald test (also called a Chi - square) that tests the effect of the individual predictor while controlling other explanatory variables. In our table above reduction of forest product has the maximum Wald value (6.021) being other independent variables constant.
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4.5 Determinants of Villagization Program In Godere Woreda
The hypothesized variables which were thought to affect the attainment of recent villagization program in the Gambella regional state of Godere woreda were tested using the binary logistic and linear regression models. Here the dependent variable in this study is a success of villagization program, with various determinant factors that influence it positively or negatively. In this study successful villagization program would be measured in terms of its success or failure based on the full attainment of the necessary facilities of settlers at new village. Basically the followings determinant factors were identified at the study area in affecting the program – access to basic facilities, economic factors (income, expense, living conditions, reduction of forest products, agricultural yield, farm land size) and perception of the settlers.
4.6 Presentation of Findings From Qualitative Data
Under this subtitle the researcher is going to describe the results of the research that obtained through KII, FGD and observation mechanisms of data collection. Besides, the concept of the villagization program in the study area, the challenges and benefits of the program as well as the real situation of the selected kebeles were discussed.
Even though villagization has four major pillars for its successful accomplishment, including the principle of voluntarism, the availability of under-utilized land, consultation with the host communities and proper preparation, it does not fulfill all these criteria in the Gambella region. The site that selected as suitable for the recent villagization program was pre-occupied by non-indigenous communities (called Highlanders) the connotation given to a population who migrated towards the region from different parts of the country. The output of this study reveals that the program does not meet adequately all of the targets - with less attention to community consultation, lack of participation to meet the needs of settlers, and insufficient and pre-owned land allocation. For instance, the data obtained from FGD and KII indicated these facts that the presence of disputes between the societies due to land possession. This statement shows that the weakness of the program in attaining the objectives that leads to disturbance amongst the sellers due to land ownership issues which is the clear manifestation of the failure of the program.
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4.6.1 Access to Basic Services
Education: According to my interviewee in Gelesha Kebele, he stated as follows:
`` …. Now we are happy for the fact that the school is very close to us, than before, now our children goes towards their learning in group since we are living together (neighborhoods), but it was difficult to send a single child to school before because he/she expected to travel long distance (average of 2km) by crossing the forest. There, she/he may encounter dangerous wild animals like snake, fox, tiger, leopard… so we have no any doubt at this new village whenever we let them to go to school……`` (January,2018)
In addition to this one of the school principals confirmed the above sayings as follow:
``…after the program the overall participation of students in attaining their education become improved, the major manifestation of this improvement can be seen in terms of such indicators - number of late comers, absentees and drop rate reduced in our school. Additionally, we can easily reach their parents every time, but before 2010 (before the program) impossible to think because they are far away from this school…..`` (January, 2018)
Besides the above fact suggested by respondents, the interview, focus group and observation results indicated that there is no newly established schools in all the selected sample kebeles of Godere woreda due to the villagization program, except one school (Dunchay) upgraded its class level (become high school) and one Alternative primary school (Amarach) at Semuy kebele. Among the primary schools that included in the researcher`s observation, almost more than half of them needs renewal due to the long aged services. The number of pupils who are attaining their education is below the expectation i.e. there are only 12 to 17 students are available within a class contrary to the above principal`s idea due to several reasons.
According to the interview made with local leader and kebele administrators the followings are the major obstacles of education at the study area: Lack of awareness about learning/education among parents, absence of support and reinforcement from parents to their children, low level of economic background of the community, low level of community participation on educational sector, Shortage of educational inputs like text, desk, chalkboard, library, computer center, laboratories, etc and inability to afford school expenses for their children (January, 2018, Dunchay).
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Generally, though the government officials promised to construct schools at new settlement sites for the betterment of villagers‘ livelihood, nothing becomes realized in terms of schooling in Godere woreda. And the existing schools are poorly constructed and facilitated which are far away from each other that shows the inadequate and poor supply of schooling for the community as proposed prior.
