METALLIC BRIDGES STR403
Sherif A. Mourad Professor of Steel Structures and Bridges Faculty of Engineering, Cairo University
Lecture 1 – February 2020
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Introduction
Course: STR403 Instructors: Prof. Sherif Ahmed Mourad. Prof. Mohammed Hassanein Soror. Lecture: Monday 8:30-10:00 or 10:15-11:45 Grading: 70% final 15% midterm 15% term work Sherif A. Mourad 2
STR403 - Metallic Bridges Winter 2020 1 Introduction
Why a course in steel bridge design?
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Lecture Outline
• Definition of a bridge. • Historical background. • Bridge forms. • Classification of bridges (Structural system, Material of construction, Use, Position, Span, …). • Design considerations. • Course outline.
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STR403 - Metallic Bridges Winter 2020 2 Definition of a Bridge
A bridge is a structure that carries a service (which may be highway or railway traffic, a footpath, public utilities, etc.) over an obstacle (which may be another road or railway, a river, a valley, etc.), and then transfers the loads from the service via the superstructure through the bridge substructure to the foundation level.
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Definition of a Bridge
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STR403 - Metallic Bridges Winter 2020 3 Historical background
The historical development of bridges best illustrates the progress of structural engineering from ancient times up to the present century. In particular the development in steel bridges equates with the progress in structural analysis, theory of strength of materials and materials testing, since all of them were increasingly stimulated by the need for bridging larger spans and building more economically with the new construction method. Sherif A. Mourad 7
Historical background
The simplest type of a bridge is stepping stones, so this may have been one of the earliest types. People from the stone age also built a form of boardwalk across marshes that are around 6000 years old. Undoubtedly ancient peoples would also have used log bridges; that is a timber bridge that fall naturally or are intentionally felled or placed across streams.
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STR403 - Metallic Bridges Winter 2020 4 Historical Background
Probably the oldest form of bridges to cross waterways is the stepping stone bridges.
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Historical Background
Some of the first man-made bridges with significant span were probably intentionally felled trees.
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STR403 - Metallic Bridges Winter 2020 5 Historical Background
There is a drawing displayed on a monument of Sethos I at Karnak. According to this drawing the strong place of Khetam was situated on both banks of the river Nile and the two opposite parts of the fortress were joined by a great bridge. A “Qanthareh” as it is called in Arabic.
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Historical Background The Indian Epic literature Ramayana provides mythological accounts of bridges constructed from India to Sri Lanka by the army of Sri Rama, the mythological King of Ayodhya. The recent satellite photograph depicts the existence of this bridge, referred to in Ramayana.
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STR403 - Metallic Bridges Winter 2020 6 Historical Background Holzbrücke Rapperswil-Hurden is a wooden pedestrian bridge between the city of Rapperswil and the village of Hurden crossing the upper Lake Zürich (Obersee) in Switzerland. The prehistoric timber piles discovered to the west of the Seedamm date back to 1523 BC.
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Historical background The oldest datable bridge in the world still in use is the slab-stone single-arch bridge over the river Meles in Izmir (formerly Smyrna), Turkey, which dates from c. 850 BC. Remnants of Mycenaean bridges dated c. 1600 BC exist in the neighborhood of Mycenae, Greece over the River Havos.
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STR403 - Metallic Bridges Winter 2020 7 Historical Background Chinese built big bridges of wooden construction, and later stone bridges, and the oldest surviving stone bridge in China is the Zhaozhou Bridge built around 605 AD during the Sui Dynasty. This bridge is also historically significant as it is the world’s oldest open- stone segmental arch bridge.
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Historical Background The ancient Romans were great bridge builders. Ancient Romans used cement (called pozzolana) consisting of water, lime, sand, and volcanic rock to provide bond between stone elements.
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STR403 - Metallic Bridges Winter 2020 8 Historical background
The discovery of a new material, iron, and later steel, contributed a lot to the design and construction of bridges. However, by the time the new material was ready for use in larger structures there already existed a quite highly developed technology in bridge building, namely for bridges in timber and bridges in stone.
