EDUQAS GCSE Buddhism BELIEFS – TEACHINGS - PRACTICES

Home , Anatta, Arhat, Parinirvana, Parinirvana Day, Three poisons, Vassa

CONTENTS

Specification and key terms p. 3 Introduction p. 4 The Buddha p. 6 The Dhamma p. 11 The Four Noble Truths p. 15 Samsara, Enlightenment and Nirvana p. 19 Theravada: the Arhat Ideal & Mahayana: The Bodhisattva Ideal p. 22 Theravada Understanding of Human Personality p. 26 Mahayana Understanding of Human Personality p. 30 Ethical Teaching p. 34 Pure Land Buddhism p. 38 Buddhist places of worship p. 42 Meditation p. 46 Devotional Practices p. 50 Death and Mourning p. 54 Festivals and Retreats: Practices in Britain and elsewhere p. 58

N. G. Heap Eton College 2

Specification: Learners should be aware that Buddhism is one of a diverse range of religious and non-religious traditions and beliefs in Great Britain today that also includes Christianity, Hinduism, Islam, Judaism, Sikhism, Humanism and Atheism, but that the main religious tradition in Great Britain is Christian. This knowledge may be applied throughout the assessment of the specified content.

Learners must know, understand and express common and divergent views and the basis for beliefs, teachings and practices. Reference to relevant sources of wisdom and authority are expected, including scripture and/or sacred texts.

Key terms

Anicca: The impermanent nature of things

Anatta: No independent or permanent self

Dukkha: Suffering/unsatisfactoriness

Skhandas: The five elements that make up a human being: 1. Form 2. Sensation 3. Perception 4. Mental Formations 5. Consciousness

Samatha: Calmness or breathing meditation

Pratitya-samutpada: Dependent origination; everything ‘exists’ only because of the ‘existence’ of other phenomena in an incredibly complex web of cause and effect covering time past, time present and time future

Metta bhavana: The development of loving kindness, usually through meditation

Vipassana: ‘Insight’ meditation enabling the individual to see the true nature of things

(1) INTRODUCTION

The beliefs and practices of Buddhism are based on the teachings of the Buddha, formerly Gautama 563 – 483 BCE (the exact years are disputed) who was born in present day Nepal where he spent most of his life.

Gautama gave up his worldly possessions to live the life of an ascetic while he searched for enlightenment. However, he rejected this lifestyle as being unhelpful. One day, as he sat under the Bodhi Tree, he achieved this enlightenment. He had become the Buddha – which means ‘enlightened one’ – and found the answer to the cause of human suffering and how to overcome it.

The basic teaching of the Buddha is to avoid extremes. There is nothing to be gained from either over indulgence in pleasure, or in ascetic practices which punish the body. The way of the Buddha is therefore called the ‘middle way’. The Buddha said that life was like being on a wheel of existence, with people moving in samsara - a continuous cycle from birth, through life, to death, and then rebirth. He said that craving and desire keep people on the wheel. The escape from this endless cycle is nirvana – which means ‘blowing out’ – and this is the end of suffering and freedom from rebirth.

By the time the Buddha died he had thousands of followers in India. Following his death, his teaching was handed down orally and eventually written down along with accounts of his life. This was preserved by the bhikkus (monks) and bhikkunis (nuns) which Buddha had founded and by lay people who had also been followers of Buddha.

The spread and prosperity of Buddhism in India was greatly helped by the support it gained from the merchant and ruling classes and eventually from kings. The Emperor Ashoka (269 – 232 BCE.) who ruled much of present day Northern India declared himself a lay Buddhist and built many Buddhist viharas – Buddhist monastery/temple. Succeeding kings followed his example.

Buddhism spread through most of present day Asia. It mingled with the culture and religious traditions of countries where it was absorbed, adopted and adapted. That is why it is may be argued that there is no one single Buddhism but many Buddhisms.

Today there are over 500 million Buddhists spread worldwide, with the greatest concentrations in China, India, Japan, Malaysia, Burma/Myanmar, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Tibet and Vietnam. Buddhism has also become popular in the West, and there are communities of Buddhist monks and lay-Buddhists all over Europe and America.

Exercise 1

Knowledge Questions (5 marks): 1. What is the name for a Buddhist monk? 2. What is the name for a Buddhist nun? 3. What is a vihara? 4. Which emperor helped in the spread of Buddhism? 5. How many Buddhists are there in the world today?

Description Question (5 marks): Describe the basic teaching of Buddhism.

Explanation Question (8 marks): Explain how Buddhism spread following the death of the Buddha.

Discussion Questions (15 marks each): 1. ‘Suffering is the main problem of human existence.’ Discuss this statement showing that you have considered more than one point of view. (You must refer to religion and belief in your answer.) 2. ‘Any religion such as Buddhism which is 2500 years old, cannot be of help in the 21st century.’ Discuss this statement showing that you have considered more than one point of view. (You must refer to religion and belief in your answer.)

(2) THE BUDDHA

In outlining his life story, Buddhists sometimes refer to the Ten Acts of the Buddha.

1. Conception 2. Physical Birth 3. Accomplishment in worldly skills and ability to meditate 4. A Life of Pleasure 5. The Four sights 6. Life as an Ascetic – 6 years of suffering 7. Victory over Mara 8. Enlightenment 9. Teaching 10. Parinirvana (final and complete nirvana which happens at the death of a Buddha)

Some Buddhists take the events described as being literally true whereas other Buddhists regard them as having underlying truth which has been added to over time. Some accounts have additional stories and details. It is important to recognize that differences of opinion in this area are not a matter of any great concern for Buddhists.

1. Conception Father: Suddhodana – ruler of the Shakya Clan Mother: Maya According to the caste system of that time the family therefore belonged to the ruler class Maya dreamed that an elephant came down from the skies and entered her side Her pregnancy lasted 10 months

2. Physical Birth Maya was travelling to her parents’ home With her servants, she stopped at the gardens in Lumbini She walked beneath a tree which bent down to her Gautama was born out of her side painlessly The baby Gautama took 7 steps towards each of the 4 points of the compass At each step a lotus flower sprang up Gautama declared:

I am king of the 4 directions. This is my last birth!

Maya and Gautama returned to Kapilavastu A wise man predicted that Gautama would either be a great leader or a great religious teacher Maya died 7 days after the birth of Gautama

3. Accomplishment in Worldly Skills and Ability to Meditate Suddhodana wanted Gautama to be a great leader He shielded him from anything unpleasant or things which might make him ask religious or spiritual questions e.g. dead leaves were swept away Gautama excelled at all he did: sports (archery and wrestling) and academic subjects (mathematics, languages, music.)

4. A Life of Pleasure Gautama enjoyed a life of great luxury He was surrounded by every sort of pleasure Three palaces were built for him for each season of the year (hot, cool and rainy) He was surrounded by beautiful gardens Aged 16, Gautama married Yashodhara She gave birth to a son, Rahula For the next 13 years, he remained within the grounds of his father’s palace

5. The Four Sights Aged 29, Gautama left his father’s palace with his charioteer Channa to see the outside world They made 4 short journeys out of the palace On each journey, Gautama encountered a Sight or Sign – these marked the turning point in his life: i. an old man ii. a sick man iii. a dead man iv. a samana (a wandering holy man) Channa explained to Gautama that the first 3 Sights were the common experience of life which no one could avoid Gautama realised that his life of luxury and pleasure could not protect him from old age, sickness and death The 4th Sight showed him that it was possible to be peaceful in the face of old age, sickness and death but he was unsure what gave the samana calm Gautama decided to follow the example of the samana to seek a solution to human suffering He left the palace secretly at night after bidding a silent farewell to his wife and son

6. Life as an Ascetic Gautama cut off his hair, got rid of his royal clothes and replaced them with the simple clothing of a samana He sent Channa back to the palace with his jewels For the following 6 years, he learned yoga and meditation He went into the forests and joined with 5 other samanas who were living the ascetic life He fasted almost to the point of death, surviving on one grain of rice a day He became so thin that he could feel his backbone through his stomach A herdswoman named Sujata brought a bowl of milk rice to the place where Gautama sat meditating She offered the food to him – he accepted it and ate The 5 samanas saw this and left Gautama as they believed that he had failed by breaking his fast

7. Victory over Mara In the village of Bodh Gaya Gautama sat under a large fig tree – later called the Bodhi tree or ‘Tree of Enlightenment’ He resolved to remain in meditation until he achieved true insight He said:

Let all the flesh and blood in my body dry up. But never from this seat will I stir, until I have attained the supreme and absolute wisdom.

It was a night of the full moon, the same night on which Gautama had been born He sat under the tree facing the East and began to meditate Mara the god of illusion and deceit realised that Gautama was near to enlightenment and did all he could to prevent this sending armies to frighten him Gautama remained unmoved and Mara fled away

8. Enlightenment During the night, Gautama’s meditative state intensified and he gained the threefold knowledge: i. He saw the countless numbers of his own previous lives, who he had been, his name, where he had lived and so forth ii. He understood the birth and death of beings in the universe, and what causes rebirth in the different realms of the wheel of existence iii. He understood the true nature of all things, and the process of pratitya – dependent origination At dawn, he achieved enlightenment – he was no longer Gautama - now he was the Buddha. He also achieved nirvana. He stayed meditating for one week The spirit of the lake, Naga, in the form of a huge cobra snake gave the Buddha warmth and shielded him from the rain by extending its hood over him like a canopy.

9. Teaching The Buddha remained for 7 weeks at Bodh Gaya near the Bodhi tree He found the 5 samanas who had left him at the deer park in Sarnath Here he gave his first teaching ‘The Setting in Motion of the Wheel of Dhamma’ – ‘dhamma’ means all the teachings of the Buddha. On hearing the Buddha, the 5 samanas were enlightened and became the first bhikkus For 45 years, the Buddha taught in the area of present day Northeast India His teaching was directed to all people: kings, wealthy merchants, poor people, men and women, old and young His followers were of 2 types: i. Lay people - those who listened to and accepted the Buddha’s teaching and continued with their normal life of family, home and work. ii. Bhikkus and bhikkunis - those who listened to and accepted the Buddha’s teaching but journeyed with the Buddha leaving family, home and work behind.

10. Parinirvana Aged 80, the Buddha fell ill with dysentery His condition was aggravated by food poisoning He stopped at Kushinara between two trees He lay down on his right side supporting his head in his hand He gave his final teaching to his followers and asked if any of them had any questions He was asked about a successor and replied that the dhamma was his successor His last words were:

All conditioned things are subject to decay. Attain perfection through diligence.

He passed into deeper stages of meditation and attained Parinirvana His body was cremated and the bones and ashes were divided into eight portions These were kept as holy relics and were then placed inside eight stupas - a dome shaped structure, as pictured below, with Buddhist relics buried in the centre. The stupa also represents the Buddha

The Ten Acts of the Buddha can be summarised as follows:

From birth until 29 years old he lived in the palaces at Kapilavastu 16 years old: Married Yashodhara 29 years old: Saw the four sights From 29 until 35 lived with the 5 samanas as an asectic 35 years old: Enlightened under the Bodhi Tree From 35 until 80 years old taught the dhamma 80 years old: Died and entered Parinirvana

Exercise 2

Knowledge Questions (5 marks): 1. Where was Gautama born? 2. What was the name of Gautama’s wife? 3. What is a samana? 4. What is Mara the god of? 5. Where did the Buddha’s Parinirvana take place?

Description Question (5 marks): Describe what happened when the Buddha left his father’s palace with Channa.

Explanation Question (8 marks): Explain what the Buddha did after his enlightenment.

Discussion Questions (15 marks each): 1. ‘The most important moment in the life of the Buddha was when Sujata brought him milk rice.’ Discuss this statement showing that you have considered more than one point of view. (You must refer to religion and belief in your answer.) 2. ‘Everyone has moments of enlightenment in life.’ Discuss this statement showing that you have considered more than one point of view. (You must refer to religion and belief in your answer.)

(3) THE DHAMMA

In achieving enlightenment, the Buddha saw life as it really is and he was then able to explain it in the dhamma. It should be remembered that the Buddha taught for 45 years and that since his death what he taught was recorded, explained and commented upon. The dhamma is very complex and detailed. It can also be described and interpreted in a variety of ways.