Fig 4.1: One of the primary school of the woreda (Semuy) Source: Own field observation, January, 2018
Health Care: Health is the primary element of every part of our society that enables efficient utilization of human power; unhealthy citizen is incapable of contributing effort for the economy of his/her country. The villagers that were involved in group discussion (in Dunchay Kebele) revealed that there has been quite enhancement in health institution since the time of realization of the program. And they added that due to the villagization program they are near to the health post, getting health services, and particularly the pregnant women are benefiting much in terms of vaccination, anti-natal care, post-natal care, delivery, and medical checkup. Contrary to the above idea, dwellers of Gelesha Kebele complained about the overall delivery services of their respective health posts. Accordingly, my discussant groups mentioned the understated testimonies:
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``…we are here to utilize better services including health, but it is simply joking that the service(health) is not adequate and satisfactory for us… no medicine, even we could not get for head-ache, anti-plain; pregnant have to move far distant to the other kebeles where the service is good, so this building is standing without any function…..and there is no professional medical expert, if you are visiting it now it is closed, only extension (health workers) are there but they lack skill `` (January, 2018)
On the other hand, the respondents of Semuy Kebele suggested that the villagization program is more successful in terms of health service delivery for the fact that they have access to roads and telephone service that allow them to call an ambulance service at a time of any illness especially for serious treatments provided at hospital level like emergency cases and birth. The researcher also recognized different determining factors that affect negatively the health sector of Godere woreda based on observation, FGD and KII results. Accordingly, shortage of medicine in all health posts, unbalanced health centers with population number, inadequate professionals, lack of awareness about health care conditions among the communities, the absence of medical inputs (like refrigerators) and low skill of extension workers and others are the major threatens of the sector in the study area. There is no currently constructed health center within a woreda, especially in sample kebeles after the implementation of the villagization scheme and the service delivery is decreasing from time to time. But, the villagers are comparing the performance of health posts with their former villages where they were too far from the services. The situations in these kebeles worsen not only the poor service delivery of governmental health centers, but there is also the absence of alternative private clinics especially for emergency cases. So it is possible to conclude that the health sector has numerous constraints that are not solved yet.
Clean water: The respondents and focus group discussant of Gelesha, Dunchay and Semuy indicated as follows: …There are only two water pumps in our kebele (Gelesha) but our population is more than 1500, it is not balanced with our number…. The spring source is found at a distance of 2km from this village, they are close to us when we were at our previous village, now our women, girls and children are carrying water long distance, and at my former village there were three alternative springs water I can fetch the nearer one, there is no queue because we are small in
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number….. Here there is always disagreement between children and women during fetching water… ``(January, 2018)
Generally, we can sum up that the access to pure water is limited and not adequate with the number of villagers.
Figure 4.2: Water schemes in Semuy and Dunchay kebeles Source: Own field observation
Road, Flour mills and Electricity
There is an absence of structured road all over the Woreda as other remote parts of the country; the road familiar here is poorly constructed and services merely during dry season. Each kebele is interconnected by unplanned and inadequately constructed routes. If we consider the road of each kebeles, for instance, in Semuy it was built by human power and the road between Gelesha and Dunchay kebele is not properly functional where the communities are travelling about 12 to 16 kilometers on foot to reach woreda capital – Metti. The condition is similar in other kebeles where the program applied that is why the communities are claiming for sustainable road that provides daily transportation services. The researcher recognized what the societies are complaining regarding road network during data collection. Thus, the researcher observed that motorbike, three wheel vehicle (Bajaj) and government and investors` cars are the only means of transportation in sample kebeles. Therefore, concerning road the Woreda is poorly developed and the majority of its population is suffering.
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Since the flour mill is one of the promised services by the government officials, it was constructed in each kebeles following the realization of the program by the federal government. Unfortunately, none of them are not functional and not adequate with the number of villagers. The entire populations were searching for alternatives to use private flour mills and they became lost hope due to unmet government promises in the study area.
Similarly, the issue of electricity is amongst the chronic problems of the Gambella region in general and Godere woreda in particular where the power fluctuates at urban areas and the rural parts are not reached yet where the communities are under darkness. The majority of the woreda dwellers lack the electricity and only the kebeles adjacent to woreda capital town are beneficiaries of power with inconsistency. Thus, it is good in Semuy Kebele while there only erect poles in Gelesha (not functional) but nothing is observed in Dunchay district. Due to the lack of electricity supply around the area, peoples tend to use solar power as an energy source for activities like charging mobile phones. The researcher confirmed this fact during his observation in Dunchay and Gelesha kebeles where solar generators are operating around the school and health center even for TV and mini media club (in Gelesha High school).
