10 Water Resources in Africa and Kenya III.Key

Water Withdraw and Use in Kenya:

Well water development International Water Issues

UN-WATER/WWAP/2006/12

Water Availability in Kenya 37

The inadequate maintenance of the hydro- management. As a result, water allocation and meteorological data collection network makes it abstraction decisions and investment decisions impossible to carry out meaningful water are based on inadequate water resources data. resources planning, design, operations, and

Table 2.2.Spatial Variability of Average annual surface water availability

Drainage area Volume in million cubic meters per year Percentage of water abstracted Lake Victoria 11,672 2.2 Rift valley 2,784 1.7 Athi River 1,152 11.6 Tana River 3,744 15.9 Ewaso Ng’iro 339 12.4 National 20,291 5.3

Source: The aftercare study on the National Water Master Plan, July 1998

Table 2.3: .Status of Hydrometric stations in Kenya

Drainage Basin Registered Stations operating Stations % Reduction stations by 1990 operating in from registered 2001 stations Lake Victoria 229 114 45 80% Rift Valley 153 50 33 78% Athi 223 74 31 86% Tana 205 116 66 67% Northern Ewaso Ng’iro 113 45 29 74% National 923 399 204 78% Source: Report on Towards a Water secure Kenya (April 2004)

Table 2.4:.General Hydrological characteristics

ISSUES TARGETS INDICATORS Inadequate monitoring Reconnaissance of all hydro -No. of stations stations monitoring stations to rehabilitated Inadequate Funding to determine status maintain/expand hydro /rehabilitation -No. of new Hydro network programme/maintenance stations established Limited Equipment, Expansion of hydro Network -No of Q Transport) O& M Regular river flow measurements taken Vandalism of installed measurements monitoring equipment Modernization (automation of -No. of stations Flood related damage some key stations) installed (automated) to installed stations Develop hydrological models -No. of models Recession of developed lakes/shifting river courses

UN-WATER/WWAP/2006/12

Water Availability in Kenya 37

Table 2.2.Spatial Variability of Average annual surface water availability

Source: The aftercare study on the National Water Master Plan, July 1998

Table 2.3: .Status of Hydrometric stations in Kenya

Table 2.4:.General Hydrological characteristics

BOX 16.1 ACCELERATING WATER INNOVATION – CASE STUDIES

Ontario, Canada The Government of Ontario created the Water Technology Acceleration Project (WaterTAP) in 2011 to help connect companies with the resources they need to successfully enter water technology markets by facilitating the demonstration, commercialization and adoption of innovative water solutions through knowledge sharing, attracting investment and developing innovative financial models. Established as a non-profit organization, WaterTAP champions and supports Ontario’s status as a world water technology hub. It promotes close cooperation between Ontario’s public and private water industry institutions and businesses and consists of 100 technology incubators, accelerators and programs. In this ‘knowledge mobilization’ process, Ontario’s water-related research organizations collaborate closely with university researchers, government agencies, municipalities and the water industry. Specific water technology clusters cover biogas energy generation and nutrient recovery from wastewater and stormwater management and treatment to counteract the heavy rainfall events of climate change, buried pipeline infrastructure inspection, monitoring and rehabilitation, and ‘smart’ technologies involving the collection and processing of real-time data. Ontario has a strong track record in producing water-related patents, where the water industry holds some 22,000 jobs in 100 water-related research organizations, 300 start- ups, 700 established companies and more than 750 water and wastewater treatment facilities.

Europe Like other European innovation partnerships, the European Innovation Partnership on Water (EIP Water) was initiated by the European Commission (EC) to accelerate water innovations, with a speciﬁc focus on those that serve to address societal challenges, foster the EU’s competitiveness and support the EC’s overarching goal of creating jobs and stimulating economic growth. The EIP Water is intended to create market opportunities for these innovations (inside and outside of Europe), remove barriers by advancing and leveraging existing solutions, and initiate and promote collaborative processes for change and innovation in the water sector across the public and private sector, NGOs and the general public. The implementation of the EIP Water started in May 2013, and its primary vehicles are voluntary, multi- stakeholder Action Groups (almost 30 registered in 2015) and an online Market Place on the EIP Water online platform.

African cities Commissioned by the Dutch Ministry of Foreign Affairs to run initially from 2014-2017, VIA Water is a programme that aims to identify innovative solutions for water problems facing cities in seven African countries: Benin, Ghana, Kenya, Mali, Mozambique, Rwanda and South Sudan. It connects ‘curious researchers and creative entrepreneurs, innovative NGOs and progressive policy-makers’. VIA Water ﬁnancially supports small-scale innovations at the start of the supply chain through the VIA Water Fund and provides matchmaking between potential partners from the seven VIA Water countries. The programme shares and enriches the knowledge obtained along the innovation process through its VIA Water Learning Community.

Contributed by Uta Wehn (UNESCO-IHE), based on WaterTap (n.d.); EIP Water (n.d.); Viawater (n.d.).

118 WWDR 2016 For example, whereas water can be an essential Statistical systems are moving towards measuring new input in sectors such as agriculture and power ‘work’ standards, and different forms of work and generation, water is not necessarily essential for labour underutilization indicators (ICLS, 2013). This many tasks undertaken by workers in those sectors, should also serve to facilitate construction of water- such as administrative or clerical tasks. To date, dependent decent work indicators: National statistical no research examining or comparing the ‘water systems could combine water-related variables and intensity’ of certain jobs has been undertaken. data from all available/potential sources (i.e. regular/ ad hoc/special modules), such as census, labour Chapter 18 of this report provides further force surveys, household income and expenditure suggestions on increasing knowledge and surveys, demographic and health surveys. Building innovation to be able to make decisions based on statistical baseline data provides impetus to advocate robust metrics. for government investment in and commitment to developing and maintaining the public water system. 17.2 Opportunities Indicators for water and indicators for jobs and employment have something in common: both need For example, whereas water can be an essential Input-outputStatistical systems (I-O) analysis are moving and socialtowards accounting measuring new to be appropriate for collection by a regular, national input in sectors such as agriculture and power matrices‘work’ standards,(SAMs) identify and different how water forms is used of work as an and statistical data collection programme and for the generation, water is not necessarily essential for inputlabour by underutilizationdifferent subsectors, indicators and seek (ICLS, to 2013). quantify This generation of comparable time-series analysis (even if many tasks undertaken by workers in those sectors, theshould jobs createdalso serve when to facilitate a government construction increases of water-or infrequent, i.e. every five years). such as administrative or clerical tasks. To date, improvesdependent water decent supply. work This indicators: would help National develop statistical a no research examining or comparing the ‘water comprehensivesystems could mappingcombine ofwater-related the linkages variables between and As previously mentioned in Chapters 4 and 14, there intensity’ of certain jobs has been undertaken. accessdata fromto water all available/potential and sanitation and sources decent (i.e. jobs regular/ is a dearth of information on human resources for thatad underscores:hoc/special modules), (i) the extent such andas census, full range labour of WASH services (IWA, 2014a). Commissioning the Chapter 18 of this report provides further interactionsforce surveys, and household (ii) the significance income and of feedbackexpenditure necessary research (from their own resources or with suggestions on increasing knowledge and effects.surveys, This demographic can be used and to buildhealth a surveys.strong case Building for external support) to include numerical and skills gaps innovation to be able to make decisions based on anstatistical integrated baseline approach data to provides coordinated impetus employment to advocate would allow governments to strengthen the evidence robust metrics. policiesfor government (both at national investment and inlocal and levels). commitment It can to base before consolidating new WASH policies. The alsodeveloping be used toand show maintaining the multiplier the public effects water that system. will process to help states build a human resource/skills/ 17.2 Opportunities resultIndicators from betterfor water coordination. and indicators for jobs and capacity building strategy into a coherent national employment have something in common: both need WASH strategy can thereby focus on the demand side Input-output (I-O) analysis and social accounting Datato be from appropriate the World for Input-Output collection by Database a regular, national by identifying sectoral value chains, core occupations, matrices (SAMs) identify how water is used as an (WIOD)statistical can databe analysed collection to programmederive evidence and foron howthe skills requirements and cross-occupation analyses. input by different subsectors, and seek to quantify dependentgeneration the of wholecomparable economy time-series is on water analysis supply (even if the jobs created when a government increases or andinfrequent, how many i.e. jobs every are five created years). when a government improves water supply. This would help develop a increases or improves water supply, estimating comprehensive mapping of the linkages between backwardsAs previously and mentionedforwards linkages in Chapters of water 4 and supply 14, there access to water and sanitation and decent jobs andis arelated dearth sectors of information to calculate on human total multiplier resources for that underscores: (i) the extent and full range of effectsWASH of services potential (IWA, investments 2014a). Commissioning in a given sector. the interactions and (ii) the significance of feedback Thesenecessary investments research have (from several their spilloverown resources effects, or with effects. This can be used to build a strong case for sinceexternal they support)seek not toonly include to improve numerical distribution and skills of gaps an integrated approach to coordinated employment waterwould as allowa component governments of national to strengthen wealth andthe evidence policies (both at national and local levels). It can well-beingbase before but consolidating also to increase new labour WASH productivity policies. The also be used to show the multiplier effects that will andprocess reduce to diseaseshelp states and build related a human costs. resource/skills/ result from better coordination. capacity building strategy into a coherent national WASH strategy can thereby focus on the demand side Data from the World Input-Output Database by identifying sectoral value chains, core occupations, (WIOD) can be analysed to derive evidence on how skills requirements and cross-occupation analyses. dependent the whole economy is on water supply and how many jobs are created when a government increases or improves water supply, estimating 124 WWDR 2016 backwards and forwards linkages of water supply and related sectors to calculate total multiplier effects of potential investments in a given sector. These investments have several spillover effects, since they seek not only to improve distribution of water as a component of national wealth and well-being but also to increase labour productivity and reduce diseases and related costs.

124 WWDR 2016 For example, whereas water can be an essential Statistical systems are moving towards measuring new input in sectors such as agriculture and power ‘work’ standards, and different forms of work and generation, water is not necessarily essential for labour underutilization indicators (ICLS, 2013). This many tasks undertaken by workers in those sectors, should also serve to facilitate construction of water- such as administrative or clerical tasks. To date, dependent decent work indicators: National statistical no research examining or comparing the ‘water systems could combine water-related variables and intensity’ of certain jobs has been undertaken. data from all available/potential sources (i.e. regular/ ad hoc/special modules), such as census, labour Chapter 18 of this report provides further force surveys, household income and expenditure suggestions on increasing knowledge and surveys, demographic and health surveys. Building innovation to be able to make decisions based on statistical baseline data provides impetus to advocate robust metrics. for government investment in and commitment to developing and maintaining the public water system. 17.2 Opportunities Indicators for water and indicators for jobs and employment have something in common: both need Input-output (I-O) analysis and social accounting to be appropriate for collection by a regular, national matrices (SAMs) identify how water is used as an statistical data collection programme and for the input by different subsectors, and seek to quantify generation of comparable time-series analysis (even if For example, whereas water can be an essential Statisticalthe jobs created systems when are moving a government towards increases measuring or new infrequent, i.e. every five years). input in sectors such as agriculture and power ‘work’improves standards, water supply. and different This would forms help of develop work and a generation, water is not necessarily essential for labourcomprehensive underutilization mapping indicators of the linkages (ICLS, between2013). This As previously mentioned in Chapters 4 and 14, there many tasks undertaken by workers in those sectors, shouldaccess alsoto water serve and to facilitatesanitation construction and decent jobsof water- is a dearth of information on human resources for such as administrative or clerical tasks. To date, dependentthat underscores: decent (i) work the extentindicators: and fullNational range statisticalof WASH services (IWA, 2014a). Commissioning the no research examining or comparing the ‘water systemsinteractions could and combine (ii) the significancewater-related of variablesfeedback and necessary research (from their own resources or with intensity’ of certain jobs has been undertaken. dataeffects. from This all canavailable/potential be used to build sources a strong (i.e. case regular/ for external support) to include numerical and skills gaps adan hoc/special integrated approachmodules), to such coordinated as census, employment labour would allow governments to strengthen the evidence Chapter 18 of this report provides further forcepolicies surveys, (both householdat national incomeand local and levels). expenditure It can base before consolidating new WASH policies. The also be used to show the multiplier effects that will process to help states build a human resource/skills/ suggestions on increasing knowledge and surveys, demographic and health surveys. Building result from better coordination. capacity building strategy into a coherent national innovation to be able to make decisions based on statistical baseline data provides impetus to advocate WASH strategy can thereby focus on the demand side robust metrics. for government investment in and commitment to Data from the World Input-Output Database by identifying sectoral value chains, core occupations, developing and maintaining the public water system. (WIOD) can be analysed to derive evidence on how skills requirements and cross-occupation analyses. 17.2 Opportunities Indicators for water and indicators for jobs and dependent the whole economy is on water supply employmentand how many have jobs something are created in whencommon: a government both need Input-output (I-O) analysis and social accounting toincreases be appropriate or improves for collectionwater supply, by aestimating regular, national matrices (SAMs) identify how water is used as an statisticalbackwards data and collection forwards programmelinkages of water and forsupply the input by different subsectors, and seek to quantify generationand related of sectors comparable to calculate time-series total multiplier analysis (even if the jobs created when a government increases or infrequent,effects of potential i.e. every investments five years). in a given sector. improves water supply. This would help develop a These investments have several spillover effects, comprehensive mapping of the linkages between Assince previously they seek mentioned not only toin improveChapters distribution 4 and 14, ofthere access to water and sanitation and decent jobs iswater a dearth as a ofcomponent information of nationalon human wealth resources and for that underscores: (i) the extent and full range of WASHwell-being services but (IWA,also to 2014a). increase Commissioning labour productivity the interactions and (ii) the significance of feedback necessaryand reduce research diseases (from and relatedtheir own costs. resources or with effects. This can be used to build a strong case for external support) to include numerical and skills gaps an integrated approach to coordinated employment would allow governments to strengthen the evidence policies (both at national and local levels). It can base before consolidating new WASH policies. The also be used to show the multiplier effects that will process to help states build a human resource/skills/ result from better coordination. capacity building strategy into a coherent national WASH strategy can thereby focus on the demand side Data from the World Input-Output Database by124 identifyingWWDR sectoral 2016 value chains, core occupations, (WIOD) can be analysed to derive evidence on how skills requirements and cross-occupation analyses. dependent the whole economy is on water supply and how many jobs are created when a government increases or improves water supply, estimating backwards and forwards linkages of water supply and related sectors to calculate total multiplier effects of potential investments in a given sector. These investments have several spillover effects, since they seek not only to improve distribution of water as a component of national wealth and well-being but also to increase labour productivity and reduce diseases and related costs.