The Buddha taught that life has three important features. These are called the Three Lakshanas or Three Marks of Existence because they mark out what life is and are the lens through which Buddhists see life. The Three Marks of Existence are:

1. Dukkha 2. Anicca 3. Anatta

1. Dukkha The Buddha taught that there is ‘suffering’, that there is an unsatisfactory quality to human life. This is called dukkha – a term which can also be translated as ‘pain’, ‘sorrow’, ‘misery’. Buddhism classifies dukkha in a variety of ways, but in his teaching called the Four Noble Truths which we will look at later, the Buddha spoke about 8 states of dukkha which are both physical and mental:

i. Birth ii. Old Age iii. Disease iv. Dying v. Unhappiness vi. Being connected with people or things which are hated vii. Being separated from people or things which are loved viii. Not getting what is wished for

For many Buddhists, the other two lakshana are simply a development of dukkha.

2. Anicca The Buddha taught that everything is impermanent and always subject to change. This is called anicca. It is easiest to think about 2 types of anicca:

I. Obvious Anicca: This is impermanence and change which is all around us. For example, we all experience physical change in the way that our appearance changes and develops over the years. We can also see continual change in the natural world through the year: spring, summer, autumn and winter. There is also change when we look back to the past at what happened to countries in history. 11

II. Hidden Anicca: This refers to impermanence and change that we cannot usually see or observe. For example, modern science shows that what appear to be solid objects are made up of molecules, electrons and protons in perpetual motion continually changing their configurations. In our bodies, all the time cells are growing, dividing, dying.

3. Anatta The Buddha taught that there is no permanent, independent self, essence or soul. This is called anatta. Generally, we accept that over time as a person we will change in our minds, our emotions, our ideas and our appearance. However, we also accept that there is a permanent self within us which stays the same throughout the course of our lifetime. Some religions teach that this permanent self can be called the soul which lives on after death. One way of trying to understand this is to look at this sentence:

I am having thoughts.

When we say this, we believe that there is an ‘I’ which is having thoughts; an ‘I’ which is thinking.

Buddhism rejects this idea entirely. One way of trying to understand this is to look at this sentence:

There is no ‘I’ having thoughts; there are only thoughts.

According to Buddhism what we think of as ‘I’ is not real – there is no permanent self, essence or soul. The Buddha taught what we think of as ‘I’ is not a permanent thing but is constantly changing:

It is just like a mountain river, flowing far and swift, taking everything along with it; there is no moment, no instant, when it stops flowing - it goes on flowing and continuing.

For many Buddhists, the most important teaching in the dhamma is called pratitya-samutpada. This term is made up of two words ‘pratitya’ which means ‘dependent’ and ‘samutpada’ which means ‘origination’. It is so important that in one of his sayings, the Buddha declared:

Whoever sees pratitya-samutpada sees the dhamma. Whoever sees the dhamma sees pratitya-samutpada.

But what does pratitya-samutpada mean?

Many people and some religions believe that everything has a first point, a first cause which marks the beginning of everything else. This could be called the point of origination – the starting point from which everything else follows.

Buddhism rejects this belief. For Buddhism, there is no first point - no first cause which marks the start of everything else. There is no point of origination. Instead, Buddhists believe that everything which has samutpada (origination) is pratitya (dependent) on something else. One way of understanding this is to think of an infinite cycle of cause and effect where there is no first cause. Everything arises from something which has preceded it; everything depends for its origin on something else which has preceded it. The word ‘cycle’ is helpful here because just like a circle, it has no beginning.

The Buddha summed up pratitya-samutpada in one of his sayings:

When this is, that is This arises, that arises When this is not, that is not This ceases, that ceases.

In other words, everything ‘exists’ only because of the ‘existence’ of other phenomena. Everything is interconnected and interdependent in an incredibly complex web of cause and effect covering time past, time present and time future. Pratitya-samutpada is sometimes depicted as below – an endless knot.

Exercise 3

Knowledge Questions (5 marks): 1. For how many years did the Buddha teach the dhamma? 2. Give an example of obvious anicca? 3. Give an example of hidden anicca? 4. To what does the Buddha compare the ‘self’? 5. What do the words pratitya-samutpada mean?

Description Question (5 marks): Describe the Buddha’s teaching on anatta.

Explanation Question (8 marks): Explain why for many Buddhists pratitya-samutpada is the most important teaching in the dhamma.

Discussion Questions (15 marks each): 1. ‘There must be a starting point for everything.’ Discuss this statement showing that you have considered more than one point of view. (You must refer to religion and belief in your answer.) 2. ‘It does not make sense to say that there is no ‘I’ or permanent self.’ Discuss this statement showing that you have considered more than one point of view. (You must refer to religion and belief in your answer.)

(4) THE FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS

We have seen how once he was enlightened, the Buddha gave his first sermon in the deer park at Sarnath which is called ‘The Setting in Motion of the Wheel of Dhamma’. In this he taught the Four Noble Truths:

This is the truth of dukkha: birth is dukkha, old age is dukkha, disease is dukkha, dying is dukkha, being connected with what is hated is dukkha, being separated from what is loved is dukkha, not getting that which is wished for is dukkha; in brief, the five skhandas which make up people are dukkha.

And this is the truth of the origin of dukkha this craving, which is characterized by repeated existence, accompanied by passion for joys, delighting in this and that; that is to say, craving for sensual desires, craving for existence, craving for cessation of existence.

And this is the truth of the ending of dukkha the complete end of craving, the abandonment, rejection, and release of craving.

And this is the truth of the way leading to the cessation of dukkha: Just this the magga; that is to say Right Viewpoint Right Thought Right Speech Right Action Right Living Right Effort Right Awareness Right Concentration.

One way of understanding the Four Noble Truths is to use the analogy of the Buddha as a doctor treating a patient where four things are involved:

1. Disease – the Buddha identifies that humans are ‘sick’ – they suffer from dukkha. 2. Diagnosis – the Buddha identifies that the sickness is caused by craving. 3. Cure – the Buddha identifies that the sickness can be cured - it can come to an end. 4. Treatment – the Buddha provides treatment by prescribing the Eightfold Path.

We have already seen how important the concept of dukkha is in Buddhism as it is the first of the Three Lakshanas. Here we can see that it is also the First Noble Truth – the disease of humankind.

The Second Noble Truth provides the diagnosis - that dukkha is caused by craving. What the Buddha means here is that in various ways people have a craving, a thirst which cannot be satisfied, almost an addiction to things which give pleasure, to wanting life to go on for ever or to wanting life to come to an end. This craving varies from one person to another and can change from one thing to another all the time. However, the Buddha’s teaching is that even a person gets what they want, it is never enough and craving returns. One example might be of the person who says that the one thing they want more than anything else is the latest version of the mobile phone. Eventually they get it but their satisfaction does not last because soon they want the next version. It could be argued that in our consumer society, advertising depends on everyone having this type of craving.

One reason that it is so hard to remove craving is because according to Buddhists, our actions are dominated by Three Poisons:

1. Ignorance – our ignorance or illusion about reality and the way things really are – in particular our refusal to recognise the Three Lakshanas. 2. Greed – our desire to possess things and people in the belief that they will remove dukkha and improve our lives 3. Hatred – our emotions such as anger, jealousy, thirst for revenge whereby we put blame for our condition on things outside ourselves and focus our energy there.

The Third Noble Truth is short and simple. The Buddha offers hope because he states that this craving can come to an end – there is a cure.

The Fourth Noble Truth provides the treatment by giving people a way of living their life which follows the magga – the name given to the Eightfold Path. Essentially this is a way of life consisting of eight stages which do not have to be done in any particular order and can be done together. The Eightfold Path is usually divided into the Threefold Way.

1. The Way of Wisdom Wisdom is the first two parts of the Noble Eightfold Path and for this reason some Buddhists say that it is the most important way to achieve enlightenment. Wisdom involves understanding of the reality of life. It enables a person to gain a true perspective on life and therefore to make good decisions in following the magga.

I. Right Viewpoint: A Buddhist seeks to deepen his or her understanding of life by following the dhamma of the Buddha. It means having wisdom to think about the truth of dukkha in life.

II. Right Thought: A Buddhist seeks to give up selfish attitudes that lead to further dukkha and to replace them with their opposites. The motivation should be based on goodwill, compassion, sympathy and a balanced and moderate view on all things.

2. The Way of Morality Morality is the second part of the Noble Eightfold Path. It is about the right way that human beings should behave towards other people and towards their environment in general. Morality is essential because it is through intentional moral or immoral actions that a person determines their rebirth. It is also important as it leads to good relationships within society.

III. Right Speech: A Buddhist avoids speaking in ways that would cause hurt. This would mean avoiding lies, gossip, speaking harshly or idle chatter. Instead a Buddhist should talk positively to and about others by being sincere, careful and accurate in what is said. If there is nothing worth saying, then silence is best.

IV. Right Action: A Buddhist avoids causing harm through actions, through what is done.

V. Right Living: A Buddhist does not make a living by actions that bring harm to others – selling weapons, selling alcohol, killing animals etc.

3. The Way of Meditation Meditation is the third part of the Noble Eightfold Path. It is about the mental training and spiritual practices that the Buddhist can do to reach nirvana. Through training the mind a Buddhist can replace bad thoughts with good. In addition, meditation helps a Buddhist to think positive thoughts.

VI. Right Effort: The first step is for the Buddhist to make the effort to set aside negative thoughts and to replace them with positive thoughts. The Buddhist should be determined to shape the way he or she thinks.

VII. Right Awareness: This step involves being mindful. The Buddhist should have full awareness of himself and everything around him. His mind should be fully on what is happening at each moment. VIII. Right Concentration: This refers to training the mind through meditation practices. Buddhists believe that through meditation the mind is enabled to become calm, to develop loving kindness and to gain insight into the truths of life.

Exercise 4

Knowledge Questions (5 marks): 1. Where did the Buddha give his first sermon? 2. What is the name given to the first sermon? 3. What is the first of the Three Lakshanas? 4. In Buddhism, how many Poisons are there? 5. In which part of the Threefold Way is Right Living?

Description Question (5 marks): Describe what is meant by the analogy of the Buddha as a doctor.

Explanation Question (8 marks): Explain briefly the Threefold Way.

Discussion Questions (15 marks each): 1. ‘Buddhism is wrong to focus on suffering as key to understanding human existence.’ Discuss this statement showing that you have considered more than one point of view. (You must refer to religion and belief in your answer.) 2. ‘The magga is useful for everyone to follow – regardless of their religion or belief.’ Discuss this statement showing that you have considered more than one point of view. (You must refer to religion and belief in your answer.)

(5) SAMSARA, ENLIGHTENMENT AND NIRVANA

As you might remember, pratitya-samutpada refers to ‘dependent-origination’ – the belief that there is no first point or starting point from which everything originates. As suggested a useful way to think about this is as a cycle which has no starting point. That image can also help when we think about the next key Buddhist belief which is samsara.

Samsara is not a complicated belief – it simply refers to the continual round of birth, death, rebirth, birth, death, rebirth, birth, death, rebirth, birth, death, rebirth, birth, death, rebirth, birth, death, rebirth, birth, death, rebirth without beginning and without end.

In one saying, the Buddha declared:

The cycle of samsara is without a visible end and the first beginning is not to be perceived.

Some Buddhists try to understand this by using elaborate images of the wheel of existence such as the simplified one below.

The wheel of existence shows the six realms into which Buddhists believe people might be reborn with the god realm at the top and going around clockwise, the anti-god realm, the hungry ghost realm, the hell realm and the human realm. Yama the god of death holds the wheel as Yama is a symbol of anicca – impermanence. It is important to remember that birth into any of these realms is not permanent but is followed by birth, death and rebirth in the same realm or in a better or worse realm. In each realm, there are varying degrees of dukkha.

As you will notice, at the hub of the wheel of existence which keep it turning are three animals linked together which are symbols of the Three Poisons:

1. Ignorance – the pig 2. Greed – the rooster 3. Hatred – the snake

Enlightenment is a difficult term to understand fully but as the word suggests it means that a person who is in darkness is suddenly brought into light. In other words, they can see, recognise and understand themselves and the reality in which they live. Just as the Buddha achieved this through meditation, Buddhists believe that they can do the same with enough focus and practice. To achieve enlightenment, Buddhists also focus on removing the Three Poisons from their minds.