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Historical background
It is important to mention that the technologies of bridge building at that time were based on individual intuition of outstanding "masters" and on the experience passed down through the generations rather than on rules of mechanics and mathematics. The significance of preserving the knowledge of bridge building and of extending it was closely connected with military purposes and the interests of trade in ancient times. Sherif A. Mourad 18
STR403 - Metallic Bridges Winter 2020 9 Historical background
The Romans even established a separate caste - the "pontifices" (bridge makers) - headed by the "pontifex maximum", which was also one of the titles of the Roman emperors. Similar reasons motivated the French kings, e.g. Louis XIV, and later Napoleon, to support the new engineering schools (Ecole de Ponts et Chaussés and Ecole Polytechnique). Sherif A. Mourad 19
Bridge Form
Bridges may be classified according to the form by which they support the loading into two main types: 1. Bridges which carry loads mainly in flexure. 2. Bridges which carry loads mainly as axial forces.
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STR403 - Metallic Bridges Winter 2020 10 Bridges carrying loads in flexure The majority of bridges are of this type. The loads are transferred to the ground by slabs or beams acting in flexure, i.e. the bridges obtain their load carrying resistance from the ability of the slabs and beams to resist bending moments and shear forces. This type of bridge is referred to generally as a girder bridge. A wide range of structural forms is possible, as shown in the next Figure which indicates a typical elevation of a girder bridge with a number of terms
being defined. Sherif A. Mourad 21
Bridges carrying loads in flexure
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STR403 - Metallic Bridges Winter 2020 11 Bridges carrying loads as axial
This type can be further subdivided into those bridges in which the primary axial forces are compressive (arches) and those in which these forces are tensile (suspension bridges and cable stayed bridges), or a combination of both (trusses). Such forces normally have to be resisted by members carrying forces of the opposite sense. Figures 2a to 2d show the basic structural systems for some typical layouts..
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Bridges carrying loads as axial Note that flexure is also important in such structures. Certainly, in most suspension bridges, flexure of the stiffening girder is not a primary loading in that overstress is unlikely to cause overall failure; however, in cable stayed bridges (particularly if the stays are widely spaced) flexure of the girder is a primary loading. Similarly, in arch bridges, non-uniform loading of the rib can cause primary bending moments to be developed in it and may well govern the
arch design. Sherif A. Mourad 24
STR403 - Metallic Bridges Winter 2020 12 Bridges carrying loads as axial
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Arch stability
The arch is made up of blocks, and will stand with nothing attaching them together. The central block stays up because it is wider at the top than at the bottom, so to fall down it would have to push the neighboring blocks outwards. As long as these are held securely, the central block can’t fall down. So by the combination of friction and strong abutments holding the sides of the arch, the arch remains stable.
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STR403 - Metallic Bridges Winter 2020 13 Bridge Classification
Material of Construction • Concrete. • Steel. • Stone. • Masonry. • Timber.
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Material of Construction
Why steel bridges? What are the steel grades? What are the mechanical properties?
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STR403 - Metallic Bridges Winter 2020 14 Egyptian Standard Specifications
Steel Egyptian Specifications
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Steel Egyptian Specifications
STR403 - Metallic Bridges Winter 2020 16 Steel Egyptian Specifications
Steel Egyptian Specifications
STR403 - Metallic Bridges Winter 2020 17 Bridge Classification
Use • Roadway Bridges. • Railway Bridges. • Footbridges. • Pipeline Bridges. • Conveyor Bridges.
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Roadway Bridges
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STR403 - Metallic Bridges Winter 2020 18 Railway Bridges
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Pedestrian Bridges
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STR403 - Metallic Bridges Winter 2020 19 Pipe Bridges
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Conveyor Bridges
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STR403 - Metallic Bridges Winter 2020 20 Bridge Classification
Traffic Level Moving Bridges are classified according to the position of bridge floor into: • Deck • Through
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Deck Bridge
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STR403 - Metallic Bridges Winter 2020 21 Through Bridge
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Bridge Classification
Bridges are classified according to the structural system of the main girder into: • Beam/Plate Girder Bridges. • Frame Bridges. • Arch Bridges. • Truss Bridges. • Cable-Stayed Bridges. • Suspension Bridges
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STR403 - Metallic Bridges Winter 2020 22 Beam Bridges
Beam Bridges may be: • Rolled section or Plate Girder. • Simply-supported or Continuous. • Straight or Haunched. • Steel or Composite. • I-section or box.