124 WWDR 2016 WATER AND SANITATION PROGRAM: POLICY NOTE

WATER AND SANITATION PROGRAM: POLICY NOTE

Supporting Poor-Inclusive WSS SectorSupporting Reform Poor-Inclusive WSS Sector Reform Devolution in Kenya: Opportunities and Challenges for the Water Sector SupportingDevolution Poor-Inclusive WSS Sector in Reform Kenya:

Opportunities and ChallengesSeptember 2013 for the Water Sector Devolution in Kenya: KEY FINDINGS Devolution under Kenya’s new 2010 Constitution 1. Smooth devolution of water services calls for has wide-ranging implications for the water sector. Governors and county leadership to drive reform, Opportunities and Challenges for the Water Sector but without disrupting services. September 2013 The Constitution recognizes that access to safe and sufficient water is a basic human right.KEY It also FINDINGSassigns 2. Well-performing water companies can play an responsibility for water supply and sanitation provision indispensable role in strengthening the legitimacy of to 47 newly established counties. counties. September 2013 KEY FINDINGS Effective implementation of the new devolved1. Smooth framework devolution 3. Devolution of waterof water services services still requires calls greater for Devolution under Kenya’s new 2010now requires Constitution the water sector to focus on the emerging clarity and certainty on pertinent issues. has wide-ranging implications for theopportunities water and sector. to address a number ofGovernors challenges. and county leadership to drive reform, Devolution under Kenya’s new 2010 ConstitutionThis note analyses1. theSmooth pertinent devolution issues andbut ofoptions water without for services disrupting4. callsCounties for must services. budget for the recurrent and The Constitution recognizes that accessnational to government safe and Governorsand county leadershipand county to achieveleadership to drivedevelopment reform, costs of water service provision, has wide-ranging implications for the water sector. ensuring adequate resources for personnel and sustainable delivery of improved water services under Thesufficient Constitution water recognizes is a basic that human access toright. safe It and also assignsbut without disrupting services. operations and maintenance costs to sustain the new dispensation. 2. Well-performingservices. water companies can play an sufficientresponsibility water is for a basic water human supply right. and It also sanitation assigns provision2. Well-performing water companies can play an indispensable5. roleThe national in strengthening water regulator should the play legitimacy a strong of responsibility for water supply and sanitation provisionRAPID DEVOLUTIONindispensable OF WATER role SERVICES in strengthening the legitimacy of to 47 newly established counties. counties. role in monitoring sector performance and enforcing to 47 newly established counties. REQUIRES GREATERcounties. CLARITY AND compliance. CERTAINTY ON KEY ISSUES Effective implementation implementation of the new of the devolved new devolved frameworkThe new framework government3. Devolution of Kenya elected of water3. in Devolution March services 2013 still of requires 6.water There greateris services a need to increase still funding requires for the watergreater committed itself to rapid transfer of devolved functions to the sector, including clarifying the role of domestic now requires requires the thewater water sector sector to focus to on focus the emerging oncounties. the This emerging position,clarity marked andby an certaintyallocationclarity of on funding pertinent and to certainty issues.commercial on finance, pertinent invest smartly issues. and ensure opportunities and to address a number of challenges.counties, signaled a hastened pace of devolution compared effective financing flows. opportunities and to address a numberto theof earlier challenges. envisaged4. Counties phased transfer must of budget functions for over the a recurrent and This note analyses the pertinent issues and options for 7. Supportive policy and legislation are needed to three-year period which was contingent on4. whether Counties counties must budget for the recurrent and nationalThis note government analyses and the county pertinent leadership issues to achieve and options developmentfor costs of water service provision,anchor the constitutional right to water and ensure were deemed to haveensuring the necessary adequate capacitydevelopment resources to take for personnel costssustainable of and water services focusingservice on theprovision, poor and sustainablenational government delivery of improved and county water services leadership chargeunder of ato function. achieve Counties now need to make sure their operations and maintenanceensuring costsadequate tounderserved. sustain resources for personnel and thesustainable new dispensation. delivery of improved waterbudgets services provide adequateunder financing for the recurrent and development costs of waterservices. service provision, inoperations particular to and8. Nationalmaintenance government is costs mandated to to supportsustain the new dispensation. personnel and operations and maintenance costs. counties, and to do so in consultation with county 5. The national waterservices. regulator should playleadership a strong and stakeholders, focusing on clarifying RAPID DEVOLUTION OF WATER SERVICES role of the regional boards. While phased transfer roleof functions in monitoring may remain sector necessary, performance and enforcing REQUIRES GREATER CLARITY AND it will have to be basedcompliance. on agreement with5. countiesThe national about water regulator should play a strong RAPID DEVOLUTION OF WATERgradually SERVICES developing new arrangements, rather than in a CERTAINTY ON KEY ISSUES single leap. Reaching and acting upon such agreementrole in monitoringwill sector performance and enforcing 6. There is a need to increase funding for the water TheREQUIRES new government GREATER of Kenya elected CLARITY in March ANDrequire 2013 a clear understanding of the respectivecompliance. roles of the committed itself to rapid transfer of devolved functionsnational to the and county governments,sector, including and systematic clarifying attention the role of domestic CERTAINTY ON KEY ISSUES to key aspects of the devolutioncommercial framework finance, and the invest process smartly and ensure counties. This position, marked by an allocation of fundingfor implementing to it. counties,The new signaled government a hastened ofpace Kenya of devolution elected compared in March 2013effective financing6. There flows. is a need to increase funding for the water sector, including clarifying the role of domestic tocommitted the earlier envisaged itself to rapidphased transfer transfer of functionsdevolved over functions a 7. to Supportivethe policy and legislation are needed to three-yearcounties. period This whichposition, was contingent marked byon whetheran allocation counties of fundinganchor to the constitutionalcommercial right to waterfinance, and ensureinvest smartly and ensure were deemed to have the necessary capacity to take counties, signaled a hastened pace of devolution comparedsustainable serviceseffective focusing financing on the poor flows.and charge of a function. Counties now need to make sure their underserved. budgetsto the earlier provide envisaged adequate financing phased for transfer the recurrent of functions and over a 7. Supportive policy and legislation are needed to 8. National government is mandated to support developmentthree-year periodcosts of waterwhich service was provision,contingent in particular on whether to counties anchor the constitutional right to water and ensure personnel and operations and maintenance costs. counties, and to do so in consultation with county were deemed to have the necessary capacity to takeleadership and stakeholders,sustainable focusing services on clarifying focusing on the poor and Whilecharge phased of a transferfunction. of functionsCounties may now remain need necessary, to make sure theirrole of the regionalunderserved. boards. itbudgets will have to provide be based adequate on agreement financing with counties for the about recurrent and graduallydevelopment developing costs new of water arrangements, service rather provision, than in in a particular to 8. National government is mandated to support singlepersonnel leap. Reaching and operations and acting and upon maintenance such agreement costs. will counties, and to do so in consultation with county require a clear understanding of the respective roles of the leadership and stakeholders, focusing on clarifying national and county governments, and systematic attention role of the regional boards. toWhile key aspects phased of thetransfer devolution of frameworkfunctions and may the remainprocess necessary, forit will implementing have to it.be based on agreement with counties about gradually developing new arrangements, rather than in a single leap. Reaching and acting upon such agreement will require a clear understanding of the respective roles of the national and county governments, and systematic attention to key aspects of the devolution framework and the process for implementing it. BOX 1: THE FUTURE OF WATER SERVICES BOARDS

The current legislation—Water Act (2002)—mandates Water The assets held and/or managed by existing WSBs will need Services Boards to ensure efficient and economical provision to be categorized into national public works assets and county of water services under licences issued by the Water Services assets, and national assets moved to the National Water Works Regulatory Board. The new Constitution allocates that Board and counties, respectively. Past experience suggests responsibility to the counties. The role and functions of WSBs that these processes are likely to take a long time and require therefore need to change. support from the National Treasury: the earlier reforms initiated in 2002 that intended to transfer assets from local government to The government has considered creating a single national the WSBs were not completed by the time the new Constitution Water Works Development Board that will develop and manage came into force. “national public works” assets (water assets of national and strategic importance and cross-county water assets). There are three broad options to consider: Option Advantages Disadvantages

1. Maintain status • Continuity & stability. • Could be contested by counties as unconstitutional quo (regional Water as the responsibility for water services has been Services Boards as devolved to counties. This means that Water asset holding authority Services Boards would need to be answerable with mandate to invest to County governments so the governance of the in water services). WSBs would need to change.

2. Create single • Places responsibility for national • Significant institutional reform required national entity with government investments in one agency. (amalgamation of existing water boards into one). responsibility for • Creates clarity if investment • WSB staff may fear redundancy and/or resist “national public responsibilities (“national public works”) change. works” investments are clearly defined. in water services. • While it would meet constitutional requirements • Meets constitutional requirement if if the Board’s role is confined to national public investments are restricted to “national works, it still leaves the assignment of other public works.” functions unresolved

• Could provide support to counties and act as an agent of counties.

3. Devolve county-level • This is necessary to meet • County governments may not have the capacity investment functions constitutional requirements. to undertake this function. They could be (“county public supported or they could request another agency works”) to county level to undertake the function on their behalf. BOX 2: PRIORITY TASKS IN COUNTY PLANNING AND BUDGETING FOR WATER SERVICES budgeting, for example). The County Government Act requires the county to • Understand current outcomes, sustainability and prepare an investment plan and a budget. In doing so, performance. The regulator may already have a lot of counties may wish to prioritize on the following tasks: this data and is a key resource. • Understand current operations by visiting and • Focus on operations. Matters related to asset engaging with current service providers (urban and ownership have featured prominently, as they rural). affect who owns them, how and when they will get • Understand the money by understanding the transferred. However, the asset ownership debate budgets of existing water service providers— could easily distract from more immediate issues of revenues, expenses—and capital budgets and prudent financial and operational management. Given financing arrangements (the flow of grants for capital the urgent operational issues, these weighty issues development and loans and liabilities). can probably be dealt with later. • Understand current skills availability in the county, • Prepare a county water plan and budget as required noting particularly the availability of experience and by law. The above tasks are necessary to prepare a skills in the water services providers that might be good plan and budget. made available to the county on a part-time basis to support the needs of the county (for planning and County governments can request support from the budgeting, for example). Ministry of Environment, Water and Natural Resources, • Understand current outcomes, sustainability and which has a constitutional responsibility to support counties. Kenya’s water use

• The total water demand is estimated in 2010 to be over 3 200 million m³, aimed at agriculture for 59 percent, including irrigation for 50 percent, domestic uses for 37 percent and industry for 4 percent.

• Geographic distribution of the water demand is displayed in Table 6 (WRMA, 2013). In 2013, the water permits distributed by the WRMA allocate a total volume of 5 057 million m³, of which 64 percent are directed towards agricultural use, 22 percent towards municipalities and 14 percent towards industries (WRMA, 2015) UN-WATER/WWAP/2006/12

Integrated Aspects of Water 137

Figure 4.4 Average number of pupils per latrine The Kenya morbidity disease pattern indicates by province that over 60% of diseases are waterborne or sanitation related. Improving hygiene, water Key supply and sanitation, readily controls diarrhoea RS – Respiratory Diseases and the simple act of washing hands with soap DI – Diarrhoea & Intestinal worms and water can reduce sanitation related deaths by up to 35%

Table 4.6 Percentage Distribution of Households by Main water Sources by province

Region/ Province Pond/Dam Lake/River Spring Well/Borehole Piped Kenya 4.9 28.3 11.7 20.9 30.0 Kenya Urban 1.4 5.5 1.9 10.8 74.7 Kenya Rural 6.1 36.0 15.1 24.4 14.9 Nairobi 1.2 0.6 0.4 2.0 91.0 Central 2.9 37.9 3.1 21.4 30.1 Coast 10.7 11.3 2.1 17.3 52.4 Eastern 4.6 31.4 9.1 25.1 27.0 North Eastern 13.6 14.1 0.7 56.8 7.1 Nyanza 6.8 39.9 24.0 16.9 8.5 Rift Valley 5.6 35.5 7.8 23.2 23.4 Western 1.3 21.4 38.1 28.0 9.8 Source: National Census 1999 At the district level, there were significant Percentage Households Without Access disparities even within the same province. to Main Water Sources by Province Except Maragua, all districts in Central province had good access to potable water. Similarly, Malindi, Kilifi, Mombasa and Lamu districts in 60 Coast; Embu and Meru districts in Eastern; Kisumu in Nyanza Province; Kajiado, Nakuru 50 and Uasin Gishu districts in Rift Valley 40 Provinces recorded high levels. Generally, most of these districts with better access to clean 30 water can be said to be urbanized than those with poor access. 20 Water Use UN-WATER/WWAP/2006/12 10 Water use is an important element in pursuit of personal well being. When people get used to Integrated Aspects of Water 138 0 spending a certain amount of water to satisfy Nbi Ce Co Ea Ne Ny Rv We needs, in the absence of a sustained supply from Source:Willingness to Pay Study Report WB cannot be maintained clean and hygienic. Skin the source they will seek to source for the water Figure 4.5: Water accessibility by province and eye infections (including trachoma) are fromAs table elsewhere 4.7 stipulates, to meet the Mombasa deficit had the easily spread, as are faecal-oral diseases. Regional analysis shows that households in highest per capita water use of 52.45 litres Conflicts that sometimes degenerate into Nairobi, Central, Eastern, Western and Coast Tableamong 4.7 the Waterthree urban use per centres. capita But per this day figure is violence erupt. In 2001 over 100 people were provinces have better access to clean water. Namestill low of in City international Water standards. use per In Nairobi’s reported to have died from disputes over access Over 50% of the households in these regions use informal settlements, acapita family perof six day lives on 60 to water in Tana River District piped supply, boreholes and wells as water litres of water per day (liters) Access to sufficient water supplies therefore (Maji na Ufanisi 2003). adds value to the well-being of the community sources. Nyanza and Rift valley provinces were Nairobi 38.4285 Mombasa 52.4507 and society in general. below the national level. Both availability of water and social class of Kakamegahouseholds have direct33.0194 impact on per capita Nomadic communities, with the exception of the water demand. young, elderly and home-based care givers, wash and water livestock at the water points. Table 4.8: Household daily expenditure Otherwise, they will go for days without washing clothes or even bathing. Basic Name of City Household Daily sanitation like regular washing of hands are not Expenditure on Water practiced except by using spits or livestock urine (Kshs.) like camels and cows. Substitutes like milk and Nairobi 51.8551 livestock blood are taken to cope with thirst. Mombasa 33.1099 Water scarcity is such that tea is prepared for Kakamega 21.2987 minimal number of cups. Milk, if and when Source: Willingness to Pay Study Report WB available, is used instead. Meat is often roasted rather that boiled. Total household expenditure on water are higher The young ones of animals which may not move in Nairobi where households spent one and half to far away water points are kept in dome- times more than households in Mombasa and shaped thatched, kraal shelter from severe two times more than households in Kakamega weather (PISP 2001) as shown in table 4.8. In the urban informal settlements the cost of water ranges from K.Shs. Sanitation and Social Dignity 2.00 – 20.00 per 20-litres. Distance to water Adequate sanitation facilities prevent faecal points range from 5m to over 3km. Due to contamination of water and so curb transmission inhibiting costs, water is used sparingly forcing of faecal-oral diseases at source. Inadequate sanitations to low standards like wearing of dirty sanitation leads to coping mechanisms like clothes and eating of unwashed foods (Maji na sharing of dirty, defecation in the open and Ufanisi 2003) indiscriminate dumping of household wastes. Such dumpsites pollute the environment through In Marsabit District the per capita water bad odour and are breeding grounds for vermin consumption is 1.5 litres. (PISP/MNU end of namely; rodents, fleas, flies and mosquitoes programme report) Sanitation practices that remove human waste from the immediate vicinity of one community Kenya is classified as a chronically water scarce only to contaminate the water supply and country with a limited natural endowment of environment of neighbours are unsustainable. fresh water of only 647 cubic meters per capita Major behavioural changes are needed to overcome this. Under conditions of insufficient water supply, hands, bodies and the domestic environment

Water Use UN-WATER/WWAP/2006/12

Executive summary – Kenya Water Report 2

The 1st National Water Master Plan (NWMP) 2002 provides mechanisms for financing by Tippets, Abbets, McCarthy and Stratton water resources protection and management. (TAMS, 1980) Consulting Engineers was an The Water Act 2002, therefore, enables the excellent study, which laid the foundation for Ministry to implement the National Water the subsequent water development project Policy and, amongst other attributes implemented in the 1980 to 1990 Decade. It establishes a new order in the sector. Table has provisions that would allow for the 1.1 below details the water demand for 1995 necessary reforms required for improved and an estimated water demand in the year water resources management in Kenya to be 2010. achieved. Most importantly, the Water Act

Table 1.1: Estimated Water Demand

Category Demand (1,000

m3/day)

1995 2010

Residential urban 747.8 1,642.8

Residential rural 468.2 932.6 Sub-Total 1,216.0 2,575.4 Non-residential, health facilities, schools, industry and 593.9 986.3 commerce Total 1,809.9 3,561.7 Livestock water 376.6 621.4 Irrigation 3.9M 8.1M Grand Total 2,186.6 4,183.2 Source: Ministry of Water and Irrigation Water Resources Management Problems and Challenges Box 1.1: WATER TARGETS •Water coverage 70% urban, 48% rural Kenya as a country is facing a number of •Commitment to meet MDGs’: serious challenges related to water resources •Kenya’s planning target on water is to provide management. A number of these challenges clean and potable water at source less than 1 km in high potential areas and less than 5 km in are as a result of factors both within and ASALs outside the water sector. Climate variability • By 2010 coverage to be 85% urban & 75% and increasing demand for water as a result of rural. development and population pressure are •Universal access to sanitary means of excreta. factors that the sector may not be able to control but can initiate mitigation measures to Source: Ministry of Water and Irrigation ensure sustainable water resource development. Box 1.1 illustrates Kenya’s Growing Population: The growing Water Targets as a measure of tackling these population increases the demand for water for challenges. domestic use, food security and industrial development. The population The problems and challenges facing the Growth trend has resulted in reduction of per country include: - capita water availability as illustrated in Figure 1.1 below.