Enlightenment gives a whole new way of seeing and relating to life and can be described as joyful and liberating. Three metaphors sometimes used regarding enlightenment are that it is like:

1. A slave owned and chained up by other people who is suddenly freed with the chains removed and can take back control of life and be independent once more. 2. A prisoner locked up in a narrow cell who suddenly finds the door flung open so that going back to the safety of home is possible. 3. A debtor owing money to other people who is suddenly given great wealth so that the fear of debt is removed and security is possible.

Whilst it may be hoped that the state of enlightenment can be maintained, Buddhists recognise that people who are enlightened are still living, eating, and relating to others in ordinary daily life. Since this is the case, it is possible that they will suffer from dukkha due to craving. In addition, the Three Poisons might still be present though not as much as before. Here again people try to follow the example of the Buddha. You might remember that when he achieved enlightenment under the Bodhi Tree, he also achieved nirvana. In one saying, the Buddha declared:

If ignorance, greed and hatred, the Three Poisons, are given up, man aims neither at his own ruin nor at the ruin of others, nor at the ruin of both, and he experiences no mental pain and grief. Thus, is nirvana visible in this life, immediate, inviting, attractive, and comprehensible to the wise.

Nirvana means ‘blowing out’ in the sense of blowing out a flame. What Buddhists say is blown out and extinguished permanently are the Three Poisons and craving. Peace and happiness are attained. Life continues but in a wholly new way almost as if the experience of enlightenment simply stays with the person. Finally, at death the person can achieve Parinirvana just as the Buddha did. Parinirvana means final and complete nirvana without anything left – samsara and the wheel of existence have been left behind.

Exercise 5

Knowledge Questions (5 marks): 1. What did the Buddha say about the beginning and end of samsara? 2. What is the name of the god of death? 3. Which animal is a symbol of hatred? 4. What does the word nirvana mean? 5. What does Parinirvana mean?

Description Question (5 marks): Describe what can be seen in images of the wheel of existence.

Explanation Question (8 marks): Explain what is meant by enlightenment.

Discussion Questions (15 marks each): 1. ‘The worst of the Three Poisons is greed.’ Discuss this statement showing that you have considered more than one point of view. (You must refer to religion and belief in your answer.) 2. ‘Having nirvana as a goal removes any value or happiness from human life.’ Discuss this statement showing that you have considered more than one point of view. (You must refer to religion and belief in your answer.)

(6) THERAVADA: THE ARHAT IDEAL & MAHAYANA: THE BODHISATTVA IDEAL

In the introductory chapter, you may recall - and have been confused by - the statement that there is no one single Buddhism but many Buddhisms. As was stated there, after the death of the Buddha the dhamma spread through most of Asia as bhikkus and bhikkunis travelled and taught. Generally, Buddhism did not arrive in a country and remove the religion which it found there; instead it mingled with the culture and religious traditions and it was absorbed, adopted and adapted. This makes learning about Buddhism a little complicated. However, one way of keeping things clear is to simplify matters by talking in general about two types of Buddhism: Theravada and Mahayana.

Theravada is usually translated ‘way of the elders’. Theravada Buddhism regards itself as being strictly faithful to the dhamma of the Buddha. In Theravada Buddhism, the Buddha himself remains important as the historical person, the man, who taught the magga during his lifetime. Theravada can therefore be seen as having a very conservative approach to Buddhism. It is the oldest form of Buddhism and Theravada Buddhists do not believe that other forms of Buddhism are fully based on the dhamma of the Buddha. In fact, most Theravada Buddhists reject anything that does not come directly from the Buddha. Theravada Buddhists would regard themselves as having left unchanged the dhamma handed down from the Buddha following his death and Parinirvana.

One of the most important sacred texts for Theravada is the Dhammapada – which means ‘verses of the dhamma’. This is a short ancient collection of key sayings of the Buddha which can be read, chanted and meditated upon. Most Buddhists – not only Theravada Buddhists – would read it as it could be described as introduction to Buddhist beliefs and teachings. It is poetical in style and its short simple verse are full of meaning for Buddhists.

Chapter Seven of the Dhammapada is called ‘The Arhat’ and describes what an arhat should be.

There is no suffering for him who has finished his journey, and abandoned grief, who has freed himself on all sides, and thrown off all chains. They depart with their thoughts well-collected, they are not happy in their abode; like swans who have left their lake, they leave their house and home. The gods even envy him whose senses, like horses well broken in by the driver, have been subdued, who is free from pride, and free from appetites His thought is quiet, quiet are his word and deed, when he has obtained freedom by true knowledge, when he has thus become a quiet man. In a hamlet or in a forest, in the deep water or on the dry land, wherever arhats dwell, that place is delightful. Forests are delightful; where the world finds no delight, there the passionless will find delight, for they look not for pleasures.

This chapter is important because it highlights the arhat ideals which are central to understanding Theravada. According to Theravada, the goal of the magga is to achieve nirvana: a person who has completed the Eightfold Path, destroyed craving and the Three Poisons, overcome dukkha and achieved nirvana is called an arhat – ‘one who is worthy of respect’.

One can only become an arhat through first being a bhikku. In other words, lay people cannot become arhats. As can be imagined this means that for Theravada Buddhism, bhikkus are vitally important. (In Theravada, there are no women who are officially recognised as bhikkunis – nuns. Due to war and changes in society, from about the 10th century CE no women were ordained as bhikkunis.) All of this indicates that to become arhats, bhikkus much isolate themselves from the distractions of the world. It is then that, with continued and focused mental concentration and meditation, they can proceed towards the goal of enlightenment and nirvana.

From one point of view, the arhat ideal can seem to be very selfish. The Arhat is only concerned with his own magga to nirvana. He cannot be distracted by worrying about someone else’s magga to nirvana. One response to this is to say that this was what the Buddha taught: the removal of the Three Poisons from one’s own mind is a difficult enough task let alone trying to help others to do the same.

Mahayana Buddhism developed in the centuries after the Parinirvana of the Buddha. In part, it was a reaction to the conservative approach taken by Theravada Buddhism. It was also because of the way in which Buddhism mingled with other cultures – particularly in China and Tibet. The name Mahayana is a clue as to one of its key beliefs: it means ‘great vehicle’. This refers to the belief that arhats are not the only ones who can achieve nirvana. Instead all people - including bhikkunis - can be carried on the ‘great vehicle’ provided by Mahayana Buddhism.

Mahayana Buddhists believe that not all the dhamma was revealed at once but that much of it was revealed only later in time when people were ready to hear it. There are a number of these additional sacred texts with perhaps the most important being the Lotus Sutra. Here the Buddha is described as a superhuman and universal being who preaches in a supernatural world full of gods and other beings. It describes how the Buddha is questioned by 80,000 bodhisattvas. The Lotus Sutra is full of elaborate and mystical detail as can be seen in this short extract.

When the Buddha had finished preaching, he sat with his legs crossed in lotus position and entered into the meditation of the place of immeasurable meanings, his body and mind never moving.

At that time heaven rained down flowers scattering them over the Buddha and over the great assembly, and everywhere the Buddha world quaked and trembled in six different ways.

At that time the Buddha emitted a ray of light from the tuft of white hair between his eyebrows lighting up eighteen thousand worlds in the eastern direction. There was no place that the light did not penetrate, reaching downward as far as the lowest hell and upward to the highest heaven.

One could see the living beings in the six realms of existence in all of those other lands. One could see buddhas present at that time in those other lands and could hear the teachings which those buddhas were expounding. One could see innumerable monks, nuns, laymen, and laywomen who had carried out religious practices and attained the way. One could also see innumerable buddhas who had entered Parinirvana.

Since Mahayana combines several beliefs, it is very complex. However, one of its key beliefs is in the bodhisattva ideal. A bodhisattva is a being who delays his or her own achievement of nirvana to

23 help all other beings achieve nirvana. Bodhisattvas deny all self-interest in achieving nirvana. They refuse nirvana to be remain in samsara for the sake of releasing others from dukkha. Bodhisattvas are above all else seen as a source of karuna (compassion) for the world.

Mahayana Buddhists whether they are lay men or women, bhikkus or bhikkunis, might choose to take a vow to follow the bodhisattva path:

The deluding passions are inexhaustible: I vow to extinguish them all. Sentient beings are numberless: I vow to save them all. The truth is impossible to explain: I vow to explain it. The way of the Buddha is unattainable: I vow to attain it.

This vow is a commitment to achieve what appears impossible - particularly in the second line about saving ‘numberless’ sentient beings. However, this is a reminder of the importance of karuna. Ultimately, a bodhisattva will become a Buddha and is freed from samsara and the wheel of existence.

Mahayana has many bodhisattvas who can be called upon in prayer for help. One picture below shows bodhisattva Avalokitesvara one of the best-known bodhisattvas of compassion who has a thousand arms and many faces so that she can see and help all those who call on her in any kind of need. The other picture shows bodhisattva Manjushri whose task is to destroy ignorance and delusion. Hence the sword being held aloft. By doing this, Manjushri awakens spiritual knowledge and wisdom.

In Mahayana beliefs about the historical Buddha changed from those of Theravada and became much more complex. It is believed that in his previous lives Gautama had been a bodhisattva. More than that, he had only been one bodhisattva among countless others in every past age, in every realm of existence and in every universe. At his Parinirvana he attained the status of Buddha. Likewise, there were countless other buddhas before him and others still to come.

Exercise 6

Knowledge Questions (5 marks): 1. What does the word Theravada mean? 2. What is the Dhammapada? 3. From about which century onwards were no women ordained as bhikkunis ordained? 4. What does Mahayana mean? 5. What is the name of the thousand armed and many faced bodhisattva?

Description Question (5 marks): Describe what is meant by arhat.

Explanation Question (8 marks): Explain the concept of the bodhisattva.

Discussion Questions (15 marks each): 1. ‘The arhat ideal is very selfish.’ Discuss this statement showing that you have considered more than one point of view. (You must refer to religion and belief in your answer.) 2. ‘Mahayana Buddhism is the best form of Buddhism.’ Discuss this statement showing that you have considered more than one point of view. (You must refer to religion and belief in your answer.)

(7) THERAVADA UNDERSTANDING OF HUMAN PERSONALITY

As you may remember, one of the Three Lakshanas is anatta – the belief that there is no permanent or independent self. The question must be asked that if this is the case, what is it that constitutes human personality. Buddhism does not provide one single answer to this question but rather several ways of re-thinking what a person is in the first place.

One important source of wisdom and authority for Theravada Buddhists is called the Milinda Panha which dates to about 150 BCE. The word ‘Milinda’ is the name of a Greek king called ‘Menander’ written in the language of Pali - which is used for much of Buddhist scripture. The word ‘panha’ means questions. The title therefore means: ‘Questions of Menander’. In this sacred text, King Milinda with 500 people from his court visits a famous arhat of the time called Nāgasena to question him about Buddhist beliefs.

When Milinda arrives the first thing he asks is:

How is your reverence known, and what sir, is your name?

To which Nāgasena replies:

O king, I am known as Nāgasena but that is only a designation in common use, for no permanent self can be found.

King Milinda asks:

Is it possible to prove that? If that is true, who is it who gives you robes, food and shelter? Who lives the righteous life? Or again, who kills living beings, steals, commits adultery, tells lies or takes strong drink? If what you say is true, then there is no doer of good or evil deeds. If a man were to kill you there would be no murder, and it follows that there are no masters or teachers in your Order.

King Milinda continues by challenging Nāgasena to explain what he ‘is’ if there is no permanent self:

You say that you are called Nāgasena; now what is that Nāgasena? Is it the hair? Is it the nails, teeth, skin or other parts of the body? Or is it the body, or feelings, or perceptions, or formations, or consciousness? Is it all of these combined? Or is it something outside of them that is Nāgasena?

To each question, Nāgasena answers:

It is none of these.

Believing that he has proved his point, King Milinda replies:

Then, ask as I may, I can discover no Nāgasena. Nāgasena is an empty sound. Who is it we see before us? It is a falsehood that your reverence has spoken.

Nāgasena responds by noting that King Milinda came to visit him in a chariot and asks:

Then, explain sir, what that is. Is it the axle? Or the wheels, or the chassis, or reins, or yoke that is the chariot? Is it all of these combined, or is it something apart from them?