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Frame Bridges
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STR403 - Metallic Bridges Winter 2020 23 Arch Bridges
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Truss Bridges
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STR403 - Metallic Bridges Winter 2020 24 Cable-Stayed Bridges
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Suspension Bridges
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STR403 - Metallic Bridges Winter 2020 25 Bridge Classification
Bridge Span There are no established criteria to exactly define the range of spans for the different classifications. A common practice is to classify bridges by span lengths as follows: • Short-span bridges less than 50 m • Medium-span bridges 50 to 200 m • Long-span bridges Over 200 m
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Bridge Type and Spans
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STR403 - Metallic Bridges Winter 2020 26 Bridge Type and Spans
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Bridge Type and Spans
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STR403 - Metallic Bridges Winter 2020 27 Bridge Cost and Span
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Bridge Classification
Moving Bridges are classified according to their movement: • Swing bridges. • Bascule bridges. • Lift bridges. • Retractable, tilt, rolling, folding, …
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STR403 - Metallic Bridges Winter 2020 28 Swing Bridge
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Swing Bridge
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STR403 - Metallic Bridges Winter 2020 29 Swing Bridge
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Bascule Bridge
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STR403 - Metallic Bridges Winter 2020 30 Lift Bridge
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Retractable Bridge
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STR403 - Metallic Bridges Winter 2020 31 Tilt Bridge
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Folding Bridge
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STR403 - Metallic Bridges Winter 2020 32 Rolling Bridge
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Design Considerations
The concept stage is the point where critical decisions regarding the bridge system are taken. This decision depends on many parameters, such as clearance (horizontal and vertical), loading, topology, soil conditions, loading, erection method, maintenance requirements, and aesthetics.
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STR403 - Metallic Bridges Winter 2020 33 Bridge Clearance
All bridges must be designed with sufficient clearance to prevent being struck by vehicles, vessels or trains which may pass below them. This requirement is normally met by specifying minimum clearances. It must be remembered that designed values must take into account deflections due to any loading that may occur on the bridge structure. Clearance requirements may thus determine the span of a bridge and also have a significant bearing on the construction depth. Sherif A. Mourad 67
Bridge Clearance
Whilst the requirements will not normally determine precisely the type of bridge, it may well eliminate some possibilities. Typically, for example, a bridge over a major highway would be expected to have a minimum vertical clearance of about 5.3 meters; even this may not protect it from accidental impact (e.g. cases have occurred of the jibs of cranes being moved on transporters becoming free and rising).
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STR403 - Metallic Bridges Winter 2020 34 Bridge Clearance
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Bridge Clearance
In addition, pier positions must be such that the likelihood of impact from errant vehicles is minimized, both to protect the pier and the vehicle itself. This requirement is usually achieved by setting the pier back a reasonable distance from the edge of the carriageway.
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STR403 - Metallic Bridges Winter 2020 35 Bridge Clearance
Strict rules for vertical and lateral clearance over railways are laid down by all railway authorities, and must be complied with. Navigation authorities specify clearances over rivers, to allow not only for the mast height and width of vessels below the bridge, but also for particular requirements for piers in the waterway (or on a flood plain) to avoid excessive flow velocity and scour of river banks.
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ﺟﺒﺎرﯾﺖ Bridge Clearance
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STR403 - Metallic Bridges Winter 2020 36 ﺟﺒﺎرﯾﺖ Bridge Clearance
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Bridge Clearance
In considering vertical clearance, a designer must bear in mind the problems of attaining them. The approach gradient for a highway bridge should not normally exceed about 4% and a railway bridge much less. This is of great importance when comparing fixed with moving bridges.
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STR403 - Metallic Bridges Winter 2020 37 Topology
The overall topography of the site will probably determine the line of the road or railway. Not infrequently this may mean that bridges will have to cross other roads, railways or rivers at a substantial angle, resulting in skew spans. The road may be on a curve; whilst it is possible to curve a bridge to follow this, it is frequently expensive and structurally inefficient, usually dictating the use of torsionally stiff girders even for short spans.