• Surface water is the main source of water withdrawn. There is limited seawater desalinization mainly for the hotels along the coast, as well as for Kizingitini Island off the coast (4 m³/day) and a clinic in Mombasa (2 m³/day).

• However, one of the key projects according to Kenya’s national development strategy “Vision 2030” is a 100 000 m³/day (or about 36 million m³/year) desalination plant for Mombasa for 2017. Wastewater treatment

• Sewerage systems have been constructed for only 29 urban centres, most of them before independence and thus requiring rehabilitation, with a treatment capacity of 341 000 m³/day (Table 7) (WRMA, 2013c). UN-WATER/WWAP/2006/12

Integrated Aspects of Water 139

Table 4.9: % Distribution of Households by Type of Human Waste Disposal by Province

Region/Province Main Sewer Pit Latrine Septic Tank/ Bush Other Cess Pool Kenya 7.7 72.1 2.8 16.4 1.0 Kenya Urban 27.4 60.5 8.4 2.1 1.6 Kenya Rural 1.0 76.1 0.9 21.3 0.7 Nairobi 48.2 42.1 6.7 1.1 2.0 Central 4.3 91.6 3.2 0.4 0.4 Coast 3.6 56.7 8.6 29.6 1.5 Eastern 2.2 80.4 1.3 15.4 0.7 North Eastern 1.2 17.6 0.6 77.2 3.4 Nyanza 2.4 77.0 0.9 18.5 1.3 Rift Valley 4.2 66.0 2.0 27.2 0.6 Western 1.6 92.3 0.7 4.9 0.5 Source: Census 1999

Percentage Households Without Percentage Households Use by Type of Access to Human waste Disposal by Human Waste Disposal Province

100 80 60 40 20 0 Main Sewer Pit Latrine Nbi Ce Co Ea Ne Ny Rv We Septic tank/Cess pool Bush Other Figure 4.7: Households without access to human Figure 4.6:Household use by type of human waste disposal by province waste disposal

BOX 4.4: State of Sanitation by Provinces Provincial analysis showed that Nairobi, Central and Western provinces had the highest access (above 80%) to decent sanitary facilities while North Eastern province had the least access (77.2% of households had no toilet facilities). Nyanza 18.5%, Coast 29.6%, and Rift Valley 27.2% had no poor access to sanitary facilities. Despite high levels of access in Nairobi Province, sanitary conditions in slum areas are in poor state due to overcrowding. Districts with the worst access to sanitation included Kwale, Kilifi, Tana-River, Marsabit, Garissa, Mandera, Wajir, Suba, Baringo Samburu, Narok, Trans Mara, Turkana, West Pokot, and Migori all of which have over 40% of households without access to decent sanitary facilities. Table 4.9, Figure 4.5 &4.6

The results further indicate that pit latrine was the dominant type of human waste disposal by majority of households in most towns with a population of 10,000 or more. Main sewer facilities are still not fully developed in most towns due to high capital outlay required. Nairobi, Thika, Nanyuki, Mavoko and

An AMCOW Country Status Overview

Figure 20 Rural sanitation and hygiene scorecard

An AMCOW CountryEnabling Status Overview Developing Sustaining

Policy Planning Budget Expenditure Equity Output Markets Up-take Use

2 2.5 2 2 1 0.5 2 0.5 1.5

Source:Figure CSO2 24 scorecard. Urban sanitation and hygiene scorecard Figure 21 of their efforts to sanitation and hygiene promotion, but Average RSH scorecard scores for enabling, Enabling Developingthere is no budget lineSustaining within the MoPHS to fund such sustaining, and developing stages of the service activities, and other health issues tend to take priority. The deliveryPolicy pathway,Planning and peer-groupBudget Expenditure comparisonEquity Output Markets Up-take Use MoPHS is developing ‘schemes of service’ to set out its responsibilities and performance targets for hygiene and 2 2.5 Enabling 2 2 1 0.5 2 0.5 1 sanitation promotion. Meanwhile, the SIM estimates that additional costs for hygiene promotion are around US$24 million per year, but it is not clear whether this includes Source: CSO2 scorecard. staffing costs, promotional materials, or both. Figure 25 may differ from what works in the rural context. A variant Average USH scorecard scores for enabling, of This CLTS, lack adapted of clarity tohas urban implications areas, downstream might be applied in the service to output sustaining, and developing stages of the service increasedelivery uptake pathway. of urban Low on-site scores latrines, for which arise are used because deliverySustaining pathway, and peer-group comparisonDeveloping bywith 40–50 unclear percent policy, of those there with has beenaccess. limited Such developmentapproaches of couldpromotion also encourage tools, and the little large attempt number to of establish users of whatshared types Kenya average scores facilities to construct their own facilities. However, the Enabling of output (for example, hardware subsidies, promotion, or Averages, LICs, GNI p.p. >US$500 effectivenessmarketing) are of CLTSmost effective in an urban in encouraging context is uncertainuptake. Low- across the region, and would require development before cost methods such as Community-Led Total Sanitation Source: CSO2 scorecard. large-scale adoption. As in other subsectors, better (CLTS) have undergone trials, but challenges such as baseline data is a key step to understanding the nature of promotion and marketing. Although Kenya has a National theopposition challenge. fromThere is strong currently traditional no systematic beliefs, monitoring expectation 42 Environmental Sanitation and Hygiene Policy (picked up of ofthe subsidies, number and and quality a lack of facilities of quality built facilitators by households, persist. uptake as one indicator for the policy building block), it is not andThe no surveys have building focused block on hygiene scores behavior poorly on in urban indicators clear on how households are to be encouraged to invest areasrelating (scorecard to the indicatorsnumber and for typeuptake). of facilities The development being built by Developing of ‘Maji Data’, designed to map sanitation and water inSustaining sanitation, and how this will be financed—an especially households, and handwashing practice (uptake of hygiene urgent issue given the SIM’s assumption that households supplypromotion in low-income activities): areas studies and harmonize suggest definitions that between and 20 will meet 80 percent of the costs. Although in Figure 19 approaches,and 60 percent may enhance of primary understanding. caregivers wash hands with theKenya US$44 average million scores per year in anticipated public investment soap at critical times. In schools, widespread hygiene Sewerage has, up to now, received the bulk of hardware is Averages, contrasted LICs, GNI with p.p. >US$500 hardware (capital) investment subsidies,education despite does not the appear fact that to ithave is mainly followed accessed through by into requirements, this sum is currently mainly intended for 43 Sources: CSO2 scorecard. wealthierpractice, Kenyans. with only The 1 MoWI’s percent own handwashing assessment indicates with soap. software, in the form of the salaries of more than 6,000 20Markets percent forof urban sanitation Kenyans hardware, have sewerage however, connections, appear robust public health workers employed at the local level by the butin thatrural only areas—with 3–4 percent high of scores urban forwastewater indicators receives relating to MoPHS’sa barrier onEnvironmental the entire pathway. Health andAs in Sanitation the rural subsector,Unit. These treatment,the supply while chain industrial and private wastewater sector capacity—largely treatment is also as a workerspolicy on arepublic expected support tofor contribute software vs. around hardware 60 needs percent a concern.result of entrepreneurship.In the long term, sewerage remains the likely to be clarified, and a clearer link established between preferable option in terms of public health, but exploration different government outputs, and uptake by households. of low-cost technologies is required if it is to benefit Public consultation suggests sanitation is currently a low poorer Kenyans. In the short term, with many existing priority for urban communities,44 indicating that additional treatment plants operating well below design capacity promotion and marketing is necessary: the SIM estimates (15–20 percent on average) it appears that networks could additional hygiene promotion costs in the urban context of be extended in some areas without the need to invest in US$6 million per year. However, the appropriate approach expensive additional treatment.45 26

28 UN-WATER/WWAP/2006/12

Integrated Aspects of Water 126

UN-WATER/WWAP/2006/12 Part IV: Integrated aspects of Water

Integrated Aspects of Water 127 Water and Social Aspects privatization of water services. Privatisation is thereby exacerbating gender inequity. Human Water and Gender one aspect of the world’s water crisis that has rights advocates recognize water as a critical deeply negative impacts on the livelihoods of component of gender equality and women’s Gender mainstreaming is the appropriate women as its scarcity. Water privatization empowerment as well. active involvement of women and men in perpetuates gender inequalities that women decision-making. Gender balance requires that and girls are responsible for and are the main women’s views, interests and needs shape the suppliers Box of 4.1: water Women to their and familiesWater in and Isiolo Box 4.2: Disparity in Water access in development agenda as much as men’s. The households. District Over many years women have Urban areas development agenda recognizes that men and disproportionately experienced the burdens of Most of the women in Isiolo District The poor are paying much higher for women have different opinions about privatisation spend their policies day and fetching or water. lack of They development issues of which water is one. government control of enormous price hikes water than the rich. Slum dwellers in wake up very early in the morning, do More often that not, the relationships between and deteriorating water quality especially in Nairobi do not have water connections them are unbalanced. Effective development those their areas morning that fully duties depend and on set the out water to fetch from the municipality. They depend on means recognizing these facts. For example vendors. water. By the time they get to the water private water vendors for their day-to-day women and the poor in general are rarely points and back in the house it is noon. Inwater these needs.situations, This women is also who true are to the so many given opportunities to benefit from Inequitable They prepare Distribution lunch of andWater again set out to world’sother urbanmajority dwellers poor are in significantly all parts of development and governance. It is therefore Naturally fetch water more resources water as are the distributed water earlier Kenya. With no regulated prices for necessary to effectively use human resources unevenly fetched in space was and time. not While enough some toareas meet water, the poor are being charged as and institutional reform to allocate burdens, have requirements abundant supplies as they of water, could in not other carry much as ten times more for water whose profits and responsibilities logically and areas,large especially containers. those classifiedBy the time as aridthey orget to quality is not assured, compared to what equally between men and women. (Water semi arid, water resources are unevenly the house again, its already dusk and the residents with piped water are paying voice project report 2003) distributed they haveyearly to and do also their from evening one local chores area and to another.the day Available ends. The water same in Kenya routine is is In November 2002, the authoritative UN Role of women in domestic water use distributed as shown in figure 4.1 committee on Economic, social and cultural Women are responsible for ensuring that their repeated each and every day. rights adopted General Comment 15 on the families have water for daily living. As a right to water. The general comment clearly result, when water is scarce, it is the women SanitationCompeting cannot Demands be detached for Water from water recognizes water as a basic human right as it is who suffer because of their role as domestic issues. Provision of water and sanitation fundamental to life and health. The right to water providers, caregivers and household services has remained one of Other the greatest drinking water is recognized in a number of managers. challengesIndustrial for the government. In4% the Nairobi international conventions and treaties. These slums, one13% toilet is shared among 300 people include but not limited to the Convention on Access to potable water is becoming thereby denying the slum communities access the rights of the child (1989), the Convention increasingly difficult due to changing national to decent sanitation and hygiene. Improving on the Elimination of All Forms of Domestic policies, increased water scarcity due to sanitation18% and hygiene practices requires skills Discrimination against Women (1979) and the pollution, degradation of water resources and in participatory approaches that build on two Geneva Conventions relating to the changes to methods of water supply. Domestic women’s and men’s own perceptions of the humanitarian laws during war. Agriculture water use in the country especially in rural benefits. Sanitation programmes65% offer natural households has been adversely affected as entry point for gender approaches. Coping In ensuring that this right is realized, special women and girls spend lots of time walking with sanitationAgriculture inadequacies Domesticadds enormously attention must be paid to those individuals and long distances or queuing to fetch water for to women’sIndustrial domestic burdensOther as well as groups who traditionally have faced use at home. Many times the water is not robbing them and their children of health and difficulties in exercising the right, including affordable affecting the domestic water use. Figuredignity. 4.1: Water Distribution women, children, minority groups, indigenous peoples and other such marginalized groups. This has adversely affected the girl child InequitableWater supplyprivatization of water has clear gender education and the woman’s ability to engage dimensionsFailure especiallyto effectively in the manage rural areas water where resources Water Governance in other income generating activities, cultural due toby depletion many of local water authoritiesresources; women and central Access to social services differs mainly due to and political involvement, rest and recreation. are forcedgovernment to walk long departments distances hasin search led of towards socio-cultural factors and lack of a water, leaving no time for other household comprehensive policy for redressing gender chores including economic activities. inequalities, and ensuring equal opportunities for both men and women. In education Increase in water prizes and inadequate access programmes, enrolment rates and adult to water greatly increases women’s burden literacy are both lower for women than men

Women and Water

• Traditionally, women and girls are the main collectors of water for domestic use. As a result, water scarcity affects them more than men and boys, having to walk further to ﬁnd water. Men will only take the livestock to the source of water. If they fetch water, it’s to sell it, as part of their job. Only in extreme cases they may assist in the fetching of water for domestic purposes, but in those cases carry it back on animal or bicycle.

• There are some attempts by the government to raise the level of women participation in the water users associations in order to overcome the lack of gender focus in the water policy.

• Women have also a dominant role in subsistence agricultural production due to rural- urban migration of men in search of more lucrative economic opportunities. However they paradoxically have little access to and control over land and own only 5 percent of the registered land in Kenya (NEMA, 2010). UN-WATER/WWAP/2006/12

The Different Roles, Uses and Impacts of Water 91

5 Sweet potatoes 10.00-15.00 6 Rice 45-75 7 Maize green 10.00-20.00 8 Coffee 23.00 Prices dictated by the world prices Source: MOA reports (2003). Table 3.15: Irrigated crops and water use

Crop Water Required (mm) Remarks Cabbages 500 Kales 350-500 Cauliflower 500 Throughout the growing period Lettuce 400-600 Onions 500-700 Tomatoes Well distribute water with 3-5 days intervals recommended Carrots 300-500 Garden peas 400-500 Throughout the growing period Cucumber 500-700 French beans 50 mm/week Rice 1Cumec per kg. MOA reports 2003 FIGURE 13.1 KENYA: AVERAGE AGRICULTURAL YIELD UNDER GREEN ECONOMY AND BAU SCENARIOS

BAU BAU2% Tonne per hectare Average yield GE2% 4

3.5

2.5

2 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030

Year Notes: Scenarios are projected to 2030. BAU: Business-as-usual scenario. BAU2%: Business-as-usual 2% scenario allocates an additional 2% of GDP per annum as investments to the current BAU investment path. GE2%: Green Economy 2% scenario assumes an additional 2% of GDP per annum as green investments to the baseline. GETS: Green Economy Target Speciﬁc scenario aims at identifying whether policy-makers can achieve the medium- to long-term targets following green economy interventions in the prioritised sectors.

Source: UNEP (2015, Fig. 11, p. 31).