Nonfunctional Mill in Gelesha Kebele Transformer in Semuy Keble
Figure 4.3: Flour mill and electric power in Gelesha and Semuy Kebeles Source: Own field observation, January, 2018
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4.7 Benefits and Impacts of Villagazation Program in Godere woreda
The output of this study revealed that Majang societies of Godere woreda are significantly profitable due to the realization of the program. Accordingly, improved living condition is one of the benefits that the villagers received from the program; hence, when compared to their former villages, their livelihood shown progress at new settlements in various arenas. As the majority of respondents reported, they become familiar with the modern way of life for the fact that they practiced only shifting cultivation and honey bee production which permits negligible income for living in previous settlements. After the program the indigenous Majang communities have changed from grass-roofed (small hat) to relatively well constructed houses with better feeding and wearing styles. Moreover, they became adjacent to different socioeconomic institutions such as health centers, schools, administrative and religious institutions (like Kebele office, church), road, market places, shops, and telecom service like mobile are the major uses of the scheme. Their annual income also rose due to the progress in work culture, productivity and health status in line with cooperation with neighbors. The role of government employers (rural agricultural development workers, health professionals, teachers and officials) contributed much in raising their awareness of the current observed better and sustainable living. In addition to the above facts they become economically advantageous through rearing domestic animals like cattle, goat, chicken, and sheep even if their saving culture needs progress. Security, social integration, neighborhood, proximity to relatives and friends, sharing of different materials among each other, professional aids concerning farming, access to selected seeds and so the likes are some of the advantages that the villagers acquired from villagization program. Besides, as the researcher observed in sample kebeles, the people tend to exercise service providing activities such as shopping, and café services that can be taken as alternative ways of generating income.
Generally, as the researcher observed the sample kebeles, the program contributed significant role in the improvement of their overall living conditions chiefly in poverty reduction. While contrary to the above benefits, the program has its own demerits upon the settlers, environment and cultural realm of the communities during and after the implementation of the program that can list and discussed below:
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A. Unreal of promised infrastructural facilities
As far as the promised basic infrastructural services concerned, what the government supposed to deliver is not balanced with really accomplished at selected kebeles. Constructing schools, health posts, clean water, road, electric power, telecommunication, flour mill, warehouse, and the provision of different aids were amongst the suggested services for the dwellers before the program. However, from the above mentioned services some of them were realized and most of the institutions are renewed and ready to serve the villagers though inadequate and unsatisfactory. This condition created mistrust among the government officials and the communities in which they consider any person who sent from different governmental organs (regional, zonal and woreda) as propagandist; in what they perceives them as unreal and not brought to the ground.
B. Contamination of indigenous cultures This is common amongst the youngsters of the Majang communities who practices unrelated and new fashion by neglecting their original cultures that had been adopted by their ancestors. Such tradition is mainly manifested in kebeles nearer to Metti town where they live together with the Highlanders (Non indigenous populations). The following testimony forwarded by school principal of the Gelesha primary school confirms this fact: ``…our young students are practicing different habits and styles by imitating what they watch through TV channels, films, and music ….for instance, their wearing style is far from our culture especially boys; some of them wear their trouser like that of Afro-Americans, their hair style is also not represent us, and the girls do the same thing by wearing short dress and recently they are using trousers….this misbehavior shouldn`t be learned by our children, if they follow such contaminated and imported culture, I guess our ancestors` culture will disappear….``(January, 2018)
Therefore, the above fact shows that villagization is causing the youngsters to neglect their indigenous culture in line with modernization and urbanization that highly manifested through globalization and advancement of technologies. They are acting practically what they see through various media to be considered modernized and advanced person among others.
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C. Fabrication of thief According to discussant groups of the selected kebeles, before twenty years back there were no any stolen materials in their villages; even, if they got something dropped they string-up on visible place for the owner. But now it is difficult if they forget something outdoors and during the night time their fruits like banana, fir wood, domestic animals, traditional hives and other consumed materials are stolen by unknown individuals. Thus, they reported that different private and common properties are lost every time that may be the effects of joblessness. The researcher again confirmed this truth while observing the moved back households in Semuy kebele, who stated that one of the main reasons for turning back to their former settlement is highly related to duplication of robbers at new village.