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Topology
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STR403 - Metallic Bridges Winter 2020 38 Topology
If the curve is slight, it may be preferable to construct the bridge as a series of straight spans. Poor foundation conditions will favor fewer foundations and hence longer spans. A diagrammatic representation of the costs of a bridge is shown. A balance has to be found between the cost of foundations and superstructure to minimise the total cost. Sherif A. Mourad 77
Topology
Sometimes topography alone will point to a particular solution; the classic case is a deep, rocky sided gorge which is ideally suited to a fixed arch bridge. Generally, the bridge site is fixed by the geometry of the obstacle and local terrain. However, it is well to consider the siting carefully. There is often the possibility to reduce the size of the span, to avoid placing the bridge on a curve, to reduce the angle of skew, or improve the construction depth.
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STR403 - Metallic Bridges Winter 2020 39 Topology
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Local Constructional Skills and Materials
It should go without saying that a bridge should be suited to local technology. It is not sensible to specify a sophisticated design in welded high tensile steel if all the material and labor has to be imported.
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STR403 - Metallic Bridges Winter 2020 40 Local Constructional Skills and Materials This consideration applies not only to minor bridges - the new 460 m span Hooghly Bridge in Calcutta, under construction in 1992, was designed as a riveted cable stayed bridge; riveting skills were still available in India and local steels could have given problems with site welding; the design proved an economic solution whereas in Europe there are probably no riveters still in existence and weldable steel is the norm. Sherif A. Mourad 81
Local Constructional Skills and Materials The importance of future inspection and maintenance cannot be over emphasized, both at the conceptual design and the detailed design stages. There is little doubt that too little attention has been given to it in the past, with the result that many bridges have deteriorated because of difficulty in inspection and maintenance. It is particularly important that in locations where access is difficult (either physically or because it would cause disruption of services) details which deteriorate should be avoided as far as possible. Another example is whether a bridge should be a series of simple spans or should be continuous. 82 Sherif A. Mourad
STR403 - Metallic Bridges Winter 2020 41 Local Constructional Skills and Materials
At the conceptual design stage, a designer should consider whether it would be appropriate to use a material such as weather resistant steel or perhaps whether the structure should be fully enclosed with a non-maintenance material to protect it and give access for inspection. Either of these expedients could result, for example, in a requirement for greater clearance of the bridge above the obstacle being crossed. They might have to be considered together with the layout of the overall scheme. For example, the topography might show that a minor change of alignment could accommodate the greater clearance at little or no extra expense. Sherif A. Mourad 83
Methods of Erection
It has long been appreciated that a designer must consider at the design stage the method by which a bridge will be erected. Indeed it is not infrequently the case that such consideration should be made even at the time of conceptual choice, since it can happen that the superficially most attractive design is impossible to erect in a particular location. For example, a design that relies on being erected in large pieces (such as a major box girder), may be ruled out because of the impossibility of transporting such pieces to a remote site with inadequate access roads.
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STR403 - Metallic Bridges Winter 2020 42 Methods of Erection
Frequently, particularly on large structures, it is possible to adjust the distribution of moment and forces in a structure by choosing a particular erection sequence. This possibility can affect the conceptual choice, e.g. the designer of a major three span estuarial crossing with a central span of 200m, may consider that the best conceptual choice is a steel box girder haunched at the internal piers thus carrying high hogging bending moments at these piers and comparatively low sagging
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Methods of Erection
However, the most convenient erection method for this site may be to float out and lift most of the central span in one piece, thus causing high dead load sagging moments at mid span. By building the end supports high and jacking the ends of the bridge down after the connection of the main span is made, an overall hogging moment can be induced to counter the unwanted sagging moment. This solution requires careful analysis, and calculation of fabrication and precambering dimensions to obtain the correct carriageway profile, but at least the concept will be right! Sherif A. Mourad 86
STR403 - Metallic Bridges Winter 2020 43 Methods of Erection
Many methods of erection of steel bridges exist; five typical ones are: 1.Assembly in situ 2.Launching 3.Lifting 4.Cantilevering 5.Sliding or rolling-in.