Adjusting the concept of ‘more crop per drop’ not only captured by more powerful or wealthier to include ‘more added value per drop’ in users. These interventions enable the poor and agriculture marginalized people to gain access to water and manage it effectively (CAWMA, 2007; De Stefano Simply increasing the physical value of production and Llamas, 2013). per unit of water is not enough. Policies for enhancing the value of water used in agriculture Access to water and water-efficient technologies, involve not only increasing yields, changing from low such as rainwater harvesting or water-saving to high-value crops, reallocating water from low to irrigation techniques, allow smallholders to produce higher value sectors or lowering the cost of inputs. high-value crops such as vegetables or fruits. They should also optimize the creation of quality Particularly in regions with low or erratic rainfall, jobs and related environmental aspects. For instance, promoting on-farm soil, water conservation and policies should achieve more livelihood support per water-harvesting structures can greatly improve unit of water (more jobs, nutrition and income for the ‘efficiency of rain’. Supplemental irrigation and the same amount of water), while increasing health water-saving localized irrigation techniques at all benefits and the value of ecological services of scales can also increase productivity. Microcredit agriculture (CAWMA, 2007). schemes and private investments are essential to help smallholders enhance efficiency while lifting Targeted water interventions are fundamental to people out of poverty. ensuring that the benefits reach the poor and are

IMPROVING WATER EFFICIENCY AND PRODUCTIVITY 103 FIGURE 1: IMPROVEMENTS IN SERVICES SINCE 2005 (SELECTED PROVIDERS)

Water Supply and Sanitation in Kenya: Turning Finance into Services for 2015 and Beyond

Figure 12 Rural water supply scorecard

Water Supply and Sanitation in Kenya: Turning Finance into Services for 2015 and Beyond Enabling Developing Sustaining

Policy Planning Budget Expenditure Equity Output Maintenance Expansion Use

2 2.5 1 2.5 1 1.5 1.5 0.5 1.5

Source: CSO2Figure scorecard. 16 Urban water supply scorecard that are inadequate, constituting a barrier to service delivery Figure 13 Average RWS scorecard scores for enabling, and a priority for reform (score <1, red). Enabling Developingsustaining and developing stagesSustaining of the service delivery pathway, and peer-group comparison The subsectorPolicy scorecardPlanning indicates thatBudget most concernsExpenditure for Equity Output Maintenance Expansion Use the subsector relate to downstream aspects of the service Enabling delivery pathway2 (Figure 12),2.5 though Kenya2 also scores worse3 1.5 0.5 1 1.5 1.5 than its peer group for enabling building blocks (Figure 13). In terms of developing services, the equity building block scores poorly.Source: Indicators CSO2 scorecard. for this building block include the use of allocation criteria to target funds: in Kenya this is currently restricted to the project cycles of the WSTF, which and important initiatives for the enabling environment require US$56 million per year, which appears affordable also uses participatory planning for investment decisions. include a SWAp, annual joint sector review and the SIP The strictgiven criteria US$256 and limited million resources per of year the infund anticipated mean public 2030, though all of these still need to be fully embedded that manyinvestments communities (Figure may 15). not OPEX qualify. requirements As for other are estimated and operationalized in the subsector. As Figure 17 shows, output Sustaining Developing subsectors,at US$59 reliable million data on per year—again, (where ineffective and to what cost recovery Kenya’s scores are fractionally below the peer group standard fromservices user are fees, being compensated developed) is forlacking. by operating subsidies to average, even among enabling environment building Kenya average scores utilities, mean this is a drain on available public finance. blocks. There areFurthermore, also concerns the about depicted sustaining capital existing costs services are for treatmentAverages, LICs, GNI p.p. >US$500 maintenance expansion ( and distribution and only—an). Indicators estimated for maintenance additional Source: US$150 CSO2 scorecard.As in rural water supply, there is some way to go to include themillion presence per year of regular is urgently functionality needed forsurveys—the storage and transfer improve downstream building blocks including the equity first of which was conducted in 2009, finding only 58 percent capacity. of services, the quality and monitoring of output, and of rural water sources to be functional36—and whether user structures for funding and supporting maintenance. An financing covers O&M costs (rarely, on available evidence, score for expansion reflects the absence of mechanisms The upstream building blocks of the urban water supply equity indicator for urban water supply is the presence of even in small towns). Willingness-to-paypolicy, studies planning,are rarely budget,to support planning and financing for schemes—WSBs service delivery pathway ( specific pro-poor plans for utilities: the MoWI’s Pro-Poor used to establishand expenditure cost recovery plans despite indications have few resources to support small schemes, coordination ) score well (Figure 16). Reforms have Implementation Plan mandates WS providers to create that peopledramatically in rural areas changed can spend the architecture 15 percent of of their the subsector,between the responsible institutions has been limited. A monthly income on water. The role of DWOs in providing bright spot amongpoverty-targeted indicators for expansion use is that collection plans, to time bring improved 39 back-stopping support is limited and the majority of rural for rural wateraccess is relatively to areas low, with of greatestonly 17 percent need. taking However, actual schemes are not registered as WS providers. The low more than 30progress minutes isto limitedcollect water. to a few WS providers (for example, Nairobi, Kisumu) and there is no clear monitoring of Figure 17 impacts. Indicators for the output building block include Average UWS scorecard scores for enabling, the quantity of facilities built, but information on the rate sustaining, and developing stages of the service of expansion of household connections and standpipes by delivery pathway, and peer-group comparison the MoWI is limited. Water quality standards are in place but are not regularly monitored (limited evidence suggests Enabling 83 percent of water quality samples were compliant with residual chlorine standards). High levels of nonrevenue water reduce the score for maintenance: WASREB’s latest benchmarking report found this to be 21 as high as 47 percent. A further maintenance indicator is cost recovery: for most of the larger service providers this is sufficient to cover operations and maintenance, but not for around 60 percent of providers (mainly small-scale).40 The ongoing Sustaining Developing ‘clustering’ of smaller WS providers may help to improve financial viability, but requires careful negotiation with Kenya average scores current owners and existing, viable utilities. Autonomy— Averages, LICs, GNI p.p. >US$500 financial, legal, and managerial—of the WSBs and WS

Source: CSO2 scorecard.

23 FIGURE 2: IMPLICATIONS OF NEW CONSTITUTION ON CURRENT WATER SECTOR INSTITUTIONAL Right to water. The constitutional right to water is ARRANGEMENTS explicitly recognized. Allocation of responsibility. County governments will be responsible for establishing water service Water Appeal Water Service Trust providers or alternative provision arrangements for Board Fund urban and rural areas for both the development and management of water services. Definitions. The draft Bill distinguishes between “national public works” (water infrastructure of Ministry national or strategic importance and cross-county Policy infrastructure) and county water infrastructure. Formulation Transfers. Provision for the transfer of assets, Water Water rights, liabilities, obligations, agreements and other Resources Services National Level arrangements from Water Services Boards to either Management Regulatory Authority Authority

the County Service Providers (county infrastructure) The obligation on government to progressively realize the right to water provides a powerful mandate for national regulation of water services or the proposed Water Works Development Boards

(national public works infrastructure). Catchment Water Services Regulation Licensing. Provision for the licensing of water service Areas Advisory Boards Committees Level providers by a national regulator. Regional Water Services Boards will need to change (See Box 1) Cost-recovery and ring-fencing. Provision of water services on a cost-recovery basis wherever feasible and for ring-fencing of water revenues for purposes Water Resources Water Services of operating and maintaining assets and contributing Users Association Producers Services to capital costs. Provision County water services providers. Formation of Water Resources Management Water and Sewerage Service county-level water services providers, set up as Local Level companies under the Companies Act and the merging Consumers Water Services Providers are now answerable to County governments who have the mandate to provide water services of multiply water companies in a county into a single Use

county water services provider. Consumption, UN-WATER/WWAP/2006/12

Integrated Aspects of Water 133

Indicator 5 Relevance: Translate their efforts into economic Proportion of time spent by especially women terms and children in domestic water use Purpose: To assess portability, water points Indicator 7 Relevance: Increase potable water within an Gender responsiveness to mitigation and in accepted distance. Increased amount of time left handling disasters for women and children for other activities and Purpose: to assess development of coping school respectively. mechanism for adaptation Relevance: If there are adequate measures local Indicator 6 initiatives to mitigate water related disaster, The percentage of national economic contribution by women Purpose: assess the value of women’s activities in water development

Water + children

Children often spend long hours collecting improved enrolment and retainment in schools water. Others die annually from water related especially for girls in ASAL areas. diseases. Situation of Water and environmental It has been recognised that children are the best Sanitation in Schools agents of behavioural change. A lesson learnt in infancy is permanently stamped on memory. Access to safe drinking water and Children who learn the importance of washing environmental sanitation is universally hands in school will impart the behaviour on the recognised as a human right, which has special family and peers. In recognition of these, the significance to school-going children. These government has continued to support the school rights are guaranteed by the Convention on the Participatory Hygiene and Sanitation Rights of the Child (CRC) and in the African Transformation (PHAST) Programme. Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Water in SchoolsChildren (ACRWC) which considers the Children should also be freed of the burden of provision of adequate sanitation a basic right for fetching water soUN-WATER/WWAP/2006/12 as to spend adequate time in survival, development and protection of the school and on learning. In addition, Improved child. Integrated Aspects of Water water provision in schools translates in to 134

Table4.5: Source of Water for primary schools as reported in self administered questionnaire in 2003 Water in Schools: ♦ The water systems in many schools are Access to water in schools mirrors the situation broken downPiped particularly River boreBorehol holes fittedSpring None Total Total in the country. 56 % of the primary schools with hand-pumps in many places.e Safe Unsafe countrywide have access to safe water. Table Nyanza♦ West Pokot9% District.36% The story29% is the same17% 9% 38% 53% 4.5 shows the state of water provision in Rift Valleywith leaking19% storage 35% tanks, rusted25% iron-roof 15% 5% 44% 51% primary schools by province. Nairobicatchments, 88% etc. 5% 5% 1% 2% 92% 5% ♦ Water conservation measures are generally Central 42% 36% 7% 9% 6% 49% 45% not practised in most schools as evidenced Other issues arising from recent field Coast 36% 21% 31% 5% 7% 67% 26% assessments (carried out in 2003), as well as the by bare school compounds. Other schools WFP’s School Feeding Programme, include: Westerndo not have11% appropriate16% roofs39% to collect28% 6% 50% 44% North Easternrainwater. 8% 16% 53% 4% 18% 61% 21% ♦ Long distances to water in the arid and semi Eastern♦ In some schools,21% pupils43% ferry drinking21% water10% 4% 42% 53% arid areas with some water points being Source:to Ministry school, of Education as well asScience water and for Technology. washing 2003. more than 10 km from school. Both children classrooms and toilets. This water is of and teachers are affected by the situation. doubtful quality.

♦ Stress among some pupils has been ♦ Some water points are unreliable and prone observed because of travelling long to drying up. In the arid areas this becomes distances in search of water and this has a crisis in the drought seasons and schools direct implications on school attendance and are forced to closedown. performance. [MWI]

♦ In urban areas, schools are often unable to Basic sanitation in Kenya pay for water, usually piped, and the Basic sanitation is based on the fair share children have to source the water from approach which considers the poor majority, elsewhere. competing uses, environment, neighbours, women and children. ♦ Monitoring reports by WFP show that during the drought periods, some schools Figure 4.4 below compares the average number especially those in the arid districts are of pupils per latrine by province as per three unable to prepare school lunches due to lack ranks. Fair refers to the average of the class of of water. schools which have a ratio of less than 40 pupils per latrine, bad are the average in the class of Other related concerns are: schools that have between 40 -100 and dangerous are the average of the class of school that have beyond 100 pupils per latrine.

UN-WATER/WWAP/2006/12

Integrated Aspects of Water 134

Water in Schools: ♦ The water systems in many schools are Access to water in schools mirrors the situation broken down particularly bore holes fitted in the country. 56 % of the primary schools with hand-pumps in many places. countrywide have access to safe water. Table ♦ West Pokot District. The story is the same 4.5 shows the state of water provision in with leaking storage tanks, rusted iron-roof primary schools by province. catchments, etc.

♦ WaterUN-WATER/WWAP/2006/12 conservation measures are generally Other issues arising from recent field not practised in most schools as evidenced by bare school compounds. Other schools Integratedassessments Aspects (carried of out Water in 2003), as well as the 134 WFP’s School Feeding Programme, include: do not have appropriate roofs to collect rainwater. Water♦ Long in Schools: distances to water in the arid and semi ♦♦ TheIn some water schools, systems pupils in many ferry drinking schools water are Accessarid to areaswater in with schools some mirrors water the points situation being brokento school, down as particularly well as water bore holes for washing fitted in themore country. than 10 56 km % from of the school. primary Both schoolschildren withclassrooms hand-pumps and in toilets.many places. This water is of countrywideand teachers have are access affected to safeby the water. situation. Table ♦ Westdoubtful Pokot quality. District. The story is the same 4.5 shows the state of water provision in with leaking storage tanks, rusted iron-roof ♦ Stress among some pupils has been primary♦ Some schools water by points province. are unreliable and prone catchments,observed etc. because of travelling long to drying up. In the arid areas this becomes ♦ Waterdistances conservation in search measures of water are and generally this has Othera crisis issues in the arising drought from seasons recent and schools field notdirect practised implications in most on schools school asattendance evidenced and assessmentsare forced (carried to closedown. out in 2003), as well as the byperformance. bare school [MWI] compounds. Other schools WFP’s School Feeding Programme, include: do not have appropriate roofs to collect ♦ In urban areas, schools are often unable to Basicrainwater. sanitation in Kenya ♦ Longpay distances for water, to water usually in the piped, arid and and semi the ♦Basic In some sanitation schools, is based pupils on ferry the drinkingfair share water aridchildren areas have with to some source water the points water being from approachto school, which as considers well as the water poor for majority, washing moreelsewhere. than 10 km from school. Both children competingclassrooms uses, and environment, toilets. This neighbours, water is of and teachers are affected by the situation. womendoubtful and quality. children. ♦ Monitoring reports by WFP show that ♦ Stress among some pupils has been ♦ Someduring water the points drought are periods, unreliable some and schoolsprone Figureobserved 4.4 below because compares of the travelling average number long toespecially drying up. those In the in arid the areas arid this districts becomes are of distances pupils per in latrine search by of province water and as this per has three aunable crisis into prepare the drought school seasons lunches and due schools to lack ranks.direct Fair implications refers to theon schoolaverage attendance of the class and of areof forcedwater. to closedown. schoolsperformance. which have [MWI] a ratio of less than 40 pupils per latrine, bad are the average in the class of ♦Other In urbanrelated areas, concerns schools are: are often unable to Basicschools sanitation that in have Kenya between 40 -100 and pay for water, usually piped, and the Basicdangerous sanitation are isthe based average on the of fairthe shareclass of school children have to source the water from approachthat have which beyond considers 100 pupils the poor per latrine.majority, elsewhere. competing uses, environment, neighbours, women and children. ♦ Monitoring reports by WFP show that during the drought periods, some schools Figure 4.4 below compares the average number especially those in the arid districts are of pupils per latrine by province as per three unable to prepare school lunches due to lack ranks. Fair refers to the average of the class of of water. schools which have a ratio of less than 40 pupils per latrine, bad are the average in the class of Other related concerns are: schools that have between 40 -100 and dangerous are the average of the class of school that have beyond 100 pupils per latrine.

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Integrated Aspects of Water 135

Box 4.3: Environmental Issues in Schools ♦ Environmental Action Learning / Eco School Strategy A strategy for enhancing safe water and sanitation – by the Kenya Organization for Environmental Education (KOEE)) to solve water and sanitation problems in schools. This plan is meant to: ♦ Promote school and community based policies in safe water and sanitation. ♦ Promote a healthy, safe and secure school environment. ♦ Equip learners with skills to enable them to address water, sanitation and health related problems.

The Plan comprises of (among other things): ♦ Health-related school policies; ♦ Provision of safe water and sanitation; ♦ Skills-based health education; and ♦ Participatory methods of managing water resources (by all stakeholders). The solutions offered by EAL include:

♦ Developing awareness on water and sanitation; ♦ Developing knowledge and skills necessary to analyse and understand why people view and use water in particular ways; ♦ Refocusing on combating specific menace such as typhoid, diarrhoea and dysentery.

EAL strategies revolve around: ♦ The promotion of school-community partnerships in EAL micro-planning and micro-projects which serve as learning aids as well as income generating innovations; and ♦ Developing national/local/culturally –oriented curricula (by using/utilising local resources) to solve environmental problems, and to provide basic knowledge/skills for optimising learning environments in order to mobilise resources and to meet the needs of the learners.

