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The Biomechanics of Spear Throwing: an Analysis of the Effects of Anatomical Variation on Throwing Performance, with Implications for the Fossil Record

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Washington University in St. Louis Washington University Open Scholarship All Theses and Dissertations (ETDs) Spring 4-24-2013 The iomechB anics of Spear Throwing: An Analysis of the Effects of Anatomical Variation on Throwing Performance, with Implications for the Fossil Record Julia Marie Maki Washington University in St. Louis Follow this and additional works at: https://openscholarship.wustl.edu/etd Part of the Anthropology Commons Recommended Citation Maki, Julia Marie, "The iomeB chanics of Spear Throwing: An Analysis of the Effects of Anatomical Variation on Throwing Performance, with Implications for the Fossil Record" (2013). All Theses and Dissertations (ETDs). 1044. https://openscholarship.wustl.edu/etd/1044 This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by Washington University Open Scholarship. It has been accepted for inclusion in All Theses and Dissertations (ETDs) by an authorized administrator of Washington University Open Scholarship. For more information, please contact [email protected]. WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY IN ST. LOUIS Department of Anthropology Dissertation Examination Committee: Erik Trinkaus, Chair Ruth Clark Glenn Conroy Jane Phillips-Conroy Herman Pontzer E.A. Quinn The Biomechanics of Spear Throwing: An Analysis of the Effects of Anatomical Variation on Throwing Performance, with Implications for the Fossil Record by Julia Marie Maki A dissertation presented to the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences of Washington University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for degree of Doctor of Philosophy May 2013 St. Louis, Missouri © 2013, Julia Marie Maki TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES v LIST OF TABLES viii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ix ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS xii ABSTRACT xv CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1 Research Questions and Hypotheses 3 CHAPTER 2: THROWING IN CONTEXT 8 CHAPTER 3: THROWING IN THE PALEOLITHIC 16 I. Evidence for Projectile Weaponry 17 II. Anatomical Evidence for Throwing 29 III. Evidence for Hunting 36 CHAPTER 4: BIOMECHANICS OF THROWING 41 I. Biomechanics of Throwing in Modern Humans 41 II. Relevant Anatomical Variation between Hominin Populations 47 1. Muscle Volume 47 2. Effective Mechanical Advantage 54 3. Body Proportions 61 CHAPTER 5: MATERIALS AND METHODS 65 MATERIALS 65 I. Human Subjects 65 II. Skeletal Materials 66 METHODS 71 I. Experimental Data Collection 71 1. Anthropometrics 71 2. Strength Testing 72 3. Kinematics and Kinetics 74 4. Electromyography 77 5. Magnetic Resonance Imaging 78 II. Skeletal Data Collection 79 III. Experimental Data Processing 82 1. Kinematics and Kinetics 82 2. EMG 95 3. MRI 96 ii 4. Statistical Analyses 104 IV. Skeletal Data Processing 105 CHAPTER 6: KINETICS AND KINEMATICS OF THROWING 111 I. Kinetics and Kinematics of the Legs and Torso 114 II. Kinetics and Kinematics of the Arm 118 1. The Shoulder 118 2. The Elbow 124 3. The Wrist 128 Discussion 133 1. The Legs and Torso 133 2. The Shoulder 133 3. The Elbow and Wrist 135 4. Effects of Object Mass on Throwing Performance 136 CHAPTER 7: THROWING PERFORMANCE AND ANATOMY 138 BALL RESULTS 138 I. Relationship between Anthropometric Variables and Ball Ke 138 II. Relationship between Anthropometric Variables and Ke at Each Joint 144 1. Ke of the Legs and Torso 144 2. Ke of the Arm 153 Discussion 159 1. The Legs and Torso 160 2. The Shoulder 162 3. The Elbow 163 4. The Wrist 165 SPEAR RESULTS 166 I. Relationship between Anthropometric Variables and Spear Ke 166 II. Relationship between Anthropometric Variables and Ke at Each Joint 169 1. Ke of the Legs and Torso 169 2. Ke of the Arm 174 Discussion 180 1. The Legs and Torso 180 2. The Shoulder 181 3. The Elbow 182 4. The Wrist 183 CHAPTER 8: EFFECTIVE MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE 184 I. EMA and Maximum Torque Production 184 Discussion 195 II. Skeletal versus Tendinous Estimation of EMA 198 Discussion 200 III. Static versus Dynamic EMA 201 Discussion 206 iii CHAPTER 9: EFFECTIVE MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE IN 210 PALEOLITHIC FOSSIL HOMININS I. EMA at the Elbow 211 II. EMA at the Wrist 222 Discussion 234 1. The Elbow 234 2. The Wrist 237 CHAPTER 10: CONCLUSIONS 242 I. The Biomechanics of Spear and Ball Throwing 242 II. Throwing Performance and Anatomy 246 III. Energy Transfer Across the Kinetic Chain in Throwing 250 IV. The Relevance and Measurability of Effective Mechanical Advantage 251 V. Effective Mechanical Advantage in Paleolithic Fossil Hominins 253 VI. Spear Throwing Performance in Paleolithic Fossil Hominins 255 BIBLIOGRAPHY 257 APPENDICES 281 I. Subject Anthropometrics 281 II. Subject Muscle Cross-Sectional Areas