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In-situ Assembly
This method involves assembling the bridge from its individual components or sub-assemblies in its final position, usually on falsework or some other form of temporary support, making the site splices and removing the falsework. Adequate cranage must be provided to cover the whole of the deck area.
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STR403 - Metallic Bridges Winter 2020 44 In-situ Assembly
The presence of falsework may temporarily block a road, railway or river over which a bridge is built. Because large individual pieces are not normally involved, it is a method which may be practicable when access to a site is difficult. Assembly in situ may be used in conjunction with other methods of erection
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Launching
This method involves assembling a bridge on rollers, slide-tracks or skates on its final alignment but at the side of the obstacle to be crossed. When complete it is pushed or pulled forward to cross the obstacle and land on bearings on the far side.
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STR403 - Metallic Bridges Winter 2020 45 Launching
Whilst simple in principle, launching requires a site where large pieces of the bridge can be constructed in line with the final position but on the shore. The operation also requires very careful control and detailed analysis since, at various stages, bridge sections may be subjected to loadings differing greatly from those in service.
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Lifting
This method involves lifting a self- supporting part or the whole of a bridge into or near to its final position. Pieces lifted can vary from a small footbridge weighing a few tons, to a large section of a major crossing weighing over 1000 tons. Lifting may be a complete operation in itself, or part of a cantilever erection scheme.
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STR403 - Metallic Bridges Winter 2020 46 Lifting
Lifting plant may range from small cranes for minor bridges, to very large floating cranes for major parts of estuarial bridges; alternatively winches or jacks on the already erected part of the bridge may be used. Hence the position and topography of the site will have a significant effect on the conceptual choice.
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Lifting
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STR403 - Metallic Bridges Winter 2020 47 Cantilevering
This method involves constructing a bridge, normally continuous over several spans, progressively from one or both abutments, by attaching sections to the end of already erected portions. An anchor span is lifted or assembled in situ, and sections then cantilevered from this by either lifting from ground level, or running along the deck and lowering from the end.
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Cantilevering
The position of the site and the access to it will determine the size of the pieces erected and this in turn will have a bearing on the original choice of the structural concept. Cantilevering is an ideal method for erecting cable- stayed bridges, using the stays as supports for the cantilever as work progresses.
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STR403 - Metallic Bridges Winter 2020 48 Cantilevering
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Aesthetics and Environment
The appearance of bridges has in recent years become a matter of considerable importance. Frequently, a scheme takes a road or railway through an area of great natural beauty and it is important that any structures are in keeping with these surroundings and do not adversely affect them.
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STR403 - Metallic Bridges Winter 2020 49 Defining Aesthetics
Aesthetics is a branch of philosophy that explores the nature of art, beauty, and taste, with the creation and appreciation of beauty
Aesthetics, the study of the mind and emotions as they relate to the sense of beauty, is concerned with visual appearance and quality.
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Perception of Bridges
Bridges are seen from many angles and the viewers see them from a variety of conditions. Bridges may be isolated objects in the landscape, part of a suite of engineered infrastructure or on a city street. They are seen from close up, faraway, from rivers and other roads. Viewers can be standing still or moving to or across a bridge at varying speeds and in a variety of vehicles. Sherif A. Mourad 100
STR403 - Metallic Bridges Winter 2020 50 Bridge Aesthetics
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Aesthetics Guidelines
− Give careful consideration to your structural system. There is beauty in a purity of form. In addition, the bridge must look trustworthy and stable. − Study the bridge's proportions in all three dimensions. − Try to integrate the structure into its environment whether it's urban or rural. This is especially important with regard to the scale of the structure compared to the scale of the surroundings. Sherif A. Mourad 102
STR403 - Metallic Bridges Winter 2020 51 Aesthetics Guidelines
− When approaching many bridges, the edge of the structure presents the dominant view. It is important to limit the number of directions of the edge plane. For the transition from a straight line to a curved dimension, the curvature should steadily increase, as in a second order parabola. − The choice of the materials has considerable influence on the aesthetic effects. Sherif A. Mourad 103
Aesthetics Guidelines
− Simplicity and restriction to the pure structural shape is important. All additions, such as ornaments, decorations or architectural extras, should be avoided. The shape of a bridge is mature if nothing can be left out. − Pleasing appearance can be enhanced by color. − The space above the bridge should be shaped in such a way that the driver experiences the bridge and gets a comfortable feeling.