The benefits/outputs of the Eco-School are: ♦ Cleaner and aesthetic environment; ♦ School-community co-operation in addressing water and sanitation issues; ♦ Learner empowerment to actively resolve local water and sanitation related problems; ♦ Financial savings (hospital bills, water bills, etc.); ♦ Improved quality of life; and ♦ Increased water and sanitation awareness.

Source: Report of the water and environmental sanitation in schools workshop held at the Stanley hotel, Nairobi on 19th – 20th August, 2003 November 17, 2003

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Integrated Aspects of Water 135

Source: Report of the water and environmental sanitation in schools workshop held at the Stanley hotel, Nairobi on 19th – 20th August, 2003 November 17, 2003

BOX 4: RELEVANT FACILITATIVE LEGISLATION

In addition to existing legislation, various laws have been enacted by Parliament to facilitate achievement of the objectives of devolution. Those relevant to the water sector include: • Constitution of Kenya 2010 • County Government Act (No. 17 of 2012) • County Governments Public Finance Management Transition Act (No. 8 of 2013) • Division of Revenue Act (No. 31 of 2013) • Intergovernmental Relations Act (No. 2 of 2012) • National Government Co-ordination Act (No.1 of 2013) • Public Finance Management Act (No. 18 of 2012) • Transition County Allocation of Revenue Act (No. 6 of 2013) • Transition to Devolved Government Act (No. 1 of REFERENCES • Government of Kenya. 2013. 2013/14 Budget Policy Statement. Nairobi: Ministry 2012) of Finance. • Transition County Appropriation Act (No. 7 of 2013) • Water Services Regulatory Board. 2008. Impact: A Performance Report of Kenya’s Water Services Sub-sector. Issue No. 5. Nairobi: WASREB. • Urban Areas and Cities Act (No. 13 of 2011) • World Bank. 2012. Devolution Without Disruption—Pathways to a Successful New • Water Act (No. 8 of 2002) Kenya. Nairobi: World Bank. Institutions

• Overall responsibility for water management lies with the Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries (MALF), replacing the former Ministry of Water and Irrigation (MWI), and even before the Ministry of Water Resources Management and Development (MWRMD), established by the Water Act 2002. Within the MALF:

• The Irrigation and Drainage Directorate (IDD) is responsible for the overall coordination of irrigation and speciﬁcally for smallholder irrigation development (MALF, 2015).

• The National Irrigation Board (NIB) was formed in 1966 through the Irrigation Act (cap. 347) to manage the public irrigation schemes. It was the successor to the agency that was responsible during the colonial era for establishing and managing the large-scale public irrigation schemes, including Mwea Hola, Perkerra, West Kano, Ahero and Bunyala schemes. It expanded over time to include private community- based schemes. • Other Ministries related to water include:

• Ministries of Environment, Water and Natural Resources, for control of pollution of water bodies and the prevention of water-related hazards

• Ministry of Energy

• the National Treasury

• Ministry of Devolution and Planning

• Ministry of Lands, Housing and Urban Development

• Ministry of Industrialization and Enterprise Development, and

• Ministry of Health (MALF, 2015). There are also a number of other institutions dealing with water management at national level:

• The Water Resources Management Authority WARMA responsible for the allocation of water and delivery of water permits

• The National Environmental Management Authority (NEMA) Regional Development Authorities (RDAs)

• In relation to water supply and sanitation, the responsible agencies are (Republic of Kenya, 2014):

• The Water Services Regulatory Board (WASREB)

• The National Water Conservation and Pipeline Corporation (NWCPC)

• The Kenya Water Institute (KEWI)

• The Regional Water Services Boards (WSBs).

• Institutions dealing with research on irrigation and drainage include the Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI) and the Tegemeo Institute at Egerton University. An AMCOW Country Status Overview

Figure 5 Institutional roles and relationships in the water supply and sanitation sector

Sewerage and Water supply related hygiene General sanitation and School Urban promotion hygiene promotion Sanitation Sanitation Sector MoWl MoPHS MoE leadership

Regulation WASREB National

NWCPC WSTF Service development WSBs LAs Regional and provision WS providers & DWOs DPHOs Local

MoWI: Ministry of Water and Irrigation. Policy lead on water WSBs: Water Services Boards. Ownership of assets previously supply, oversight of WSBs and water services providers (including belonging to central government, MoWI or parastatals; may also their sanitation activities); limited service provision through DWOs. ‘acquire… use of assets’ belonging to local authorities. Can operate MoPHS: Ministry of Physical Health and Sanitation. Policy lead on as Water Service Providers (below) or bulk service providers. Provide Environmental Sanitation and Hygiene (ESH). hygiene promotion associated with sewerage. MoE: Ministry of Education. Supervision of ESH in schools. WS providers: Water service providers. Operation and LAs: Local authorities. Supervision of urban sanitation. management. Can include local authority owned companies, NGOs WASREB: Water Services Regulatory Board. Technical standards and CBOs. and tariffs, issues licenses and tariff guidelines. DWOs: District Water Officers, local MoWI officials. NWCPC: National Water Conservation and Pipeline Corporation. DPHOs: District Public Health Officers, local MoPHS officials. Bulk supply development. Additional bodies: Kenya Water Institute (capacity development); WSTF: Water Services Trust Fund. Provides grants for capital Water Appeal Board (dispute resolution). investment in underserved areas.

Source: CSO2 analysis. different institutions still under the terms and salaries struggling to recover even O&M costs. At the still smaller, of their previous employers, and limit WSIs’ ability to nonnetworked level of water kiosks in peri-urban areas, select new staff based on merit. A new transfer plan WASREB has developed management standards. was drafted and submitted for inclusion in the Gazette in early 2010.18 However, in late 2010 the asset transfer Private sector participation: Enabling a positive has again been put on hold pending the alignment of contribution. The role of local entrepreneurs is the Water Act 2002 with the new Constitution. The emerging in public sanitation, secondary water supply underling financial implications of the assets and their (through kiosks, trucks or tankers) and spare parts for transfer will nevertheless persist requiring a clear and rural water supply. Large-scale private investment is conclusive decision. unlikely due to the complex institutional setup in the sector, still evolving tariff regulation, and low political Operations: Creating viable service providers. Since support for private sector participation (PSP). At medium- 2004, 118 WS providers have registered, including scale, open competition for contracts for WS provider a large number of small independent providers, operation and management has been limited. Despite community-based organizations (CBOs) and NGOs, but a relatively competitive domestic market in technology many are still unregistered. A rationalization process has and related services, contracting private enterprises to begun, ‘clustering’ several small providers where this provide specific services (such as monitoring, billing, or improves viability; many meanwhile remain unclustered, rural water supply O&M) is rare.

14 Water management

• Before the 1990s, the NIB was central at every stage of irrigated agriculture: water conveyance, land preparation, inputs supply, marketing and processing. Since the late 1990s, an Irrigation Management Transfer (IMT) is implemented in public schemes to transfer operation and maintenance responsibilities to the farmers through Irrigation Water Users Associations (IWUAs). In community-based irrigation schemes, the group of farmers sharing a common irrigation system are grouped in IWUAs operating usually at scheme level with responsibilities on development, operation and maintenance of irrigation infrastructures, that can be expanded to agricultural supply and marketing (MALF, 2015).

• Water allocation is performed by WRMA, who deliver water permits only after ecological and basic human needs, international treaties and inter-basin water transfers, reserve and domestic water demands have been met (WRMA, 2013).

• There is currently a lack of comprehensive knowledge on the number and extent of irrigation schemes within the country, due to inadequate monitoring mechanisms and structures in place in water management especially of the traditional form of irrigation using ﬂood water. UN-WATER/WWAP/2006/12

Part III: The Different Roles, Uses & Impacts of Water.

Water Reserved For Basic Human Needs & Environmental Concerns (Water Supply, Sanitation & Associated Environmental Needs)

Setting the Scene: Situation & Challenges more than 50% is domestic and livestock while the rest is used for irrigated agriculture. Dug

wells sustain 12% of the total households in Water Supply in Kenya Kenya. In all these schemes there are no demand

management and metering systems are very few, Currently, access to safe water is estimated at causing low collection of water revenue while 89% in urban areas and 49% in rural areas the water quality control is hardly practiced. In value has not been determined. Sanitation general, staffing for operation and maintenance access in urban areas is estimated at 94.8% as is not adequately provided contributing to compared to 76.6% in rural areas. However, intermittent operation of schemes. Record overall coverage has been declining in terms of keeping and monitoring is poor while political quality and quantity, reliability and nature of interference in schemes is rampant access.

Table 3.1: Number of Water Supply Facilities The Ministry of Water and Irrigation (MWI), by Provider and Population Served the National Water Conservation and Pipeline Corporation (NWCPC) and Local Authorities Provider/ NO. Pop. Served (LA) are the main actors in water services Supplier (millions) provision. Other actors include River Basin MWI 628 6.1 Authorities, Communities, various in NWCPC 48 3.7 stitutes and NGOs, who operate and maintain Communities 356 their own water supply systems. Local NGOs 266 4.9 authorities provide sewerage services in Self-help 243 municipalities and urban areas. The public LAs 8 3.9 institutions are centralized and bureaucratic, TOTAL 1549 18.6 their organizational arrangements and culture Source: Draft National Water Services Strategy providing little incentives to maintain facilities. (2005-2007), Dated May 2005. Some actors are mainly concerned with policies, others with implementation, operation and Policy, Legislation, Norms & Standards maintenance and others with multiple roles, which has led to conflicts in the sector. The other actors in the sector include MoA, MoH, Water Sector Policy Development KVDA, TARDA, LBDA, KWS, and Private In the past the Government has formulated a Companies. series of policies, which have impacted on the Records from MWI indicate that currently there water sector. The first positive step was a supply are 1549 water supplies under the management driven intervention policy to redress the colonial of various agencies as shown in table 3.1. era misallocation of water resources. This resulted into setting up of numerous schemes The MWI runs 628 rural water supplies out of and self-help groups. However, this policy put which 200 schemes are gazetted for revenue too much strain on government budget to the collection, while NWCPC runs 48 supplies, 45 point it was not sustainable. of which are gazetted. Communities combined with self-help groups and NGOs runs 873 The definitive policy for the water sector was schemes and LAs run a total of 8 schemes. More promulgated in April 1999 as Sessional Paper than 9000 boreholes have been registered with No.1 of 1999. This is the National Water Policy Water Apportionment Board (WAB). on Water Resources Management and Approximately 57 million cubic meters is Development. It calls for de-centralization of abstracted annually for various uses of which operational activities from the central UN-WATER/WWAP/2006/12

The Different Roles, Uses and Impacts of Water 62

Table 3.3: Recommended consumption rates in rural and urban areas Rural Areas Urban Areas Consumer Unit High Medium Low High class Medium class Low Potential Potential Potential housing housing class housing People with L/h/d 60 50 40 250 150 75 individual connections People without L/h/d 20 15 10 N/A N/A 20 connections Livestock L/h/d 50 Boarding L/h/d 50 schools Day schools L/h/d with WC 25 without WC 5 Dispensary L/h/d 5000 Administrative L/h/d 25 offices Bars L/h/d 500 Shops L/h/d 100 Source: MW&I Draft Water Practice Manual,2005.

Climbing up the ladder” of Basic Service Levels Water Sanitation It is the improvement of lever of services from It is the improvement of sanitation service from Communal Water Point to Individual onsite to Waterborne. Connection. UN-WATER/WWAP/2006/12

Executive summary – Kenya Water Report 5

infrastructure have been inadequate and have been on a declining trend for many years.

Water Demand: The Study on National Water Master Plan of 1992 indicates that water demand in the important categories in domestic, industrial, agriculture including irrigation, livestock, wild life and hydropower

water, will increase significantly from 2073 Plate 1.1: Mechanical Cutter for Water MCM/year in the year 1990 to 5817 Hyacinth MCM/year in the year 2010. The water Storage and infrastructure Investment: supply and sanitation (WSS) strategy There are presently 26 large dams and about established the need for further supply 3,000 small dams and water pans in the development to meet the projected demands. country with a storage capacity of Table 1.3 below shows a summary of the approximately 124 million cubic meters. The Water Sources Development Plan up to the storage capacity has been low due to the fact year 2010. that investment levels in water management

Table 1.3: Summary of the Water Sources Development Plan

Scheme Deficit 2010 Proposed Water Resource Development to meet Deficit (1,000 m3/day) Surface Ground Ground and surface Total Surface Ground Urban 1,112 1,046 42 20 4 1,112 Rural large 36 35 1 0 0 36 Rural small 218 4 84 94 36 218 Total 1,366 1,085 127 114 40 1,366 Source: Ministry of Water and Irrigation

Finances

• Government investment in irrigation development is low, but represents 70 percent of the total sub-sector budget. The remaining funds originate from development partners and the private sector.

• The 2013/2014 government contribution is however only a quarter of what is required to meet the targets of Vison 2030, estimated at 40 billion/year Kenyan shillings (MALF, 2015).

• The government grant to the water sector, which amounts to around 3 percent of the total government budget, is in its main part directed towards the irrigation sub-sector (WRMA, 2013). • Collection of water fees in public irrigation schemes does not cover the operation and maintenance required.

• In 2007, the water fee in irrigation was Ks 50cents/m³ for the 1st 300 m³/day, similar to the domestic, public and livestock uses, and 75 cents for the part over 300 m³/day (WRMA, 2011). UN-WATER/WWAP/2006/12

Integrated Aspects of Water 184

Water tariffs per water use and volume

Table 4.30: Tariff structure for water supply in Kenya (KShs)

Prior to 1999 Since 1999 * Where no meter is installed a monthly charge of 100 200 * Where a meter is installed the monthly charges will be calculated as follows: where the amount of water sold 1. Does not exceed 10m 3 (minimum charge) 120 200 2. Is more than 10m3 but does not exceed 20(formerly 30) m3 the (18) 25 charge per m3 in excess of 10m3 3. Is more than 20(formerly30) m3 but does not exceed (23) 30 50m3(formerly 60) m3 the charge per m3 in excess of 20m3(formerly 30m3 4. Is more than 50(formerly60) m3 but does not exceed 100m3the (35) 45 charge per m3 in excess of 50 (formerly60) m3 5. Is more than 100m3 but does not exceed 300m3the charge per 45 75 m3 in excess of 100m3 6. Is more than 300m3 the charge per m3 in excess of 300m3 45 100 * Where water is sold through a meter at a kiosk or for the bulk 10 15 sales to an undertaker for resale the charge per m3 * Where water is sold by retail at a kiosk per unit of 20 liters or part 1 2 thereof the charge per unit

Table 4.31: Proposed Service Charges for Water Supplied:

1. FEES FOR SERVICES The charges in this category are consumer driven and should therefore pay for direct cost and part of the overheads.

Existing Proposed Recommended Kshs Kshs Kshs

(a) For special reading of a meter 200.00 300.00 300.00 (b) For disconnecting of the supply at the request of a consumer 200.00 300.00 300.00 (c) For turning on the supply otherwise than in respect of a first connection 200.00 300.00 300.00 (d) For turning on supply after disconnection for non-payment 500.00 500.00 550.00 (e) For testing a meter at the request of the The actual cost The actual cost The actual consumer where it is not found to subject to a subject to a cost subject to register incorrectly to any degree minimum minimum a minimum exceeding 5 per cent charge of charge of charge of 500.00 500.00 500.00

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Integrated Aspects of Water 184

Water tariffs per water use and volume

Table 4.30: Tariff structure for water supply in Kenya (KShs)

Table 4.31: Proposed Service Charges for Water Supplied:

1. FEES FOR SERVICES The charges in this category are consumer driven and should therefore pay for direct cost and part of the overheads.