4.8. Villagization Nexus Rehabilitation in Godere Woreda
Villagization program has chiefly focused on the process of physical relocation rather than on the economic and social development of the displaced and negatively affected people around the study area. This has severely eroded the development effectiveness of the program and rehabilitation program and heightened the impoverishment risk of the relocated households. According to Cernea (1998), risks to adversely affected people are not a component of conventional project analysis. The key economic risks to affected people are from the loss of livelihood and income sources such as arable land, common property resources such as forests, grazing land, potable water, fisheries, etc. and changed access to and control of productive resources. The loss of economic power with the breakdown of complex livelihood systems results in temporary or permanent, often irreversible, decline in living standards leading to marginalization. Higher risks and suspicion are introduced when diversified livelihood sources are lost. Loss of livelihood and disruption of agricultural activity can adversely affect household food security, leading to under- nourishment. Higher incidence of diseases associated with deteriorating water quality can result in increased morbidity and mortality. Rehabilitation can be projected as a process that would reverse the risks of the program that undertaken upon the communities. Based on the Cernea`s (2000), suggestion, a risk and reconstruction model of rehabilitation that would be marked by a series of changeovers.
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From
Land-based reestablishment Landlessness House reconstruction Homelessness Re-employment Joblessness Social inclusion Marginalization To Adequate nutrition Food insecurity Better health care Increased morbidity and Community reconstruction mortality Restoration of community Social disarticulation assets Loss of access to property
Figure 4.4: Model of Rehabilitation in villagization program Source: Modified by researcher from Cernea (2000)
Rehabilitation is only possible where development takes place. Thus, such programs must be planned as an integral part of the comprehensive development project. In this sense rehabilitation is really an outcome of relocation that is conceived not as physical relocation or mere restoration of incomes but as development. This brings us to the questions of development in the context of villagization scheme and the restoration of the villagized societies.
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CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Summary This study was conducted in Godere woreda, Majang zone of Gambella regional, state entitle of the determinants of the success of the recent villagization program in Godere woreda. The researcher manipulated about 14 independent variables and success of villagization as a dependent factor with four basic objectives – causes of the program, perception and attitudes of the villagers about the program, availability of basic services at new village and both merits and demerits of the program within the study area. To this end, both primary and secondary sources of data were used to collect the compulsory and important data that's supposed to answer the base questions. Moreover, cross sectional survey method with mixed approach, both descriptive and inferential statistics were employed for the analysis. The study also supported by about 293 representatives of the sample kebeles, three Focus Group Discussion groups and KII from different segments of the villagized community.
Based on the collected data for this research the followings were the major results: a. The causes of villagization program in the study area
The villagers asked to indicate the causes of villagization program in which majority of the respondents reported that the principal factor for the realization of the program is highly related with delivery of basic infrastructural services for the scattered Majang communities in common including schools, health posts, clean water, communication routes, flourmill, road, power supply, etc. It is possible to generalize that the causes for the program was not related with making land free for different projects (dam, investment, irrigation and the like) as Human Right Watch reported repeatedly about the villagization program in Gambella region. This can be confirmed by the fact that the land that was owed by the villagers is still possessed by the same individuals and no land is transferred to other groups or agents.
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b. Perception and attitude of villagers about the program
The research also indicated the perception and willingness of the villagers about the villagization program; in this regard, they have good awareness and interested to leave their former villages when they told to do so. This shows us the community was voluntary to move towards new sites to be collected into a similar geographical area that allows them to utilize different services in common. Though settlers were not reluctant to shift the original villages, the action taken by the governmental officials to raise the awareness of the community (about villagization) was insignificant. c. Access to Basic services
The access and utilization of basic services and facilities in new villages were also identified by this research. Accordingly, the villagers are closer to basic infrastructural, social and administrative services at the new settlement than before. It takes about more than an hour to get any socioeconomic services like health center, school, kebele administration, church, flourmill and etc at preceding settlements but now they became closer. Despite of its deficiency and appropriate service delivery, these facilities are nearer to the villagers than ever. In addition to the above facts, the research point out the poor management and planning of the villagization program that absolutely illustrated by lack of inputs and equipment at health posts and schools that hinder the beneficiaries of settler.