King Milinda is forced to reply that it is none of these things to which Nāgasena responds:

Then, sir, this chariot is an empty sound. You spoke falsely when you said that you came here in a chariot. You are a great king of India. Who are you afraid of that you don’t speak the truth?

Turning to the 500 people King Milinda had brought with him, Nāgasena asks:

This King Milinda has said that he came here in a chariot but when asked what it is, he is unable to show it. Is it possible to approve of that?

The King tries to recover from the point made by Nāgasena by responding:

Venerable sir, I have spoken the truth. It is because it has all these parts that it comes under the term chariot.

To which Nāgasena replies:

Very good: your majesty has rightly grasped the meaning. Even so it is because of the thirty-two kinds of organic matter in a human body and the five skhandas of being that ‘I’ come under the term ‘Nāgasena’. Just as it is by the existence of the various parts that the word ‘Chariot’ is used, just so is it that when the skhandas of being are there we talk of a being.

This part of the question and answer session ends with King Milinda stating:

Most wonderful, Nāgasena, most extraordinary that you have solved this puzzle, difficult though it was. If the Buddha himself were here he would approve of your reply.

As you may have noted, Nāgasena talks about there being ‘five skhandas of being.’ This means the five elements that make up a human being:

1. Form: the physical body 2. Sensations: the senses through which we experience the world 3. Perceptions: the awareness of the information our senses give us 4. Mental Formations: our reactions to the information we take in 5. Consciousness: the thoughts and feelings which make us aware that we exist.

The five skhandas are like bundles of firewood. Tie them together and you have one bundle. They come together in a unique way when an individual is born and they fall apart when that person dies. The five skhandas give the illusion that there is a permanent self, an ‘I’ which has a Form and whose Sensations create Perceptions which give rise to Mental Formations. Our Consciousness might give us the belief that there is an ‘I’ at the centre. However, Buddhism teaches that the self is born and dies from moment to moment as the five skhandas arise and decay from moment to moment. That is why, as we saw earlier, when talking about the ‘self’ the Buddha said:

‘It is just like a mountain river, flowing far and swift, taking everything along with it; there is no moment, no instant, when it stops flowing - it goes on flowing and continuing.’

These physical and mental energies are an ever-changing combination. Buddhism recognises we may see the everyday world and individual people who we can name, recognise and relate to. However, at the level of ultimate truth, this unity and stability of the self, the person, is seen to be merely a matter of appearances. The self is simply a process, a constant becoming. It is notable that the Buddha recognised that people would find this concept difficult. He said:

This idea that ‘I’ may not ‘be’, ‘I’ may not have, is frightening to the uninstructed person.

Exercise 7

Knowledge Questions (5 marks): 1. What is the date given to the Milinda Panha? 2. Who was Nāgasena? 3. How many people did King Milinda take with him to visit Nāgasena? 4. How many skhandas are there? 5. Which skandha is concerned with the physical body?

Description Question (5 marks): Describe what is meant by the five skhandas of being.

Explanation Question (8 marks): Explain Nāgasena’s analogy of the chariot.

Discussion Questions (15 marks each): 1. ‘The idea that ‘I’ may not ‘be’ is frightening.’ Discuss this statement showing that you have considered more than one point of view. (You must refer to religion and belief in your answer.) 2. ‘There is more to a person than the five skhandas.’ Discuss this statement showing that you have considered more than one point of view. (You must refer to religion and belief in your answer.)

(8) MAHAYANA UNDERSTANDING OF HUMAN PERSONALITY

We have already noted that in general terms, the approach taken by Mahayana tends to be more complex and elaborate than that of Theravada. The same is true regarding teaching about human personality. The key source of wisdom here is the Heart Sutra. This is very short – just over 40 lines long and is written in Chinese. There is much dispute about its origins but several scholars would date it to the 5th century CE onwards.

The Heart Sutra begins with a description of the bodhisattva Avalokitesvara being in deep mediation on the five skhandas. Avalokitesvara comes to a sudden discovery about the five skhandas and tells a famous arhat Sariputra about the knowledge that he has acquired. The key word that Avalokitesvara uses is ‘sunyata’ which means emptiness or hollowness. Avalokitesvara declares:

Listen Sariputra, form itself is sunyata and sunyata itself is form. Form is not other than sunyata and sunyata is not other than form. The same is true of sensations, perceptions, mental formations, and consciousness.

Avalokitesvara continues:

Listen Sariputra, all phenomena bear the mark of sunyata ; their true nature is the nature of no birth, no death, no being, no non-being, no increasing, no decreasing. That is why in sunyata, form, sensations, perceptions, mental formations and consciousness are not separate self-entities.

Avalokitesvara concludes by stating that full understanding of this will bring enlightenment.

In these few verses, what is being taught goes beyond the Theravada understanding of human personality. You may remember that the five skhandas are:

Based on the Heart Sutra Mahayana teaches that these have neither existence nor non-existence. The only word that can be used of them is: sunyata. More than this, all phenomena which we experience through our five senses share the same quality: sunyata. Full acceptance of this means the recognition that if everything contains the quality of sunyata then ultimately the nature of one is the nature of all. Mahayana teaches that a full understanding of the truth of sunyata and its implications is something which requires a great deal of wisdom. That is why it is called the Wisdom Paramita – a word which means perfection.

However, Mahayana also has another approach to human personality which can appear contradictory to sunyata. This is called tathagatagarbha which means Buddha-nature. This is complicated and there is a lot of discussion about how it should be understood. Perhaps it can be best explained by reference to the Lotus Sutra which as you may remember, presents the Buddha as a superhuman and universal being. In the Lotus Sutra, the Buddha declares:

At the start, I took a vow, hoping to make all persons equal to me, without any distinction between us.

What the Buddha means is that because he is a universal being, every human being has his nature – the tathagatagarbha – within them – there is no distinction between the Buddha and human beings. However, tathagatagarbha is like something which is waiting to be born, to be awakened. Once a person’s tathagatagarbha is awakened then that person can become a Buddha.

Going back to the Lotus Sutra, the idea of tathagatagarbha is explained through the Parable of the Hidden Jewel.

It was like the case of a man who went to the house of a close friend and, having become drunk on wine, lay down to sleep. At that time the friend had to go out on official business. He took a priceless jewel, sewed it in the lining of the man’s robe, and left it with him when he went out. The man was asleep drunk and knew nothing about it. When he got up, he set out on a journey to other countries. In order to provide himself with food and clothing he had to search with all his energy and diligence, encountering very great hardship and making do with what little he could come by.

Later, the close friend happened to meet him by chance. The friend said, 'How absurd, my friend! Why should you have to do all this for the sake of food and clothing? In the past I wanted to make certain you would be able to live in ease and satisfy the five desires, and so I took a priceless jewel and sewed it in the lining of your robe. It must still be there now. But you did not know about it, and fretted and wore yourself out trying to provide a living for yourself. What nonsense! Now you must take the jewel and exchange it for goods. Then you can have whatever you wish at all times and never experience poverty or want.'

To put all of this together, everyone has tathagatagarbha – the hidden jewel - and the capacity to be a Buddha, because the Buddha is in everyone and everyone is in the Buddha. But like the man in the parable, people are so busy in life that they are not able to see this for themselves. Once they hear the dhamma of the Buddha, they can then discover that tathagatagarbha has been there all the time – just like the hidden jewel sewn into the lining of the man’s robe.

At the same time, Mahayana Buddhists believe that to fully cultivate and realise tathagatagarbha, the development of the Six Paramitas is essential. The word ‘paramita’ means ‘perfection’ and refers to the belief that there are six qualities a person needs to focus upon:

1. Dana (generosity) This is the practise of giving. The best example of this is when Theravada bhikkus go out on to the streets in countries such as Thailand, with their alms bowl and receive dana in the form of food from lay people. This helps them to be free to devote themselves to being a bhikku and studying the dhamma. A person who is generous with their money and time to benefit others, is one who has overcome craving and who has been able to remove greed – which is one of the Three Poisons – from their mind.

2. Sila (morality) This is the practise of being a moral person. This means that a person tries to live life in such a way that their actions aim to do good and to avoid evil. It means living in a way that removes the Three Poisons – ignorance, greed and hatred – as the motivating factor from behaviour. To help Buddhists to do this, the Pancha Sila (five moral principles) are followed which we will look at later.

3. Virya (energy) This is the practise of taking action. Whilst Buddhists focus on meditation, this is not enough as positive thoughts need to lead to positive actions. For example, having thoughts and feelings of karuna (compassion) is quite easy. However, putting this into action requires virya.

4. Kshanti (patience) This is the practise of tolerance and thoughtfulness towards others. It means being patient with oneself which then leads to patience towards others. This is very important in removing hatred – which is one of the Three Poisons – from their mind.

5. Samadhi (meditation) This is the practise of deep meditation. The Buddha taught that he mind is always being confused and distracted. It is almost like a mental disease. It has been compared to a flag which is constantly fluttering about in the wind. Samadhi helps to stop this. This is important because it helps to clear and cleanse the mind particularly by removing the Three Poisons – ignorance, greed and hatred. The Buddha declared:

Rare in this world are those who enjoy freedom from mental disease even for one moment, except those who are free from mental defilements.

6. Prajna (wisdom) This is the practise of understanding the dhamma. There is a great deal of Buddhist teaching to think about but it is only through spending time in reflecting upon the dhamma that prajna can be acquired. For example, a Buddhist would try to study the Three Lakshanas and pratitya-samutpada. This is very important in removing ignorance – which is one of the Three Poisons – from their mind.

Exercise 8

Knowledge Questions (5 marks): 1. How long is the Heart Sutra? 2. Which bodhisattva is meditating in the Heart Sutra? 3. What does sunyata mean? 4. What does tathagatagarbha mean? 5. What does paramita mean?

Description Question (5 marks): Describe what the Heart Sutra teaches about sunyata.

Explanation Question (8 marks): Explain the teaching of the Parable of the Hidden Jewel.

Discussion Questions (15 marks each): 1. ‘Everyone has tathagatagarbha.’ Discuss this statement showing that you have considered more than one point of view. (You must refer to religion and belief in your answer.) 2. ‘For Buddhists, Samadhi is the most important of the paramitas.’ Discuss this statement showing that you have considered more than one point of view. (You must refer to religion and belief in your answer.)

(9) ETHICAL TEACHING

We have already noted that in the Noble Eightfold Path the third, fourth and fifth stages are concerned with Sila (ethics). In following the fourth stage, Right Action, Buddhists aim to follow the pancha sila – the five moral precepts. These are at the heart of Buddhist ethics and they are shared by all Buddhists. However, there is debate as to how the pancha sila are to be understood. They might be seen as absolute commandments regarding how to live the Buddhist life; they might be seen as undertakings by which a Buddhist aspires to live and they might be seen as guidelines for personal and social well-being. One Buddhist, John Bowker, described his approach to the pancha sila as follows: “It’s not a rule or a commandment. It’s a promise I make to myself. If I broke the promise I made I’d feel a bit guilty that I couldn’t keep that promise today. But if I kept it, I’m quite happy that I did.”

The pancha sila are usually stated in negative terms (i.e. what you should not do) and positive terms (i.e. what you should do.)

1st precept: (negative): I undertake to abstain from taking and harming life. This means that one must not harm other living beings intentionally. Killing is therefore forbidden both of humans and of sentient beings who are able to feel pain and to be injured. This might imply that Buddhists should be vegetarians but in reality, many are not. The Buddha did not impose this as a rule. Some Buddhists would say that – given the option – being vegetarian is always best but in some situations, that choice might not be possible and so meat can be eaten. 1st precept (positive): I shall show metta (loving kindness) to all sentient beings. As we have seen, Buddhism teaches that everything is interconnected: humans are sentient beings and share life with all other sentient beings – both human and non-human. Metta is thus an essential attitude towards all sentient beings since it increases the well-being and happiness of all sentient beings.

2nd Precept (negative): I undertake to abstain from taking that which is not freely given. This is like the commandment found in other religions about not stealing. It therefore means not taking the property of others without their consent. It is also about not exploiting others in any way through business. In addition, it refers to not being dishonest in business. 2nd Precept (positive): I shall show dana (generosity) to all sentient beings. We have already seen that dana (generosity) is one of the six paramitas. Giving to others is important because it helps to develop non-attachment to worldly goods. It also stops a person from feeling jealous of other people who may have more than they have.