Existing Proposed Recommended Kshs Kshs Kshs

UN-WATER/WWAP/2006/12

Integrated Aspects of Water 186

3 DEPOSITS CHARGES

A consumer is required to pay as a security, which may be used to meet the outstanding bill should he default on payment. It is also used to settle outstanding debt when a consumer is terminating his account. The current deposit level is too low to meet the cost of the bill. In fact the current deposits have increased the rate of defaulting because consumers even find it easier to request for a new connection instead of settling the accumulated bill. In order to improve on this situation, it is proposed that existing consumers asked to increase their deposits, by paying the extra fees on installments When a consumer is disconnected for non-payment, he will be required to pay the new deposit in full before reconnection. The following deposit charges are proposed: -

Category of Consumer

Existing Kshs Proposed Recommended Kshs Kshs

(a) Domestic consumer 1,000.00 1,500.00 1,500.00

(b) Water Kiosks, where anticipated monthly water consumption is: - (i) Less than 50 cubic meters 1,000.00 (ii) Between 50 to 100 cubic meters 2,000.00 (iii) Between 100 to 150 cubic meters 2,500.00 (iv) More than 150 cubic meters 3,000.00

Water Kiosks - 3,000.00 2,500.00

Retail shop, workshop and offices - 3,000.00 3,000.00

(d) Bar, restaurant and lodgings more than 15 cubic metres 5,000.00

Bar, restaurant and lodgings - 5,000.00 5,500.00

(e) Hotels class “A” and “B” less than 150 cubic metres 10,000.00

Hotels class “A” and “B” 15,000.00 15,000.00

(f) Hotels class “C” and “D” more than 150 cubic metres 15,000.00

Hotels class “C” and “D” 20,000.00 20,000.00

(g) Hospitals more than 150 cubic metres. 20,000.00

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Integrated Aspects of Water 187

Hospitals - 20,000.00 25,000.00

(h) Minor construction site (temporary connection) less 10,000.00 than 200 cubic metre. (i) Large Construction sites (temporary connection) more than 200 cubic metres 50,000.00

Construction sites - 30,000.00 30,000.00

(j) Light Industries less than 200 cubic metres 10,000.00

Light Industries - 10,000.00 15,000.00

(k) Medium Industries 200 to 300 cubic metres 15,000.00

(l) Heavy industries more than 300 cubic metres 20,000.00

Heavy Industries. - 30,000.00 30,000.00

(m) Health centers /dispensaries less than 150 cubic metres 5,000.00

Health centers /dispensaries - 5,000.00 5,500.00

(n) Schools/colleges/other Institutions more than 200 cubic meters 10,000.00

(o) Schools less than 200 cubic meters 5,000.00

School/colleges/other institutions.... - 10,000.00 10,000.00

4 PENALTIES

(a) Illegal Reconnection is Kshs 1,000.00

(b) Damage to meters is Kshs. 1,000.00 plus the cost of new meter.

(d) Illegal connection - (such as by-pass, direct Kshs 3,000 plus the estimated cost of water used connection etc.)

((e) Where a consumer is disconnected for non payment he will be required, in addition to settling the outstanding amount, to top up to the new deposit before reconnection.

(g) All bills should be paid within fourteen days from the date of issue failure of which the water supply should be disconnected without any further notice to the consumer.

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Integrated Aspects of Water 189

(vi) Where the amount of water sold through the meter in any one month exceeds 300 cubic meters, charge per cubic meter in excess of 300 100.00 125.00 150.00 cubic meters 3. Where water is sold through a meter at a kiosk, the charge per cubic meter 15.00 42.00 25.00

4. Where water is sold by retail at a kiosk per unit of 20 litres of part thereof, charge per unit 2.00 3.00 2.50

5. For the bulk sales to an undertaker for resale, charge per cubic metre 15.00 2.00 18.00

BOARDING SCHOOLS (URBAN)

Current Proposed Recommended Kshs Kshs Kshs 1. A school with a permissible water demand not exceeding 600 cubic metres per 20.00 - 30.00 month, the charge per cubic metre

2. A school with a permissible water demand not exceeding 1200 cubic meter per 25.00 - 35.00 month, the charge per cubic meter

3. Any other learning institution with a permissible water demand of 1200 per month, charge per cubic metre. 25.00 - 40.00

4. The charge per cubic metre of water consumed in excess of permissible water demand 45.00 - 50.00

Any other public or community based learning institutions, the charge per cubic meter - 42.00 40.00

PART B - TARIFFS (RURAL)

Current Propose Recommended Kshs d Kshs Kshs 1. Where no Meter is installed a monthly charge of 200.00 250.00 300.00

2. Where a meter is installed the charges will be as follows: -

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Integrated Aspects of Water 191

BOARDING SCHOOLS (RURAL)

Current Proposed Recommended Kshs Kshs Kshs

1. A school with permissible water demands not exceeding 600 cubic metres per month, 20.00 - 25.00 the charge per cubic metre 2. A school with a permissible water demand not exceeding 1200 cubic meter per month, 25.00 - 30.00 the charge per cubic metre 3. Any other learning institution with a permissible water demand of 1200 per 25.00 - 35.00 month, charge per cubic metre 4. The charge per cubic metre of water consumed in excess of permissible water 45.00 - 40.00 demand For water sold to public or community based schools and any other public or community based learning institutions, the - 32.00 35 charge per cubic metre

Uncollected Revenue (cost recovery)

Although it has widely been pronounced in many important WDM instrument, but there are many public fora and Ministerial tours/visits on the dire other approaches to WDM need for consumers to pay for the water The most obvious water demand management consumed, the response has so far not been measures are those that encourage water encouraging as amounts of uncollected revenue consumers to use water more sparingly. In continue to soar due to defaulting. Among the Kenya, where in the domestic sector leading defaulters are Government Departments consumption levels are already extremely low, and institutions from which it has been very WDM on the face of it would seem to have no difficult to obtain this revenue water. What this place. A different view of the current reality, has translated to over the years is progressive however, is that now is precisely the time to increase in maintenance costs, which should be ensure that the habits of using water sparingly contained, by corresponding increase on the tariffs become entrenched, so as to avoid Kenyans in order to continue providing an acceptable level using water profligately once it comes into full of service. This is coupled with the Ministry’s supply. In addition, utilities might consider desire to raise revenue to undertake complete sponsoring the adoption of water efficient rehabilitation of schemes that are currently in a technologies as these can lead to substantial poor state of maintenance. savings over the long term.

2.6 Water Demand Management Table 4.32 below gives a more complete list of Water demand management [WDM] may be WDM measures at the level of water utilities defined as the development and implementation and their customers (agricultural, industrial and of strategies aimed at influencing water demand commercial as well as domestic). Many of these in order to achieve water consumption levels measures involve only modest costs for the that are consistent with the equitable, efficient utility (education, consciousness-raising etc), and sustainable use of the finite water resource. but there are some which involve major Pricing water in economic opportunity cost investments, such as the reuse of treated terms (as just discussed) is perhaps the most sewerage by choosing biological nutrient reduction [BNR] technology.

Water Supply and Sanitation in Kenya: Turning Finance into Services for 2015 and Beyond

The SIM suggests anticipated CAPEX is sufficient for For sanitation capital (‘hardware’), total annual investment water supply, if urban and rural areas are taken together requirements are estimated by the SIM at US$386 million (Figure 2). Anticipated public CAPEX for water supply in per year (Figure 2). The SIM suggests that public investment the years up to 2015 is estimated at US$386 million per is expected to leverage around 82 percent of these costs year. Total annual CAPEX requirements are estimated at from households in rural areas, and 48 percent in urban US$303 million per year, of which US$246 million per year areas (user contributions of 5 percent for on-site sanitation is expected to come from public finance.7 As per the SIM, and 100 percent for sewerage). This means that, overall, this assumes that around 25 percent of the capital costs US$108 million per year is expected from public finance. for water supply in rural areas will be met by households, However, clarification of official government policy on and 0 percent in urban areas. However, it should be noted user contributions to sanitation is urgently required, and is that while there is sufficient finance for capital at the in development. Anticipated public investment of around sector level, disaggregating urban and rural subsectors US$100 million per year has been identified for sanitation, shows that additional funding is required for rural water though as discussed below, not all of this is for capital supply (considered in detail in Section 7). investment.

Figure 2 Required vs. anticipated expenditure for water supply and sanitation

Water supply Sanitation

Required CAPEX Required Required CAPEX OPEX Required OPEX

0 100 200 300 400 500 0 100 200 300 400 500 US$ million/year US$ million/year

Public CAPEX (planned) Public CAPEX/software (planned) Household CAPEX (assumed) Household CAPEX (assumed) CAPEX deficit

Source: SIM/CSO2 costing.

Table 1 Coverage and investment figures—SIM/CSO2 costing8

Coverage Target Population CAPEX Anticipated Assumed Total requiring requirements public CAPEX HH Deficit access CAPEX

19909 2006 2015 Total Public Domestic External Total % % % ‘000/year US$ million/year

Rural water supply 32% 38% 75% 1,522 247 189 95 34 129 39 78 Urban water supply 91% 59% 80% 334 56 56 98 158 256 0 – Water supply total 43% 42% 76% 1,856 303 246 193 193 386 39 – Rural sanitation 27% 32% 75% 1,700 272 48 37 7 44 203 26 Urban sanitation 24% 29% 78% 532 115 60 39 18 58 52 5 Sanitation total 26% 31% 76% 2,232 386 108 76 26 101 255 31

9 Water Supply and Sanitation in Kenya: Turning Finance into Services for 2015 and Beyond

Figure 2 Required vs. anticipated expenditure for water supply and sanitation

Water supply Sanitation

Required CAPEX Required Required CAPEX OPEX Required OPEX

0 100 200 300 400 500 0 100 200 300 400 500 US$ million/year US$ million/year

Public CAPEX (planned) Public CAPEX/software (planned) Household CAPEX (assumed) Household CAPEX (assumed) CAPEX deficit

Source: SIM/CSO2 costing.

Table 1 Coverage and investment figures—SIM/CSO2 costing8

Coverage Target Population CAPEX Anticipated Assumed Total requiring requirements public CAPEX HH Deficit access CAPEX

19909 2006 2015 Total Public Domestic External Total % % % ‘000/year US$ million/year

9 An AMCOW Country Status Overview

still only 10 percent of what was recommended by the (WSTF) employs an allocation formula to target finance on eThekwini declaration, to which Kenya is a signatory, the basis of need and quality of projects. Criteria include though with the assumed user contributions this would a poverty index, water and sanitation coverage in the case be well above the 0.5 percent GDP.22 A key challenge to of the WSTF’s Community Project Cycle (for rural areas) the sanitation subsector is to ensure this leveraging of user as well as value for money and community participation contributions. measures in the case of the Urban Project Cycle. But this equity-focused finance is a small proportion of the total Expenditure: Delivering resources efficiently. sector budget (around 4 percent of the projected 2010/11 Utilization of funds by the MoWI has fluctuated between budget). Even if fully executed only around 15 percent 94 percent and 76 percent—rates that are higher than of the 1.86 million people requiring access each year to many other countries in the region, but which could still meet Kenya’s target would be reached.25 Yet the WSTF be improved. In a review of the 2008/09 third quarter, the has many of the ingredients of a good practice service MoWI was found to be one of the three ministries with delivery mechanism—pooling of donor and domestic highest underspending.23 According to a recent budget funds, transparent criteria for project selection, a clearly performance report this can be attributed to liquidity set out project cycle—so it presents an opportunity to be issues limiting and delaying releases from the Ministry built on and scaled up. of Finance (MoF), shortfalls in the MoWI’s budget in turn delaying transfer of funds to districts, tax exemption Donor finance: Aligning and harmonizing. Between delays, postelection disturbances in 2007/08, and limited 2006/07 and 2009/10, development partner funding to adsorption capacity among the new WSIs.24 Development the sector increased at a significant annualized rate of partner funding also shows underspending in some 53 percent, from US$54 million to US$191 million. As instances, which the MoWI attributes to limited adsorption can be seen from Figure 7, the proportion of anticipated capacity among WSIs (because of slow procurement and investment varies by subsector, with urban water supply implementation processes), as well as accounting delays. set to receive 58 percent of anticipated public investment from external sources, and rural sanitation 8 percent Sector trust funds: Enhancing equity. Currently the (with a further 8 percent from NGOs). In 2009/10 only sector-specific fund, the Water Services Trust Fund almost 80 percent was provided as loans, mostly flowing

Figure 7 Overall annual and per capita investment requirements and contribution of anticipated financing by source

Rural water supply: Urban water supply: Rural sanitation: Urban sanitation: Total: $246,875,780 Total: $56,280,831 Total: $271,969,273 Total: $114,510,128 Per capita: $162 Per capita: $169 Per capita: $174 Per capita: $226

Domestic planned investment External planned investment Assumed household investment Gap

Source: SIM and CSO2 costing.

16 • The average cost of irrigation development is estimated at:

• US$ 15 000/ha for new public schemes with storage,

• US$ 10 000/ha for new public schemes without storage or new community-based scheme with storage,

• US$ 5 000/ha for new community-based scheme without storage.

• The cost of rehabilitation is estimated at US$ 2 500/ha (WB, 2014). An AMCOW Country Status Overview

perform below the peer-group average, reflecting the Sections 4 to 6 highlight challenges across three thematic need to monitor the functionality of rural water points, areas—the institutional framework, finance and monitoring to improve cost recovery in urban and rural areas and to and evaluation (M&E). The related scorecard indicators reduce nonrevenue water. For sanitation there is a need which give an empirical basis for evaluation are highlighted to establish whether the cadre of public health extension in the section (each of the nine building blocks is scored workers is having an impact on the household uptake of against three indicators). The scorecards for each subsector toilet facilities. are presented in their entirety in sections 7 to 10.

Table 3 Key dates in the reform of the sector in Kenya

Year Event

1952 Water Act Cap372 1957 Establishment of Mombasa Pipeline Board, first ‘commercial’ supplier 1988 Establishment of NWCPC 1990s Corporatization and commercialization of municipal providers (Nyeri, Eldoret, and Kericho) 1995 First management contract, Malindi 1999 Water Policy 2002 Water Act 2002 2003/04 Establishment of WSIs 2005 Transfer plan published 2006 Launch of SWAp and first Annual Sector Conference 2009 Sector Investment Plan 2010 The Constitution of Kenya 2010

12 Policies and legislation

• The 2010 Constitution of Kenya is concerned with international waters and water resources (Fourth Schedule, Part 1 Clause 2), as well as protection of the environment and natural resources, in particular “water protection, securing sufﬁcient residual water, hydraulic engineering and safety of dams” (Clause 22c.) (MALF, 2015).

• Legislations specifically related to water and irrigation are under review. The National Policy on Water Resources Management and Development of Kenya was developed in 1999 and used as a basis for the 2002 Water Act (WRMA, 2013). The latter reformed the water sector with a view to improve efficiency by separating policy making and policy implementation with among other institutions the creation of the WRMA and WASREB, i.e. water management and water services delivery (MWI, 2012). • The irrigation sub-sector is governed by the 1966 Irrigation Act (Chapter 347), which does not reflect the realities anymore, in particular the community-based and commercial irrigation. But the 2015 Irrigation Bill Draft intends to bring the irrigation legislation up to date (MALF, 2015).

• Policies on water and irrigation have been updated more recently. In between the two National Water Master Plans, the one of 1992 and its update of 2013, there also has been a National Water Resources Management Strategy 2006-2008 (WRMA, 2013b). In addition, a 2015 Draft National Irrigation Policy is currently under preparation. It will adopt principles of integrated water resources management (IWRM), environment management plans and agricultural water management strategy, including rainwater harvesting.

• On water and sanitation, the following strategies apply: the National Water Quality Management Strategy 2012-2016 (MWI, 2012) and the National Water Services Strategy 2007-2015. Environment and Health

• The main environmental threat to water management in the country refers to the degradation of water catchment areas, especially within its ﬁve major water towers.

• Degradation of the forest in these areas due to settlements, poor farming practices such as overgrazing and over-cultivation, as well as cutting of trees without replantation, results in increased soil erosion and decreasing water ﬂows (MWI, 2009; NEMA, 2010).