d. The Merits and Demerits of villagization program in the study area
Based on the findings of this research the followings were the key impacts (negative) of the villagization program around the study area; land allocated for the villagers is too reduced (shirked farmland size), low productivity, insufficient social service delivery, fabrication of thief, contamination of indigenous cultures, shortage of comestible/eatable (fruits, vegetables, roots), reduction of forest and honeybee products. On the other hand, vicinity to social services, better awareness about modernization and technology, better living conditions (sedentary life), sharing of information and experience between each other and/or with the Highlanders were the fundamental advantages that acquired by the Majang community due to the implementation of the program.
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e. Determinants of Villagization program at Godere Woreda
This research employed about fourteen independent variables assumed to determine and predict the dependent factor (Success of villagization) at the study area. The binary logistic regression model was manipulated to show the contribution of each explanatory variable to the model. Accordingly, sex, age, marital status, educational background and willingness to villagized have no relation with the dependent variable. While the rest predictor (family size, income, expense, farmland size, productivity, reduction of forest products, agricultural productivity, living condition, perception and access to basic services were significantly predicted the dependent variable. Thus, based on the odd ratio or Exp (B) values of living condition, reduction of forest products and access to basic services were highly explained and predicted the success of villagization program significantly being other explanatory variables constant.
5.2 Recommendations Based on the findings of this study, the following are some ways forwarded which could be important inputs to the local government, planners and implementers of the villagization program:
Since the ultimate goal of villagization program is ensuring better living condition for the villagers the Woreda, Zone and Regional bodies should pay attention in altering the livelihood of the community via various mechanisms. Service provision for the entire villagized community enhances the day to day activities and promotes them to be satisfied and that permits them to stay at new settlement. Community participation is a crucial factor for the effectiveness of any project. Thus, governmental, nongovernmental and social institutions (religious institutions and edit) should raise the awareness of the community about the project before its real implementation that allows consensus of the entire community as a basis. To eliminate the chronic problems of the society at the current villages the regional and zonal bodies should allocate adequate budget in order to fulfill the necessary equipment at health centers and schools. In line with this point un-functional facilities like clean water, road, flour mill, electric power supply, and several services concerning awareness raising should be considered critically to promote sustainable
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growth and advancement of the Majang community in particular and the woreda in general. The participants of the program encountered several impedes at the new settlement despite of their hope before the journey. The issue of farmland size, productivity, and fabrication of thieves, pollution of indigenous culture, low saving habits and other socioeconomic factors should be emphasized seriously by the governmental bodies of (top to bottom) for the beneficiaries of the community. In addition, the land that still owned by the community (found at former villages) should not be transferred to any group and/or agent for any purpose without the full agreement and desire of the society. Further study is advisable and recommended on some of variables that were not incorporated under this study.
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Appendixes
Appendix A: Traditional house, collected crop, and farmer on farming
A farmer on his activity
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Appendix B: The researcher on field work (Data collection)