3rd precept (negative): I undertake to refrain from misusing sexuality. Bhikkus (monks) and bhikkunis (nuns) are forbidden any kind of sexual behaviour. This is because they need to follow the magga without any distraction. For lay people, there are no strict rules regarding sexual behaviour. The key point is that one avoids causing suffering or harm to others through misusing sexuality. This would mean not having sexual relations with a person when it would hurt or exploit them. 3rd precept (positive): I shall show respect to all sentient beings. Regarding personal and social well-being, it could be argued that a key factor is respect for the other person in a relationship. Buddhism promotes the idea of spiritual friendships between people and particularly between husband and wife so that one never loses sight of the magga.

4th precept (negative): I undertake to abstain from false speech. This means – no lying. However, false speech might also include exaggeration, gossiping about other people, slandering other people, and creating a false impression about oneself for others to admire. This precept also encourages Buddhists to value silence and not to talk simply for the sake of talking. 4th precept (positive): I shall show honesty and sincerity to all. Careful thought about what one is going to say and how one says it is very important. Being truthful is essential particularly about what one thinks and believes.

5th precept (negative): I undertake to abstain from intoxicants to the mind. Intoxicants – such as alcohol – prevent the mind from being clear and focussed on the dhamma. It would be hard to develop the paramitas of prajna (wisdom), kshanti (patience) and samadhi (meditation) under the influence of alcohol. Intoxicants can also lead one to act in ways which cause harm to others. For that reason, most Buddhists would not drink alcohol. However, some Buddhists might say that everything done in moderation, and if it does not cause harm, is acceptable. 5th precept (positive): I shall show mindfulness in my actions. Being mindful really means trying to live in the present moment fully and experience fully what one is doing without any distraction. Alcohol can prevent a person from being calm, peaceful and mindful.

For Buddhists, the pancha sila are combined with two other key points in ethical teaching: karuna and metta. Both of these help to remove hatred which is one of the Three Poisons.

1. Karuna (compassion) A useful way of understanding the meaning of karuna is to think of it as being entirely other- centre. It is focussed entirely on the person who is in need. A Buddhist comparison is to think about the feelings a mother has to her child. That same feeling when applied to all who suffer is karuna. The Buddha declared:

Just as a mother would protect her only child even at the risk of her own life, even so, let him cultivate karuna toward all beings.

Karuna does not simply mean feeling sorry for people who are suffering, it means recognising that the suffering of others is one’s own suffering. We have seen this in how Mahayana understands the role of bodhisattvas. The Dalai Lama who is regarded by many Tibetan Buddhists as a bodhisattva, declared:

It is my belief, for the world in general, that karuna is more important than religion.

Following the declaration of the Dalai Lama, some Buddhists would say that karuna is important for everyone above all because it shows the lack of self when one thinks of others. Overall it makes society much better and is ‘the glue’ of social and community cohesion. If one has karuna than this will prevent one from wanting to harm any sentient being. Others might say that karuna has a place but needs to be moderated when it comes to how one deals with evil people.

2. Metta (loving kindness) The concept of metta is closely linked to that of karuna. We have already noted the importance of metta in the first precept. Metta should be the guiding principle in how people relate to others. Buddhists would therefore regard Metta as simply putting into practice many different aspects of the magga. In some ways, it could be argued that metta is a universal virtue encouraged by all religions and by anyone interested in social and community cohesion. It would certainly help to create a more harmonious world. At the same time, it is a specifically Buddhist virtue which was taught by the Buddha to help people achieve enlightenment. The Buddha declared:

“Let a person’s thoughts of Metta pervade the whole world, above, below and across without any obstruction, without any hatred, without any enmity.”

The pancha sila, karuna and metta are all important as they provide underlying principles on how to live life in general, and on how to decide on what actions should be taken. In Buddhism, kamma generally means ‘action’. It refers only to deliberate and intentional actions. It is kamma which influences a person’s rebirth in samsara to a better or worse condition, to a better or worse realm of existence, or which enables them to escape samsara altogether.

Buddhists believe that they have control over their lives and exercise that control by making a conscious effort to reflect on their actions. Some of these actions will be neutral. Others will be either: punna kamma – good, wholesome, skilful and meritorious actions pappa kamma – bad, unwholesome, unskilful and demeritorious actions

Regarding kamma, the time lapse between an intentional action and its effect can vary considerably. An effect might be immediate, medium or long term. Effects can come about either in this life, the next rebirth or in future rebirths. Whatever the case, the effects cannot be avoided. The Buddha explained this in the Dhammapada:

If one speaks or acts, with an evil mind, then suffering follows one even as the wheel follows the hoof of the ox. If one speaks or acts, with a pure mind, happiness follows one as one’s shadow that does not leave one.

Again, he said:

Whoever does harm to an innocent man, a pure man and a faultless one, the evil comes back on that fool, like fine dust thrown into the wind. Not in the sky, nor in the depths of the sea, nor hiding in the cleft of the rocks, there is no place on earth where one can take one's stand to escape from an evil deed.

Exercise 9

Knowledge Questions (5 marks): 1. What are the pancha sila? 2. How are the pancha sila stated? 3. What comparison do Buddhists use to explain karuna? 4. What does kamma mean? 5. When might the effects of kamma come about?

Description Question (5 marks): Describe the key points of the pancha sila.

Explanation Question (8 marks): Explain the concepts of karuna and metta.

Discussion Questions (15 marks each): 1. ‘Karuna is more important than religion.’ Discuss this statement showing that you have considered more than one point of view. (You must refer to religion and belief in your answer.) 2. ‘The pancha sila are all equally important.’ Discuss this statement showing that you have considered more than one point of view. (You must refer to religion and belief in your answer.)

(10) PURE LAND

From a certain point of view the Buddhist concepts of following the Eightfold Path, keeping the pancha sila, developing the Six Paramitas, gaining punna kamma, trying to achieve enlightenment, hoping for a better rebirth within the wheel of existence, aiming to escape samsara altogether and thus achieve Parinirvana can all seem very difficult. This is particularly the case given that people have to live busy lives in terms of family, relationships, work and socialising. In addition, people may: make bad choices; hurt others in thought, word and deed; be unable to control within themselves the Three Poisons of ignorance, greed and hatred; be unable to follow all or some of the pancha sila.

One response to this is to recall the final words of the Buddha:

Attain perfection through diligence.

In other words, gaining enlightenment is not an easy thing to but needs commitment and hard work over perhaps many rebirths. Even then, the question some asked was whether it would ever be possible?

One answer to that question is that offered by Pure Land Buddhism. Pure Land is one of the most popular forms of Mahayana Buddhism and it spread from India to China in the 5th century CE and then to Japan where it is now the dominant form of Buddhism. Although there are different branches of Pure Land they share the same key belief: since enlightenment is too difficult to achieve in one lifetime in this world, it can be achieved after death when a person is reborn into a perfect land – the Pure Land.

An important sacred text of Pure Land which describes these beliefs dates to approximately the 2nd century CE. This is called the ‘Infinite Life Sutra’, and the key points within it are as follows

The Buddha is surrounded by bodhisattvas as he begins to teach. He describes how ‘innumerable, incalculable and inconceivable’ ages ago, a king heard a Buddha teach the dhamma. The king then renounced his throne and became a monk taking the name of Dharmakara. He vowed to achieve perfect enlightenment and become a Buddha himself with the goal of creating his own Buddha-land which would be full of excellent qualities. For an immense period, and having visited all the other Buddha-lands, Dharmakara meditated:

His mind being serene and his aspirations free of attachment, he was unexcelled throughout the world.

Finally, Dharmakara proclaimed 48 vows regarding himself and his own Buddha-land which he wished to establish. In each of these he declared that if what he vowed was not accomplished, then he should not attain perfect enlightenment. The two most important vows are number 18 and number 19:

(18) If, when I attain Buddhahood, sentient beings in other lands who sincerely and joyfully entrust themselves to me, desire to be born in my land, and call my Name, even ten times, should not be born there, may I not attain perfect enlightenment.

(19) If, when I attain Buddhahood, sentient beings in other lands, who hope for Enlightenment, do various good actions and sincerely desire to be born in my land, should not, at their death, see me appear before them, may I not attain perfect enlightenment.

The Buddha is then asked if Dharmakara attained perfect enlightenment and Buddhahood. The Buddha replies:

The Bodhisattva Dharmakara has already attained Buddhahood and is now dwelling in a western Buddha-land, called Pure Land.

Buddha gives the Bodhisattva Dharmakara a new name: Amitayus which means ‘Infinite Life’. He is also called – in Japanese - Amida which means ‘Infinite Light’. It is by the name Amida that he is best known. (The Sanskrit version of Amida is Amitabha, and the Chinese version is Amituofo.)

The Buddha confirms that because the Bodhisattva Dharmakara has attained perfect enlightenment and Buddhahood, then all the 48 vows have been followed. This means that, as he promised when he was Dharmakara, all those who sincerely and joyfully entrust themselves to Amida, who desire to be reborn in the Pure Land, and who call on his name will certainly be reborn in the Pure Land.

The Buddha then describes in detail the beauty, peace and serenity of the Pure Land. He confirms that any being reborn into the Pure Land will certainly be able to gain enlightenment once there, and after being enlightened can choose either to become a bodhisattva and return to samsara to help all sentient beings, or become a Buddha and leave samsara.

Those who follow Pure Land believe that – as promised in the 18th vow - by having faith in and entrusting themselves to Amida, by desiring to be reborn in the Pure Land, and by calling on the name of Amida, at the moment of death – as promised in the 19th vow – they will see Amida and will be reborn into the Pure Land. They believe that once they are in the Pure Land, they will then be in the perfect place where they can achieve enlightenment.

In practice, what followers of Pure Land do is called Nembutsu. This term means focusing on, and having faith in Amida. They then chant the name of Amida in a mindful way asking that they and all beings will be reborn in the Pure Land. There is no one chant but the most popular form in Japan is as below:

This can be translated in different ways but is generally taken to mean:

Namu = I take refuge in/have adoration for Amida = Amida Butsu = Buddha

You might recall that the 18th vow states that calling on Amida even ten times will result in rebirth in the Pure Land. For this reason, the chant ‘Namu Amida Butsu’ is usually recited at least ten times. However, according to some followers of Pure Land even this is not necessary.

The monk called Honen led the development of Pure Land in Japan during the 12th century CE. He wanted to make Buddhism as simple and clear as possible by removing the need for meditation, and the need to understand the dhamma. He also wanted to make it clear that rebirth in the Pure Land was possible for anyone: man, or woman; a clever person or one without any learning; a monk, nun or lay person; a holy and religious person or one who was a ‘sinner’ and an outcast. For anyone and everyone, only one thing was required:

To be reborn in the Pure Land means: saying ‘Namu Amida Butsu’ and having a conviction that by just saying it, one will certainly attain rebirth in the Pure Land.

Exercise 10

Knowledge Questions (5 marks): 1. What were the final words of the Buddha? 2. In which country is Pure Land the dominant form of Buddhism? 3. How many vows did Dharmakara make? 4. What does Amitayus mean? 5. What is Nembutsu?

Description Question (5 marks): Describe how the king who heard a Buddha teach became Amida.

Explanation Question (8 marks): Explain the main beliefs of Pure Land Buddhism.

Discussion Questions (15 marks each): 1. ‘Pure Land Buddhism makes achieving enlightenment too easy.’ Discuss this statement showing that you have considered more than one point of view. (You must refer to religion and belief in your answer.) 2. ‘Pure Land Buddhism is the best form of Buddhism.’ Discuss this statement showing that you have considered more than one point of view. (You must refer to religion and belief in your answer.)

(11) BUDDHIST PLACES OF WORSHIP

In India, Buddhism did not develop in isolation as a religion. It developed alongside, and shares many practices with, Hinduism. As you may recall, following the death of the Buddha, Buddhism spread through most of present day Asia: China, India, Japan, Malaysia, Burma/Myanmar, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Tibet and Vietnam. It mingled with the culture and religious traditions of these countries where it was absorbed, adopted and adapted. Therefore, it shares many of the practices of the religions found in these countries. Buddhism has also become popular in the West, and there are communities of Buddhist monks and lay-Buddhists all over Europe and America.