• The impact of irrigation on the forest cover is positive thanks to increasing agro-forestry and especially fruit trees, and this despite using uncovered lands like most agricultural systems (MALF, 2015). UN-WATER/WWAP/2006/12

Integrated Aspects of Water 136

leisure, the environment and the ability to fully participate in society. Sufficient potable water WATER AND SOCIAL DIGNITY and adequate sanitation contribute to social dignity by improving on both the natural and human environments in terms of ensuring cleanliness, reduced morbidity and increased Water is Life and human capital which adds up to enhancing social status in the community. Sanitation is Dignity Access to water supply and sanitation is a Table4.6 National Diseases Pattern related to fundamental need and a basic human right. It is Water and Sanitation UN-WATER/WWAP/2006/12 vital to satisfy basic right to life with dignity Disease National that includes health to all people. The health and Morbidity (%) economic benefits of water supply and Malaria 32.6 Integrated Aspects of Water sanitation136 to households and individuals that is Respiratory System 24.6 of special importance to the poor are the time Diarrhoea & 17.0 saved, convenience and dignity that improved Intestinal worms leisure, the environment and the abilitywater to supplyfully and sanitation present. Most of Source:Ministry of Health participate in society. Sufficient potablethose without water access are the poorest and least

WATER AND SOCIAL DIGNITY and adequate sanitation contributepowerful. to social Access for the poor is a key factor in WS Diseases Pattern dignity by improving on both the naturalimproving and health, economic productivity and above all self-esteem and it is therefore an human environments in terms of ensuring 35 cleanliness, reduced morbidity andessential increased component of any effort to poverty alleviation. 30 Water is Life and human capital which adds up to enhancing 25 social status in the community. Poor water supply and sanitation have high toll 20 Sanitation is Dignity on health, cause resource conflicts and /or 15 Table4.6 National Diseases Pattern violence related and to indeed degrade human self worth. Access to water supply and sanitation is a 10 Water and Sanitation Improving water and sanitation brings valuable fundamental need and a basic human right. It is benefits to both social and economic 5 Disease National vital to satisfy basic right to life with dignity development. Social well being encompasses 0 that includes health to all people. The health and Morbidity (%)more than simply material satisfaction, it takes Malaria RS DI economic benefits of water supply and Malaria 32.6 account of less tangible aspects of people’s lives sanitation to households and individuals that is Respiratory System 24.6 such as the quality of neighbourhoods, work and Figure 4.3: Water and sanitation Disease Pattern Diarrhoea & 17.0 of special importance to the poor are the time Figure 2: Comparison of the average number of pupils per latrine by saved, convenience and dignity that improved Intestinal worms province and by ranking of situation. Source:Ministry of Health water supply and sanitation present. Most of 450 414 those without access are the poorest and least 400 powerful. Access for the poor is a key factor in WS Diseases Pattern 350 improving health, economic productivity and 300 Dangerous above all self-esteem and it is therefore an 246 246 35 250 Bad essential component of any effort to poverty 208 200 181 alleviation. 30 176 169 Fair 150 25 100 67 70 68 70 Poor water supply and sanitation have high toll 62 62 54 20 No. of Students / Latrine Ratio 50 on health, cause resource conflicts and /or 29 28 27 27 26 27 24 15 violence and indeed degrade human self worth. 0 10 Improving water and sanitation brings valuable Nyanza Rvalley Nairobi Coast N Eastern Eastern Central benefits to both social and economic 5 development. Social well being encompasses 0 more than simply material satisfaction, it takes Malaria RS DI account of less tangible aspects of people’s lives such as the quality of neighbourhoods, work and Figure 4.3: Water and sanitation Disease Pattern

Figure 2: Comparison of the average number of pupils per latrine by province and by ranking of situation.

450 414

400

350

300 Dangerous

246 246 250 Bad 208 200 181 176 169 Fair

150

100 67 70 68 70 62 62 54 No. of Students / Latrine Ratio 50 29 28 27 27 26 27 24

Nyanza Rvalley Nairobi Coast N Eastern Eastern Central

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Integrated Aspects of Water 157

Figure 4.8: Five top Causes of Outpatient Morbidity by Province, 1999

25 % 20

0 Coast Central North Eastern Eastern Rift Valley Nyanza Western Kenya Provinces

Respiratory Illness Malaria Skin Diseases Intestinal Worms Diarhoea All Others Figure 4.9 Causes of morbidity this is discussed in detail below. The others in the graph include diseases like Typhoid Malaria is the most prevalent disease while fever. Major diarrhea diseases include Respiratory illness is next in most provinces. Cholera. While the relative percentage of diarrheas Meanwhile gastroenteritis are the leading disease is low, Kenya is subjected to WES cause of hospitalization for infants as shown related disease outbreaks, especially cholera, below:

Table 4.17: The 5 Leading Causes of Hospitalization Among Infants (< 1 yr), 1999 Disease Percentage of Total Diarrhoea and gastroenteritis 13.6 Malaria 13.3 Anaemia (all) 10.7 Pneumonia (all) 9.8 Volume Depletion (Dehydration) 7.4

Table 4.18: Leading Causes of Death Among Infants (< 1 yr) 1999 Percentage of Total Pneumonia (all) 20.2 Malaria 13.1 Disorders related to short gestation & LBWt 7.6 Di8arrhea and gastroenteritis 7.5 Anaemia (all) 7.4 Bacteria Sepsis Of Newborn 6.4

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Integrated Aspects of Water 157

Figure 4.8: Five top Causes of Outpatient Morbidity by Province, 1999

25 % 20

0 Coast Central North Eastern Eastern Rift Valley Nyanza Western Kenya Provinces

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Integrated Aspects of Water 158

Table 4.19: Leading causes of hospitalization for children Disease Percentage of Total Malaria 21.3 Pneumonia (all) 18.7 Anaemia (all) 10.2 Diarrhoea and gastroenteritis 7.0 Burns and corrosions and Low birth 2.5

Table 4.20: Out Patient Morbidity In 1999 By Province Absolute Numbers Province Nairob Central Coast Eastern North Nyanza Rift Western Total DISEASE i Eastern Valley Malaria 54,066 603,620 609,637 1,036,905 45,974 869,606 877,117 412,599 4,509,524 Diseases of RS 79,389 876,209 370,969 611,721 35,078 317,622 665,087 156,801 3,112,876 Skin Diseases 19,833 222,533 136,231 181,073 6,720 142,200 188,480 62,270 959,340 Diarrhoea 24,129 106,844 86,818 107,073 7,678 109,558 152,709 48,312 643,151 Intestinal Worms 7,388 187,061 57,095 193,014 4,597 70,780 78,637 25,701 624,273 Anaemia 4,951 7,028 29,956 12,196 3,384 18,631 8,532 8,496 93,174 Urinary TI 16,659 58,589 42,739 53,403 9,235 54,478 54,131 22,811 312,045 Pneumonia 18,971 57,259 23,292 73,203 5,282 51,868 59,707 34,174 323,756 Eye Infections 23,079 69,021 21,373 50,023 3,557 35,930 62,233 14,047 279,263 Ear Infections 27,481 29,163 18,852 32,244 3,503 26,178 31,044 10,602 179,067 From the above statistics malaria is the most worms and skin diseases affected 8% of the serious a public health problem, with a caseload population. These diseases dis-proportionally of 4.5 million in 1999 or about 16% of Kenyan affect children and in 1998 the affected 43% of population. It kills 26,000 children in Kenya children between 6 and 23 months of age every year29. As can be seen from figure 4.8 it (KDHS 1998) and Respiratory illness are the is well spread but is especially serious along the leading cause of infant mortality as per Table Coast and Lake Victoria basin. Seasonal 4.18 Children are more likely than adults to die outbreaks of highland malaria have been from diarrhoea because they become dehydrated experienced in the highlands of the Rift Valley more quickly. About one in every 200 children province. For instance in July, 2002 there was a who contract diarrhoea will die from it.

malaria outbreak in the Western parts of Kenya Cholera has been endemic in Kenya, especially that claimed about 325 lives. There were in the Lake and Coastal regions. There have estimated 200,000-reported cases of infected been major outbreaks since mid – 1997 as one people in 11 districts in this outbreak and the the impacts of the El Nino rains of 1997/1998. estimated number of persons at risk was 5.7 The cumulative total number of cases reported million. The economic cost of malaria is very was 17,200 in 1997 and 22,432 in 1998 with high. 20 million Kenyans are regularly affected 555 and 1,237 deaths respectively. An outbreak by malaria, with most treating the disease at of cholera occurred in Nyanza, Eastern, Rift home. An estimated 170 million working days Valley and Nairobi Provinces, which strted on are lost each year as a result of the disease. 27 December, 1998. As of 19 January, 1999 a The diseases of the respiratory system which total of 1025 cases with 25 deaths is estimated include Acute respiratory infection (ARI) and to have occurred. The latest outbreak was in pneumonia affected about 11% of the Kwale and Mombasa in August,2002. Details population in 1999, while diarrhea, intestinal are given in the Test box 4.5 below:

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Integrated Aspects of Water 159

Text box 4.5: Cholera outbreaks along the coastline of Kenya Manifestation

Cholera epidemics are not a recent phenomenon along the coastline of Kenya. For instance in 1868, there was a major cholera outbreak in this area that lasted through 1869. This epidemic incidence had arrived overland along the major trade routes31 and then quickly spreading to Mombasa and then soutwards into the various islands and along, the coast line of what now Kwale district. These outbreaks still continue into the 21st Century, despite significant advances in knowledge of the causative agents, vibroyo cholera bacteria, and prevention methods. In fact there have been an average of 3 outbreaks per year since 1998 in different towns.

The epicenters of these outbreaks have keen identified by the medical authorities as Vanga and Lunga- Lunga which are major trade routes in Kwale. In 2002 Shimoni, Wasini Island joined this list. In the year 2002 the first outbreak occurred in March 2002 in Vanga. In August, 2002 sporadic outbreaks is still occurring the latest being in Lunga-Lunga. While the health authorities, supported mainly be Red Cross and UNICEF have been on top of things in terms on containing disease outbreaks involvement of the population is low. The threat of a major outbreak looms.

Causality analysis

80% of the population living along the coastline of Kwale depend on usage sources of water For example at Shimoni and its environs the population is dependat on over 80 uncovered wells while Vanga mainly depends on 13 uncovered wells. In Lunga-Lunga, a significant proportion of the population depends on the river Umba. A significant number of the wells are dangerously sited in the proximity of pit latrines and are inadequately protected from contamination both in the hydro- geological and structural sense. In particular the ground water bearing, formation is coral stone, which has a high hydraulic conductivity. Therefore the underground flow of contaminated water from a latrine to a well is relatively easy. Solid waste particles; leaves, plastic paper and pieces of wood, Urbanwere observed Situation: floating Case ofin mostNairobi of the City public wells.

Nairobi Province is served by 358 health facilities of which public facilities constitute Consumption of unsafe water especially its use 42% and private/NGO 58%. Table 4.19 shows in diluting milk used in preparing food the leading causes of outpatient attendance and a supplements. comparison of the same conditions ranked nationally. Other sanitation related diseases are intestinal Not practicing exclusive breastfeeding when worms and skin diseases. Risk factors in worm mothers breastfeed exclusively during at least infection is ingestion of contaminated food or the first six months, there is a dramatic decrease water and walking bare feet on contaminated in episodes and, to a lesser extent, respiratory soils, while the main risk factors in skin diseases infections. Even small amounts of water-based are poor person hygiene. drinks decrease breastmilk intake and weight gain, and increase the risk of diarrhoea. The risk factors in malaria are: Continuing to breast feed up to two years of age, Climatic conditions that is conducive to the in addition to giving complementary foods, proliferation of mosquito. These conditions are maintains good nutritional status and helps especially found in the Coast and Lakes regions. prevent diarrhoea. Other areas that are seasonally at risk are the Highlands and the semi-arid areas of the Poor sanitation and hygiene practices especially, Northern and North Eastern regions of Kenya. poor methods of excreta management, High incidence of contract between the vector inadequate cleanliness in food preparation and (mosquito) and Human beings handling and not washing hands before eating or after using the toilet.

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Integrated Aspects of Water 159

Text box 4.5: Cholera outbreaks along the coastline of Kenya Manifestation

Causality analysis

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Integrated Aspects of Water 137

Table 4.6 Percentage Distribution of Households by Main water Sources by province

UN-WATER/WWAP/2006/12

The Different Roles, Uses and Impacts of Water 83

The National Environment Management Authority has already prepared the Table 3.7: WHO guidelines for aesthetic Environmental Impact Assessment and Audit quality Regulation 2003. According to the regulations, the EIA should be conducted by a licensed Parameter Concentration mg/L environmental practitioner and submitted to the Aluminium 0.2 Authority for consideration. Chloride 250 The standards committee is in the process of Copper 1.0 preparing various standards including water

UN-WATER/WWAP/2006/12 quality standards. In the meantime the World Hardness as 500 Health Organization (WHO) standards on water CaCo3 The Different Roles, Uses and Impacts of Water 83 quality are applicable. Iron 0.3

The National Environment Management Strategies, Goals, Programs & Action Plan Manganese 0.1 Authority has already prepared the Table 3.7: WHO guidelines for aesthetic Environmental Impact Assessment and Audit quality Sodium 200 Regulation 2003. According to the regulations, Water quality standards the EIA should be conducted by a licensed Parameter Concentration mg/L Sulphate 400 environmental practitioner and submitted to the Water Quality criteria for various water uses Aluminium 0.2 Authority for consideration. have been adopted. Besides, criteria for Fluoride 1.5 Chloride 250 The standards committee is in the process of irrigation waters, livestock watering and other Copper 1.0 Total 1000 preparing various standards including water common uses, the most utilised water quality quality standards. In the meantime the World Hardness as 500 criteria are those for raw water source for public Dissolved Health Organization (WHO) standards on water CaCo3 Solids (TDS) quality are applicable. water supplies and treated water. Effluent Iron 0.3 discharge standards are also adopted on all Zinc 5 Strategies, Goals, Programs & Action Plan Manganese 0.1 effluent discharges into streams and other water Colour 15 TCU Water quality standards Sodium 200 bodies. Water Quality criteria for various water uses Sulphate 400 Drinking water quality criteria Taste and Not offensive for most have been adopted. Besides, criteria for Fluoride 1.5 Odour consumers irrigation waters, livestock watering and other In determining the suitability of water for Total 1000 common uses, the most utilised water quality drinking purposes, especially for large Turbidity 5 NTU criteria are those for raw water source for public Dissolved water supplies and treated water. Effluent Solids (TDS) community water supplies, reference is made to PH 6.5 – 8.5 discharge standards are also adopted on all Zinc 5 the World Health Organisation (WHO) effluent discharges into streams and other water guidelines for drinking water quality, and the bodies. Colour 15 TCU Kenya Bureau of Standards (KEBS) for Drinking water quality criteria Taste and Not offensive for most Odour consumers drinking water. Tables 3.7 and 3.8 below give In determining the suitability of water for the WHO guidelines for aesthetic water quality drinking purposes, especially for large Turbidity 5 NTU community water supplies, reference is made to PH 6.5 – 8.5 as well as bacteriological quality respectively. the World Health Organisation (WHO) guidelines for drinking water quality, and the Kenya Bureau of Standards (KEBS) for drinking water. Tables 3.7 and 3.8 below give Effluent discharge guidelines the WHO guidelines for aesthetic water quality as well as bacteriological quality respectively. Effluent discharge guidelines have been formulated and have until 2003 been enforced

by the Pollution Control Unit within the Effluent discharge guidelines Ministry of Water and Irrigation (MWI). The Effluent discharge guidelines have been standards are based on the nature and volume of formulated and have until 2003 been enforced by the Pollution Control Unit within the effluent discharge, the dilution capacity of the Ministry of Water and Irrigation (MWI). The receiving water body, and the subsequent use of Table 3.8 WHO guidelines for bacteriological standards are based on the nature and volume of effluent discharge, the dilution capacity of the the water downstream of the discharge point. quality receiving water body, and the subsequent use of Table 3.8 WHO guidelines for bacteriological Table 3.6 below gives the generalised effluent the water downstream of the discharge point. quality discharge guidelines. However, separate Piped Number per 100 ml Table 3.6 below gives the generalised effluent Supplies discharge guidelines. However, separate Piped Number per 100 ml discharge limits exist for heavy metals, discharge limits exist for heavy metals, Supplies pesticides and other toxic materials. Treated water Faecal coliform 0; pesticides and other toxic materials. Treated water Faecal coliform 0; entering Coliform organisms 0 entering Coliform organisms 0 • Water pollution is not yet a serious environmental problem.