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STR403 - Metallic Bridges Winter 2020 52 Aesthetics and Environment
Many authorities consider that there are some bridges which actually contribute to the environment by giving an interesting focus to an otherwise empty scene; the Severn Bridge is a typical example. Regrettably, however, there are many bridges for which the contrary is true. Not infrequently, the problem could have been avoided by following some simple rules.
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Aesthetics and Environment
For example, it is commonly accepted that a bridge is more aesthetically pleasing with an odd number of spans than an even number. In addition, a degree of deepening at piers can add to the attraction. The next figure shows a typical location for a highway overbridge, with a number of possible solutions, any of which is normally structurally viable.
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STR403 - Metallic Bridges Winter 2020 53 Aesthetics and Environment
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Aesthetics and Environment
There is little doubt that the 3-span structures are more attractive than the two span ones. Hence, unless there are other contra-indications, the conceptual choice should probably tend towards a 3- span solution.
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STR403 - Metallic Bridges Winter 2020 54 Aesthetics and Environment
It is possible to mount the rails on a railway bridge directly on the main girders. Unfortunately this arrangement gives rise to a high level of noise emission and so would not normally be acceptable, particularly in an urban area. Provision of a concrete deck slab together with the use of ballast and possibly elastomeric rail mountings can produce a dramatic improvement and shows where an "obvious" choice can be modified by environmental considerations.
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Bridges in Egypt
− Examples of deck bridges and through bridges. − Roadway, railway, and pedestrian bridges. − Plate girder bridges. − Truss bridges. − Cable-stayed bridges.
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STR403 - Metallic Bridges Winter 2020 55 Course Outline
Sections Week Lecture Explanation Grading Ques 1 Introduction: Structural Systems Beam design review ------
2 Introduction: Loading/Floor Floor Analysis of Roadway Bridges ------
3 Plate Girder Design (1) Floor Analysis of Railway Bridges Floor Analysis of Roadway Bridge (1, 2)
4 Plate Girder Design (2) Floor Beam Connection Details Floor Analysis of Railway Bridge (1, 2)
5 Curtailment, Flange-Web Weld, Stiff Straining Actions on Main Girder Floor Beam Connections + Quiz1 (3,4)
6 Detailing: Splices and Bracing Flange Design Moment on M.G+Web Plate (5, 6)
7 Fatigue Curtailment, Flange-to-Web Weld Flange Design (7)
8 Mid Term Exams ------
9 Detailing: Bearings Splices Curtailment, Flange-to-Web Weld (8, 9) 10 Composite Bridges (1) Bracings Stiffeners (10)
11 Sham El-Nesim Vacation --- Fatigue (13)
12 Composite Bridges (2) Drawings Splices, bracing + Quiz2 (11, 12)
13 Box Girder Bridges (1) ------Bearngs + Drawing Preliminary (14, 15)
14 Box Girder Bridges* (2) Composite beam design Drawing final + Quiz3 (15, 16)
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Course LOs
Choose suitable system for bridge main girders and floor beams. Use appropriate codes for computing loads. Analyze bridge components under various loading conditions. Design and detail bridge components. Prepare bridge calculation report and drawings.
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STR403 - Metallic Bridges Winter 2020 56 References
• Metwalli Abu-Hamd, Steel Bridges. • European Steel Design Education Programme (ESDEP) WG15B. • Bridge Engineering Handbook, Ed. Wai- Fah Chen and Lian Duan, CRC Press, 2000. • Design of Highway Bridges: An LRFD Approach, 2nd Ed., Richard M. Barker and Jay A. Puckett, John Wiley & Sons. Sherif A. Mourad 113
Summary
• Definition of a bridge. • Historical background. • Bridge forms. • Classification of bridges ( Structural system, Material of construction, Use, Position, Span, …). • Design considerations. • Course outline. Sherif A. Mourad 114
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