All of this means that Buddhist temples and viharas vary considerably in many features. Buddhist temples and shrines were usually part of the vihara, but over time some were built as separate places of devotional practice by lay Buddhists. There is therefore no blueprint which all Buddhist temples, shrines and viharas must follow since they reflect the time, culture and country in which they are built. However, most Buddhist temples, shrines and viharas share key features in common.

The diagram below represents the key features of a vihara:

1. Accommodation This would provide a place for bhikkus to sleep and live. If the vihara is very large it might take the form of a dormitory. A Mahayana vihara might have accommodation for bhikkunis. Viharas might also provide accommodation for visitors or for lay Buddhists who are staying for retreats or instruction on meditation.

2. Dining Hall This would be a place for communal eating. In many viharas the usual practice is that meals take place in silence. For Theravada bhikkus, all meals are eaten before midday.

3. Classroom In some parts of the Buddhist world, viharas provide the best place for the general schooling and education of children. Therefore, a vihara would have classrooms. Most viharas would provide classrooms for those training to be bhikkus or bhikkunis. Classrooms might also be used by visitors or lay Buddhists seeking further instruction in the dhamma.

4. Library The sacred texts of Buddhism are called the Tipitaka. The word means ‘three baskets’ and refers to the time when Buddhist teaching was written on palm leaves and stored in baskets. The sacred texts are divided into three groups and many viharas would make sure that they had copies of the Tipitaka in their library. Theravada viharas would therefore have copies of the Dhammapada. In addition, Mahayana viharas would have copies of other sacred texts such as the Lotus Sutra and the Heart Sutra.

5. Meditation Hall Viharas have a large room or hall where Buddhists can perform puja – Buddhist devotional practice. In the meditation hall, there would be a shrine with a statue or image of the Buddha. This would help Buddhists focus on the Buddha and the example he gave of how to achieve enlightenment. Mahayana shrines would be very elaborate with images of bodhisattvas such as Avalokitesvara and Manjushri. There might be small stupas in the meditation hall. Stupas are dome shaped structures which can be very small or very large. They represent the Buddha. Some stupas also have Buddhist relics inside them.

6. Bodhi Tree Many viharas – depending on the size and where they are – will have a garden and in the garden, would be a fig tree. It was under a fig tree that Gautama achieved enlightenment at Bodh Gaya. Therefore, in the garden of a vihara this tree is called the Bodhi Tree. The tree reminds people of what the Buddha achieved and encourages them to practice meditation.

7. Stupas Some viharas would have stupas of different sizes in the garden. They serve the same function as stupas in the meditation hall. Larger viharas might have cemeteries in their grounds where the ashes of bhikkus are buried. Often the place of burial is marked by a stupa.

The diagram below represents the basic features of a Buddhist shrine:

1. Statue of the Buddha This would be the focal point of the shrine. There are many different statues of the Buddha. Often these reflect the culture and country where the shrine is found.

Statues of the Buddha reflect the Buddhist tradition – those in Theravada shrines tend to be simpler than those found in Mahayana shrines. Often statues of the Buddha may be covered with gold leaf or painted gold. Some might be made of gold. Some would be of gigantic size whilst others might be ancient and of special significance. One famous image is the Jade Buddha in the Buddhist Temple in Shanghai. In the UK, the largest bronze statue of the Buddha ever cast in the West can be found in Conishead Priory in Ulverston which is a vihara and temple in the Mahayana tradition of Tibet. For some Buddhists, the statue represents the historical Buddha who would sit in front of his followers and teach the dhamma. For other Buddhists, the statue helps them to focus on following the dhamma and example of the Buddha who through meditation achieved enlightenment and nirvana.

2. Flowers Flowers may be given as an offering by those visiting the shrine. Flowers add to the beauty and decoration of the shrine through their colour and scent. On a deeper level, the life of a flower is very short and within days it opens, blooms, fades and dies. This is a symbol of one of the Three Lakshanas, anicca – that everything is impermanent and always subject to change. This is why artificial flowers should not be used.

3. Candles Candles in a shrine provide light. However, they are also an important symbol of enlightenment as taught by the Buddha. Just as the light of the candles drives away darkness and is available to all, the same is also true of the dhamma which can help everyone in answering the problem of dukkha – pain, sorrow and misery.

4. Incense Incense sticks are burnt in front of the statue of the Buddha. These provide a sweet smell which drives away any bad odour. The symbol here is of a person cleansing their mind of the Three Poisons: Ignorance, Greed and Hatred. This is a form of preparation to help approach the Buddha and focus on the dhamma. Just as the sweet-smelling smoke from the incense spreads and cleanses the air, so too does the dhamma spread through the world.

5. Offerings As we have seen, dana (generosity) is one of the six paramitas (perfections). Dana is a way of cleansing the mind of one of the Three Poisons – greed. Depending on the culture and country in which the vihara, temple or shrine is found, dana may take the form of food offerings which are given to bhikkus. This happens in parts of Thailand daily when Theravada bhikkus go out on to the streets with their alms bowl and receive food from lay people. Food offerings – such as fruit or rice - may also be put on an offering table in front of the statue of the Buddha as an expression of thankfulness and gratitude. The food would then be used and distributed by bhikkus or those who look after the shrine.

Some Buddhists believe that a vihara, temple or shrine is not essential. They might argue that puja – devotional practice - performed in a vihara, temple or shrine can be carried out in their own home with their own shrine. The Buddha did not state that Buddhists had to visit a vihara, temple or shrine. Other Buddhists believe that the most important part of being a Buddhist is meditation which can take place anywhere. By contrast, some Buddhists believe that a vihara, temple or shrine provides a focus for the sangha – the Buddhist community. This is one of the Triratna or Three Jewels which a Buddhist takes refuge in: the Buddha, the dhamma and the sangha. A vihara, temple or shrine can also provide a place where weddings and funerals can take place. In countries, such as the UK where Buddhism is not the predominant religion, a vihara, temple or shrine can provide a place for non- Buddhists to learn about meditation. It can also help raise awareness of Buddhism in the wider community.

Exercise 11

Knowledge Questions (5 marks): 1. What sacred texts would a Mahayana vihara have in the library? 2. What does a Bodhi Tree in the garden of a vihara remind people of? 3. In which vihara and temple in the UK is the largest bronze statue of the Buddha in the West found? 4. Which of the three Lakshanas are flowers are a symbol of? 5. Which paramita might food offerings help to develop?

Description Question (5 marks): Describe the basic layout of a vihara.

Explanation Question (8 marks): Explain the main features of a Buddhist shrine.

Discussion Questions (15 marks each): 1. ‘Buddhists do not need to pray in a vihara or temple.’ Discuss this statement showing that you have considered more than one point of view. (You must refer to religion and belief in your answer.) 2. ‘A vihara, temple or shrine is essential in spreading the dhamma.’ Discuss this statement showing that you have considered more than one point of view. (You must refer to religion and belief in your answer.)

(12) MEDITATION

Buddhists believe that it is through following the example of the Buddha that a person can begin the process of escaping from samsara. The most important step in doing so is through achieving enlightenment which is what the Buddha did under the Bodhi Tree when he was 35 years old. He did this through meditation. That meditation is very important to Buddhists can be seen in the fact that the Fourth Noble Truth outlines the Eightfold Path. The third part of the Eightfold Path is the Way of Meditation: Right Effort, Right Awareness, Right Concentration.

Buddhists – particularly Theravada Buddhists – refer to the words of the Buddha in the sacred text of the Dhammapada:

Wisdom is born of meditation; without meditation wisdom is lost. Knowing this twofold path of gain and loss of wisdom, one should conduct oneself so that wisdom may increase.

This is seen as teaching that the only path to wisdom or enlightenment is through meditation.

For Mahayana Buddhists, the same is also true. We have seen how in the sacred text of the Lotus Sutra, the Buddha is questioned by 80,000 bodhisattvas. The text continues:

When the Buddha had finished preaching, he sat with his legs crossed in lotus position and entered into the meditation of the place of immeasurable meanings, his body and mind never moving.

In another Mahayana sacred text, the Surangama Sutra, the Buddha helps his cousin Ananda to understand more about meditation. In complex detail, the Buddha explains that when meditating, the focus might be on one of the six sensory organs:

1. Eyes (visual) 2. Ears (hearing) 3. Nose (smelling) 4. Tongue (taste) 5. Body (touch) 6. Mind (perception)

The Buddha explains this by tying six knots in a silken scarf. This represents the human person who is caught up in the world through their physical form. Meditation means undoing each knot so that ultimately the scarf is one again; in other words, the person can rise above the six sensory organs and achieve enlightenment by recognising that:

The One Mind is free from all external phenomena.

The Buddha teaches that there are many other ways to meditate and he calls on those who are listening to his teaching to explain how they achieved enlightenment. Twenty-five give their explanation including Kshudrapanthaka. He explains:

I tried to memorize a single line of the Buddha’s dhamma but failed for a hundred days because as soon as I could remember its first words, I forgot the last ones, and when I could remember the last words, I forgot the first ones. The Buddha took pity on my stupidity and taught me how to live in a quiet retreat and to regularize my breathing. At the time, I looked exhaustively into each in and out breath and realized that its rise, stay, change and end lasted only an instant; thereby my mind became clear and unblocked until I stepped out of samsara and achieved enlightenment. As the Buddha now asks about the best means of meditation, to me breathing is the best according to my personal experience in turning the breath back to the condition of nothingness.

Whilst they may differ on detail regarding meditation, Buddhists would agree that it is all about developing the mind so that it is free of the constantly arising jumble of ideas, memories, worries, distractions and thoughts which usually take place. The Buddha describes this as a mental disease which people suffer from. A very well-known Buddhist, Ajahn Chah explained it in this way:

The mind in its natural state has no preoccupations. It is like a flag on the end of a pole or like a leaf on a tree. By itself it remains still; if it flutters, that is because of the wind, an external force.

Therefore, the purpose of meditation is to quieten and purify the mind, put a complete end to suffering and its causes and lead people to enlightenment. It has a spiritual purpose, not a worldly purpose. Thus, the relief of stress and increase in relaxation are only secondary benefits of meditation and not the main benefits.

Three important types of meditation are:

1. Mindfulness of breathing meditation. This is also called samatha meditation. The word samatha means ‘calm and abiding’. We have seen this described above by Kshudrapanthaka. All that it involves is focusing on breath entering and leaving the body. The person might say to themselves as this happens nothing more than: Breath coming in. Breath going out. If the usual jumble of ideas, memories, worries, distractions and thoughts starts taking place, the mind simply refocuses on breathing. Samatha meditation is often used as the starting point and foundation for other types of meditation.

2. Metta bhavana meditation As we have seen, metta means ‘loving kindness’. Bhavana means ‘cultivation’. So metta bhavana is simply about cultivating loving kindness towards others. As you may remember metta is an important part of sila for Buddhists. Perhaps having started with samatha meditation, a person then moves on through five stages of metta bhavana meditation: a. Having thoughts of metta about oneself by thinking: May I be well, may I be happy, may I be at peace. b. Having thoughts of metta about someone who is loved by thinking: May they be well, may they be happy, may they be at peace. c. Having thoughts of metta about someone who one is neutral about by thinking: May they be well, may they be happy, may they be at peace. d. Having thoughts of metta about someone who is a difficult person or an enemy by thinking: May they be well, may they be happy, may they be at peace. e. Bringing together oneself, the person who is loved, the person one is neutral about, the person who is difficult and all beings in the whole world together in one’s mind and having thoughts of metta by thinking: May all be well, may all be happy, may all be at peace.

3. Insight meditation This is also called vipassana meditation. The word vipassana means ‘insight’. Insight meditation takes many different forms and it is the type of meditation described by the Buddha in the Surangama Sutra. Perhaps having started with samatha meditation, the person usually focusses on one of the Three Lakshanas or Three Marks of Existence:

1. Dukkha 2. Anicca 3. Anatta

In this way, the person can rise above their six sensory organs, become detached from themselves and their surroundings, and recognise that:

The One Mind is free from all external phenomena.

One simple way to help think about why meditation is important for Buddhists is to remember the following story:

The Buddha was meditating when a man ran up to him and declared: ‘I want happiness!’ The Buddha replied: ‘This is simple. Remove the word “I” for that is the imaginary self. Remove the word “want” for that is attachment. Once that is done only “happiness” remains.’ The Buddha continued meditating and the man followed his example.