Measured from MRIs 283 III. Subject Moment Arms Measured from MRIs 284 IV. Subject Strength Measured with Load Cell 286 V. Skeletal Measurements from Fossil Specimens 287 iv LIST OF FIGURES Figure 4.1 Phases of a baseball throw 42 Figure 5.1 Strength testing apparatus 73 Figure 5.2 Set-up for throwing trials 74 Figure 5.3 Infrared marker positions and descriptors 75 Figure 5.4 Skeletal measurement of moment arms at the elbow 81 Figure 5.5 Skeletal measurement of moment arms at the wrist 82 Figure 5.6 Method for determining ball/spear release frame 86 Figure 5.7 Local reference system and motion definitions for the shoulder 88 Figure 5.8 Local reference system and motion definitions for shoulder 89 internal/external rotation Figure 5.9 Local reference system and motion definitions for the wrist 90 Figure 5.10 Visualization of 3-D coordinates in Analyze 97 Figure 5.11 Selection of the center of rotation for the wrist 100 Figure 5.12 Measurement of moment arms in Analyze 101 Figure 5.13 Measurement of muscle cross sectional area in Analyze 102 Figure 6.1 Leg kinematics 116 Figure 6.2 Torso kinematics 118 Figure 6.3 Shoulder kinematics 119 Figure 6.4 Shoulder internal/external rotation 121 Figure 6.5 Shoulder abduction/adduction 122 Figure 6.6 Shoulder horizontal abduction/adduction 123 Figure 6.7 Elbow kinematics 125 Figure 6.8 Elbow flexion/extension 127 Figure 6.9 Wrist kinematics 129 v Figure 6.10 Wrist flexion/extension 132 Figure 7.1 Linear regression of RShoulder Ke against ball Ke 140 Figure 7.2 Diagram of the relationship between predictor variables and linear 147 kinetic energy (Ke) at each joint for ball throws Figure 7.3 Linear regression of RShoulder Ke against spear Ke 167 Figure 7.4 Diagram of the relationship between predictor variables and linear 170 Ke at each joint for spear throws Figure 7.5 Linear regression of triceps aCSA against residuals from regression 177 of Elbow Ke against Ulna Ke Figure 7.6 Linear regression of wrist flexor aCSA against residuals from 179 regression of RShoulder Ke against Spear Ke Figure 8.1 Linear regression of external force (Fe) measured with load cell, 186 against muscle cross sectional area (aCSA) multiplied by effective mechanical advantage (EMA) Figure 8.2 Linear regression of aCSA against Fe measured with load cell 188 Figure 8.3 Linear regression of skeletal r against tendinous r at the elbow 199 Figure 8.4 Linear regression of skeletal r against tendinous r at the wrist 200 Figure 8.5 Linear regression of static R against dynamic R at the elbow during 204 throwing Figure 8.6 Linear regression of 2nd metacarpal length against dynamic R at 206 maximum torque for the wrist Figure 8.7 Elbow angle during ball throwing 207 Figure 8.8 Variation in dynamic R at the elbow during throwing 208 Figure 9.1 Load arm (R) at the elbow 213 Figure 9.2 Moment arm (r) for triceps brachii (TB) 215 Figure 9.3 Effective mechanical advantage (EMA) for triceps brachii (TB) 217 Figure 9.4 Moment arm for brachialis (B) 218 Figure 9.5 EMA for B 219 Figure 9.6 Moment arm for biceps brachii (BB) 221 vi Figure 9.7 EMA for BB 222 Figure 9.8 Second metacarpal (2MC) length 224 Figure 9.9 Linear regression of r for flexor carpi ulnaris (FCU) measured 226 from the hamate (rHam) against r measured from the pisiform (rPis) Figue 9.10 Moment arm for FCU (rHam) 227 Figure 9.11 EMA for FCU (from rHam) 228 Figure 9.12 Moment arm for flexor carpi radialis (FCR) 229 Figure 9.13 EMA for FCR 230 Figure 9.14 Moment arm for extensor carpi ulnaris (ECU) 231 Figure 9.15 EMA for ECU 232 Figure 9.16 Moment arm for extensor carpi radialis longus and brevis (ECR) 233 Figure 9.17 EMA for ECR 234 Figure 9.18 Range of variation in r for human skeletal samples versus living 240 human subjects vii LIST OF TABLES Table 5.1 Fossil specimens 70 Table 5.2 Summary of MATLAB equations 93 Table 5.3 Muscle anatomy for moment arm calculations 103 Table 7.1 Correlation matrix of subject anthropometrics 140 Table 7.2 Stepwise multiple regression equations for the relationship between 142 anthropometric variables and ball Ke Table 7.3 Variables used to predict ball/spear Ke 146 Table 7.4 Stepwise multiple regression equations for anthropometric variables 149 and Ke at each joint for ball throwing Table 7.5 Stepwise multiple regression equations for relationship between 168 anthropometric variables and spear Ke Table 7.6 Stepwise multiple regression equations for anthropometric variables 171 and Ke at each joint for spear throwing Table 8.1 Stepwise multiple regression equations for EMA and muscle 187 aCSA against Fe for the elbow and wrist in flexion and extension Table 8.2 Correlation coefficients and partial correlations for elbow and wrist 190 aCSA and Fe Table 8.3 Correlation matrix for muscle aCSA values 191 Table 8.4 Stepwise multiple regression of muscle aCSA and EMA against Fe 192 for the elbow and wrist in flexion and extension Table 8.5 Correlation coefficients and significance values for linear regression 205 of static R against dynamic R
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