The Researcher while Field Work Ready Land to be cultivated on
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Appendix C: Parametric and none parametric tests
Dependent variable: Success of Villagization Chi- Normalit Test of Collinearity Square y test Homog Statistics ANOVA eneity Tolerance VIF
Sex 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 .674 1.483 Age 0.003 0.003 0.000 0.000 .931 1.074 Family size 0.004 0.004 0.000 0.000 .693 1.443 Marital status 0.040 0.040 0.000 0.001 .739 1.354 Income 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 .951 1.052 Expense 0.017 0.017 0.000 0.000 .818 1.223 Farmland size 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 .297 3.371 Productivity 0.038 0.098 0.000 0.000 .240 4.167 Reduction of forest P 0.011 0.012 0.000 0.000 .515 1.941 Living condition 0.003 0.003 0.000 0.000 .394 2.539 Perception 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 .320 3.120 Willingness 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 .394 2.541 Access to BS 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 .615 1.625 Educational status 0.002 0.000 0.001 0.000 .904 1.106
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Appendix D: Normality test by plot
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Appendix E: Summary of correlation result for all predictors and dependent variables
X1 x2 X3 X4 X5 X6 X7 X8 X9 X10 X11 X12 X13 X14 X15
X1 1.000 .813 .036 -.073 -.206 -.042 -.331 -.058 -.121 .120 -.174 -.219 .217 .139 .051
X2 .813 1.000 .011 -.960 .023 -.002 .008 .959 -.002 -.003 .887 -.959 -.948 .856 .006
X3 .036 .011 1.000 -.011 .109 -.061 -.237 .011 .306 -.402 .010 -.012 -.009 .010 .413
X4 -.073 -.960 -.011 1.000 -.024 .002 -.009 -.999 .002 .004 -.923 .999 .820 -.902 -.006
X5 -.206 .023 .109 -.024 1.000 -.060 .069 .024 -.284 .248 .018 -.024 -.019 .019 .081
X6 -.042 -.002 -.061 .002 -.060 1.000 .200 -.002 .001 .050 .000 .002 .002 -.001 .284
X7 -.331 .008 -.237 -.009 .069 .200 1.000 .008 .022 -.057 .008 -.009 -.007 .009 .078
X8 -.058 .959 .011 -.999 .024 -.002 .008 1.000 -.003 -.004 .928 -.999 -.821 .881 .006
X9 -.121 -.002 .306 .002 -.284 .001 .022 -.003 1.000 -.481 .001 .002 .002 .001 .373
X10 .120 -.003 -.402 .004 .248 .050 -.057 -.004 -.481 1.000 -.005 .004 .003 -.005 -.297 X11 -.174 .887 .010 -.923 .018 .000 .008 .928 .001 -.005 1.000 -.933 -.756 .760 .007
X12 -.219 -.959 -.012 .999 -.024 .002 -.009 -.999 .002 .004 -.933 1.000 .820 -.886 -.007
X13 .217 -.948 -.009 .820 -.019 .002 -.007 -.821 .002 .003 -.756 .820 1.000 -.731 -.005
X14 .139 .856 .010 -.902 .019 -.001 .009 .881 .001 -.005 .760 -.886 -.731 1.000 .007
X15 .051 .006 .413 -.006 .081 .284 .078 .006 .373 -.297 .007 -.007 -.005 .007 1.000
X1 =Sex X8 = Agricultural Productivity X2 = Age X9 = Reduction of forest Products X3 = Family size X10 = Living condition X4 = Marital status X11 = Perception about the program X5 = Income X12 = Willingness to villagized X6 = Expense X14 = Educational status X7 = Farmland size X15 = Success of villagization
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Appendix F: Summary of Multiple Regression analysis result for all independent variables Dependent Variable: Success of Villagazation program Unstandardized Standardized Coefficients Coefficients Explanatory Variables Std. B Error Beta t Sig. Head of Households -.072 .043 .864 -12.330 .000*** Age of Households .920 .017 .007 4.790 .000* Family size of the Households .000 .044 .007 16.857 .000*** Marital status of the Households .002 .019 -.004 -1.688 .093* Income of Households in Birr per year -.002 .073 .062 2.937 .004** Expense of Households in birr per year .000 .075 -.651 -4.130 .000*** Farmland size of households per hectare .000 .048 .052 .722 .471* Productivity of Households in quintal per year -.034 .046 -.349 -4.288 .000* Reduction of forest products -.026 .059 .293 5.074 .000* Better living condition of the households .213 .062 .005 .088 .930*** Perception of Households about villagazation .100 .073 -.255 -3.521 .001* Willingness of Households to move -.118 .064 .782 12.334 .000*** Access of basic services at new village -.050 .063 -.355 -5.649 .000* Educational status -.160 .048 -.014 -.302 .763*** R = 0.895 R2 = 0.802
Adjusted R Square = 0 .792 Number of observation = 293 Source: Own survey (2018) *, **, ** represents significant level at 1%, 5% and 10% respectively.