Exercise 12

Knowledge Questions (5 marks): 1. In the Dhammapada, what did the Buddha say wisdom is born of? 2. Who does the Buddha try to help in the Surangama Sutra? 3. How many knots did the Buddha tie in the silken scarf? 4. What kind of meditation did Kshudrapanthaka practice? 5. What does ‘bhavana’ mean?

Description Question (5 marks): Describe the main features of metta bhavana meditation.

Explanation Question (8 marks): Explain the meaning of the six knots used by the Buddha.

Discussion Questions (15 marks each): 1. ‘Samatha meditation is essential for all Buddhists.’ Discuss this statement showing that you have considered more than one point of view. (You must refer to religion and belief in your answer.) 2. ‘Meditation is a waste of time: it is much better to be helping people in practical ways.’ Discuss this statement showing that you have considered more than one point of view. (You must refer to religion and belief in your answer.)

(13) DEVOTIONAL PRACTICES

The Buddhist symbol above represents the Triratna which means ‘Three Jewels’. It is the Triratna which unites the 500 million Buddhists of India, Sri Lanka, Burma, Laos, Tibet, Korea, China, Taiwan, Japan, Australia, the USA and Europe. The Triratna consists of:

1. The top jewel which represents the Buddha. 2. The left-hand jewel which represents the dhamma. 3. The right-hand jewel which represents the sangha – the Buddhist community made up of bhikkus (monks), bhikkunis (nuns) and by lay people.

Buddhists compare the Triratna to a three-legged stool: to stay upright all three legs of the stool are needed; take one away and the stool is no longer stable.

The Triratna form an important part of puja. In puja, Buddhists will often chant the Triratna daily. In addition, when going before the shrine, Buddhists might bow three times before the statue of the Buddha in recognition of the Triratna whilst chanting. Most Buddhists would chant in the language of Pali which is thought to be the original language of the Buddha himself:

Buddham saranam gacchami. (I take refuge in the Buddha.) Dhammam saranam gacchami. (I take refuge in the dhamma.) Sangham saranam gacchami. (I take refuge in the sangha.)

One of the reasons that Buddhists chant the Triratna so frequently is that the Buddha himself explained its importance in the Dhammapada:

He who takes refuge In the Buddha, in the dhamma, and in his sangha, understands with clarity of wisdom the Four Noble Truths, namely: dukkha, the origin of dukkha, the end of dukkha, the Eightfold Path that leads to the end of suffering. That, truly, is the safe refuge and the supreme refuge. After having arrived at that refuge, a man is freed from all suffering.

One type of chanting which is important for many Buddhists is mantra recitation. A mantra is simply a phrase which is repeated many times during puja and meditation. The words of the mantra are believed to help focus energy and channel a path to enlightenment for the person reciting the mantra.

In Mahayana Buddhism, there are many mantras but the best known is that chanted by Tibetan Buddhists. This is the mantra of the bodhisattva Avalokitesvara:

From left to right this reads:

Om Mani Padme Hum

Tibetan Buddhists believe that chanting, hearing, seeing this mantra and saying it in one’s mind silently will bring great blessings from the bodhisattva Avalokitesvara. The mantra is often placed on the outside and inside of hand-held and larger prayer wheels in temples and shrine, which are spun round as a form of devotional practice whilst chanting.

An approximate translation of the mantra is ‘Hail to the Jewel in the Lotus’ but that does not convey its full meaning. Tibetan Buddhists believe that the whole dhamma of the Buddha is contained in the mantra – hence its importance. The mantra might form part of vipassana meditation whereby the person chanting it visualises Avalokitesvara and the compassion of Avalokitesvara. After continual chanting for hundreds, thousands and even hundreds of thousands of times, the person can let go of their own identity and instead identify themselves with Avalokitesvara and become themselves a source of compassion for the world. If done correctly, chanting the mantra is a way of achieving enlightenment.

Tibetan Buddhists would generally recite the mantra using the mala to keep count and to keep calmly focused on the mantra. The mala is usually made up of 108 beads. There are different interpretations of why there are 108. Some believe that this is connected to the 108 worldly desires which a person needs to overcome to achieve enlightenment. Others believe that the 8 extra beads are in case of any miscounts or mistakes whilst reciting the mantra 100 times. One devotional practice for a Tibetan Buddhist might be to spin the prayer wheel in their right hand whilst counting the mala in the left hand. When they are not being used, Tibetan Buddhists might wrap the mala around their wrists or their neck. Buddhists in Japan and China use similar beads when reciting mantras. They can also be used to count breaths in meditation or to count the number of bows and prostrations which are made in the temple. The mala might also be wrapped around both hands when bowing in front of the statue of the Buddha as a sign of veneration in the temple. 51

The word veneration is an important one to use when discussing Buddhist devotional practices. It can appear that when a Buddhist bows before a statue of the Buddha they are worshipping it. This is not the case as explained by the Tibetan bhikkuni, Pema Chodron:

A piece of clay or bronze or jade is not the object of our respect and worship. When we bow before Buddha images, we are recalling the qualities of the enlightened beings. It is their impartial love and compassion, generosity, morality, patience, joyous effort, concentration and wisdom that we are showing respect to. The statue or painting serves to remind us of the qualities of the Buddha, and it is the qualities, not the clay, that we are bowing to. By showing respect to the buddhas and bodhisattvas and their qualities, we are inspired to develop these extraordinary qualities on our own mind streams. We become like the people we respect. When we take the loving kindness and wisdom of the buddhas and bodhisattvas as our example, we strive to become like them.

The concept of striving to become like buddhas and bodhisattvas can be seen in the use of mudras. Mudras are ritual hand gestures used in devotional practices. Statues and images of the Buddha and of bodhisattvas usually have different mudras which are intended to convey an important teaching. For example, the mudra on the right is seen on some statues and is called the ‘Mudra of Warding off Evil’. The thumb holds down the two middle fingers whilst the index finger and the little finger are held straight. This is meant to symbolise the horns of a yak warding off an enemy. It reminds Buddhists of the need to ward off the Three Poisons of ignorance, greed and hatred.

In their devotional practices, some Buddhists – mainly Tibetan – will focus on their own hand gestures so that mudras become mantras for the body. In this case the mudra becomes a physical focus which helps the mind in meditation. A complex sequence of mudras is often used by a bhikku or bhikkuni when offerings are being made before the shrine in devotional practice.

The best-known mudra seen in statues and images of the Buddha is the Mudra of Meditation. Stories about the Buddha say that it was with his hands in this position, sitting in the lotus position under the Bodhi Tree, that the Buddha achieved enlightenment. Buddhists identify themselves with the quest of the Buddha to seek enlightenment by using the same Mudra of Meditation.

Devotional practices in Buddhism are many and varied. Puja in the temple and vihara or in the home may be important because it helps Buddhists in keeping their identity. On a simple level, it gives Buddhists the opportunity to give dana in the form of flowers and incense as they venerate the Buddha, buddhas and bodhisattvas. However, puja may also involve the use of mantras, prayer wheel, mala and mudras. Whatever the case, devotional practices and puja help to unite Buddhists around the Triratna in giving great understanding of the Buddha, the dhamma and in uniting the sangha.

Exercise 13

Knowledge Questions (5 marks): 1. What is the Triratna? 2. What is the best-known mantra? 3. How many beads are there in the mala? 4. What is the Mudra of Warding off Evil? 5. What is the best-known mudra?

Description Question (5 marks): Describe what is meant by a mantra.

Explanation Question (8 marks): Explain the importance of the Triratna.

Discussion Questions (15 marks each): 1. ‘Reciting mantras is important for Buddhists who want to achieve enlightenment.’ Discuss this statement showing that you have considered more than one point of view. (You must refer to religion and belief in your answer.) 2. ‘There is no difference between venerating a statue of the Buddha and worshipping it.’ Discuss this statement showing that you have considered more than one point of view. (You must refer to religion and belief in your answer.)

(14) DEATH AND MOURNING

Buddhist funerals are occasions when Buddhists recall the Three Lakshana: dukkha, anicca and anatta. Whoever is leading the funeral service – a bhikku, bhikkuni or lay person – will, in addition to remembering the life of the deceased, remind people that the Three Lakshana are the Three Marks of Existence which cannot be ignored or avoided.

The variety of beliefs and practices in Buddhism means that there is no one typical funeral service. An important point to remember is that death is not seen as the end of life because of belief in samsara – the continual circle of birth, death and rebirth. Death is therefore seen as the moment or the period of transition to another rebirth.

Within Theravada communities some of the following ceremonies may take place.

1. The person who is dying, their family and bhikkus recite or chant passages from sacred texts to create punna (good) kamma to help bring about a fortunate rebirth. For example, one passage from the Dhammapada is used to remind everyone of the inevitability of death:

Before long, alas, this body, deprived of consciousness, will lie on the earth, discarded like a useless log.

2. After death, the bhikkus or bhikkunis recite the pancha sila and all may join in chanting verses often used at Buddhist funerals called ‘Anicca vata cinkhara’:

Impermanent alas are formations, subject to rise and fall. Having arisen, they cease; their subsiding is bliss.

3. In some Theravada communities, one ritual is for the family to give dana to the bhikkus of cloth for robes and of food. Another is for the family to gather around the deceased and pour water into a cup so that it overflows. The significance of both these rituals is explained in the sacred text called the Tirokudda Sutra. In this sutra the Buddha teaches that:

No weeping, no sorrowing, no other lamentation benefits the dead.

Instead, what does benefit them is transferring punna kamma.

Those who feel sympathy for their dead relatives give timely donations of proper food and drink thinking: ‘May this be for our relatives. May our relatives be happy!’

Offerings are given to the bhikkus on behalf of the dead:

It works for their long-term benefit and they profit immediately. In this way, the proper duty to relatives has been shown, great honour has been done to the dead, and bhikkus have been given strength:

When the water is poured into the cup, verses from the Tirokudda Sutra may be chanted:

As water raining on a hill flows down to the valley, even so does what is given here benefit the dead. As rivers, full of water fill the ocean full, even so does what is given here benefit the dead.

4. Depending on the Theravada community, the body remains at home for three days. It may be surrounded by candles and incense sticks. During this time an atmosphere of calm and peace is encouraged. Family, friends and acquaintances may visit the home and join in chanting from the sacred texts and in burning incense.

5. In some Theravada communities, when the body is taken from the house, a length of ribbon is attached to the coffin and is held on to by the bhikkus. The significance of this ritual is to show that punna kamma gained through dana to the bhikkus links them to, and helps the deceased person in rebirth. It also shows that the deceased person remains part of the sangha.

6. Since after his death the Buddha was cremated, most Buddhists would follow this example. During the cremation, there would be chanting of ‘Anicca vata cinkhara’ and other sacred texts.

7. In some Theravada communities, after the cremation the ashes would be placed in an urn and put in the ground. The place might be marked by a small stupa.

Within Mahayana communities, there is a great deal of variety in the ceremonies and rituals that take place. Unique to Japanese Buddhism is the naming ceremony. At death, during the funeral ceremonies and rituals, depending on how they have followed the Pancha Sila (the Five Precepts), the person is given a kaimyō which can be translated as kai ‘precept’ and myō ‘name’. The origins of the kaimyō are complicated but it reminds Buddhists of the importance of keeping the Pancha Sila.

One belief shared by all Mahayana communities is in a 49-day interval between the death of the person and their rebirth. This interval is called antarabhava which can be translated as antara ‘in between’ and bhava ‘becoming’. During antarabhava, it is believed that the person’s consciousness is in a process of transition to rebirth: within the six realms of the wheel of existence, as a bodhisattva or achieving nirvana. This being the case, it is believed that much can be done to help this transition through ceremonies and rituals so that a fortunate rebirth can take place.

This can be seen most clearly in the example of traditional Tibetan Buddhism. Here, the name for antarabhava is bardo and the key sacred text used is called the Bardo Thodol which can be translated as bardo ‘in between becoming’ and thodol ‘liberation’. In English, this is usually called the Tibetan Book of the Dead. It describes what happens during the 49-days after a person’s death.