• The Athi river is nonetheless already contaminated due to inadequate wastewater treatment from Nairobi City and illegal dumping in its tributary, the Nairobi river.

• In recent years, both agricultural and industrial water discharge and sewage inﬂow degraded the water quality of Lake Naivasha, Lake Turkana, Lake Baringo and Lake Bogoria.

• Urban population growth threatens areas downstream of major cities due to uncontrolled discharges of wastewater, such as Lake Nakuru (WRMA, 2013). Such pollution also increases the cost of water treatment for domestic use (MWI, 2009). UN-WATER/WWAP/2006/12

Water Availability in Kenya 63

Pollution Source Typical BOD Level of Typical COD Level of Raw Raw Effluent, mg/l Effluent, mg/l 1 Industry - Coffee Pulping 3000 - 9000 3000 - 28000 - Textile 1500 3300 - Leather Tanning 1500 - Paper and Pulp 1500 - Slaughter House 1400 2100 - Fruit Canning 2000 - Milk Processing 1000 1900

2 Domestic Waste 500

3 Agriculture - Cattle Pen washings 1500 - Pig Sty Slurry 15000 - Poultry Manure 30000

Source: Ministry of Water and Irrigation, Water Quality and Pollution Control Division. General overview of pollutants from human impact

The main pollutants are:- • Organic residues from municipal sewage, brewery wastes, wet coffee processing, sugar cane milling, pulp and paper milling and creameries • Toxic wastes from heavy metals, pesticide discharges and tanneries • Fertilizers from agricultural activities • Detergents from domestic use • Micro-organisms from municipal sewage • Inert suspensions from soil sediments and mine waste

Table 2.28: Issue: spatial variance of water quality

The Different Roles, Uses and Impacts of Water 103

Parameter Desired Actual level in Projected level Level 1965 1974 1984 1989 2020 Colour Colourles Colourless Colourless Slightly Coloured Highly coloured s Coloured Turbidity Clear Clear Slightly Turbid Turbid Highly turbid Turbid Sediment loads Nil Nil Nil Moderate Moderate Very high increase increase Level of No Low No pathogens Low Gross Gross contamination pathogens contamination contaminatio contaminati contamination n on Biological Oxygen Less than 5-20 Little 20-40 40-60 66+ Demand 5mg/l contamination Table 3.18: Overview of water quality changes in rivers and lakes since 1965

WATER AND TOURISM

Setting the Scene: create an opportunity for sports and recreational activity for tourists. Tourism Resources The flora, general vegetation features, is roughly a) Natural Resources categorized into 8 regions. Bushland and shrub Abundant and characteristic natural resources in land on arid, semi arid and desert land represent Kenya are located in the mountains and the majority of the vegetation cover. On the highlands, arid and semi-arid land, and coastal other hand, afro-alpine forest, guineo-cungotean areas. (See Figure 3.1). Natural resources with rain forest, coastal forest, mangrove and marine potential for tourism in those areas are life are rare and interesting vegetation and geographic features and scenery, attractive and resources attracting tourism to Kenya. interesting flora, and a well diversified fauna. Twenty two national parks, 23 national reserves, Wildlife (fauna) resources are widely spread. 1 national Marine park and 5 National marine Mammals are the most attractive and interesting reserves have been gazetted as protected areas to tourists, especially carnivore and herbivore in which tourism is a major economic activity. species. Large herds of other medium- and The flora, fauna and ecological systems in the small-sized mammals are an attractive to National Parks, National sanctuaries and tourists. Others like birds, insects and National Marine parks are conserved and endangered species are important tourism managed by KWS. resources.

Natural Resources for tourism development can be categorized into the following three groups: Geographic Features as Tourism Resources I. Geographic features, II. General and General and specific geographic features are III. Specific land forms which present major tourism resources. They present attractive attractive scenery and places which scenery and interesting scenic spots for sight UN-WATER/WWAP/2006/12

Water Availability in Kenya 63

2 Domestic Waste 500

3 Agriculture - Cattle Pen washings 1500 - Pig Sty Slurry 15000 - Poultry Manure 30000

Source: Ministry of Water and Irrigation, Water Quality and Pollution Control Division. General overview of pollutants from human impact

Table 2.28: Issue: spatial variance of water quality

PROBLEMS TARGETS INDICATORS Most surface Regular WQ monitoring No of WQ samples taken water resources and sampling No of waste water samples affected by pollution Establish representative taken No of irregular WQ sampling network No of additional WQ sampling WQ & pollution Enforcement of WQ stations established control sampling standards and waste water No of incidences reported on Limited/WQ standards non-compliance of waste water data Protection of water standards Poorly equipped resources against pollution No of labs that can perform full WQ Laboratories Equip WQ laboratories chemical analysis Weak for full chemical analysis No of sub catchment units enforcement of WQ Equip sub-catchment equipped with portable WQ & Waste water units with portable WQ sampling equipment standards sampling equipment d No of WQ models Analysed water Develop WQ developed/No of trained officers quality data control models/capacity for WQ on WQ modelling rarely undertaken modelling Untreated Waste water discharge into water bodies Source: Ministry of Water and Irrigation. • Wetlands are also at risks, because they are used to dump industrial and municipal wastes causing eutrophication, or used for agricultural development. They also locally suffer lack of seasonal ﬂoods due to dams such as in the Tana River wetlands. • About 24 million ha are saline and sodic soils, of which 40 percent are located in the ASALs. This requires special attention if irrigation is developed (MALF, 2015). A case of environmental concern was experienced in the traditional irrigation area of Ngurumani, where waterlogging was threatening the long-term sustainability of the irrigation in the area. An area of conﬂict exists between the wildlife and irrigation schemes, since the latter are situated in ASAL where there is also a concentration of wildlife areas.

• Whereas other countries of the Nile basin have large areas sold or leased to foreign investors, over a million ha in Uganda, Sudan and South Sudan, in Kenya there is only 14 000 ha leased for rice, sugarcane and ﬂowers (GRAIN, 2012). This might be due to the indirect and weak access to water resources of the Nile basin and irregular rainfall.

• Incidences of malaria and bilharzia are common in irrigated areas. • Meeting the country’s future water demand, is estimated at 21 468 million m³ per year including 18 048 million m³ for irrigation by 2030, compared to 1 602 million m³ in 2010.

• However, the irrigation ﬁgure assumes that the full high estimation potential of 1.3 million ha would be actually equipped, which is also almost 10 times the area in 2010, which so far seems unrealistic or unachievable.

• Nonetheless, increase of the water availability for agriculture will require the construction of more storage reservoirs (WRMA, 2013), as well as the exploitation of all types of available water and in particular increase agricultural rainwater harvesting, direct use of wastewater, and exploitation of groundwater for irrigation (MALF, 2015). UN-WATER/WWAP/2006/12

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it is not accessible in the remote areas of the Resources in terms of financial support are country. required to improve some of the appropriate technologies that suit the local needs. in Solar Disinfection particular, capacity building of personnel needs This is a simple technology that can be used in to be undertaken. Valuable information from the remotest parts of the country. It involves the old generation on traditional methods is painting the lower part of a conducting invaluable. Lessons learnt in relation to container black and exposing the water in it in technologies are as shown in Table 4.30 below. the sun for a minimum period of six hours. Comprehensive studies on the various Water is then fit for consumption, as major and technologies, equipment and their performance harmful pathogens are dead by the end of the needs to be undertaken. six hours. Maintenance systems are plagued with management problems thus weakening Traditional Herbs and Shrubs sustainability especially where there has been Some societies have been purifying water using little or no community mobilization and herbs and shrubs. Some of these plants are participation. For instance it is estimated that more effective than conventional technologies. the Nairobi City loses more than 40% of its Studies are on-going to identify and improve on water to wastage. This is one of the reasons these plant species for use by the rural areas in why water coverage in Kenya has remained order to reduce the cost of water treatment low despite the modest investments in the water sector. This also has implications of Technological Lessons Learned privatization of water and subsequent cost of water production Water. sources and treatment Table 4.34: Selected Water Technologies Available in the Country and their Complexities

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Integrated Aspects of Water 195

it is not accessible in the remote areas of the Resources in terms of financial support are country. required to improve some of the appropriate technologies that suit the local needs. in Solar Disinfection particular, capacity building of personnel needs This is a simple technology that can be used in to be undertaken. Valuable information from the remotest parts of the country. It involves the old generation on traditional methods is painting the lower part of a conducting invaluable. Lessons learnt in relation to container black and exposing the water in it in technologies are as shown in Table 4.30 below. the sun for a minimum period of six hours. Comprehensive studies on the various Water is then fit for consumption, as major and technologies, equipment and their performance harmful pathogens are dead by the end of the needs to be undertaken. six hours. Maintenance systems are plagued with management problems thus weakening Traditional Herbs and Shrubs sustainability especially where there has been Some societies have been purifying water using little or no community mobilization and herbs and shrubs. Some of these plants are participation. For instance it is estimated that more effective than conventional technologies. the Nairobi City loses more than 40% of its Studies are on-going to identify and improve on water to wastage. This is one of the reasons these plant species for use by the rural areas in why water coverage in Kenya has remained order to reduce the cost of water treatment low despite the modest investments in the water sector. This also has implications of Technological Lessons Learned privatization of water and subsequent cost of water production . Table 4.34: Selected Water Technologies Available in the Country and their Complexities

Types of sources and technologies in use in Kenya Type Description Relative technical Remarks/Gaps UNICEF complexity Contribution 1 Deep ground Water: High: High capital cost which Borehole drilling. depends on depth of Borehole installed with Engine, alternator: ground water level as Studies on equipment generators and electric Electric pump: well as complexity of the and maintenance. submersible pumps in pipeline reticulation system. boreholes, often with maintenance, fairly Requires mobilization of Advocacy for fairly elaborate pipe complex. heavy drilling equipment. standardization of networks and water Require Ideal for large equipment. kiosks. maintenance. populations livestock densities. 2 Shallow ground water Low: Medium capital cost. Development and source: Women can be Also depends on ground implementation of trained on hand water level. Water strategies to develop Hand pump systems, pump maintenance; supply can be constructed maintenance support based on shallow wells or spare parts by skilled artisans using systems through boreholes available locally if hand labour, hand auger clustering and point of use systems. standardized to drilling or small networks of women India Mark II and motorized drilling groups. Afridev. equipment. 3 Rivers and Dams. High: High siltation of the Rehabilitation of Kenyan rivers increases small urban water Small to large water Require specialized cost of treatment. supply after El Nino treatment works with personnel to carry Vulnerability to Flooding with low cost but small to large pipe out treatment events that destroys water strategic networked systems. works. treatmentUN-WATER/WWAP/2006/12 plants located interventions. E.g. In along the river. moyale, Garissa, Integrated Aspects of Water Marsabit, Garsen Townships. 196 4 Roof catchments Low Not adequately used in Plans to start Kenya. partnership to pilot low cost tanks. Awareness, design and cost of tanks are noted limitations. 5 Rock catchments Low Medium cost depending Partnership started to on amount of earth build rock movement and other civil catchments. works. Can be constructed by community with skilled supervision. 6 Lake High Water quality of concern. Set up alternative water sources along Small to large water Requires the Lake Victoria treatment works with specialized Basin. Need for small to large pipe personnel to carry project scaling up. networked systems. out treatment works. 7 Artificial pans: point of Low/Medium Cost is high to low Partnership started on use systems. medium depending on use of animal power (Off-take and volume of earth moved. for de-silting of pans. catchment maintenance) Maintenance a big issue.

UN-WATER/WWAP/2006/12

The Different Roles, Uses and Impacts of Water 112

terms and consumer tariffs fixed at 75% of the long run marginal cost at constant 1982 prices.

Box 3.2:Water and energy resources Kenya’s total energy demand is 3 million tonnes of oil equivalent, 72% imported and 28% supplied from domestic sources. Energy demand is increasing at a rate of 5% per annum. Hydropower contributes 75%, geothermal 8.5%, gas and oil generation, 19.3%. In 1999 Kenya had 872.60 MW of installed capacity for electric generation. The same year, 140 million kilowatt- hours (Kwh) were imported from Uganda. Extreme weather, severe droughts and excessive rainfall limit the capacity of hydro-electric plants. Drought reduces the levels of water while excess rainfall reduces the volume of the dams through siltation. Hydro generation declined in the year 2002 as a result of prolonged drought and heavy siltation of dams due to the El Nino .floods of 1998. This situation led to power rationing and increased thermal generation from private producers. Imports from Uganda increased.

Kenya is heavily dependent on fossils fuels such as coal and petroleum products whose burning yields gase emissions including carbon dioxide, hydrocarbons and sulphur dioxide. In addition they generate other solid and li waster that result in air, water and soil pollution that impact negatively on environment and natural resources. In 1997 reforms were initiated in the power sector. The reforms led to the creation of the Elecricity Regulatory B (ERB) to formulate policies and regulate the power sector. Kenya Generating Company (KenGen) supplies 90% power and KPLC transmits and distributes it.

Strategy Intensify catchment and riparian management with a view to mitigate recurrence of siltation in hydropower plants. Environmental pollution Agricultural activities, industrial processes and provision of various services are major consumers of natural resour Extraction of mineral resources and addition of agrochemical inputs such as chemical stress, the self purifica capacity of echo systems because they lead to increased levels of emissions and pollutants into air, water and land. result is high level of water borne diseases and transmission of pathogenss thus increasing diarrhoea, diseases, upper respiratory tract infections. Accumulation of detectable chemical residues in agro-products is both a he hazard and a threat to the market where products are exported. Source: NEMA website Water Supply and Sanitation in Kenya: Turning Finance into Services for 2015 and Beyond

Figure 9 The monitoring and evaluation cycle in the Kenyan water sector

Quarterly/annual performance, accounting Policies for water and Various plans, strategies, and license reports provided by WSIs to MoWI sanitation, as well as performance contracts and and WASREB; project evaluations and sector government plans such as investment plans developed performance reports provided to donors; Vision 2030 (and being developed) by MoWI, quarterly/annual public expenditure reviews MoPHS, Ministry of Health and for sector ministries Objectives Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources. Reports Plans Three systems already: for WASREB (‘WARIS’), WSTF (‘PROMIS’), and WSBs (for asset 3 MTEFs management). There are also systems to monitor Information Budgets encompassing WASH WSS services in urban areas (‘Maji data’), Systems services (infrastructure, and provide a sector overview (MoWI sector Indicators environment and information system) in development health); Additional district budgets and Proliferation of indicator sets: 16 Key Service Indicators, 11 Minimum Service Level special funds at the Indicators, 19 WSS Performance Indicators, 18/19 license and SPA indicators, >60 local level WASREB indicators. Also ‘Sector Undertakings’, agreed at annual sector review

Source: CSO2 analysis.

Project Cycles include promising community participation percent of householder respondents knew someone who measures, which are also recommended by the MoWI’s had given a bribe to receive water services. The MoWI’s Value for Money Study and Pro-Poor Implementation performance contract now requires that corruption Plan, though replicating this capacity in other WSIs has is monitored, and the fact that it is discussed at all is a yet to be achieved. Finally, Kenya’s WASH sector is still significant step. Confidence in sector reforms (which in confronting the challenge of corruption: a recent survey turn leads to willingness to pay) will depend on prompt by Transparency International (2009) identified that 12 and visible action in response to corruption issues.

19 CONCLUSION Water services in Kenya are at an important and exciting crossroad. Devolution of the water services function has assigned responsibility for water provision to democratically elected county governments that now face the challenge of being responsive to the needs of their electorates and to honor the constitutional obligation to progressively provide water services to all people. The role of national government will change to policy development, sector oversight and support (See Figure 2).

An independent regulator can play an important role to monitor progress on the right of water and ensure funds are effectively spent. The track record of water companies shows that they continue to make an important contribution in service delivery, and county governments would be well-advised to build on this momentum, rather than overhauling the system rapidly.

Understanding and addressing the challenges identified in this note can help smoothen the transition process, ensuring that services continue to be delivered and access extended while policy and institutional reforms are designed and implemented.