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Appendix G: Questionnaire for the Respondents
QUESTIONNAIRE
Adama Science and Technology University
School of Law and Humanities
Department of Geography and Environmental Studies
Questionnaires to be filled by Household Heads of Recent Villagers in Godere Woreda
Dear respondent,
My name is Belay G/Michael. I am a graduate student at Adama Science and Technology University, Department of Geography and Environmental Studies. Currently, I am writing my MA thesis entitled ―Determinants of the Success of Recent Villagazation Program in Godere Woreda, Majang Zone of Gambella Regional State``.‖ as part of the requirements for the award of Master of Arts (MA) Degree in Geography and Environmental Studies. Thus, the main purpose of this questionnaire is to gather information to examine the determinants of the Success of Recent Villagazation Program in Godere Woreda. The study is being conducted only for academic purpose in which all information you provide will be confidential.
Dear respondent, in order to guarantee confidentiality, it is not expected from you to write your name in any part of the questionnaire. Since your response is vital for the success of the study, you are requested to provide genuine responses to the questions.
``Thank you in advance``
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Part I: Demographic data Give your appropriate answers for each questions on the space provided 1. Date of data collection: ………………………………………………………… 2. Kebele of the data provider: ……………………………………………………. 3. Sex of the respondent: 1) Male ………… 2) Female ……………. 4. Age of the respondent: 5. Marital status of the respondent: 1) Single ………. 2) Married ………..3) Divorced ……..... 4) Widowed……….. 5) Polygamy…...... 6. Head of the household: 1) Man……… 2) Woman ……….. 3) Son ………. 4) Daughter ………….. 5) Other (specify) ______7. Family size of the respondent: 1) 2 ……….. 2) 3 ………… 3) 4 …...... 4) 5……… 4) More than 5……..
8. Educational background of the respondent:
1) Cannot read and write ………. 2) Only read and write……….
3) Grades (1 – 8) ………… 4) Grades (9 -10) ………….
5) Grades 11-12 …………. 6) Above grade 12………….
Part II. Questions Pertaining to the overall process of the villagization program.
Section one: The next questions are designed to know the causes of villagization program in your kebele. Please indicate your answer by encircling your letter of choice.
1. Why did you relocate from your previous village? (Multiple responses are possible)
A) Due to natural and man-made hazards
B) Due to Development-Induced Project like an investment
C) To have accessibility of different socioeconomic services in common
D) To be secure E) Other (Specify) ______
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2. When did you come in this new village?
A) Before 2003 E.C B) In 2003 E.C C) In 2004 E.C D) After 2005 E.C
3. What is/are the better conditions of the new village? (You can select all if appropriate)
A) Access to basic services (education, health, road, power, pure water, etc)
B) Proximity to communication nodes like telecom network
C) Proximity to market places
D) Proximity to relatives
E) Other (Specify) ______
4. What is your main occupation?
A) Farmer B) Merchant C) civil Servant D) Wage laborer E) Other (Specify) ______
Section 2: The below mentioned questions belong to the perception of the dwellers about the recent villagazation program; please give your valuable responses in the given space.
1. Were you voluntary to leave your former village? A) Yes ------B) No------2. If your answer is `No`, why? ------3. Do you have ample information about the villagization program before its implementation? A) Yes ----- B) No------4. If your answer is `Yes`, how? 5. How could you evaluate the villagization programming that undertaken in your kebele? A) It is very significant------B) It is significant------C) It is useful, but less constructive------D) It is useless and negative------
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6. Who benefited much from the program? A) The elders, women, youngsters, children------B) The adult population------C) The government officials------D) All the indigenous Majang societies------E) No one benefited------7. Is the program changed your life positively? A) Yes ------B) No------8. Is the communication between villagers changed after the program? A) Yes ------B) No------9. If your answer is ``Yes`` for the above question, what are the indicators?------10. How could you describe the distance between your current village and clean water? A) Too far and less accessible------B) Nearby but inaccessible------C) Reachable and more accessible------D) No difference with the previous village------Section 3: The economic factors of the respondents
3.1 How many birr would you obtain per year?
1) Less than 5000 Birr 2) 5001 – 8000 Birr 3) 8001 – 11,000 Birr . . . 4) 11,001 – 15,000 Birr 5) Above 15,000 Birr . . 3.2 How many birr would you offer for your family as expennse per year?
1) Less than 5000 Birr 2) 5001 – 8000 Birr 3) 8001 – 11,000 Birr . . . 4) 11,001 – 15,000 Birr 5) Above 15,000 Birr . .