Put very simply, the Bardo Thodol describes Three Bardos. After the moment of death there is the First Bardo during which the person sees brilliant light. This is the light of nirvana and if a person welcomes it then they are freed from the wheel of existence and will no longer be reborn. Most people are terrified of the light and turn from it so that the light fades. The person then realises that they are dead and at this point the Second Bardo begins. The person sees their past life and their actions and is again presented with brilliant light which is the light of the god realm into which they could be reborn if they have sufficient punna kamma. However, most people are again terrified by this light and turn from it. At this point the Third Bardo begins when the person is now destined to be reborn. At this stage, it is a person’s kamma which determines their rebirth: with sufficient punna kamma they will be able to find a womb in which they will be reborn so that their human rebirth might be better than their previous one. Insufficient punna kamma might mean that a person is reborn in a lesser realm.

Studying the Bardo Thodol during a person’s life-time is very important as in doing this they will be prepared for what happens at death. In all Three Bardos there are Bodhisattvas who can be called upon to help and show karuna but only if the person has the correct understanding. There are also angry demons – but these demons are illusions created by the person’s pappa kamma. When confronted with such demons, a person who is prepared, or who is being prayed for, can stay calm and resolute. During the entire process, prayers from Tibetan lamas – monks – such as the following are said to help guide the person.

O nobly-born, that which is called death has now come. You are departing from this world, but you are not the only one; death comes to all. Do not cling, in fondness and weakness, to this life. Even though you cling out of weakness, you have not the power to remain here. You will gain nothing more than wandering in samsara. Be not attached to this world; be not weak. Remember the Triratna. O nobly-born, whatever fear and terror may come to you in the Bardos, forget not these words; and, bearing their meaning at heart, go forwards.

Tibetan Buddhists follow the example of the Buddha and are cremated. However, Buddhists in Tibet would – where possible - choose a sky burial. The ceremony and ritual take the following form:

1. A lama chants from the Bardo Thodol to the deceased person as they are dying and after they are dead.

2. The body is washed, placed in the foetal position and wrapped in a white cloth. It may be taken to the nearest vihara where lamas continue chanting from the Bardo Thodol. Dana is given to the lamas.

3. The body is then taken to a field away from the vihara where the cloth is removed, the head is tied to a post and the body is cut open whilst vultures and other carrion feeding birds gather. These are then left to eat the body. Anything that remains is crushed up and left for crows to eat.

To help understand the significance of the sky burial, it is useful to note that the Tibetan word for the ceremony is jhator which may be translated as ‘giving alms to the birds’. Thus, one idea is that through letting birds eat the body, a person is giving dana to them as sentient beings. This would gain the dead person punna kamma and help them in journeying through the bardos. In addition, watching a sky burial is beneficial because it is a vivid reminder of the Three Lakshanas: dukkha, anicca and anatta.

Exercise 14

Knowledge Questions (5 marks): 1. What is ‘Anicca vata cinkhara’? 2. What connects bhikkus to the coffin during the funeral in some Theravada communities? 3. What does the word kaimyō mean? 4. What is antarabhava? 5. What is jhator?

Description Question (5 marks): Describe what takes place during a Tibetan sky burial.

Explanation Question (8 marks): Explain what happens at a funeral within Theravada communities.

Discussion Questions (15 marks each): 1. ‘Buddhist funerals are times for sadness and grief.’ Discuss this statement showing that you have considered more than one point of view. (You must refer to religion and belief in your answer.) 2. ‘It is not possible to help the dead with prayers or offerings.’ Discuss this statement showing that you have considered more than one point of view. (You must refer to religion and belief in your answer.)

(15) FESTIVALS AND RETREATS: PRACTICES IN BRITAIN AND ELSEWHERE

Wesak is the main annual Buddhist festival. Wesak is the English version of the word Vaisakha which is the name of the ancient Indian lunar month corresponding to April/May in the West. Since 1950, most Buddhists have agreed that Wesak should be celebrated on the first day of the full moon in the month of May. Wesak is also known as Buddha Day as on this one day, three key events in the life of the Buddha are remembered. This can be seen in the message from the then British Prime Minister, David Cameron published to support community integration on the 14th May 2015:

I’d like to send my best wishes to Buddhists in Britain and around the world celebrating Wesak, the sacred festival commemorating the birth, enlightenment and the passing away (Parinirvana) of the Buddha. For millions of people it is a time to reflect on the Buddhist teachings of tolerance and compassion, and to make offerings to those in need. It is a special occasion that reminds us of the sincere and enduring principles espoused by Buddhists throughout the world. At this time, I’d like to especially praise Britain’s Buddhist communities for the outstanding contribution they make to our country. You play a valued and important part in our Island story and I thank you for everything you do. To Buddhists in the UK and the world I wish you a happy and peaceful Wesak.

The way in which Wesak is celebrated depends very much on the country in which Buddhists live and the Buddhist community to which they belong.

1. Light is a key symbol of Wesak. During the evening and night, carrying lanterns, lighting up shrines, viharas, temples and statues of the Buddha are important ways of marking Wesak. Very often there will be processions with Buddhists carrying candles. The meaning of the symbol is that the Buddha was enlightened and that his teaching helps bring enlightenment.

2. Water is another symbol of Wesak. In China, the name given to Wesak is Yufojie. This means ‘Bathing of the Buddha Day’. For many Buddhists, washing statues of the Buddha is an important ritual. The meaning of the symbol is varied. For some it is a symbol of washing away bad kamma or of cleansing and then renewing commitment to being a Buddhist. In South Korea, Buddhists focus on washing statues of the baby Buddha and doing this is believed to gain a great deal of good kamma.

3. Freeing animals is another ritual of Wesak. In some countries, Buddhists set captive birds or other animals free. The meaning of this ritual is that it represents the liberation from dukkha which the Buddha’s teaching brings.

4. Giving dana is another ritual of Wesak. Most Buddhists would hope to visit their local vihara or temple and take with them dana of candles, incense and flowers. Dana of money might also be given to support local charities which aim to relieve suffering. 58

However, for Buddhists what is much more important at Wesak is to refocus on being Buddhist by chanting the Triratna and by trying to put into practice the words which are chanted:

1. Buddham saranam gacchami. (I take refuge in the Buddha.) They focus on the Buddha as they recall and give thanks for his birth, enlightenment and Parinirvana.

2. Dhammam saranam gacchami. (I take refuge in the dhamma.) They focus on the dhamma by for example, reading or reciting sacred texts such as the Dhammapada and by reciting and renewing their commitment to the Pancha Sila (five moral precepts).

3. Sangham saranam gacchami. (I take refuge in the sangha.) They focus on the sangha by joining with other lay Buddhists in lantern parades and processions and by visiting the vihara and listening to bhikkus teaching.

In the Mahayana tradition, the most important Buddhist festival of the year is Parinirvana Day. On this day – usually celebrated on 15th February – Mahayana Buddhists remember how aged 80, the Buddha died and entered into the state of complete nirvana after death – Parinirvana. To mark the day, Mahayana Buddhists focus on the Three Lakshanas – but particularly on anicca because death is a reminder that everything is impermanent and subject to decay.

In particular, Mahayana Buddhists read or chant extracts from the Mahaparinirvana Sutra. This describes the last days of the Buddha’s life and the last teaching which he gave to one of his principal disciples, his first cousin Ananda. The Buddha, knowing he is about to die, arrives at Kushinara and between two trees lies down on his right side supporting his head. He tells Ananda to stop weeping:

Enough, Ananda! Do not grieve, do not lament! For have I not taught from the very beginning that with all that is dear and beloved there must be change, separation, and severance? Of that which is born, come into being, compounded, and subject to decay, how can one say: 'May it not come to dissolution!'? There can be no such state of things.

The Buddha then asks the assembled bhikkus three times if they have any questions to ask him and they remain silent. He then speaks his last words:

All conditioned things are subject to decay. Attain perfection through diligence.

In addition to festivals such as Wesak and Parinirvana Day, many Buddhists in Theravada communities observe a three-month period called Vassa. The word Vassa means ‘rain-retreat’. This appears to have its origins in the life of the Buddha. After his enlightenment, he spent 45 years teaching people as he travelled to towns and villages. However, travel would not have been easy or even possible during the three-month monsoon season. In addition, whilst travelling it would be more likely that crops could be damaged and small animals which came out in the rain might be trodden on and thus injured or killed. Thus, for these three months, the likelihood is that the Buddha stayed in one place with the bhikkus who were his disciples, and just focused on teaching them. The bhikkus were on retreat in the sense that they spent time away from others to focus on their religious commitment. Today, bhikkus follow this example by remaining in their viharas as far as possible during Vassa.

The date of Vassa is determined by the lunar calendar – it usually takes place during the months of July, August and September. It helps us to understand what Vassa is about by noting that it begins with bhikkus chanting the sutra called Dhamma Chakra Pavattana Sutra. This means ‘Setting in Motion the Wheel of Dhamma’. This is the sutra in which the Buddha gives his very first sermon on the Four Noble Truths which provides the foundation for all Buddhist teaching. If possible lay Buddhists will come to the vihara to listen to the bhikkus chanting and to hear sermons on the Four Noble Truths.

During the following three months, bhikkus intensify their efforts in living the monastic life by spending more time meditating, studying and being instructed by senior bhikkus. Devout lay Buddhists might choose to join the vihara as bhikkus just for the three months of Vassa. Outside of the vihara, lay Buddhists might also choose these three months as a time to renew their own commitment to Buddhism by following more closely the five Pancha Sila and by reading and reciting sacred texts such as the Dhammapada.

In the vihara, Vassa ends with Pavarana Day. Pavarana means invitation, and on this day bhikkus who have lived together much more closely than usual for the three-month period meet together and invite their brother bhikkus to comment on their behaviour and suggest ways in which they can improve. Each bhikku declares in front of all the others:

Venerable Ones, I invite reprimand from the Sangha. Correct me out of compassion. Recognising it is my fault, I shall my amends.

Following the ending of Vassa, there is a month-long period which is a time for lay Buddhists to offer cloths for making robes for bhikkus. In addition, lay Buddhists make many other offerings to meet the general necessities of the bhikkus living in the vihara. This extended month-long period of dana is called Kathina. The word Kathina was the name given to a sewing frame on which cloth was spread out as it was being made into robes. The origins of this can be summarised as follows:

Thirty bhikkus were journeying together with the intention of spending Vassa the Buddha, but Vassa began before they reached their destination and so they had to stop. The bhikkus were upset that they were unable to be with Buddha but they lived together harmoniously. At the end of Vassa they continued on to see the Buddha. Hearing what had happened, the Buddha gave some cloth which he had received as a gift from a lay Buddhist, to the bhikkus and told them to sew a robe and then bestow it upon one of their company. The Buddha said that there was nothing as uplifting as generosity and sharing, and so the bhikkus set about sewing a new set of robes. They used a frame, called a Kathina, on which to spread the cloth as they were making it.

In Theravada communities, the Kathina ceremony is a very important occasion. Whilst the details of how it is celebrated might vary, the usual pattern is that in the morning lay Buddhists gather at the vihara for a communal meal: the Bhikkus eat first and then everyone else. Afterwards a lay Buddhist is chosen to lead the people in reciting the Triratna and the five Pancha Sila. Then the offering of carefully folded cloth (as shown in the picture) is made and accepted by two bhikkus on behalf of the other bhikkus. The announcement is given of who will receive new robes once they are sewn. Traditionally, monks with unusually shabby robes are given priority, and after that the robes are designated according to seniority. Once cloth is accepted, the monks begin cutting and sewing at once. Sewing of the robes should be completed that day. When the robes are sewn, usually in the evening, the new robes are ceremonially given to the monks designated to receive them.

Exercise 15

Knowledge Questions (5 marks): 1. On what day does the celebration of Wesak take place? 2. What is Yufojie? 3. At what age did the Buddha enter Parinirvana? 4. What does Vassa mean? 5. What does the name Kathina refer to?

Description Question (5 marks): Describe how Wesak may be celebrated in Buddhist communities.

Explanation Question (8 marks): Explain what happens during Vassa.

Discussion Questions (15 marks each): 1. ‘Vassa is essential for the Sangha.’ Discuss this statement showing that you have considered more than one point of view. (You must refer to religion and belief in your answer.) 2. ‘Buddhists should not need to celebrate any festivals.’ Discuss this statement showing that you have considered more than one point of view. (You must refer to religion and belief in your answer.)