3.3 How many hectare of land do you owned at new village?
1) Less than one 2) 1.1 – 2 3) 2.1 – 3 4) Above 3.1 . . . . 79
3.4 How many quintals of yield did you obtain per year per hectare?
1) Less than 3 . 2) 3.1 to 5 . 3) 5.1 to 8 . 4) Above 8 .
3.5 How could you describe the distance betweem you village and local market place?
1) Less than one km 2) 1.1 to 3kms 3) 3.1 to 5kms . . . 4) 5.1 to 8kms 5) Above 8kms . .
Section 4: The following items assess the availability and function of infrastructures in relation to other factors in selected kebeles of Godere woreda before and after the program. You are requested to put your answer by mark () sign on the space provided.
No Infrastructures Before After 1 Clean water 2 Health center 3 Road 4 School 5 Flour mill 6 Warehouse 7 Electric power 8 Telecom 9 Maximum income 10 High expense 11 Large family size
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Section 5: The next questions are related to the advantage and disadvantage of villagization programs that undertaken in your cable. Please give your response by putting a mark (X) sign on the given space. No Factors Merits Demerits 1 Shrinking of farm land 2 Working together 3 Social benefits 4 Neighborhood (togetherness) 5 Resource sharing 6 Sedentary way of life 7 Landlessness 8 Contamination of indigenous culture 9 Closeness to basic services (water, health, school…) 10 Fabrication of thief 11 High productivity 12 Proximity to administrative and religious organization 13 Joblessness 14 Remoteness of energy source (firewood) 15 Loss of private/communal properties 16 High population density 17 Vicinity to relatives/friends, etc. 18 Reduction of edible forest fruits, roots, leaves, etc. 19 Destruction of traditional hive 20 Ease of communication between communities 21 Aids in cash/material 22 Absence of dread 23 Better living conditions 24 Many children at school
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Part IV. Open ended questions for settlers
1. What are the challenges that you faced during the implementation of the program?
------
2. What infrastructures were built by the government to rehabilitate the resettles?
------
3. How could you describe the advantages and disadvantages of the villagization program in your livelihood in particular and in your environment in general?
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Appendix H: Guideline for Interviewee Key informant interview checklist for Woreda officials, Kebele and local Community leaders
Dear Sir/Madam,
I am a graduate student at Adama Science and Technology University. I am conducting a research titled ―Determinants of success of the recent Villagization Program in Godere Woreda Majang Zone, Gambella Regional State" as part of the requirements for the successful completion of the Master Degree in Geography and Environmental studies.
To attain this purpose your honest and genuine participation is very important. I, therefore, highly appreciate you for sparing your time for the interview that will take 30 to 45 minutes. And, be confident that your response will be kept confidential and used solely for academic purpose.
1. What do you think the general objective of the villagazation program in your Woreda? 2. What methods were used by concerned body‘s in-order to raise the awareness of communities about villagization program? 3. How the recent villagization sites were selected as suitable for living? 4. What were the promised infrastructures in the selected kebeles of your woreda for the settlers by the government? 5. What do you think the basic reasons for the settlers to turn back towards the original sites? 6. Please, would you discuss the challenges of villagization program? 7. Is the program successful or not? Please, specify its success and failure with indicators. 8. How could you evaluate the participation of communities and settlers while the implementation of the program?
``Thank you in advance``
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Appendix I Focus Group Discussion (FGD) Guidelines with settlers
Dear Sir/Madam,
I am a graduate student at Adama Science and Technology University. I am conducting a research entitled ―Determinants of success of the recent Villagization Program in Godere Woreda Majang Zone, Gambella Regional State" as part of the requirement for the successful completion of the Degree of Masters in Geography and Environmental studies.
To attain this purpose your honest and genuine participation is very important. I, therefore, highly appreciate you for sparing your time for the discussion which will take one and half hour. And, be confident that your response will be kept confidential and used solely for academic purpose.
1. Why do you change your previous village? 2. How do you describe the present and former village? 3. What are the major benefits that you got from the villagization program? 4. Would you discuss the challenges of villagization program that you faced during and after the process? 5. Do you think that the villagization program has changed your livelihood? If so, what are the changes? 6. Have you attained the basic infrastructural and administrative services at new village? If so mention them. 7. What is the difference in land size in your original and new site?
Thank you in advance
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